Kabuki

From Conservapedia

Jump to: navigation, search
This entry makes use of Japanese characters and will require Japanese language support to be installed on your computer in order to avoid the characters being replaced by question marks, or blanked out.
A painting depicting a kabuki performance at the Morita-za Theater in Edo (Tokyo)

Kabuki (歌舞伎) is a traditional Japanese form of theater, combining storytelling and dance, with its origins in the Edo period. The plays are about historical events and moral conflicts in love relationships, normally set within the Edo Period. The actors speak in archaic Japanese, chant in a monotone and are accompanied by traditional Japanese instruments. The modern kabuki stage (kabuki no butai 歌舞伎の舞台) rotates, allowing for easy transition between various scenes, with the floor being equipped with trapdoors through which the actors can appear and disappear. In addition, there is a footbridge (花道 hanamichi) that leads through the audience.

Contents

History

The first performance is attributed to the shrine maiden (神子 miko) Okuni, from the famous Izumo Shrine, who - together with her troupe - danced the first Kabuki Odori (歌舞伎踊り "eccentric dances") in Keichō 8 (1603) on the banks of the Kamo river in Kyōto.

It caused a sensation, aimed as it was at the common folk, as opposed to the much older entertainment form of Noh theater, which was seen as the realm of the higher social classes, and soon a number of rival companies were formed. Early kabuki was very different from what it is today, and was comprised mostly of large ensemble dances performed by women. In addition, both men and women acted in Kabuki plays, during the early years.

However, many of the women were engaged in unsavoury occupations when not on stage, which resulted in the Tokugawa Shogunate banning women from the stage in an effort to protect public morals. It is a ban which has remained in force to this day, resulting in many male kabuki actors are, therefore, specialized in playing female roles (女形 onnagata).

The ban on women may well have been a positive move, as it shifted the focus to skill over beauty, and placed more stress on drama than dance, which put Kabuki on the path to becoming a dramatic art form.

In the last quarter of the 17th century, referred to as the "Genroku period", a time of renaissance occurred in the culture of average Japanese townsfolk. As the main form of theatrical entertainment for commoners, there was a great flowering of creativity in Kabuki. It was during this period that the stylizations that would form the base of Kabuki were created. The playwright Chikamatsu Monzaemon and actors like Ichikawa Danjuro and Sakata Tojuro left strong legacies that can still be seen today. It was also during this period that the close relationship between Kabuki and the Bunraku puppet theater began and the two would continue to develop, whilst influencing each other.

The Genroku Period

The Genroku period (元禄時代) was a time of a great renaissance in Japanese culture, being a time when both the aristocratic and common arts flourished. With Japan having already been isolated from the world for over 50 years, art forms began to take on a distinctly local identity, despite having been previously adopted from China of the West.

It was during this The Genroku period was also the time when most of the conventions and styles of kabuki, including the structure of the plays, the types of characters and the art of the onnagata, took form.

Actors worked according to a strict hierarchy, which determined what sort of character they would play each month. The head actor (立役 tachiyaku) at the theater would receive the main role, with the star onnagata playing the female lead. Beneath them were the waka-onnagata (young onnagata), the villains and the comic actors.

During this period, two prominent acting styles emerged among the tachiyaku. In Edo, Ichikawa Danjuro, created aragoto (荒事) or "rough style", which was an exaggerated acting style, often used to depict characters with superhuman strength. Danjuro also developed a specialized make-up, known as kumadori (隈取), along with movements and a delivery style that would emphasise their power.

Danjuro also created mie (見得), which are poses, where the actor glares fiercely with one eye crossed. These have since became a trademark of Kabuki and are often used to dramatic effect in ukiyoe woodblock prints of actors. These aragoto characters possess a strong sense of justice and often fight strong villains, who further their own causes at the cost of those weaker than them. In this sense, aragoto was seen as an embodiment of the animosity of the commoners towards the ruling samurai class, and actors where often thought of as gods when they played aragoto roles.

