Conservapedia - User contributions [en]

Clovis

2007-10-31T15:39:54Z

Alaric:

'''Clovis''', ('Chlodowech' in the Old Franconian language) also called Clovis I, lived from 466 to 511. He was the first king of the [[Franks]] starting in 481 after the death of his father and shortly after the fall of the [[Roman Empire]] ushered in a period of uncertainty in Europe.

Clovis united all of [[Gaul]] under his rule. At that time the Franks were a pagan people. Clovis's wife, [[Clotilda]] converted Clovis to [[Catholicism]] and then Clovis converted his entire army. Because of this, Clovis gained the [[Pope|Pope's]] support and became very powerful. His war and defeat of the [[Visigoths]] in 507 helped to solidify Catholicism over Arianism in western Europe.

[[Category:France]]
[[Category:Military Commanders]]
[[Category:European History]]

Visigoths

2007-10-31T15:32:39Z

Alaric:

The '''Visigoths''' were a confederacy of [[Germanic tribe]]s, who migrated from the Baltic area to the Danube River, pressed by the advancing [[Huns]]. They were offered entrance into [[Roman|Rome]] territory on peaceful terms by the Emperor [[Valens]]. However, the Romans did not provide the Visigoths with enough food, forcing them to sell their children into slavery in exchange for the meat of dogs.

So the Visigoths rose up against the Romans and crushed their main army at the [[Battle of Adrianople]]. As the [[Roman Empire]] became more shaky, they found it more difficult to stop the Visigoths and other barbarian tribes. This culminated in the Visigothic sacking of [[Rome]] in 410 A.D., under the rule of [[Alaric I]]. [[Saint Augustine]] chronicled this horrific defeat, and the shockwave it sent throughout the world, intellectually and physically, in his major work, ''[[City of God]]."

Following the collapse of the Roman Empire, the Visigoths gained control over [[Rome]] when they deposed [[Romulus Augustulus]], the last emperor, in 476 A.D. However, they were later defeated by the [[Ostrogoths]] under the command of [[Theoderic]], on orders from the [[Byzantine]] ruler [[Zeno]].

The Visigoths eventually moved to settle South Western Gaul ([[France]]) with Tolouse as their capital, but were defeated by the [[Franks]] under [[Clovis]] and henceforward had their territory in [[Spain]] with Toledo as their capital. They became [[Roman Catholic]] whilst in Spain, having before been [[Arian]].

The Visigothic Kingdom in Spain fell to the Islamic [[Moors]] in AD 711. Their last king was Roderick.

[[category:European History]]

Visigoths

2007-10-31T15:30:09Z

Alaric:

The '''Visigoths''' were a confederacy of Germanic tribes, who migrated from the Baltic area to the Danube River, pressed by the advancing [[Huns]]. They were offered entrance into [[Roman|Rome]] territory on peaceful terms by the Emperor [[Valens]]. However, the Romans did not provide the Visigoths with enough food, forcing them to sell their children into slavery in exchange for the meat of dogs.

So the Visigoths rose up against the Romans and crushed their main army at the [[Battle of Adrianople]]. As the [[Roman Empire]] became more shaky, they found it more difficult to stop the Visigoths and other barbarian tribes. This culminated in the Visigothic sacking of [[Rome]] in 410 A.D., under the rule of [[Alaric I]]. [[Saint Augustine]] chronicled this horrific defeat, and the shockwave it sent throughout the world, intellectually and physically, in his major work, ''[[City of God]]."

Following the collapse of the Roman Empire, the Visigoths gained control over [[Rome]] when they deposed [[Romulus Augustulus]], the last emperor, in 476 A.D. However, they were later defeated by the [[Ostrogoths]] under the command of [[Theoderic]], on orders from the [[Byzantine]] ruler [[Zeno]].

The Visigoths eventually moved to settle South Western Gaul ([[France]]) with Tolouse as their capital, but were defeated by the [[Franks]] under [[Clovis]] and henceforward had their territory in [[Spain]] with Toledo as their capital.

The Visigothic Kingdom in Spain fell to the Isalmic [[Moors]] in AD 711. Their last king was Roderick.

[[category:European History]]

Visigoths

2007-10-31T15:29:37Z

Alaric:

The '''Visigoths''' were a confederacy of Germanic tribes, who migrated from the Baltic area to the Danube River, pressed by the advancing [[Huns]]. They were offered entrance into [[Roman|Rome]] territory on peaceful terms by the Emperor [[Valens]]. However, the Romans did not provide the Visigoths with enough food, forcing them to sell their children into slavery in exchange for the meat of dogs.

So the Visigoths rose up against the Romans and crushed their main army at the [[Battle of Adrianople]]. As the [[Roman Empire]] became more shaky, they found it more difficult to stop the Visigoths and other barbarian tribes. This culminated in the Visigothic sacking of [[Rome]] in 410 A.D., under the rule of [[Alaric I]]. [[Saint Augustine]] chronicled this horrific defeat, and the shockwave it sent throughout the world, intellectually and physically, in his major work, ''[[City of God]]."

Following the collapse of the Roman Empire, the Visigoths gained control over [[Rome]] when they deposed [[Romulus Augustulus]], the last emperor, in 476 A.D. However, they were later defeated by the [[Ostrogoths]] under the command of [[Theoderic]], on orders from the [[Byzantine]] ruler [[Zeno]].

The Visigoths eventually moved to settle South Western Gaul ([[France]]) with [[Toulouse]] as their capital, but were defeated by the [[Franks]] under [[Clovis]] and henceforward had their territory in [[Spain]] with Toledo as their capital.

The Visigothic Kingdom in Spain fell to the Isalmic [[Moors]] in AD 711. Their last king was Roderick.

[[category:European History]]

Visigoths

2007-10-31T15:29:13Z

Alaric:

The '''Visigoths''' were a confederacy of Germanic tribes, who migrated from the Baltic area to the Danube River, pressed by the advancing [[Huns]]. They were offered entrance into [[Roman|Rome]] territory on peaceful terms by the Emperor [[Valens]]. However, the Romans did not provide the Visigoths with enough food, forcing them to sell their children into slavery in exchange for the meat of dogs.

So the Visigoths rose up against the Romans and crushed their main army at the [[Battle of Adrianople]]. As the [[Roman Empire]] became more shaky, they found it more difficult to stop the Visigoths and other barbarian tribes. This culminated in the Visigothic sacking of [[Rome]] in 410 A.D., under the rule of [[Alaric I]]. [[Saint Augustine]] chronicled this horrific defeat, and the shockwave it sent throughout the world, intellectually and physically, in his major work, ''[[City of God]]."

Following the collapse of the Roman Empire, the Visigoths gained control over [[Rome]] when they deposed [[Romulus Augustulus]], the last emperor, in 476 A.D. However, they were later defeated by the [[Ostrogoths]] under the command of [[Theoderic]], on orders from the [[Byzantine]] ruler [[Zeno]].

The Visigoths eventually moved to settle South Western Gaul ([[France]]) with [[Tolouse]] as their capital, but were defeated by the [[Franks]] under [[Clovis]] and henceforward had their territory in [[Spain]] with Toledo as their capital.

The Visigothic Kingdom in Spain fell to the Isalmic [[Moors]] in AD 711. Their last king was Roderick.

[[category:European History]]

Visigoths

2007-10-31T15:19:03Z

Alaric:

The '''Visigoths''' were a confederacy of Germanic tribes, who migrated from the Baltic area to the Danube River, pressed by the advancing [[Huns]]. They were offered entrance into [[Roman|Rome]] territory on peaceful terms by the Emperor [[Valens]]. However, the Visigoths and Romans had a falling out and the Visigoths rose up against the Romans and crushed their main army at the [[Battle of Adrianople]]. As the [[Roman Empire]] became more shaky, they found it more difficult to stop the Visigoths and other barbarian tribes. This culminated in the Visigoth sacking of [[Rome]] in 410 A.D., under the rule of [[Alaric I]]. [[Saint Augustine]] chronicled this horrific defeat, and the shockwave it sent throughout the world, intellectually and physically, in his major work, ''[[City of God]]."

Following the collapse of the Roman Empire, the Visigoths gained control over [[Rome]] when they deposed [[Romulus Augustulus]], the last emperor, in 476 A.D. However, they were later defeated by the [[Ostrogoths]] under the command of [[Theoderic]], on orders from the [[Byzantine]] ruler [[Zeno]].

[[category:European History]]

Alaric I

2007-10-31T13:43:55Z

Alaric: New page: Alaric I was King of the Visigoths in the early 5th century AD. He led them, when quite an old warrior, into the Italian peninsula, and they took and sacked Rome in AD 410, an eve...

Alaric I was King of the [[Visigoths]] in the early 5th century AD. He led them, when quite an old warrior, into the Italian peninsula, and they took and sacked [[Rome]] in AD 410, an event seen by many as being a sign that the World was about to end. Alaric was an [[Arian]] [[Christian]] and did not permit his warriors to loot or destroy the City's churches. They did not remain in Rome, but moved south, attempting, it is said, to reach North Africa. But Alaric died, and was buried in a river bed (the river being temporarily diverted for this purpose) with much treasure. His name in Gothic was probably 'Alareiks'.

Mount Doom

2007-10-31T13:28:20Z

Alaric: New page: '''Mount Doom''' is the name of the large volcano in The Lord of the Rings by J.R.R. Tolkien. Its Elvish name is ‘Orodruin’. It is near the Dark Tower in the Land of [[Mordor...

'''Mount Doom''' is the name of the large volcano in [[The Lord of the Rings]] by [[J.R.R. Tolkien]]. Its Elvish name is ‘Orodruin’. It is near the Dark Tower in the Land of [[Mordor]]. It was where the One Ring was made by [[Sauron]], in the Cracks of Doom (‘Sammath Naur’) and it therefore is the only place that the Ring can be destroyed, so [[Frodo Baggins]] and his servant and friend, Sam Gamgee, must take it there if they can.

Hobbit

2007-10-30T16:38:41Z

Alaric:

''''Hobbit'''' is a word invented by [[J.R.R. Tolkien]] for an imaginary half-height being, a scaled-down human in many ways, but with furry feet! ‘[[The Hobbit]]’ was his first book featuring them: in particular Bilbo Baggins and his quest to the Lonely Mountain to help a company of Dwarves regain their treasure. His later masterpiece, [[The Lord of the Rings]] was an epic story about the adventures of four Hobbits, and Frodo Baggins in particular, as they left 'The Shire’ (land of the Hobbits) to help in the war against Sauron, the evil power attempting to overrun Middle Earth.

Hobbit

2007-10-30T16:37:46Z

Alaric: New page: ''''Hobbit'''' is a word invented by JRR Tolkien for an imaginary half-height being, a scaled-down human in many ways, but with furry feet! ‘The Hobbit’ was his first book fe...

''''Hobbit'''' is a word invented by [[JRR Tolkien]] for an imaginary half-height being, a scaled-down human in many ways, but with furry feet! ‘[[The Hobbit]]’ was his first book featuring them: in particular Bilbo Baggins and his quest to the Lonely Mountain to help a company of Dwarves regain their treasure. His later masterpiece, [[The Lord of the Rings]] was an epic story about the adventures of four Hobbits, and Frodo Baggins in particular, as they left 'The Shire’ (land of the Hobbits) to help in the war against Sauron, the evil power attempting to overrun Middle Earth.

