Difference between revisions of "Computer"

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A '''computer''' is a machine that is designed to perform a huge variety of information-processing tasks, depending on the program it has stored in its memory.  Computers manipulate all data in the form of numbers, and encode all numbers in [[binary|binary code]], which is base 2. This means that there can only be a 1 or a 0 in any data.  This makes it possible to process data electronically, since one voltage can be used to represent a zero and another voltage for a one.
+
A '''computer''' is a machine that is designed to perform a wide variety of information-processing tasks, depending on the program it has stored in its memory.  It processes (computers) everything as mathematical problems, although many non-mathematical functions can be ultimately performed. Computers manipulate all data in the form of numbers, and encode all numbers in either [[binary|binary code]], which is base 2, or in the case of quantum computers, ternary code which is base 3. Binary means that there can only be a 1 or a 0 in any data.  This makes it possible to process data electronically, since one voltage can be used to represent a zero and another voltage for a one.  Ternary systems are far more complicated, and still in development.  The average personal or server computer uses binary.
 
+
==History==
 
[[Image:Babbage.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Contemporary (1800's) illustration of what Charles Babbage's Difference Engine might have looked like.]]
 
[[Image:Babbage.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Contemporary (1800's) illustration of what Charles Babbage's Difference Engine might have looked like.]]
  
 
[[File:Babbage Difference Engine.jpg|right|thumb|200px|The modern (1991) construction of the "difference engine 2" in the British Science Museum.]]
 
[[File:Babbage Difference Engine.jpg|right|thumb|200px|The modern (1991) construction of the "difference engine 2" in the British Science Museum.]]
  
Prior to the advent of computing machines, the definition for ''computer'' was a human being who performed complex mathematical calculations. This was accomplished with the aid of a manual counting device, such as an [[abacus]] or a [[slide rule]], and was mainly used by traders and early bankers to keep a reliable record of funds
+
Prior to the advent of computing machines, the definition for ''computer'' was a human being who performed complex mathematical calculations. This was accomplished with the aid of a manual counting device, such as an [[abacus]] or a [[slide rule]], and was mainly performed by traders and early bankers to keep a reliable record of funds.
  
 
Charles Babbage, a [[British]] scientist who lived in the 19th century, has been credited as the designer of the first digital computer, the Difference Engine, a machine set to do calculations reliably up to six decimal places.  It was entirely mechanical. However, the Engine was never constructed, being deemed as "had derived no emolument whatsoever from the government" by a member of parliament. He also designed an even more sophisticated "Analytical Engine", that would actually have been a programmable computer in the modern sense; it, too was mechanical.  Though it was never built, [[Ada Lovelace|Augusta Ada]] wrote some programs for it (to compute Bernoulli polynomials), making her the world's first computer programmer.  A small version of the Difference Engine, was built after his death by his son.<ref>http://ei.cs.vt.edu/~history/Babbage.html</ref>
 
Charles Babbage, a [[British]] scientist who lived in the 19th century, has been credited as the designer of the first digital computer, the Difference Engine, a machine set to do calculations reliably up to six decimal places.  It was entirely mechanical. However, the Engine was never constructed, being deemed as "had derived no emolument whatsoever from the government" by a member of parliament. He also designed an even more sophisticated "Analytical Engine", that would actually have been a programmable computer in the modern sense; it, too was mechanical.  Though it was never built, [[Ada Lovelace|Augusta Ada]] wrote some programs for it (to compute Bernoulli polynomials), making her the world's first computer programmer.  A small version of the Difference Engine, was built after his death by his son.<ref>http://ei.cs.vt.edu/~history/Babbage.html</ref>
  
Babbage later designed a simpler and even more clever "Difference Engine Number 2", that was also not completed in his lifetime.  But in 1991, the bicentennial of Babbage's birth, this computer was built in the British Science Museum, from Babbage's original plans.  It operates flawlessly, though a few billion times more slowly than modern electronic computers.  It is operated by turning a crank.
+
Babbage later designed a simpler and even more clever "Difference Engine Number 2", which was also not completed in his lifetime.  But in 1991, the bicentennial of Babbage's birth, this computer was built in the British Science Museum, from Babbage's original plans.  It operates flawlessly, though a few billion times slower than modern electronic computers.  It is operated by turning a crank.
 