Around the same time, in Kansai, Sakata Tojuro perfected a style of acting known as "soft style" (wagoto 和事). Whilst aragoto was a success in Edo, Kyoto and Osaka were very much dominated by merchant culture. Wagoto appealed to the refined tastes of the Kansai audiences. The wagoto characters were often the sons of rich merchants, who had fallen in love with beautiful courtesans. Having spent mast amounts of money to visit their lovers, they would be disowned by their families and forced to wear a paper kimono. Despite their sunken state, they would never lose their own self-perception of living in luxury, which would add a comic touch to the role.

The art of the onnagata was perfected in this period by the actor Yoshizawa Ayame. In its early days, Kabuki plays were usually about heroes, with the female roles being mostly supportive. Often the onnagata's most important part of a play for the onnagata star would be the centerpiece dance, which was a throwback to the early days of kabuki, when it was a series of dances performed by women. This changed with Yoshizawa Ayame's skills as an actor, which have remained the standard to this day and which resulted in onnagata receiving stronger roles in plays, whilst still retaining their claim to Kabuki dance.

Kabuki benefited from the fact that its greatest playwright was also one of its earliest. Chikamatsu Monzaemon is often referred to as the "Shakespeare of Japan" and this title is fitting in that he brought a literary and philosophical touch to what had previously been simple stories. Chikamatsu was one of the first professional playwrights in Kabuki, working mainly for Sakata Tojuro, writing plays to fit Tojuro's wagoto style. His influence is felt to this day in kabuki writing. His love- suicide plays were especially popular, in which a young couple would decide to take their own lives when social pressures kept them from being together.

Later Developments

The years following the Genroku period, saw many creative periods, followed by a further refinement of the art. By the early 18th century, the Bunraku puppet theater briefly eclipsed Kabuki in popularity, due to the rise of skilled playwrights within the genre. Kabuki responded by adapting puppet plays for the stage and creating stylized movements to mimic the puppets themselves. Additionally, the late 18th century saw both a trend towards realism, as well as the switch of the cultural center from Kyōto and Ōsaka to Edo, which had previously been a military stronghold. As a consequence, onnagata acting changed. Onnagata who had trained in Kyoto, adopted the soft, gentle nature of that city, but audiences now preferred those who showed the strong pride and nature of Edo women. An increasing audience desire for decadence as seen in the ghost plays and beautification of murder scenes that marked early 19th century performances.

The opening of Japan to the West, starting in 1868, had a profound effect on Kabuki, as well as the rest of the country. Though it was freed from numerous government restrictions, Kabuki was faced with the important challenge of having to adapt to a rapidly changing world. This was achieved by raising the reputation of Kabuki, which had always been viewed as common by the upper classes, as well as by adapting the old styles to suit new tastes. The defining moment of the period, and a symbol of the success of their efforts, was a command performance before Emperor Meiji.

Having survived government oppression during the Edo period, the loss of many young actors in World War II and censorship by the Occupation Forces after the war, Kabuki faces its sternest difficulties in the face of modern entertainment, such as motion pictures and television. People are not familiar with its role as a "traditional" form of theater and often view is as "stuffy", and people are not as familiar with the special peculiarities of Kabuki as they used to be.

However, popular actors continue to bring audiences into the theater and there has recently been a "Kabuki boom" focused on the youth, driven in part by the introduction of Sūpā Kabuki (スーパー歌舞伎 "Super Kabuki"). This new genre, which make its first appearance in 1986, makes full use of the newest techniques, spectacular costumes, synthesizer sound effects and laser lighting, whilst still incorporating many elements of Kabuki. Super Kabuki uses modern language scripts, which are written by modern playwrights. The plays have proved tremendously popular and are becoming a core element of new-style Kabuki.