Norse mythology

2007-10-30T16:20:35Z

Alaric:

'''Norse mythology''' is the legends and pagan religious belief of the [[Vikings]]. They believed that the World (Midgard = 'Middle Earth') was supported on the World Tree (Yggdrasil) and lay between Asgard (Over-Heaven, the abode of their gods) and Hel (the underworld). They believed in dragons, who hoarded gold and treasure, and the greatest of these the Midgard Serpent, encircled the world. They believed in other supernatural beings such as trolls, dwarves and elves.

The gods ([[Odin]], [[Thor]] etc.), and their human allies would be defeated and destroyed at Ragnarok , the last battle when the Ice Giants, the Midgard Serpent and the Wolf Fenrir would destroy Asgard and Midgard. But the Vikings still thought it better to fight on the side of the gods, in knowledge of their ultimate defeat.
_

Norse mythology

2007-10-30T16:19:44Z

Alaric: New page: '''Bold text'''Norse mythology'''Bold text''' is the legends and pagan religious belief of the Vikings. They believed that the World (Midgard = 'Middle Earth') was supported on the Wo...

'''Bold text'''Norse mythology'''Bold text''' is the legends and pagan religious belief of the [[Vikings]]. They believed that the World (Midgard = 'Middle Earth') was supported on the World Tree (Yggdrasil) and lay between Asgard (Over-Heaven, the abode of their gods) and Hel (the underworld). They believed in dragons, who hoarded gold and treasure, and the greatest of these the Midgard Serpent, encircled the world. They believed in other supernatural beings such as trolls, dwarves and elves.

The gods ([[Odin]], [[Thor]] etc.), and their human allies would be defeated and destroyed at Ragnarok , the last battle when the Ice Giants, the Midgard Serpent and the Wolf Fenrir would destroy Asgard and Midgard. But the Vikings still thought it better to fight on the side of the gods, in knowledge of their ultimate defeat.
_

The Lord of the Rings

2007-10-30T16:02:56Z

Alaric: /* Languages */

[[Image:Mhjfjfr7.jpg|right|300px|thumb|Cover for the three volumes of The Lord of the Rings trilogy.]]

'''The Lord of the Rings''' is the best-selling fantasy novel of the twentieth century. It written by British professor [[J.R.R. Tolkien]]. Conceived by the author as a 6-book work (with compendious appendices and an index), it was released by the publisher in three volumes:

#''[[The Fellowship of the Ring]]'' 
#''[[The Two Towers]]'' 
#''[[The Return of the King]]'' 

''The Lord of the Rings'' was published in hardbound in 1954 and 1955, but was known only to a small audience of aficionados until 1965. At that time, J. R. R. Tolkien himself was known primarily to scholars for his work on [[Beowulf]]. This changed when an American paperback publisher released a "pirated" paperback edition, {{Fact}} paying Tolkien nothing, in the belief that Tolkien's copyright in the U. S. was defective because of a technicality. Tolkien reached a legal settlement with this publisher, and another publisher released an authorized edition for which Tolkien was paid royalties. The book was an instant success, particularly among college students.

== Story ==
''The Lord of the Rings'' is set in [[Middle-earth]], a vastly expanded version of the fictional world presented in ''[[The Hobbit]]'' and ''[[The Silmarillion]]''. It continues the story that ''The Hobbit'' began, but while ''The Hobbit'' was intended for children, ''The Lord of the Rings'' was written for all ages.

The story takes place at a time when the [[Elves]], who immortal, good, and fairest of all beings in the world, are leaving the war-weary world to sail to the blessed realm of Valinor. With the departure of the Elves, the Age of Men has come, but they are opposed by the Dark Lord, [[Sauron]]. Although Sauron is a formidable foe, most of his powers are bound to a magic [[Ring (Middle Earth)|Ring]] which was cut from his finger in a battle thousands of year ago. This Ring fell by chance into the hands of a [[hobbit]], [[Bilbo Baggins]] who in turn left it to his nephew and heir, [[Frodo Baggins]]. If this Ring is destroyed, it will strip Sauron of his power and free Middle-earth from his threat. The only way the Ring can be destroyed, however is by casting it into the fires of [[Mount Doom]], a volcano in the heart of Sauron's realm. The Lord of the Rings follows Frodo's adventures as he journeys to destroy Sauron's Ring.

Frodo's journey is interwoven with other themes as he joins a [[Fellowship of the Ring]], pledged to take it to Mount Doom where it can be destroyed. The ranger [[Aragorn|Strider]] and the wizard [[Gandalf]] are foremost among his companions.

== Languages ==
Though Tolkien was an excellent writer, his primary interest was [[The Languages of Tolkien|languages]]. Tolkien originally came up with Middle Earth as a world in which his languages could be spoken. {{Fact}} In an interview with the BBC in 1972, shortly before his death, Tolkien said that he came up with the concept of a hobbit in part because he had been embarrassed about his own below-average height in his early childhood, and liked to imagine a world where he could be "normal" or even possibly "a hero". {{Fact}} Tolkien based his fictional languages largely on the sounds and style of [[Finnish]] (his 'Quenya' or High Elvish language) and [[Welsh]] ('Sindarin', or the tongue of the Grey Elves). His stories were influenced by [[Norse mythology]] which features dragons, elves and dwarves. He also knew and liked the [[Gothic]] language, and Old English. His Riders of Rohan are like [[Goth]]s in the way they fight, but speak Old English (e.g. 'Theoden' their king's name is OE for 'prince').

== Christianity ==
J. R. R. Tolkien was a [[Roman Catholic]], and many readers see [[Christian]] undertones in ''The Lord of the Rings.'' <ref>"Much as it is possible to identify allegories of the Second World war into ''The Lord of the Rings'', it is possible to identify any number of Christian allegories as well" in Smith, J. and Matthews, J.C. ''The Lord of the Rings:the Films, the books, the radio series'' (Virgin Books 2004), p.116.</ref> The subtext is subtle, and altogether unintentional. Tolkien himself discounts the belief that he wrote the book as a direct Christian allegory, in contrast with the overt and acknowledged allegory in the works of Tolkien's friend, [[C.S. Lewis]].<ref>Letters of J.R.R. Tolkien, # 129</ref>

==Film Version==
New Line Cinema has produced three films all of which have names which are derived from the three books in The Lord of the Rings. They were released from 2001 to 2003. Several Special Extended Editions have also been released each including four discs. All were directed by [[Peter Jackson]]. <ref> [[The Fellowship of the Ring]], Directed by Peter Jackson, Produced by Barrie M. Osborne, Peter Jackson 2001. </ref>

== References ==
<references/>

{{DEFAULTSORT:Lord of the Rings, The}}
[[Category:Book]]
[[Category:Middle-Earth]]

Galatians

2007-10-30T15:40:06Z

Alaric:

Galatians is a famous Epistle of [[Paul]] to the church in Galatia, in central [[Asia Minor]] (now modern [[Turkey]]). He deals particularly with the issue of whether the Christians there (and elsewhere) should live as if under [[Jewish]] Law (e.g. should be circumcised), as people had been preaching this message amongst them, or should live by faith. He clearly says the latter.

The Galatians were [[Celts]] who had migrated to Asia Minor from [[Europe]], and originally belonged to three tribes, the Tectosages, Tolistoboii and Trocmi. Their [[Celtic]] language almost certainly was still spoken when Paul wrote to them in Greek, though city-dwellers would know and use Greek.

Galatians

2007-10-30T15:39:29Z

Alaric: New page: Galatians is a famous Epistle of St Paul to the church in Galatia, in central Asia Minor (now modern Turkey). He deals particularly with the issue of whether the Christian...

Galatians is a famous [[Epistle]] of [[St Paul]] to the church in Galatia, in central [[Asia Minor]] (now modern [[Turkey]]). He deals particularly with the issue of whether the Christians there (and elsewhere) should live as if under [[Jewish]] Law (e.g. should be circumcised), as people had been preaching this message amongst them, or should live by faith. He clearly says the latter.

The Galatians were [[Celts]] who had migrated to Asia Minor from [[Europe]], and originally belonged to three tribes, the Tectosages, Tolistoboii and Trocmi. Their [[Celtic]] language almost certainly was still spoken when Paul wrote to them in Greek, though city-dwellers would know and use Greek.

Hadrian’s Wall

2007-10-30T15:25:23Z

Alaric:

'''Hadrian's Wall''', also called 'the Roman Wall', was a massive structure built across [[Britain]] from around AD 120 on the orders of the [[Roman]] Emperor [[Hadrian]]. It marked the Empire's northern frontier. It crossed from near the mouth of the River Tyne, on the East coast, to the [[Solway Firth]] in the West. It had 'milecastles' spaced at a distance of every Roman mile, and two small turrets between each of these. Later, large forts shaped like playing cards were also built at intervals along the Wall. Sections of the Wall are preserved (though not at the original height of around 20ft), and forts like Housesteads, Chesters and Birdoswald are some of the most outstanding visible remains of the [[Roman Empire]]. The name of the last battle that [[King Arthur]] (allegedly) fought , Camlann, may derive from Camboglanna, one of the Roman fort names on the western part of the Wall.

[[Category:England]]
[[Category:Roman history]]

Solway Firth

2007-10-30T15:23:02Z

Alaric: New page: The Solway Firth is a large estuary on the Irish Sea coast of Britain that separates North West England from Southern Scotland. Rivers such as the Eden and Irthing empty i...

The Solway Firth is a large estuary on the [[Irish Sea]] coast of [[Britain]] that separates North West [[England]] from Southern [[Scotland]]. Rivers such as the Eden and Irthing empty into it, and it hosts many wading birds and wildfowl.

Penda

2007-10-30T15:17:45Z

Alaric:

'''Penda''' was a powerful [[king]] in [[Britain]] in the 7th century AD. His kingdom, covering much of the [[English]] Midlands, was probably called the 'Marc' in English, '[[Mercia]]' in Latin, and meant 'border land' (probably in reference to its border with [[Wales]]). The Mercians were probably mainly [[Angles]] in origin. Penda was a [[pagan]] and fought against the Christian kingdom of [[Northumbria]], defeating its king Edwin in around AD 632. Oswy of [[Northumbria]] led an army that slew Penda at Winwaed (thought to be in or near the city of Leeds) in AD 655, so Penda was the last significant [[pagan]] King of an English kingdom (though when the [[Vikings]] took over parts of England (including East Mercia) from the mid 9th century AD, their Kings/Earls were heathen at first).

[[Category:History]]

Penda

2007-10-30T15:16:46Z

Alaric:

'''Penda''' was a powerful [[king]] in [[Britain]] in the 7th century AD. His kingdom, covering much of the [[English]] Midlands, was probably called the 'Marc' in English, '[[Mercia]]' in Latin, and meant 'border land' (probably in reference to its border with [[Wales]]). The Mercians were probably mainly [[Angles]] in origin. Penda was a [[pagan]] and fought against the Christian kingdom of Northumbria, defeating its king Edwin in around AD 632. Oswy of Northumbria led an army that slew Penda at Winwaed (thought to be in or near the city of Leeds) in AD 655, so Penda was the last significant [[pagan]] King of an English kingdom (though when the [[Vikings]] took over parts of England (including East Mercia) from the mid 9th century AD, their Kings/Earls were heathen at first).