[[File:SSEM Replica.jpg|thumb|left|The Manchester Small-Scale Experimental Machine is considered  the world's first stored-program computer, 1948.]]
 
[[File:SSEM Replica.jpg|thumb|left|The Manchester Small-Scale Experimental Machine is considered  the world's first stored-program computer, 1948.]]
The first computer comparable to the modern day computer, an electronic calculation machine, was the [[ENIAC]]. Built as a artillery support machine, it was unveiled in early 1946.<ref>http://ftp.arl.army.mil/~mike/comphist/</ref>
+
The first computer comparable to the modern day computer, an electronic calculation machine, was the [[ENIAC]]. Built as an artillery support machine, it was unveiled in early 1946.<ref>http://ftp.arl.army.mil/~mike/comphist/</ref>
{{Clear}}
+
{{clear}}
 +
 
 +
==Classifications==
 +
===Personal===
 +
Personal computers are ones designed for use by a single user at any given time.  These are the common desktop and laptop computers most people use today.  Tablet computers could also be included in this general category.  Some businesses will include person computers in a client-server network.  In this system, the personal computers are used to connect with a main server computer (or in some cases, a server cluster).<ref name="WorldBook01">The World Book Encyclopedia. 2001 ed. Vol. 4. Chicago: World Book, 2001. Print. Pages 908-94</ref>
 +
===Mainframe===
 +
[[File:NASAComputerRoom-1962.gif|250px|thumbnail|NASA's Mainfram computer (1962)]]
 +
Mainframes were the first kind of commercially used digital computers, and always used to be the fastest option.  They had the ability to process much more information at a faster rate than any other kind.<ref name="WorldBook01"/> However, with the rapid advancement of technology in recent years, these have fallen behind.  They consume an enormous amount of space, and use much more electricity than modern computers.  In many cases, they have since been replaced with the client-server architecture.<ref>"mainframe." Encyclopaedia Britannica. Britannica Academic. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2016. Web. 31 May. 2016. <http://0-academic.eb.com.www.consuls.org/EBchecked/topic/358715/mainframe>.</ref> However, mainframes (mainly the IBM System Z) are still used by a number of companies.  Although outdated, they are still powerful, durable, and reliable systems.  Some have been in fault-tolerant operation for at least forty years.<ref name="interview with DavidB4">Personal interview of an anonymous individual with [[User:DavidB4]]</ref><br />
 +
Most mainframes, including the IBM System Z, use the COBOL language (short for COmmon Business-Oriented Language).  This is a very easy to understand programming language.  For example, a line of this code is, <code>MULTIPLY HOURLY-RATE BY TOTAL-HOURS GIVING TOTAL-PAY</code>.<ref>https://answers.yahoo.com/question/index?qid=20110121224151AAaIkmF</ref>  Although not used exclusively by mainframes, this is one of the main ways it is used.  In 2009, 70-75% of the world's business transactions and 90% of global financial transactions were processed by COBOL.<ref>https://cis.hfcc.edu/faq/cobol</ref>  In 2016, it was estimated that at least 60% of business systems still used it, much of which was running on mainframes.<ref name="interview with DavidB4"/> Although now an outdated technology, mainframes are still a vital part of many systems.<ref>https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2009/apr/09/cobol-internet-programming</ref><ref>http://www.mainframes.com/COBOL.html</ref>
 +
 