Important Dates in Kabuki History

The Seventeenth Century

  • 1603 - Okuni and her troupe dance the first Kabuki Odori on the banks of the Kamo river in Kyōto, close to the famous Shijō avenue.
  • 1607 - Okuni and her troupe perform at the Shōgun palace in Edo.
  • 1610 - Lord Date Masamune invites a Onna Kabuki ("Female Kabuki") troupe to perform in his castle in Sendai.
  • 1629 - Onna Kabuki performances are forbidden by the Shōgunate authorities.
  • 1634 - The Murayamaza Theater founded.
  • 1641 - Both the Murayamaza and the Nakamuraza are destroyed by fire.
  • 1642 - The Yamamuraza Theater founded.
  • 1648 - The use of silk to make Kabuki costumes is forbidden by the Shōgunate authorities.
  • 1652 - Wakashū Kabuki (Boy Kabuki) performances are forbidden by the Shōgunate authorities.
  • 1664 - The "Shimabara dramas", which use Shimabara (a famous "pleasure quarter" in Kyōto) as the setting for the play) are forbidden by the Shōgunate authorities.
  • 1664 - The first play divided into several acts of Kabuki history is performed in ōsaka. The drama's title is Hinin no Adauchi, which narrates the tribulations of a young man who has to disguise himself as a beggar in order to look for his father's murderer.
  • 1670 - Authorities limit the number of theaters in Edo to four. The authorized theaters are the Nakamuraza (in the district of Sakai-chō), the Ichimuraza (Fukiya-chō), Moritaza (Kobiki-chō) and the Yamamuraza (Kobiki-chō).
  • 1680 - The very first sayaate (鞘当て "love rivalry") scene in Kabuki history is staged at the Ichimuraza.
  • 1683 - The courtesan Yamatoya Ichinojō and her lover, Goze no Chōemon, commit suicide together in Ōsaka. This event results in three Ōsaka theaters capitalising on the situation by simultaneously producing the first shinjūmono (死従者 "following someone into death") of Kabuki history.
  • 1687 - The publication of "Yarō Tachiyaku Butai ōkagami", the first hyōbanki (評判記 "written commentary on notable events") in Kabuki history.
  • 1693 - The first drama written by the playwright Chikamatsu Monzaemon for the star Sakata Tōjūrō I is performed in Kyōtō at Miyako Mandayū's theater.
  • 1695 - Akaneya Hanshichi (son of a sake merchant) and his lover, Sankatsu, commit suicide together in ōsaka. This event is immediately adapted to Kabuki by Iwai Hanshirō I, under the title "Akane no Iroba".
  • 1697 - The bombastic "Shibaraku" scene premieres, performed within the drama "Daifukuchō Sankai Nagoya".
  • 1698 - The drama "Keisei Asamagadake" premieres. This play is about the apparition of a courtesan's ghost to her unfaithful lover and becomes both a milestone in Kabuki history and a classic theme.

The Eighteenth Century

  • 1703 - The double suicide in Ōsaka of the couple of lovers Hiranoya Tokubei (a soy sauce dealer) and Temmaya Ohatsu (a courtesan). This real incident inspires the playwright Chikamatsu Monzaemon, who writes his first shinjûmono, whose title is "Sonezaki Shinjû".
  • 1703 - An earthquake strikes Edo and the resulting fires destroy the city, along with the 4 main theaters, the Nakamuraza, the Ichimuraza, the Moritaza and the Yamamuraza.
  • 1704 - The double suicide in Ōsaka of the couple of lovers Kōya Tokubei (a dyer) and Ofusa (a courtesan). This real incident inspires the playwright Chikamatsu Monzaemon, who writes his second shinjûmono, the title of which is Shinjû Kasane Izutsu.
  • 1709 - The 4 Edo theaters, the Nakamuraza, the Ichimuraza, the Moritaza and the Yamamuraza, simultaneously produce a New Year's drama. This is the beginning of a custom that has lasted to the present day.
  • 1714 - The Ejima-Ikushima affair
  • 1724 - The playwright Chikamatsu Monzaemon (1635 - 1724), "Japan's Shakespeare", dies in November.
  • 1734 - The Moritaza goes bankrupt.
  • 1736 - A trio made up of Segawa Kikunojō I, Ichimura Takenojō IV and Ichimura Manzō perform together at the Ichimuraza in Sayo no Nakayama Asamagadake, the first Tokiwazu-based dance in Kabuki history.
  • 1742 - The actor Ikushima Shingorō returns to Edo from being exiled in 1714.
  • 1755 - The hyōbanki Yakusha Sankazu is published, which illustrates the reasons for the decline of Kabuki in the city of Kyōto.
  • 1758 - The first Kabuki adaptation of the 5-act puppet theater drama Gion Sairei Shinkōki, is simultaneously produced at the Minamigawa no Shibai and the Kitagawa no Shibai.
  • 1776 - For the first time in Kabuki history, chiwata threads are used in the scene of the bloody murder of the priest Dainichibō by Akoya in the new year program Tsukisenu Haru Hagoromo Soga, performed at the Ichimuraza. This new technique is very well received by the audience.
  • 1781 - The actor Ichikawa Danzō IV plays 7 roles (七躍 nanayaku) in the drama Kanadehon Chûshingura, which is staged at the Moritaza. This is the first time in Kabuki history that an actor plays seven roles.
  • 1794 - The print-maker Tōshûzai Sharaku, begins his short career, completing all his works between 1794 and February 1795, when he mysteriously disappeared. His work contains some of the most famous actor prints.