[[Category:History]]

Mercia

2007-10-30T15:13:37Z

Alaric:

'''Mercia''' was an independent [[Anglo-Saxon]] Kingdom on the island of [[Great Britain]], roughly analogous to the modern English [[Midlands]]. Its name in English was probably the 'Marc' (meaning 'borderland', in reference to the border with [[Wales]]). It was part of the English Heptarchy, and was the dominant member of it from the mid-7th to the mid-9th century A.D. Following the [[Danish]] invasions, Mercia was partitioned during the Treaty of Wedmore into the Saxon-controlled West Mercia and Danish-controlled East Mercia. Mercia was eventually united along with the other Kingdoms of the Heptarchy to create the Kingdom of [[England]].

==Kings of the Mercians==
===Iclings (House of Icel)===
*'''Icel''' (''c.''488-''c.''501)
*'''Cnebba''' (''c.''501-''c.''566)
*'''Cynewald''' (''c.''566-584)
*'''Créoda''' (584-593)
*'''Pybba''' (593-606)
*'''Céorl''' (606-626)
*'''[[Penda]]''' (626-655)
*'''Éowa''' (co-monarch, ''c.''635-642)
*'''Péada''' (co-monarch, ''c.''653-656)
*(Mercia occupied by Northumbria, 655-658)
*'''Wulfhere''' (658-675)
*'''Æþelred''' (675-704) (abdicated)
*'''Cœnred''' (704-709) (abdicated)
*'''Céolred''' (709-716)
*'''Céolwald''' (716)
*'''Æþelbald''' (716-757) (proclaimed King of Britain, 746)

===Usurper===
*'''Béornred''' (757) (deposed)

===House of Offa===
*'''Offa the Mighty''' (757-796) (proclaimed King of the English, 774)
*'''Egfriþ''' (co-monarch, 787-796)

===House of Cœnwulf===
*'''Cœnwulf''' (796-821) (proclaimed Emperor)
*'''Cynehelm''' (812 or 821)
*'''Céolwulf''' (821-823) (deposed)

===Elected monarchs===
*'''Béornwulf''' (823-826)
*'''Ludeca''' (826-827)
*'''Wigláf''' (827-829, 830-840)
*(Mercia occupied by Wessex, 829-830)
*'''Wigmund''' (co-monarch, ''c.''840)
*'''Wigstan''' (840) (abdicated)
*'''Béorhtwulf''' (840-852)
*'''Burgred''' (852-874) (abdicated)
*'''Céolwulf the Foolish''' (874-883)
*'''Æþelred Mucil''' (883-911)

===Ladies of the Mercians===
*'''Æþelflæd''' (911-918)
*'''Ælfwynn''' (918-919) (deposed)
*(Mercia annexed by Wessex, 919)

[[category:history]]
[[category:royalty]]

Northumbria

2007-10-30T15:09:14Z

Alaric: /* History of Northumbria */

Northumbria was an Anglian kingdom of the [[Heptarchy]] period, covering a large area of what is now northern [[England]] and southern [[Scotland]]. At its peak, it extended from the Rivers [[Humber]] and [[Mersey]] in the south to the Firth of Forth and the northern shores of the [[Solway Firth]] in the north.

=== History of Northumbria ===

The Kingdom of Northumbria was formed by the union of the kingdoms of Bernicia (north of the River [[Tees]]) and Deira (south of the Tees, roughly corresponding with the county of [[Yorkshire]]. Bernicia was traditionally founded by the Anglian chieftain Ida who seized the coastal strong point of Bamburgh in AD 547, and from that point conquered what is now modern [[Northumberland]]. More recent scholarship suggests that Bernicia developed as a Celtic-Anglian kingdom, with centres of kingship at Bamburgh, Yeavering and Millfield.

The kingdoms of Bernicia and Deira were united under Aethelfrith of Bernicia in 604; he was killed in battle in 616 and replaced by Edwin, the son of a former king of Deira. Edwin converted to [[Christianity]] and became the most powerful ruler in Great Britain, expanding Northumbrian territory by conquering the [[Isle of Man]] and parts of north [[Wales]]; however, his enemies combined against him and he was killed in 633. Edwin's death led to a period of warfare and fragmentation of the kingdom, but it was reunited after 634 under the exiled Bernician noble [[Oswald]], who returned from exile (in the Scottish kingdom of [[Dalriada]]) to defeat the Welsh king Cadwallon at the Battle of Heavenfield, near [[Hadrian's Wall]] in [[Northumberland]], in 634. Before the battle, Oswald raised a cross and with his soldiers prayed for victory. Oswald was himself killed in battle in 642 by [[Penda]] of [[Mercia]]. Penda attacked Northumbria in 655, but was defeated by the Northumbrian king Oswiu, Oswald's brother. Oswiu's son Ecgfrith attempted to extend Northumbrian power into Pictland (eastern [[Scotland]]) but was killed in battle in 685; from that point Northumbrian political supremacy waned rapidly. The kingdom was damaged by Viking attacks and in the ninth century by the formation of the Viking Kingdom of York in Deira. In the resurgent English kingdom that gradually overcame Viking power, Northumbria was reduced to the status of an earldom, while growing Scottish power deprived it of its northern territories. The Northumbrian-Scottish border was settled on the River Tweed in 1028.

Oswald invited Celtic monks from [[Iona]] under Aidan to form a monastery on [[Holy Island]] ([[Lindisfarne]]); between 650 and 750 Northumbrian monasticism was an intellectual beacon in northern Europe

[[Category: United Kingdom History]]

Normans

2007-10-30T14:56:44Z

Alaric:

The Normans were [[Vikings]] who were granted lands to settle in by the French king in Normandy in Northern France. Their name is derived from "North Men", and they originally spoke Old Norse, but came to speak Norman French. [[William the Conqueror]] staged the Norman Conquest of England in 1066. The Normans built castles and used the armoured [[knight]] to subdue any territory they conquered. They also took over [[Sicily]] and played a prominent part in the [[Crusades]].

[[category:ethnicities]]

Saint Patrick

2007-10-30T14:35:44Z

Alaric: /* Life as a Slave */

[[Image:Patrick1.jpg|right]]
Saint Patrick (''Naomh Pádraig'') of [[Ireland]] was an independent Christian missionary who travelled to Ireland in the early-or-mid 5th Century AD to complete the work of the Bishop Palladius, who had earlier been charged by the Pope with the task of evangelising Ireland. Patrick is believed to have converted virtually the entire island of [[Ireland]] to [[Christianity]]. Much about him remains a mystery, though some of his personal writings have survived.

The [[Eastern Orthodox Church]] teaches that he was the son of a deacon and a grandson of a priest. The Orthodox Church refers to him as Saint Patrick, the Enlightener of Ireland.

==Life as a Slave==
He was captured as a teenager during a raid on the west coast of Britain (possibly Wales, or perhaps what is now South West Scotland) by an Irish king known as [[Niall of the Nine Hostages]] and sold as a slave in Ireland, where he herded animals on Slieve Mish (''Sliabh Mis'') mountain, near Belfast. After six years of this, he escaped to Gaul ([[France]]).

==Dream==
When Patrick was in his forties, he had a vivid dream that told him to return to Ireland. He wrote in his ''Confession'':<ref name="AmericanMinute">[http://www.amerisearch.net/index.php?date=2004-03-17&view=View American Minute] for March 17th</ref>
{{QuoteBox|In the depth of the night, I saw a man named Victoricus coming as if from Ireland, with innumerable letters, and he gave me one and while I was reading I thought I heard the voice of those near the western sea call out: 'Please, holy boy, come and walk among us again.' Their cry pierced my very heart, and I could read no more, and so I awoke.}}
Patrick risked his life by returning to Ireland and attempting to convert the ruling Kings and Chieftains who ruled the island. According to legend, he used the shamrock ''(seamróg)'', a small three-leafed plant that resembles a miniature clover to educate the Irish about the [[Trinity]]. However, since many of the Irish already worshiped a [[Goddess]], [[Brigid]], with three forms, it is unlikely that the Irish needed the idea of three parts in one god explained to them.

==Conversion==
Patrick baptized 120,000 Irish and established 300 churches. According to legend, Patrick banished the snakes from Ireland, as there are no snakes there to this day. Some regard the snakes as a metaphor representing heathen religions.

==Reflection and Death==
Patrick wrote about his life:<ref name="AmericanMinute"/>
{{QuoteBox|Patrick the sinner, an unlearned man to be sure. None should ever say that it was my ignorance that accomplished any small thing, it was the gift of God.}}
He is believed to have died on or around March 17, 461 [[A.D.]]

== References ==
<references/>

[http://www.goarch.org Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of America]

[http://www.flickr.com Flickr Public Photos]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Patrick, Saint}}
[[Category:Saints]]
[[Category:Ireland]]

Ireland

2007-10-30T14:32:02Z

Alaric: /* History */

{{Country
|name =''Éire''
|map =Ireland.jpg
|flag =Flag of Ireland.png
|arms =Ireland arms.png
|capital =Dublin
|capital-raw =
|government =Republic and Parliamentary Democracy
|government-raw =
|language =Irish and English
|king =
|queen =
|monarch-raw =
|president =Mary McAleese
|president-raw =
|chancellor =
|chancellor-raw =
|pm =
|pm-raw =
|area =27,133 sq mi
|pop =4,239,848 (2007)
|pop-basis =
|gdp =
|gdp-year =$177.2 billion (2006)
|gdp-pc =$43,600 (2006)
|currency =euro
|idd =
|tld =
}}

'''Ireland''' is an [[island]] off the north-western coast of [[Europe]]. Since 1922 it has been divided into two separate entities.

* The '''[[Republic of Ireland]]''' (or '''Ireland''', in Irish: ''Éire'') is an independent state which consists of twenty-six traditional counties in the provinces of Munster, Leinster, Connacht, and three of the nine counties of Ulster. According to the last census the Republic of Ireland has a population of 4,234,925<ref>[http://www.citizensinformation.ie/categories/environment/copy_of_census/]</ref>
* The other is '''[[Northern Ireland]]''' a [[constituent country]] of the [[United Kingdom]] which comprises of six counties in the province of Ulster. Northern Ireland has a population of 1,685,267 (2002 est.)<ref>[http://www.nicensus2001.gov.uk/nica/browser/profile.jsp?profile=Demography&mainArea=&mainLevel=]</ref>

== History ==
Historically, Ireland's culture has been distinct from other regional cultures, as it was one of the only [[Celtic]] territories never conquered by the [[Roman Empire]].

Its people had an [[Iron Age]] culture at the time of Roman rule in Britain. They had no proper towns, and mainly lived in 'raths' (small fortified farmsteads) though there were larger hillforts. They were [[heathens]] worshipping a number of [[Celtic]] deities, including the Dagda ('good god'). The [[Druid]]s were their priests and law-speakers, and knew some science and medicine.

[[Saint Patrick]] (Latin 'Patricius') was a Romanised [[Briton]] captured by Irish raiders, who escaped from slavery in Ireland and felt called by God to return and evangelise the Irish, this being in the 5th century AD. He did not do this work alone, but he wrote a kind of autobiography (‘Confessio’) so we know a lot about his life and work.

Columba (Irish ‘Columcille’ = ‘dove of the church’) was a Northern Irish noble who went to [[Scotland]] and founded the monastery of [[Iona]], going from there to the Scottish mainland as a missionary to the Picts.

Ireland suffered from regular [[Viking]] incursions from the late 8th century until 1014, when High King Brian Boru defeated the Vikings at the Battle of Clontarf (though some Vikings fought for Brian). Dublin, the Irish capital, was founded as a Viking trading port.