 +
===Client-server===
 +
[[File:CERN Server room 03.jpg|250px|thumbnail|A Client-Server Room]]
 +
A client-server is a powerful computer which offers information or services to remote personal computers and workstations.  In many cases, client-server computers host websites, send and receive [[e-mail]] messages, store information, and handle all other basic services offered on the Internet.  Others perform less publicly accessible functions such as crawling websites and running any number of advances calculations.  Client-servers are also used by some companies to store records which are usually only available on their intranet (local network).  For example, hospitals will often keep patient records on a secure client-server.<ref>"client-server architecture." Encyclopaedia Britannica. Britannica Academic. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2016. Web. 31 May. 2016. <http://0-academic.eb.com.www.consuls.org/EBchecked/topic/1366374/client-server-architecture>.</ref><br />
 +
Client-servers can also be clustered so that although they appear to be one server, a sometimes large quantity of servers are actually running.  When multiple server computers are used, the storage, processing, and client capabilities of the whole increase dramatically.  This fact has led the creation of many "server farms," which house little other than but thousands of servers.
 +
 
 +
===Supercomputer===
 +
Supercomputers are the most powerful computers available, which have replaced mainframe computers.  These computers, which generally fill large rooms like mainframes, are generally used by government agencies and large corporations.  Since these computers are so expensive, they are reserved for important and complicated computations such as nuclear simulations and weather modeling.<ref name="Britannica">"Computer." Encyclopaedia Britannica. Britannica Academic. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2016. Web. 30 Apr. 2016. <http://0-academic.eb.com.www.consuls.org/EBchecked/topic/130429/computer>.</ref>  Quantum computers are also often considered supercomputers, due to their extensive capabilities (and size).
 +
 
 +
===Dedicated===
 +
[[File:Playstation-SCPH-30000 vertical.jpg|150px|thumbnail|Dedicated [[PlayStation 2]] Computer]]
 +
Dedicated computers are, as the name suggests, dedicated to a specific function.  These can be almost anything from [[Video game]] consoles to a child's handheld toy.  These are generally limited in functionality, since they are designed for their single task only.<ref name="WorldBook01"/>
 +
 
 +
===Embedded===
 +
Embedded computers are controllers built into the device they control.  These are found in digital wrist watches, [[car]]s, landline telephones, some [[Printer (computing)|printers]] (with embedded print servers), and more.<ref name="WorldBook01"/>
 +
 
 +
==Thin vs. fat clients==
 +
"Fat clients" are client devices which can process data themselves, without requiring a remote server or mainframe.  Personal computers, for example, are fat clients, since they process data on their own.  "Thin clients" are user terminals which do little or no data processing themselves.  These are much less common than they have been in the recent past.  In older systems, client terminals were little more than links to a mainframe.  The user would enter a command and set of data in the terminal, and it would be passed on the mainframe.  The mainframe would then store, retrieve, or process the data as needed, and return anything needed to the terminal.<br />
 +
The newer client-server architecture has largely done away with this thin clients, but some networks still use this sort of system.  Sometimes, there is no operating system or local storage at all on a client "computer." Everything done is downloaded from and uploaded to a central server.  Most people now use "fat clients," which only occasionally need to communicate with a server.  <br />
 +
Cloud computing has to some degree started bringing back thin clients, however.  Since "Software as a Service" and other cloud-based solutions are becoming more popular, thick clients (personal computers) and to some degree being made into thinner clients again.
 +
 
 +
==Binary and ternary==
 +
Binary has always been used by computers and is somewhat familiar to most.  However, some of the newest supercomputers now use ternary systems.
 +
 
 +
===Binary===
 +
Since the beginning of the digital computer, and even before this (when computers were mechanical), computers have always used "ones" and "zeros" for every calculation and operation. 
 +
*The processor and circuitry operate using electrical pulses.  A pulse is a "one" while a pause (no additional energy sent) is a "zero." 
 +
*The [[Random-access memory|RAM]] switches are held in one position ("one") or released to the other ("zero")
 +
*Magnetic disks are magnetized to positive or negative, which represent "zero" and "one"
 +
*Optical disks have their foil melted by laser to show "zero" vs. "one"
 +
*Flash memory has microscopic toggle switches which are set to "one" or "zero"
 +
Every part of a binary computer uses theses "ones" and "zeros" for everything.
 +
 