The Dark Side of Kabuki

The Ejima-Ikushima affair (1714)

During 1714, the actor Ikushima Shingorō was performing at the Yamamuraza. At the same time, one of the most prominent of the ladies-in-waiting at the time, was sent to pray at the Zōjōji Temple, as a representative of the Shōgun Ietsugu's mother. However, as the day had been set aside for Buddhist services to be performed at the Temple, the Court lady's visit was postponed, and the Ladfy Ejima was chosen to undertake the trip instead.

She notified the priests at the Temple of her intentions, adding that she would be appreciative if they could arrange for her to visit the theater in Sakai-chō. As the latter request was outside of their jurisdiction, the priests replied that they could not assist her. Lady Ejima, angered by their refusal, commissioned a young banto (番頭 "clerk") to inform the owners of the Yamamuraza to prepare the gallery for 100 guests.

Lady Ejima proceeded to the Zōjōji Temple, but hurried over her spiritual duties, and presented only a portion of the money and gifts designated as offerings to the priests, withholding the remainder to be distributed as favours at the theater. Accompanied by several other ladies-in-waiting, lesser dignitaries of the castle and their male attendants they then moved on to the Yamamuraza theater.

Here, they were met and welcomed by the theater's owner, Yamamura Chōdayū, as well as the leading actors, Ikushima Shingorō and Nakamura Seigorō. During the interval between the plays, a feast was held. During this, a somewhat intoxiated Lady Ejima spilled a bottle of sake, the contents of which fell down on the heads of a party below. These were a samurai of the Satsuma clan and his wife. Despite one of Lady Ejima's party apologising, the irate samurai left the theater.

After this incident, Lady Ejima was advised to return to the castle post haste, but demurred, wanting to enjoy the outing to the utmost. After the performance, Yamamura Chōdayū invited the ladies back to his private residence, where they were entertained by Nakamura Seigorō and his wife. The latter was young, beautiful, a graceful dancer as well as accomplished shamisen (三味線 "three-stringed guitar") player, who had often entertained the Shōgun's mother.

Later that night, Lady Ejima returned to the castle, having made up a story of her day, fo the benefit of the Shōgun's mother, which carefully omitted any reference to her visit to the theater. However, news soon reached the ears of officials, who went on to discover that Lady Ejima had been having an affair with Ikushima Shingorō for seven years, and had taken one of this actor's daughters into Court service, under the guise that the girl was from a samurai family.

Justice was severe for those who had participated in the venture. Lady Ejima was exiled on a lonely island, although the Shōgun's mother intervened and had her sentence reduced to exile in the province of Shinano. However, as it was the custom of the time that the entire family would pay the penalty for one member's transgressions, Lady Ejima's elder brother was executed and a younger brother was also sent into exile.