In the 12th century, the Pope granted Ireland to the English crown as a papal fief. This was Pope [[Adrian IV]], the only Englishman to become bishop of Rome. The English however, were unable to bring the entire island under their control until the 17th century, after the defeat of the Irish in the Nine Years War. King James I of England (King James VI of Scotland) decided to plant Ulster, in the North of Ireland, with English and Scottish Protestant settlers, in an attempt to prevent future rebellions.<ref>[http://www.hoganstand.com/general/Identity/stories/ulster.htm]</ref>

In 1690, the Catholic King James II and his Irish allies were defeated by the Protestant William of Orange at the Battle of the Boyne. This defeat ushered in an era of Protestant dominance in Ireland. A series of regulations limiting the status of the Catholic majority were passed between 1691 and 1760, known as the Penal Laws. These laws also discriminated against Presbyterians and other dissenting Protestants, who along with Catholics were forced to pay tithes to the Anglican Church.<ref>[http://www.risingroadtours.com/a7_penallaws.htm]</ref> <ref>[http://prorev.com/irish.htm]</ref>

In 1798, a combined Protestant and Catholic Republican rebellion was defeated. This led to the Act of Union being passed in 1801, under which Ireland became a part of the United Kingdom. The Irish economy declined rapidly and the Great Famine ''An Gorta Mór'' broke out in 1845. The famine killed roughly one million, or one eighth of the entire population. It led to mass emigration to the United States, Canada and to Britain.

Pro-nationalist sentiment continued to rise and the Irish tried to secure their own parliament. Opposition to this arose in the predominantly Protestant and Unionist province of Ulster which allied with the British Conservative Party in an attempt to block "Home Rule". The outbreak of war in 1914 delayed the enaction of Home Rule and led to growing agitation amongst Irish Nationalists. The Easter Rising of 1916 was put down by the British, but their heavy-handed approach increased opposition to their rule. A war of independence broke out in 1919, the Irish using guerrilla tactics to undermine British rule in the country. The war with the British ended in 1921 with the British retaining control of six counties in the province of [[Ulster]]. The territory independent of the British became the [[Irish Free State]], while the territory controlled by the British became [[Northern Ireland]]. Northern Ireland was granted a home rule parliament. Later, in 1937, the Free State adopted a new constitution, or ''Bunreacht'' (now the oldest written Constitution in Europe) changing its name to [[Éire]] and removing all references to the Free State's position within the British Commonwealth. <ref>[http://www.infoplease.com/ipa/A0107648.html]</ref>
The Irish Free State finally left the Commonwealth and declared itself a Republic in 1949.

==Republic of Ireland==
The Republic of Ireland uses [[Proportional Representation]] meaning that there are a large number of political parties. The Republic of Ireland has a bicameral legislature, "the Oireachtas". It consists of the 166 seat lower house Dáil(parliament) and the 66 seat upper house, the Seanad(Senate), which both sit in Leinster House, Dublin. In recent times the country has been governed mostly by coalitions generally of either Fianna Fáil and the Progressive Democrats or Fine Gael and Labour. The Republic of Ireland is also a member of the European Union and is represented by 13 MEPs. <ref> [http://www.europarl.ie/meps/index.html] </ref>

* '''Fianna Fáil''': (Pronounced Fee-Na Fall which is Irish for 'Soldiers of Destiny'). Ireland's main political party, they do not class themselves as either left or right wing but rather as pragmatic centrists and republicans (In the sense of opposing the notion of formal classes in society, in particular the monarchy. Typically republicans in Ireland seek to unite Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland into a single Republic separate from the United Kingdom.). The party was founded as a splinter from Official Sinn Féin by Eamon de Valera. Traditionally the party of small farmers and the urban working class community, and generally conservative on social issues. Currently the largest party in the ruling coalition. Led by Bertie Ahern, current [[Taoiseach]]([[Prime Minister]]) of the Republic of Ireland. Fianna Fáil generally opposes any action that would be seen to erode Ireland's neutrality and independence in foreign policy, including joining NATO.<ref>[http://www.fiannafail.ie/]</ref>

* '''Fine Gael''': (Pronounced Finna Gale, Irish for 'Family of the Irish'). Ireland's second largest party. Fine Gael is traditionally socially and fiscally conservative. Under the leadership of [[Garret FitzGerald]] in the 1980's, the party embraced [[social democracy]]. Today the party likes to characterize itself as a party of the "progressive centre". Led by [[Enda Kenny]]. Many of the parties elected members would like to see Ireland join NATO and at least one has called for Ireland to rejoin the [[British Commonwealth]].<ref>[http://www.finegael.com/index.cfm]</ref>

* '''Labour Party''': A social democratic left-wing party, similar to the British Labour Party under [[Tony Blair]]. [[Pat Rabitte]] is the leader of the Labour Party.<ref>[http://www.labour.ie/]</ref>

* '''Progressive Democrats''':It is very right wing on economic issues, favoring low-taxation, pro-business policies, but are very liberal on social issues. [[Mary Harney]] is the current interim leader after the previous leader lost his seat in the last Genreal Election.<ref>[http://www.progressivedemocrats.ie/index-main.php]</ref>

* '''Green Party''': A left-wing party in favor of environmental protection, renewable energy and a stronger system of social security. Led by Trevor Sargent.<ref>[http://www.greenparty.ie/]</ref>

* '''Sinn Féin''': (Pronounced Shin Fane, Irish for 'Ourselves') Claims to be a remnant of Ireland's oldest political party, it is closely connected with the Provisional IRA, a terrorist movement that sought a United Irish Republic. They have recently embraced a more democratic approach. They are a party of left-wing socialist economics which espouses liberal social issues such as gay marriage. They organize in all 32 counties of Ireland. Led by Gerry Adams. <ref>[http://www.sinnfein.ie/]</ref>

* '''Socialist Party''': A left-wing Trotskyite party. They oppose capitalism and seek a United Socialist Ireland. Led by Joe Higgins. <ref> [http://www.socialistparty.net/] </ref>

====Premiers of the Republic of Ireland====

President of the Executive Council

* '''William Thomas Cosgrave''' (Cummann na nGaedheal): 1922-1932.
* '''Éamon de Valera''' (Fianna Fáil): 1932-1937

An Taoiseach
* '''Éamon de Valera''' (Fianna Fáil): 1937-1948, 1951-1954, 1957-1959.
* '''John A.Costello''' (Fine Gael): 1948-1951, 1954-1957.
* '''Seán Lemass''' (Fianna Fáil): 1959-1966.
* '''Jack Lynch''' (Fianna Fáil): 1966-1973.
* '''Liam Cosgrave''' (Fine Gael): 1973-1977.
* '''Jack Lynch''' (Fianna Fáil): 1977-1979.
* '''Charles Haughey''' (Fianna Fáil): 1979-1981, March 1982 - December 82 and March 1987 - February 1992.
* '''Garret FitzGerald''' (Fine Gael): 30 June 1981- 9 March 1982 and 14 December 1982 - 10 March 1987.
* '''Albert Reynolds''' (Fianna Fáil): February 1992-1994.
* '''John Bruton''' (Fine Gael): 1994-1997.
* '''Bertie Ahern''' (Fianna Fáil): 1997-Present. <ref> [http://www.taoiseach.gov.ie/index.asp?locID=349&docID=-1] </ref>

==Northern Ireland==
The political parties of Northern Ireland are mostly divided on the national question (whether to remain within the UK or become part of a United Ireland), rather than on a left-right basis. They contest elections for the [[British Parliament]](where Northern Ireland is allocated 18 seats) and the 108 seat [[Northern Ireland Assembly]]. Northern Ireland has 3 MEPs. <ref>[http://www.europarl.ie/meps/index.html]</ref>

Westminster elections use the Plurality voting system, whereas the Assembly Elections use the Proportional Representation(PR) system. The major parties include:

* '''Democratic Unionist Party'''(DUP): Currently the largest unionist party in Northern Ireland. The DUP is a right-wing, ultra-conservative, hardline unionist party currently led by its founder, the Reverend Ian RK Paisley. The party has strong links with Rev. Paisley's Free Presbyterian Church. <ref>[http://www.dup.org.uk/]</ref>

* '''Sinn Féin''' Currently the largest nationalist party in Northern Ireland, they sit in the Irish parliament and Northern Ireland Assembly, but refuse to take their seats in the British Parliament in Westminster.

* '''Ulster Unionist Party'''(UUP): A moderate right-wing party, which had strong links with the British Conservative Party. Nobel Peace Prize laureate David Trimble is a former leader. Currently in decline, with voters turning to the DUP. Currently led by Sir Reg Empey. <ref> [http://www.uup.org/]</ref>

* '''Social Democratic and Labour Party'''(SDLP): A left-wing nationalist party. Nobel Peace Prize laureate John Hume is a former leader. The SDLP were the largest nationalist party until recently, when they were overtaken by Sinn Féin. Unlike SF, the SDLP have always advocated a non-violent and constitutional approach to achieving a United Ireland. Current leader is Mark Durkan. <ref>[http://www.sdlp.ie/]</ref>

* '''Alliance Party''': The Alliance party identifies as neither unionist or nationalist and thus receives support from both communities. The current leader is David Ford. <ref>[http://www.allianceparty.org/]</ref>

====Premiers of Northern Ireland====

Prime Minster of Northern Ireland (1921-1972)
*''Government of Ireland Act''
* '''Sir James Craig''' (UUP): 1921-1940
* '''John Miller Andrews''' (UUP): 1940-1943
* '''Sir Basil Brooke''' (UUP): 1943-1963
* '''Terence O'Neill''' (UUP): 1963-1969
* '''Brian Faulkner''' (UUP): 1969-1972
*''Post abolished in 1972.''

Chief Executive of Northern Ireland (1973–1974)
*''Sunningdale Agreement''
* '''Brian Faulkner''' (UUP) 1973–1974
*''Post abolished in 1972.''

First Minister of Northern Ireland (1998-present)
*''Belfast Agreement''
* '''David Trimble''' (UUP) 1998-July 2001, November 2001-October 2002
* '''Sir Reg Empey''' (UUP) (Acting): July 2001-October 2001
* ''Executive abolished''
*''St Andrews Agreement''
* '''Rev Dr Ian Paisley''' (DUP) 2007-present
<ref>[http://www.worldstatesmen.org/United_Kingdom.html#Northern]</ref>

== Religion ==
The Republic of Ireland is predominantly Roman Catholic in religion(88%). Membership of the Church of Ireland runs at about 3%, with most of the rest of the population belonging to other Protestant/Christian denominations. Southern Protestantism had been in decline since independence due to the ''ne temere'' decree(children in mixed Catholic/Protestant marriages had to be raised Catholic) <ref>[http://www.catholic-forum.com/saintS/ncd05730.htm]</ref> and emigration. However, it has experienced a revival of late due to immigrants and some converts from Catholicism. There is a small Jewish community in Ireland. The Muslim community has grown recently due to immigration. <ref>[http://www.cso.ie/statistics/popnclassbyreligionandsex2002.htm]</ref>

The Republic has maintained a nominally Catholic ethos since independence. Abortion remains controversially illegal (although information on obtaining abortions in other jurisdictions is a constitutional entitlement, and many thousands of women travel to the UK for treatment<ref>[http://www.crisispregnancy.ie/pub/statistical_report_2005.pdf]</ref> ). However, in line with a more general liberalization of Irish society since the early nineties, restrictions on the availability of contraception have been removed; the right to divorce has been enshrined in the constitution; homosexuality has been decriminalized and the rights of gay people have been enshrined in 'Equal Status' legislation.