 +
===Ternary (trinary)===
 +
A new and evolving kind of computer breaks the "rules" of computer design entirely.  Using properties of [[quantum mechanics]], these computers make use of alternate states of matter which can only exist very near [[absolute zero]].  Using these, a [[quantum computer]] can not only use ones and zeros, but also a sort of "both one and zero."  Ternary processors must be kept incredibly cold, however.  Due to this requiement, as well as many other technical issues, ternary computers are not commercially available.  For now, these remain restricted to laboratories where space and liquid nitrogen are plentiful.  However, it is believed that they may
 +
eventually replace binary computers.<ref>"quantum computer." Encyclopaedia Britannica. Britannica Academic. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2016. Web. 31 May. 2016. <http://0-academic.eb.com.www.consuls.org/EBchecked/topic/746092/quantum-computer>.</ref>
  
==See Also==
+
==See also==
 
*[[Ada Lovelace]]
 
*[[Ada Lovelace]]
 
*[[Brain-computer interface]]
 
*[[Brain-computer interface]]
 
*[[Linux]]
 
*[[Linux]]
 
*[[IBM]]-[[HP]]-[[Dell]] and [[Microsoft]] [[Windows]]
 
*[[IBM]]-[[HP]]-[[Dell]] and [[Microsoft]] [[Windows]]
*[[Apple Computer]] [[MacOS]] for [[Apple Macintosh]]
+
*[[Apple Computer]]
*[[Mobile device]]s: [[Smartphones]] and [[tablet computer|tablets]]
+
 
*[[Apple Computer|Apple]] [[iOS]] for [[iPhone]]-[[iPod]]-[[iPad]]
 
*[[Apple Computer|Apple]] [[iOS]] for [[iPhone]]-[[iPod]]-[[iPad]]
*[[Android (operating system)|Android]]
 
*[[BlackBerry OS|Blackberry]]
 
*[[Microsoft]] [[Windows Phone]] with [[Windows 8]]
 
 
*[[Acorn computers]]
 
*[[Acorn computers]]
 
*[[ZX Spectrum]]
 
*[[ZX Spectrum]]
  
==External Links==
+
==External links==
 
*[http://www.dai.ed.ac.uk/homes/cam/fcomp.shtml Who Made the First Computer?]
 
*[http://www.dai.ed.ac.uk/homes/cam/fcomp.shtml Who Made the First Computer?]
 
*[http://www.cs.iastate.edu/jva/jva-obit.html John V. Atanasoff Dies at Age 91 Invented First Electronic Computer.] Washington Post Obituary.
 
*[http://www.cs.iastate.edu/jva/jva-obit.html John V. Atanasoff Dies at Age 91 Invented First Electronic Computer.] Washington Post Obituary.
Line 37: Line 77:
  
 
[[Category:Computers]]
 
[[Category:Computers]]
[[Category:Computer Science]]
 
[[Category:Technology]]
 
[[Category:Information technology]]
 
[[Category:Operating Systems]]
 
[[Category:Apps]]
 
[[Category:Cryptography]]
 
[[Category:Internet]]
 
[[Category:Free Software]]
 
[[Category:Linux]]
 
[[Category:Software]]
 
[[Category:Open Source]]
 
[[Category:Inventions]]
 
[[Category:British History]]
 
 
[[Category:British Inventions]]
 
[[Category:British Inventions]]

Revision as of 15:06, September 24, 2017

A computer is a machine that is designed to perform a wide variety of information-processing tasks, depending on the program it has stored in its memory. It processes (computers) everything as mathematical problems, although many non-mathematical functions can be ultimately performed. Computers manipulate all data in the form of numbers, and encode all numbers in either binary code, which is base 2, or in the case of quantum computers, ternary code which is base 3. Binary means that there can only be a 1 or a 0 in any data. This makes it possible to process data electronically, since one voltage can be used to represent a zero and another voltage for a one. Ternary systems are far more complicated, and still in development. The average personal or server computer uses binary.

History

Contemporary (1800's) illustration of what Charles Babbage's Difference Engine might have looked like.
The modern (1991) construction of the "difference engine 2" in the British Science Museum.