Yamamura Chōdayū, Ikushima Shingorō, and Nakamura Seigorō were also exiled. The Yamamuraza itself first lost its license, then the building was demolished and the property confiscated by the Government. It never reopened.[1]

The Ennosuke-stalking woman case (1998)

On 29th June 1998, just three days before Ichikawa Ennosuke's play was to open at the Kabuki-za in Tōkyō, came the announcement that the Osaka District Court had slapped an injunction on an unnamed 51-year-old female fan who had been stalking him during the past six years. The injunction prevented her from approaching within 200 meters of him, banned her from the theaters at which he performs and she was ordered to pay ￥500,000 in compensation.

The woman had apparently attended virtually every performance Ennosuke had given since his show at Nobeoka, Miyazaki Prefecture in February 1992. She always took a front row seat from whence she would stare at him with an emotionless face. During the intervals, she would tell other audience members that she was engaged to Ennosuke and that they would be married soon. She wore a selection of flamboyant kimonos and would return to her hotel room to change between the matinée and evening shows. She even stayed at the same hotels and took the same trains as Ennosuke. It was reported that one report said that she spent one and a half million yen a month to finance her obsession.

Her behavior began to scare the actor and his acting suffered. He was also forced to change hotel reservations on several occasions. Ennosuke tried to avoid taking the case to court, but after she tried to attack him and his partner, Fujima Murasaki, in 1994, he filed for a provisional disposition to stop the woman from entering theaters where he was performing. When this did not stop her stalking, his agency asked the obsessed fan to stop, but the request was ignored, and she even booked a seat in the same first class section of the plane he took to Thailand for his tour in August 1996 and stayed in the same hotel, so later the same year he filed the civil suit.

When Ennosuke was approached by TV interviewers after the court ruling was announced, he acknowledged that he approved of the court decision but said he would rather make no further comment as he did not wish to aggravate the woman. However, he said he was pleased if the decision meant that performers' constitutional rights as individuals had been strengthened. This is the very first case in Japan in which a court has legally protected an actor's rights against a stalker.

Also see

Bibliography

  • Nojima Jusaburō, Kabuki Jinmei Jiten (歌舞伎人名辞典 Kabuki Biographical Dictionary), Nichigai, 1988
  • Samuel Leiter, New Kabuki Encyclopedia, Greenwood Press, 1997
  • Nojima Jusaburō, Kabuki Jōruri Gedai Yomikata Jiten (歌舞伎浄瑠璃外題読み方事典 Reading Encyclopaedia of Kabuki), Nichigai Associates, 1990
  • Hattori Yukio, Tomita Tetsunosuke, Hirosue Tamotsu, Kabuki Jiten (歌舞伎事典 Kabuki Encyclopaedia), Heibonsha, 2000
  • Masakatsu Gunji, Kabuki, Kōdansha, 1988
  • Kawatake Toshio, Kabuki: Baroque Fusion of the Arts, International House of Japan, 2003
  • Fukuchi Yoshihiko, Kabuki Nyūmon (歌舞伎入門 An Introduction to Kabuki), Fujingahōsha, 1995
  • Ronald Cavaye, Kabuki: a pocket guide, Tuttle, 1993
  • Zoë Kincaid, Kabuki, the Popular Stage of Japan, Macmillan, 1925
  • A. C. Scott, The Kabuki Theatre of Japan, Allen & Unwin, 1955
  • Ronald Cavaye, Paul Griffith, Senda Akihiko, A guide to the Japanese Stage, Kōdansha, 2004
  • Faubion Bowers, Japanese Theater, Tuttle,
  • Aubrey and Giovanna Halford, The Kabuki Handbook, Tuttle, 1998
  • Watanabe Tamotsu, Kabuki Techō (歌舞伎手帳 Kabuki Notebook), 1998
  • Brandon, Malm & Shively, Studies in Kabuki, University of Hawaii Press, 1978

External Links

References

  1. ↑ Zoë Kincaid, Kabuki, the Popular Stage of Japan, Macmillan, 1925
Retrieved from "http://www.conservapedia.com/Kabuki"
Personal tools