Northern Ireland has a Protestant majority (53%), the main denominations being Presbyterian and Church of Ireland (Anglican/Episcopal). Roughly 44% of the population are Roman Catholic, with most of the remainder professing no religion. <ref>[http://www.nicensus2001.gov.uk/nica/browser/profile.jsp?profile=Cultural&mainArea=&mainLevel=]</ref>

==References==

<references/>

[[Category:Ireland| ]]
[[Category:United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Islands]]

Ireland

2007-10-30T14:30:25Z

Alaric: /* History */

{{Country
|name =''Éire''
|map =Ireland.jpg
|flag =Flag of Ireland.png
|arms =Ireland arms.png
|capital =Dublin
|capital-raw =
|government =Republic and Parliamentary Democracy
|government-raw =
|language =Irish and English
|king =
|queen =
|monarch-raw =
|president =Mary McAleese
|president-raw =
|chancellor =
|chancellor-raw =
|pm =
|pm-raw =
|area =27,133 sq mi
|pop =4,239,848 (2007)
|pop-basis =
|gdp =
|gdp-year =$177.2 billion (2006)
|gdp-pc =$43,600 (2006)
|currency =euro
|idd =
|tld =
}}

'''Ireland''' is an [[island]] off the north-western coast of [[Europe]]. Since 1922 it has been divided into two separate entities.

* The '''[[Republic of Ireland]]''' (or '''Ireland''', in Irish: ''Éire'') is an independent state which consists of twenty-six traditional counties in the provinces of Munster, Leinster, Connacht, and three of the nine counties of Ulster. According to the last census the Republic of Ireland has a population of 4,234,925<ref>[http://www.citizensinformation.ie/categories/environment/copy_of_census/]</ref>
* The other is '''[[Northern Ireland]]''' a [[constituent country]] of the [[United Kingdom]] which comprises of six counties in the province of Ulster. Northern Ireland has a population of 1,685,267 (2002 est.)<ref>[http://www.nicensus2001.gov.uk/nica/browser/profile.jsp?profile=Demography&mainArea=&mainLevel=]</ref>

== History ==
Historically, Ireland's culture has been distinct from other regional cultures, as it was one of the only [[Celtic]] territories never conquered by the [[Roman Empire]].

Its people had an [[Iron Age]] culture at the time of Roman rule in Britain. They had no proper towns, and mainly lived in 'raths' (small fortified farmsteads) though there were larger hillforts. They were [[heathens]] worshipping a number of [[Celtic]] deities, including the Dagda ('good god'). The [[Druid]]s were their priests and law-speakers, and knew some science and medicine.

Patrick (Latin 'Patricius') was a Romanised [[Briton]] captured by Irish raiders, who escaped from slavery in Ireland and felt called by God to return and evangelise the Irish, this being in the 5th century AD. He did not do this work alone, but he wrote a kind of autobiography (‘Confessio’) so we know a lot about his life and work.

Columba (Irish ‘Columcille’ = ‘dove of the church’) was a Northern Irish noble who went to [[Scotland]] and founded the monastery of [[Iona]], going from there to the Scottish mainland as a missionary to the Picts.

Ireland suffered from regular [[Viking]] incursions from the late 8th century until 1014, when High King Brian Boru defeated the Vikings at the Battle of Clontarf (though some Vikings fought for Brian). Dublin, the Irish capital, was founded as a Viking trading port.

In the 12th century, the Pope granted Ireland to the English crown as a papal fief. This was Pope [[Adrian IV]], the only Englishman to become bishop of Rome. The English however, were unable to bring the entire island under their control until the 17th century, after the defeat of the Irish in the Nine Years War. King James I of England (King James VI of Scotland) decided to plant Ulster, in the North of Ireland, with English and Scottish Protestant settlers, in an attempt to prevent future rebellions.<ref>[http://www.hoganstand.com/general/Identity/stories/ulster.htm]</ref>

In 1690, the Catholic King James II and his Irish allies were defeated by the Protestant William of Orange at the Battle of the Boyne. This defeat ushered in an era of Protestant dominance in Ireland. A series of regulations limiting the status of the Catholic majority were passed between 1691 and 1760, known as the Penal Laws. These laws also discriminated against Presbyterians and other dissenting Protestants, who along with Catholics were forced to pay tithes to the Anglican Church.<ref>[http://www.risingroadtours.com/a7_penallaws.htm]</ref> <ref>[http://prorev.com/irish.htm]</ref>

In 1798, a combined Protestant and Catholic Republican rebellion was defeated. This led to the Act of Union being passed in 1801, under which Ireland became a part of the United Kingdom. The Irish economy declined rapidly and the Great Famine ''An Gorta Mór'' broke out in 1845. The famine killed roughly one million, or one eighth of the entire population. It led to mass emigration to the United States, Canada and to Britain.

Pro-nationalist sentiment continued to rise and the Irish tried to secure their own parliament. Opposition to this arose in the predominantly Protestant and Unionist province of Ulster which allied with the British Conservative Party in an attempt to block "Home Rule". The outbreak of war in 1914 delayed the enaction of Home Rule and led to growing agitation amongst Irish Nationalists. The Easter Rising of 1916 was put down by the British, but their heavy-handed approach increased opposition to their rule. A war of independence broke out in 1919, the Irish using guerrilla tactics to undermine British rule in the country. The war with the British ended in 1921 with the British retaining control of six counties in the province of [[Ulster]]. The territory independent of the British became the [[Irish Free State]], while the territory controlled by the British became [[Northern Ireland]]. Northern Ireland was granted a home rule parliament. Later, in 1937, the Free State adopted a new constitution, or ''Bunreacht'' (now the oldest written Constitution in Europe) changing its name to [[Éire]] and removing all references to the Free State's position within the British Commonwealth. <ref>[http://www.infoplease.com/ipa/A0107648.html]</ref>
The Irish Free State finally left the Commonwealth and declared itself a Republic in 1949.

==Republic of Ireland==
The Republic of Ireland uses [[Proportional Representation]] meaning that there are a large number of political parties. The Republic of Ireland has a bicameral legislature, "the Oireachtas". It consists of the 166 seat lower house Dáil(parliament) and the 66 seat upper house, the Seanad(Senate), which both sit in Leinster House, Dublin. In recent times the country has been governed mostly by coalitions generally of either Fianna Fáil and the Progressive Democrats or Fine Gael and Labour. The Republic of Ireland is also a member of the European Union and is represented by 13 MEPs. <ref> [http://www.europarl.ie/meps/index.html] </ref>

* '''Fianna Fáil''': (Pronounced Fee-Na Fall which is Irish for 'Soldiers of Destiny'). Ireland's main political party, they do not class themselves as either left or right wing but rather as pragmatic centrists and republicans (In the sense of opposing the notion of formal classes in society, in particular the monarchy. Typically republicans in Ireland seek to unite Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland into a single Republic separate from the United Kingdom.). The party was founded as a splinter from Official Sinn Féin by Eamon de Valera. Traditionally the party of small farmers and the urban working class community, and generally conservative on social issues. Currently the largest party in the ruling coalition. Led by Bertie Ahern, current [[Taoiseach]]([[Prime Minister]]) of the Republic of Ireland. Fianna Fáil generally opposes any action that would be seen to erode Ireland's neutrality and independence in foreign policy, including joining NATO.<ref>[http://www.fiannafail.ie/]</ref>

* '''Fine Gael''': (Pronounced Finna Gale, Irish for 'Family of the Irish'). Ireland's second largest party. Fine Gael is traditionally socially and fiscally conservative. Under the leadership of [[Garret FitzGerald]] in the 1980's, the party embraced [[social democracy]]. Today the party likes to characterize itself as a party of the "progressive centre". Led by [[Enda Kenny]]. Many of the parties elected members would like to see Ireland join NATO and at least one has called for Ireland to rejoin the [[British Commonwealth]].<ref>[http://www.finegael.com/index.cfm]</ref>

* '''Labour Party''': A social democratic left-wing party, similar to the British Labour Party under [[Tony Blair]]. [[Pat Rabitte]] is the leader of the Labour Party.<ref>[http://www.labour.ie/]</ref>

* '''Progressive Democrats''':It is very right wing on economic issues, favoring low-taxation, pro-business policies, but are very liberal on social issues. [[Mary Harney]] is the current interim leader after the previous leader lost his seat in the last Genreal Election.<ref>[http://www.progressivedemocrats.ie/index-main.php]</ref>

* '''Green Party''': A left-wing party in favor of environmental protection, renewable energy and a stronger system of social security. Led by Trevor Sargent.<ref>[http://www.greenparty.ie/]</ref>

* '''Sinn Féin''': (Pronounced Shin Fane, Irish for 'Ourselves') Claims to be a remnant of Ireland's oldest political party, it is closely connected with the Provisional IRA, a terrorist movement that sought a United Irish Republic. They have recently embraced a more democratic approach. They are a party of left-wing socialist economics which espouses liberal social issues such as gay marriage. They organize in all 32 counties of Ireland. Led by Gerry Adams. <ref>[http://www.sinnfein.ie/]</ref>

* '''Socialist Party''': A left-wing Trotskyite party. They oppose capitalism and seek a United Socialist Ireland. Led by Joe Higgins. <ref> [http://www.socialistparty.net/] </ref>

====Premiers of the Republic of Ireland====

President of the Executive Council

* '''William Thomas Cosgrave''' (Cummann na nGaedheal): 1922-1932.
* '''Éamon de Valera''' (Fianna Fáil): 1932-1937

An Taoiseach
* '''Éamon de Valera''' (Fianna Fáil): 1937-1948, 1951-1954, 1957-1959.
* '''John A.Costello''' (Fine Gael): 1948-1951, 1954-1957.
* '''Seán Lemass''' (Fianna Fáil): 1959-1966.
* '''Jack Lynch''' (Fianna Fáil): 1966-1973.
* '''Liam Cosgrave''' (Fine Gael): 1973-1977.
* '''Jack Lynch''' (Fianna Fáil): 1977-1979.
* '''Charles Haughey''' (Fianna Fáil): 1979-1981, March 1982 - December 82 and March 1987 - February 1992.
* '''Garret FitzGerald''' (Fine Gael): 30 June 1981- 9 March 1982 and 14 December 1982 - 10 March 1987.
* '''Albert Reynolds''' (Fianna Fáil): February 1992-1994.
* '''John Bruton''' (Fine Gael): 1994-1997.
* '''Bertie Ahern''' (Fianna Fáil): 1997-Present. <ref> [http://www.taoiseach.gov.ie/index.asp?locID=349&docID=-1] </ref>

==Northern Ireland==
The political parties of Northern Ireland are mostly divided on the national question (whether to remain within the UK or become part of a United Ireland), rather than on a left-right basis. They contest elections for the [[British Parliament]](where Northern Ireland is allocated 18 seats) and the 108 seat [[Northern Ireland Assembly]]. Northern Ireland has 3 MEPs. <ref>[http://www.europarl.ie/meps/index.html]</ref>

Westminster elections use the Plurality voting system, whereas the Assembly Elections use the Proportional Representation(PR) system. The major parties include:

* '''Democratic Unionist Party'''(DUP): Currently the largest unionist party in Northern Ireland. The DUP is a right-wing, ultra-conservative, hardline unionist party currently led by its founder, the Reverend Ian RK Paisley. The party has strong links with Rev. Paisley's Free Presbyterian Church. <ref>[http://www.dup.org.uk/]</ref>

* '''Sinn Féin''' Currently the largest nationalist party in Northern Ireland, they sit in the Irish parliament and Northern Ireland Assembly, but refuse to take their seats in the British Parliament in Westminster.