Prior to the advent of computing machines, the definition for computer was a human being who performed complex mathematical calculations. This was accomplished with the aid of a manual counting device, such as an abacus or a slide rule, and was mainly performed by traders and early bankers to keep a reliable record of funds.

Charles Babbage, a British scientist who lived in the 19th century, has been credited as the designer of the first digital computer, the Difference Engine, a machine set to do calculations reliably up to six decimal places. It was entirely mechanical. However, the Engine was never constructed, being deemed as "had derived no emolument whatsoever from the government" by a member of parliament. He also designed an even more sophisticated "Analytical Engine", that would actually have been a programmable computer in the modern sense; it, too was mechanical. Though it was never built, Augusta Ada wrote some programs for it (to compute Bernoulli polynomials), making her the world's first computer programmer. A small version of the Difference Engine, was built after his death by his son.[1]

Babbage later designed a simpler and even more clever "Difference Engine Number 2", which was also not completed in his lifetime. But in 1991, the bicentennial of Babbage's birth, this computer was built in the British Science Museum, from Babbage's original plans. It operates flawlessly, though a few billion times slower than modern electronic computers. It is operated by turning a crank.

The Manchester Small-Scale Experimental Machine is considered the world's first stored-program computer, 1948.

The first computer comparable to the modern day computer, an electronic calculation machine, was the ENIAC. Built as an artillery support machine, it was unveiled in early 1946.[2]

Classifications

Personal

Personal computers are ones designed for use by a single user at any given time. These are the common desktop and laptop computers most people use today. Tablet computers could also be included in this general category. Some businesses will include person computers in a client-server network. In this system, the personal computers are used to connect with a main server computer (or in some cases, a server cluster).[3]

Mainframe

NASA's Mainfram computer (1962)

Mainframes were the first kind of commercially used digital computers, and always used to be the fastest option. They had the ability to process much more information at a faster rate than any other kind.[3] However, with the rapid advancement of technology in recent years, these have fallen behind. They consume an enormous amount of space, and use much more electricity than modern computers. In many cases, they have since been replaced with the client-server architecture.[4] However, mainframes (mainly the IBM System Z) are still used by a number of companies. Although outdated, they are still powerful, durable, and reliable systems. Some have been in fault-tolerant operation for at least forty years.[5]
Most mainframes, including the IBM System Z, use the COBOL language (short for COmmon Business-Oriented Language). This is a very easy to understand programming language. For example, a line of this code is, MULTIPLY HOURLY-RATE BY TOTAL-HOURS GIVING TOTAL-PAY.[6] Although not used exclusively by mainframes, this is one of the main ways it is used. In 2009, 70-75% of the world's business transactions and 90% of global financial transactions were processed by COBOL.[7] In 2016, it was estimated that at least 60% of business systems still used it, much of which was running on mainframes.[5] Although now an outdated technology, mainframes are still a vital part of many systems.[8][9]

Client-server

A Client-Server Room

A client-server is a powerful computer which offers information or services to remote personal computers and workstations. In many cases, client-server computers host websites, send and receive e-mail messages, store information, and handle all other basic services offered on the Internet. Others perform less publicly accessible functions such as crawling websites and running any number of advances calculations. Client-servers are also used by some companies to store records which are usually only available on their intranet (local network). For example, hospitals will often keep patient records on a secure client-server.[10]
Client-servers can also be clustered so that although they appear to be one server, a sometimes large quantity of servers are actually running. When multiple server computers are used, the storage, processing, and client capabilities of the whole increase dramatically. This fact has led the creation of many "server farms," which house little other than but thousands of servers.

Supercomputer

Supercomputers are the most powerful computers available, which have replaced mainframe computers. These computers, which generally fill large rooms like mainframes, are generally used by government agencies and large corporations. Since these computers are so expensive, they are reserved for important and complicated computations such as nuclear simulations and weather modeling.[11] Quantum computers are also often considered supercomputers, due to their extensive capabilities (and size).