* '''Ulster Unionist Party'''(UUP): A moderate right-wing party, which had strong links with the British Conservative Party. Nobel Peace Prize laureate David Trimble is a former leader. Currently in decline, with voters turning to the DUP. Currently led by Sir Reg Empey. <ref> [http://www.uup.org/]</ref>

* '''Social Democratic and Labour Party'''(SDLP): A left-wing nationalist party. Nobel Peace Prize laureate John Hume is a former leader. The SDLP were the largest nationalist party until recently, when they were overtaken by Sinn Féin. Unlike SF, the SDLP have always advocated a non-violent and constitutional approach to achieving a United Ireland. Current leader is Mark Durkan. <ref>[http://www.sdlp.ie/]</ref>

* '''Alliance Party''': The Alliance party identifies as neither unionist or nationalist and thus receives support from both communities. The current leader is David Ford. <ref>[http://www.allianceparty.org/]</ref>

====Premiers of Northern Ireland====

Prime Minster of Northern Ireland (1921-1972)
*''Government of Ireland Act''
* '''Sir James Craig''' (UUP): 1921-1940
* '''John Miller Andrews''' (UUP): 1940-1943
* '''Sir Basil Brooke''' (UUP): 1943-1963
* '''Terence O'Neill''' (UUP): 1963-1969
* '''Brian Faulkner''' (UUP): 1969-1972
*''Post abolished in 1972.''

Chief Executive of Northern Ireland (1973–1974)
*''Sunningdale Agreement''
* '''Brian Faulkner''' (UUP) 1973–1974
*''Post abolished in 1972.''

First Minister of Northern Ireland (1998-present)
*''Belfast Agreement''
* '''David Trimble''' (UUP) 1998-July 2001, November 2001-October 2002
* '''Sir Reg Empey''' (UUP) (Acting): July 2001-October 2001
* ''Executive abolished''
*''St Andrews Agreement''
* '''Rev Dr Ian Paisley''' (DUP) 2007-present
<ref>[http://www.worldstatesmen.org/United_Kingdom.html#Northern]</ref>

== Religion ==
The Republic of Ireland is predominantly Roman Catholic in religion(88%). Membership of the Church of Ireland runs at about 3%, with most of the rest of the population belonging to other Protestant/Christian denominations. Southern Protestantism had been in decline since independence due to the ''ne temere'' decree(children in mixed Catholic/Protestant marriages had to be raised Catholic) <ref>[http://www.catholic-forum.com/saintS/ncd05730.htm]</ref> and emigration. However, it has experienced a revival of late due to immigrants and some converts from Catholicism. There is a small Jewish community in Ireland. The Muslim community has grown recently due to immigration. <ref>[http://www.cso.ie/statistics/popnclassbyreligionandsex2002.htm]</ref>

The Republic has maintained a nominally Catholic ethos since independence. Abortion remains controversially illegal (although information on obtaining abortions in other jurisdictions is a constitutional entitlement, and many thousands of women travel to the UK for treatment<ref>[http://www.crisispregnancy.ie/pub/statistical_report_2005.pdf]</ref> ). However, in line with a more general liberalization of Irish society since the early nineties, restrictions on the availability of contraception have been removed; the right to divorce has been enshrined in the constitution; homosexuality has been decriminalized and the rights of gay people have been enshrined in 'Equal Status' legislation.

Northern Ireland has a Protestant majority (53%), the main denominations being Presbyterian and Church of Ireland (Anglican/Episcopal). Roughly 44% of the population are Roman Catholic, with most of the remainder professing no religion. <ref>[http://www.nicensus2001.gov.uk/nica/browser/profile.jsp?profile=Cultural&mainArea=&mainLevel=]</ref>

==References==

<references/>

[[Category:Ireland| ]]
[[Category:United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Islands]]

Ireland

2007-10-30T14:27:52Z

Alaric: /* History */

{{Country
|name =''Éire''
|map =Ireland.jpg
|flag =Flag of Ireland.png
|arms =Ireland arms.png
|capital =Dublin
|capital-raw =
|government =Republic and Parliamentary Democracy
|government-raw =
|language =Irish and English
|king =
|queen =
|monarch-raw =
|president =Mary McAleese
|president-raw =
|chancellor =
|chancellor-raw =
|pm =
|pm-raw =
|area =27,133 sq mi
|pop =4,239,848 (2007)
|pop-basis =
|gdp =
|gdp-year =$177.2 billion (2006)
|gdp-pc =$43,600 (2006)
|currency =euro
|idd =
|tld =
}}

'''Ireland''' is an [[island]] off the north-western coast of [[Europe]]. Since 1922 it has been divided into two separate entities.

* The '''[[Republic of Ireland]]''' (or '''Ireland''', in Irish: ''Éire'') is an independent state which consists of twenty-six traditional counties in the provinces of Munster, Leinster, Connacht, and three of the nine counties of Ulster. According to the last census the Republic of Ireland has a population of 4,234,925<ref>[http://www.citizensinformation.ie/categories/environment/copy_of_census/]</ref>
* The other is '''[[Northern Ireland]]''' a [[constituent country]] of the [[United Kingdom]] which comprises of six counties in the province of Ulster. Northern Ireland has a population of 1,685,267 (2002 est.)<ref>[http://www.nicensus2001.gov.uk/nica/browser/profile.jsp?profile=Demography&mainArea=&mainLevel=]</ref>

== History ==
Historically, Ireland's culture has been distinct from other regional cultures, as it was one of the only [[Celtic]] territories never conquered by the [[Roman Empire]].

Its people had an [[Iron Age]] culture at the time of Roman rule in Britain. They had no proper towns, and mainly lived in 'raths' (small fortified farmsteads) though there were larger hillforts. They were [[heathens]] worshipping a number of [[Celtic]] deities, including the Dagda ('good god'). The [[Druid]]s were their priests and law-speakers, and knwew some science and medicine.

Patrick (Latin 'Patricius') was a Romanised [[Briton]] captured by Irish raiders, who escaped from slavery in Ireland and felt called by God to return and evangelise the Irish, this being in the 5th century AD. He did not do this work alone, but he wrote a kind of autobiography (‘Confessio’) so we know a lot about his life and work.

Columba (Irish ‘Columcille’ = ‘dove of the church’) was a Northern Irish noble who went to [[Scotland]] and founded the monastery of [[Iona]], going from there to the Scottish mainland as a missionary to the Picts.

Ireland suffered from regular [[Viking]] incursions from the late 8th century until 1014, when High King Brian Boru defeated the Vikings at the Battle of Clontarf (though some Vikings fought for Brian). Dublin, the Irish capital, was founded as a Viking trading port.

In the 12th century, the Pope granted Ireland to the English crown as a papal fief. This was Pope [[Adrian IV]], the only Englishman to become bishop of Rome. The English however, were unable to bring the entire island under their control until the 17th century, after the defeat of the Irish in the Nine Years War. King James I of England (King James VI of Scotland) decided to plant Ulster, in the North of Ireland, with English and Scottish Protestant settlers, in an attempt to prevent future rebellions.<ref>[http://www.hoganstand.com/general/Identity/stories/ulster.htm]</ref>

In 1690, the Catholic King James II and his Irish allies were defeated by the Protestant William of Orange at the Battle of the Boyne. This defeat ushered in an era of Protestant dominance in Ireland. A series of regulations limiting the status of the Catholic majority were passed between 1691 and 1760, known as the Penal Laws. These laws also discriminated against Presbyterians and other dissenting Protestants, who along with Catholics were forced to pay tithes to the Anglican Church.<ref>[http://www.risingroadtours.com/a7_penallaws.htm]</ref> <ref>[http://prorev.com/irish.htm]</ref>

In 1798, a combined Protestant and Catholic Republican rebellion was defeated. This led to the Act of Union being passed in 1801, under which Ireland became a part of the United Kingdom. The Irish economy declined rapidly and the Great Famine ''An Gorta Mór'' broke out in 1845. The famine killed roughly one million, or one eighth of the entire population. It led to mass emigration to the United States, Canada and to Britain.

Pro-nationalist sentiment continued to rise and the Irish tried to secure their own parliament. Opposition to this arose in the predominantly Protestant and Unionist province of Ulster which allied with the British Conservative Party in an attempt to block "Home Rule". The outbreak of war in 1914 delayed the enaction of Home Rule and led to growing agitation amongst Irish Nationalists. The Easter Rising of 1916 was put down by the British, but their heavy-handed approach increased opposition to their rule. A war of independence broke out in 1919, the Irish using guerrilla tactics to undermine British rule in the country. The war with the British ended in 1921 with the British retaining control of six counties in the province of [[Ulster]]. The territory independent of the British became the [[Irish Free State]], while the territory controlled by the British became [[Northern Ireland]]. Northern Ireland was granted a home rule parliament. Later, in 1937, the Free State adopted a new constitution, or ''Bunreacht'' (now the oldest written Constitution in Europe) changing its name to [[Éire]] and removing all references to the Free State's position within the British Commonwealth. <ref>[http://www.infoplease.com/ipa/A0107648.html]</ref>
The Irish Free State finally left the Commonwealth and declared itself a Republic in 1949.

==Republic of Ireland==
The Republic of Ireland uses [[Proportional Representation]] meaning that there are a large number of political parties. The Republic of Ireland has a bicameral legislature, "the Oireachtas". It consists of the 166 seat lower house Dáil(parliament) and the 66 seat upper house, the Seanad(Senate), which both sit in Leinster House, Dublin. In recent times the country has been governed mostly by coalitions generally of either Fianna Fáil and the Progressive Democrats or Fine Gael and Labour. The Republic of Ireland is also a member of the European Union and is represented by 13 MEPs. <ref> [http://www.europarl.ie/meps/index.html] </ref>

* '''Fianna Fáil''': (Pronounced Fee-Na Fall which is Irish for 'Soldiers of Destiny'). Ireland's main political party, they do not class themselves as either left or right wing but rather as pragmatic centrists and republicans (In the sense of opposing the notion of formal classes in society, in particular the monarchy. Typically republicans in Ireland seek to unite Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland into a single Republic separate from the United Kingdom.). The party was founded as a splinter from Official Sinn Féin by Eamon de Valera. Traditionally the party of small farmers and the urban working class community, and generally conservative on social issues. Currently the largest party in the ruling coalition. Led by Bertie Ahern, current [[Taoiseach]]([[Prime Minister]]) of the Republic of Ireland. Fianna Fáil generally opposes any action that would be seen to erode Ireland's neutrality and independence in foreign policy, including joining NATO.<ref>[http://www.fiannafail.ie/]</ref>

* '''Fine Gael''': (Pronounced Finna Gale, Irish for 'Family of the Irish'). Ireland's second largest party. Fine Gael is traditionally socially and fiscally conservative. Under the leadership of [[Garret FitzGerald]] in the 1980's, the party embraced [[social democracy]]. Today the party likes to characterize itself as a party of the "progressive centre". Led by [[Enda Kenny]]. Many of the parties elected members would like to see Ireland join NATO and at least one has called for Ireland to rejoin the [[British Commonwealth]].<ref>[http://www.finegael.com/index.cfm]</ref>

* '''Labour Party''': A social democratic left-wing party, similar to the British Labour Party under [[Tony Blair]]. [[Pat Rabitte]] is the leader of the Labour Party.<ref>[http://www.labour.ie/]</ref>

* '''Progressive Democrats''':It is very right wing on economic issues, favoring low-taxation, pro-business policies, but are very liberal on social issues. [[Mary Harney]] is the current interim leader after the previous leader lost his seat in the last Genreal Election.<ref>[http://www.progressivedemocrats.ie/index-main.php]</ref>

* '''Green Party''': A left-wing party in favor of environmental protection, renewable energy and a stronger system of social security. Led by Trevor Sargent.<ref>[http://www.greenparty.ie/]</ref>

* '''Sinn Féin''': (Pronounced Shin Fane, Irish for 'Ourselves') Claims to be a remnant of Ireland's oldest political party, it is closely connected with the Provisional IRA, a terrorist movement that sought a United Irish Republic. They have recently embraced a more democratic approach. They are a party of left-wing socialist economics which espouses liberal social issues such as gay marriage. They organize in all 32 counties of Ireland. Led by Gerry Adams. <ref>[http://www.sinnfein.ie/]</ref>

* '''Socialist Party''': A left-wing Trotskyite party. They oppose capitalism and seek a United Socialist Ireland. Led by Joe Higgins. <ref> [http://www.socialistparty.net/] </ref>

====Premiers of the Republic of Ireland====

President of the Executive Council

* '''William Thomas Cosgrave''' (Cummann na nGaedheal): 1922-1932.
* '''Éamon de Valera''' (Fianna Fáil): 1932-1937

An Taoiseach
* '''Éamon de Valera''' (Fianna Fáil): 1937-1948, 1951-1954, 1957-1959.
* '''John A.Costello''' (Fine Gael): 1948-1951, 1954-1957.
* '''Seán Lemass''' (Fianna Fáil): 1959-1966.
* '''Jack Lynch''' (Fianna Fáil): 1966-1973.
* '''Liam Cosgrave''' (Fine Gael): 1973-1977.
* '''Jack Lynch''' (Fianna Fáil): 1977-1979.
* '''Charles Haughey''' (Fianna Fáil): 1979-1981, March 1982 - December 82 and March 1987 - February 1992.
* '''Garret FitzGerald''' (Fine Gael): 30 June 1981- 9 March 1982 and 14 December 1982 - 10 March 1987.
* '''Albert Reynolds''' (Fianna Fáil): February 1992-1994.
* '''John Bruton''' (Fine Gael): 1994-1997.
* '''Bertie Ahern''' (Fianna Fáil): 1997-Present. <ref> [http://www.taoiseach.gov.ie/index.asp?locID=349&docID=-1] </ref>

==Northern Ireland==
The political parties of Northern Ireland are mostly divided on the national question (whether to remain within the UK or become part of a United Ireland), rather than on a left-right basis. They contest elections for the [[British Parliament]](where Northern Ireland is allocated 18 seats) and the 108 seat [[Northern Ireland Assembly]]. Northern Ireland has 3 MEPs. <ref>[http://www.europarl.ie/meps/index.html]</ref>

Westminster elections use the Plurality voting system, whereas the Assembly Elections use the Proportional Representation(PR) system. The major parties include:

* '''Democratic Unionist Party'''(DUP): Currently the largest unionist party in Northern Ireland. The DUP is a right-wing, ultra-conservative, hardline unionist party currently led by its founder, the Reverend Ian RK Paisley. The party has strong links with Rev. Paisley's Free Presbyterian Church. <ref>[http://www.dup.org.uk/]</ref>

* '''Sinn Féin''' Currently the largest nationalist party in Northern Ireland, they sit in the Irish parliament and Northern Ireland Assembly, but refuse to take their seats in the British Parliament in Westminster.

* '''Ulster Unionist Party'''(UUP): A moderate right-wing party, which had strong links with the British Conservative Party. Nobel Peace Prize laureate David Trimble is a former leader. Currently in decline, with voters turning to the DUP. Currently led by Sir Reg Empey. <ref> [http://www.uup.org/]</ref>

* '''Social Democratic and Labour Party'''(SDLP): A left-wing nationalist party. Nobel Peace Prize laureate John Hume is a former leader. The SDLP were the largest nationalist party until recently, when they were overtaken by Sinn Féin. Unlike SF, the SDLP have always advocated a non-violent and constitutional approach to achieving a United Ireland. Current leader is Mark Durkan. <ref>[http://www.sdlp.ie/]</ref>

* '''Alliance Party''': The Alliance party identifies as neither unionist or nationalist and thus receives support from both communities. The current leader is David Ford. <ref>[http://www.allianceparty.org/]</ref>

====Premiers of Northern Ireland====

Prime Minster of Northern Ireland (1921-1972)
*''Government of Ireland Act''
* '''Sir James Craig''' (UUP): 1921-1940
* '''John Miller Andrews''' (UUP): 1940-1943
* '''Sir Basil Brooke''' (UUP): 1943-1963
* '''Terence O'Neill''' (UUP): 1963-1969
* '''Brian Faulkner''' (UUP): 1969-1972
*''Post abolished in 1972.''

Chief Executive of Northern Ireland (1973–1974)
*''Sunningdale Agreement''
* '''Brian Faulkner''' (UUP) 1973–1974
*''Post abolished in 1972.''

First Minister of Northern Ireland (1998-present)
*''Belfast Agreement''
* '''David Trimble''' (UUP) 1998-July 2001, November 2001-October 2002
* '''Sir Reg Empey''' (UUP) (Acting): July 2001-October 2001
* ''Executive abolished''
*''St Andrews Agreement''
* '''Rev Dr Ian Paisley''' (DUP) 2007-present
<ref>[http://www.worldstatesmen.org/United_Kingdom.html#Northern]</ref>

== Religion ==
The Republic of Ireland is predominantly Roman Catholic in religion(88%). Membership of the Church of Ireland runs at about 3%, with most of the rest of the population belonging to other Protestant/Christian denominations. Southern Protestantism had been in decline since independence due to the ''ne temere'' decree(children in mixed Catholic/Protestant marriages had to be raised Catholic) <ref>[http://www.catholic-forum.com/saintS/ncd05730.htm]</ref> and emigration. However, it has experienced a revival of late due to immigrants and some converts from Catholicism. There is a small Jewish community in Ireland. The Muslim community has grown recently due to immigration. <ref>[http://www.cso.ie/statistics/popnclassbyreligionandsex2002.htm]</ref>

The Republic has maintained a nominally Catholic ethos since independence. Abortion remains controversially illegal (although information on obtaining abortions in other jurisdictions is a constitutional entitlement, and many thousands of women travel to the UK for treatment<ref>[http://www.crisispregnancy.ie/pub/statistical_report_2005.pdf]</ref> ). However, in line with a more general liberalization of Irish society since the early nineties, restrictions on the availability of contraception have been removed; the right to divorce has been enshrined in the constitution; homosexuality has been decriminalized and the rights of gay people have been enshrined in 'Equal Status' legislation.

Northern Ireland has a Protestant majority (53%), the main denominations being Presbyterian and Church of Ireland (Anglican/Episcopal). Roughly 44% of the population are Roman Catholic, with most of the remainder professing no religion. <ref>[http://www.nicensus2001.gov.uk/nica/browser/profile.jsp?profile=Cultural&mainArea=&mainLevel=]</ref>

==References==

<references/>

[[Category:Ireland| ]]
[[Category:United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Islands]]

Ireland

2007-10-30T14:25:45Z

Alaric: /* History */

{{Country
|name =''Éire''
|map =Ireland.jpg
|flag =Flag of Ireland.png
|arms =Ireland arms.png
|capital =Dublin
|capital-raw =
|government =Republic and Parliamentary Democracy
|government-raw =
|language =Irish and English
|king =
|queen =
|monarch-raw =
|president =Mary McAleese
|president-raw =
|chancellor =
|chancellor-raw =
|pm =
|pm-raw =
|area =27,133 sq mi
|pop =4,239,848 (2007)
|pop-basis =
|gdp =
|gdp-year =$177.2 billion (2006)
|gdp-pc =$43,600 (2006)
|currency =euro
|idd =
|tld =
}}

'''Ireland''' is an [[island]] off the north-western coast of [[Europe]]. Since 1922 it has been divided into two separate entities.

* The '''[[Republic of Ireland]]''' (or '''Ireland''', in Irish: ''Éire'') is an independent state which consists of twenty-six traditional counties in the provinces of Munster, Leinster, Connacht, and three of the nine counties of Ulster. According to the last census the Republic of Ireland has a population of 4,234,925<ref>[http://www.citizensinformation.ie/categories/environment/copy_of_census/]</ref>
* The other is '''[[Northern Ireland]]''' a [[constituent country]] of the [[United Kingdom]] which comprises of six counties in the province of Ulster. Northern Ireland has a population of 1,685,267 (2002 est.)<ref>[http://www.nicensus2001.gov.uk/nica/browser/profile.jsp?profile=Demography&mainArea=&mainLevel=]</ref>

== History ==
Historically, Ireland's culture has been distinct from other regional cultures, as it was one of the only [[Celtic]] territories never conquered by the [[Roman Empire]].

Its people had an [[Iron Age]] culture at the time of Roman rule in Britain. They had no proper towns, and mainly lived in 'raths' (small fortified farmsteads) though there were larger hillforts. They were [[heathens]] worshipping a number of [[Celtic]] deities, including the Dagda (good god). The [[Druids]] were their priests and law-speakers, and knwew some science and medicine.

Patrick (Latin 'Patricius') was a Romanised [[Briton]] captured by Irish raiders, who escaped from slavery in Ireland and felt called by God to return and evangelise the Irish, this being in the 5th century AD. He did not do this work alone, but he wrote a kind of autobiography (‘Confessio’) so we know a lot about his life and work.

Columba (Irish ‘Columcille’ = ‘dove of the church’) was a Northern Irish noble who went to [[Scotland]] and founded the monastery of [[Iona]], going from there to the Scottish mainland as a missionary to the Picts.

Ireland suffered from regular [[Viking]] incursions from the late 8th century until 1014, when High King Brian Boru defeated the Vikings at the Battle of Clontarf (though some Vikings fought for Brian). Dublin, the Irish capital, was founded as a Viking trading port.

In the 12th century, the Pope granted Ireland to the English crown as a papal fief. This was Pope [[Adrian IV]], the only Englishman to become bishop of Rome. The English however, were unable to bring the entire island under their control until the 17th century, after the defeat of the Irish in the Nine Years War. King James I of England (King James VI of Scotland) decided to plant Ulster, in the North of Ireland, with English and Scottish Protestant settlers, in an attempt to prevent future rebellions.<ref>[http://www.hoganstand.com/general/Identity/stories/ulster.htm]</ref>

In 1690, the Catholic King James II and his Irish allies were defeated by the Protestant William of Orange at the Battle of the Boyne. This defeat ushered in an era of Protestant dominance in Ireland. A series of regulations limiting the status of the Catholic majority were passed between 1691 and 1760, known as the Penal Laws. These laws also discriminated against Presbyterians and other dissenting Protestants, who along with Catholics were forced to pay tithes to the Anglican Church.<ref>[http://www.risingroadtours.com/a7_penallaws.htm]</ref> <ref>[http://prorev.com/irish.htm]</ref>

In 1798, a combined Protestant and Catholic Republican rebellion was defeated. This led to the Act of Union being passed in 1801, under which Ireland became a part of the United Kingdom. The Irish economy declined rapidly and the Great Famine ''An Gorta Mór'' broke out in 1845. The famine killed roughly one million, or one eighth of the entire population. It led to mass emigration to the United States, Canada and to Britain.