Dedicated

Dedicated PlayStation 2 Computer

Dedicated computers are, as the name suggests, dedicated to a specific function. These can be almost anything from Video game consoles to a child's handheld toy. These are generally limited in functionality, since they are designed for their single task only.[3]

Embedded

Embedded computers are controllers built into the device they control. These are found in digital wrist watches, cars, landline telephones, some printers (with embedded print servers), and more.[3]

Thin vs. fat clients

"Fat clients" are client devices which can process data themselves, without requiring a remote server or mainframe. Personal computers, for example, are fat clients, since they process data on their own. "Thin clients" are user terminals which do little or no data processing themselves. These are much less common than they have been in the recent past. In older systems, client terminals were little more than links to a mainframe. The user would enter a command and set of data in the terminal, and it would be passed on the mainframe. The mainframe would then store, retrieve, or process the data as needed, and return anything needed to the terminal.
The newer client-server architecture has largely done away with this thin clients, but some networks still use this sort of system. Sometimes, there is no operating system or local storage at all on a client "computer." Everything done is downloaded from and uploaded to a central server. Most people now use "fat clients," which only occasionally need to communicate with a server.
Cloud computing has to some degree started bringing back thin clients, however. Since "Software as a Service" and other cloud-based solutions are becoming more popular, thick clients (personal computers) and to some degree being made into thinner clients again.

Binary and ternary

Binary has always been used by computers and is somewhat familiar to most. However, some of the newest supercomputers now use ternary systems.

Binary

Since the beginning of the digital computer, and even before this (when computers were mechanical), computers have always used "ones" and "zeros" for every calculation and operation.

  • The processor and circuitry operate using electrical pulses. A pulse is a "one" while a pause (no additional energy sent) is a "zero."
  • The RAM switches are held in one position ("one") or released to the other ("zero")
  • Magnetic disks are magnetized to positive or negative, which represent "zero" and "one"
  • Optical disks have their foil melted by laser to show "zero" vs. "one"
  • Flash memory has microscopic toggle switches which are set to "one" or "zero"

Every part of a binary computer uses theses "ones" and "zeros" for everything.

Ternary (trinary)

A new and evolving kind of computer breaks the "rules" of computer design entirely. Using properties of quantum mechanics, these computers make use of alternate states of matter which can only exist very near absolute zero. Using these, a quantum computer can not only use ones and zeros, but also a sort of "both one and zero." Ternary processors must be kept incredibly cold, however. Due to this requiement, as well as many other technical issues, ternary computers are not commercially available. For now, these remain restricted to laboratories where space and liquid nitrogen are plentiful. However, it is believed that they may eventually replace binary computers.[12]

See also

External links

References

  1. http://ei.cs.vt.edu/~history/Babbage.html
  2. http://ftp.arl.army.mil/~mike/comphist/
  3. 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 The World Book Encyclopedia. 2001 ed. Vol. 4. Chicago: World Book, 2001. Print. Pages 908-94
  4. "mainframe." Encyclopaedia Britannica. Britannica Academic. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2016. Web. 31 May. 2016. <http://0-academic.eb.com.www.consuls.org/EBchecked/topic/358715/mainframe>.
  5. 5.0 5.1 Personal interview of an anonymous individual with User:DavidB4
  6. https://answers.yahoo.com/question/index?qid=20110121224151AAaIkmF
  7. https://cis.hfcc.edu/faq/cobol
  8. https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2009/apr/09/cobol-internet-programming
  9. http://www.mainframes.com/COBOL.html
  10. "client-server architecture." Encyclopaedia Britannica. Britannica Academic. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2016. Web. 31 May. 2016. <http://0-academic.eb.com.www.consuls.org/EBchecked/topic/1366374/client-server-architecture>.
  11. "Computer." Encyclopaedia Britannica. Britannica Academic. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2016. Web. 30 Apr. 2016. <http://0-academic.eb.com.www.consuls.org/EBchecked/topic/130429/computer>.
  12. "quantum computer." Encyclopaedia Britannica. Britannica Academic. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2016. Web. 31 May. 2016. <http://0-academic.eb.com.www.consuls.org/EBchecked/topic/746092/quantum-computer>.