Pro-nationalist sentiment continued to rise and the Irish tried to secure their own parliament. Opposition to this arose in the predominantly Protestant and Unionist province of Ulster which allied with the British Conservative Party in an attempt to block "Home Rule". The outbreak of war in 1914 delayed the enaction of Home Rule and led to growing agitation amongst Irish Nationalists. The Easter Rising of 1916 was put down by the British, but their heavy-handed approach increased opposition to their rule. A war of independence broke out in 1919, the Irish using guerrilla tactics to undermine British rule in the country. The war with the British ended in 1921 with the British retaining control of six counties in the province of [[Ulster]]. The territory independent of the British became the [[Irish Free State]], while the territory controlled by the British became [[Northern Ireland]]. Northern Ireland was granted a home rule parliament. Later, in 1937, the Free State adopted a new constitution, or ''Bunreacht'' (now the oldest written Constitution in Europe) changing its name to [[Éire]] and removing all references to the Free State's position within the British Commonwealth. <ref>[http://www.infoplease.com/ipa/A0107648.html]</ref>
The Irish Free State finally left the Commonwealth and declared itself a Republic in 1949.

==Republic of Ireland==
The Republic of Ireland uses [[Proportional Representation]] meaning that there are a large number of political parties. The Republic of Ireland has a bicameral legislature, "the Oireachtas". It consists of the 166 seat lower house Dáil(parliament) and the 66 seat upper house, the Seanad(Senate), which both sit in Leinster House, Dublin. In recent times the country has been governed mostly by coalitions generally of either Fianna Fáil and the Progressive Democrats or Fine Gael and Labour. The Republic of Ireland is also a member of the European Union and is represented by 13 MEPs. <ref> [http://www.europarl.ie/meps/index.html] </ref>

* '''Fianna Fáil''': (Pronounced Fee-Na Fall which is Irish for 'Soldiers of Destiny'). Ireland's main political party, they do not class themselves as either left or right wing but rather as pragmatic centrists and republicans (In the sense of opposing the notion of formal classes in society, in particular the monarchy. Typically republicans in Ireland seek to unite Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland into a single Republic separate from the United Kingdom.). The party was founded as a splinter from Official Sinn Féin by Eamon de Valera. Traditionally the party of small farmers and the urban working class community, and generally conservative on social issues. Currently the largest party in the ruling coalition. Led by Bertie Ahern, current [[Taoiseach]]([[Prime Minister]]) of the Republic of Ireland. Fianna Fáil generally opposes any action that would be seen to erode Ireland's neutrality and independence in foreign policy, including joining NATO.<ref>[http://www.fiannafail.ie/]</ref>

* '''Fine Gael''': (Pronounced Finna Gale, Irish for 'Family of the Irish'). Ireland's second largest party. Fine Gael is traditionally socially and fiscally conservative. Under the leadership of [[Garret FitzGerald]] in the 1980's, the party embraced [[social democracy]]. Today the party likes to characterize itself as a party of the "progressive centre". Led by [[Enda Kenny]]. Many of the parties elected members would like to see Ireland join NATO and at least one has called for Ireland to rejoin the [[British Commonwealth]].<ref>[http://www.finegael.com/index.cfm]</ref>

* '''Labour Party''': A social democratic left-wing party, similar to the British Labour Party under [[Tony Blair]]. [[Pat Rabitte]] is the leader of the Labour Party.<ref>[http://www.labour.ie/]</ref>

* '''Progressive Democrats''':It is very right wing on economic issues, favoring low-taxation, pro-business policies, but are very liberal on social issues. [[Mary Harney]] is the current interim leader after the previous leader lost his seat in the last Genreal Election.<ref>[http://www.progressivedemocrats.ie/index-main.php]</ref>

* '''Green Party''': A left-wing party in favor of environmental protection, renewable energy and a stronger system of social security. Led by Trevor Sargent.<ref>[http://www.greenparty.ie/]</ref>

* '''Sinn Féin''': (Pronounced Shin Fane, Irish for 'Ourselves') Claims to be a remnant of Ireland's oldest political party, it is closely connected with the Provisional IRA, a terrorist movement that sought a United Irish Republic. They have recently embraced a more democratic approach. They are a party of left-wing socialist economics which espouses liberal social issues such as gay marriage. They organize in all 32 counties of Ireland. Led by Gerry Adams. <ref>[http://www.sinnfein.ie/]</ref>

* '''Socialist Party''': A left-wing Trotskyite party. They oppose capitalism and seek a United Socialist Ireland. Led by Joe Higgins. <ref> [http://www.socialistparty.net/] </ref>

====Premiers of the Republic of Ireland====

President of the Executive Council

* '''William Thomas Cosgrave''' (Cummann na nGaedheal): 1922-1932.
* '''Éamon de Valera''' (Fianna Fáil): 1932-1937

An Taoiseach
* '''Éamon de Valera''' (Fianna Fáil): 1937-1948, 1951-1954, 1957-1959.
* '''John A.Costello''' (Fine Gael): 1948-1951, 1954-1957.
* '''Seán Lemass''' (Fianna Fáil): 1959-1966.
* '''Jack Lynch''' (Fianna Fáil): 1966-1973.
* '''Liam Cosgrave''' (Fine Gael): 1973-1977.
* '''Jack Lynch''' (Fianna Fáil): 1977-1979.
* '''Charles Haughey''' (Fianna Fáil): 1979-1981, March 1982 - December 82 and March 1987 - February 1992.
* '''Garret FitzGerald''' (Fine Gael): 30 June 1981- 9 March 1982 and 14 December 1982 - 10 March 1987.
* '''Albert Reynolds''' (Fianna Fáil): February 1992-1994.
* '''John Bruton''' (Fine Gael): 1994-1997.
* '''Bertie Ahern''' (Fianna Fáil): 1997-Present. <ref> [http://www.taoiseach.gov.ie/index.asp?locID=349&docID=-1] </ref>

==Northern Ireland==
The political parties of Northern Ireland are mostly divided on the national question (whether to remain within the UK or become part of a United Ireland), rather than on a left-right basis. They contest elections for the [[British Parliament]](where Northern Ireland is allocated 18 seats) and the 108 seat [[Northern Ireland Assembly]]. Northern Ireland has 3 MEPs. <ref>[http://www.europarl.ie/meps/index.html]</ref>

Westminster elections use the Plurality voting system, whereas the Assembly Elections use the Proportional Representation(PR) system. The major parties include:

* '''Democratic Unionist Party'''(DUP): Currently the largest unionist party in Northern Ireland. The DUP is a right-wing, ultra-conservative, hardline unionist party currently led by its founder, the Reverend Ian RK Paisley. The party has strong links with Rev. Paisley's Free Presbyterian Church. <ref>[http://www.dup.org.uk/]</ref>

* '''Sinn Féin''' Currently the largest nationalist party in Northern Ireland, they sit in the Irish parliament and Northern Ireland Assembly, but refuse to take their seats in the British Parliament in Westminster.

* '''Ulster Unionist Party'''(UUP): A moderate right-wing party, which had strong links with the British Conservative Party. Nobel Peace Prize laureate David Trimble is a former leader. Currently in decline, with voters turning to the DUP. Currently led by Sir Reg Empey. <ref> [http://www.uup.org/]</ref>

* '''Social Democratic and Labour Party'''(SDLP): A left-wing nationalist party. Nobel Peace Prize laureate John Hume is a former leader. The SDLP were the largest nationalist party until recently, when they were overtaken by Sinn Féin. Unlike SF, the SDLP have always advocated a non-violent and constitutional approach to achieving a United Ireland. Current leader is Mark Durkan. <ref>[http://www.sdlp.ie/]</ref>

* '''Alliance Party''': The Alliance party identifies as neither unionist or nationalist and thus receives support from both communities. The current leader is David Ford. <ref>[http://www.allianceparty.org/]</ref>

====Premiers of Northern Ireland====

Prime Minster of Northern Ireland (1921-1972)
*''Government of Ireland Act''
* '''Sir James Craig''' (UUP): 1921-1940
* '''John Miller Andrews''' (UUP): 1940-1943
* '''Sir Basil Brooke''' (UUP): 1943-1963
* '''Terence O'Neill''' (UUP): 1963-1969
* '''Brian Faulkner''' (UUP): 1969-1972
*''Post abolished in 1972.''

Chief Executive of Northern Ireland (1973–1974)
*''Sunningdale Agreement''
* '''Brian Faulkner''' (UUP) 1973–1974
*''Post abolished in 1972.''

First Minister of Northern Ireland (1998-present)
*''Belfast Agreement''
* '''David Trimble''' (UUP) 1998-July 2001, November 2001-October 2002
* '''Sir Reg Empey''' (UUP) (Acting): July 2001-October 2001
* ''Executive abolished''
*''St Andrews Agreement''
* '''Rev Dr Ian Paisley''' (DUP) 2007-present
<ref>[http://www.worldstatesmen.org/United_Kingdom.html#Northern]</ref>

== Religion ==
The Republic of Ireland is predominantly Roman Catholic in religion(88%). Membership of the Church of Ireland runs at about 3%, with most of the rest of the population belonging to other Protestant/Christian denominations. Southern Protestantism had been in decline since independence due to the ''ne temere'' decree(children in mixed Catholic/Protestant marriages had to be raised Catholic) <ref>[http://www.catholic-forum.com/saintS/ncd05730.htm]</ref> and emigration. However, it has experienced a revival of late due to immigrants and some converts from Catholicism. There is a small Jewish community in Ireland. The Muslim community has grown recently due to immigration. <ref>[http://www.cso.ie/statistics/popnclassbyreligionandsex2002.htm]</ref>

The Republic has maintained a nominally Catholic ethos since independence. Abortion remains controversially illegal (although information on obtaining abortions in other jurisdictions is a constitutional entitlement, and many thousands of women travel to the UK for treatment<ref>[http://www.crisispregnancy.ie/pub/statistical_report_2005.pdf]</ref> ). However, in line with a more general liberalization of Irish society since the early nineties, restrictions on the availability of contraception have been removed; the right to divorce has been enshrined in the constitution; homosexuality has been decriminalized and the rights of gay people have been enshrined in 'Equal Status' legislation.

Northern Ireland has a Protestant majority (53%), the main denominations being Presbyterian and Church of Ireland (Anglican/Episcopal). Roughly 44% of the population are Roman Catholic, with most of the remainder professing no religion. <ref>[http://www.nicensus2001.gov.uk/nica/browser/profile.jsp?profile=Cultural&mainArea=&mainLevel=]</ref>

==References==

<references/>

[[Category:Ireland| ]]
[[Category:United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Islands]]

Italic

2007-10-30T14:08:53Z

Alaric:

The Italic languages were/are a group of [[Indo-European]] languages. They included Etruscan and Umbrian, but [[Latin]] was historically the most important, as it came to dominate much of [[Europe]] under the [[Roman Empire]] and several major languages (the so-called Romance languages), notably [[French]], [[Spanish]], [[Portuguese]] and [[Italian]], are descended from it.

Italic

2007-10-30T14:06:08Z

Alaric: New page: The Italic languages were/are a group of Indo-European languages. They included Etruscan and Umbrian, but Latin was historically the most important, as it came to dominate much o...

The Italic languages were/are a group of [[Indo-European]] languages. They included Etruscan and Umbrian, but [[Latin]] was historically the most important, as it came to dominate much of [[Europe]] under the [[Roman Empire]] and several major languages, notably [[French]], [[Spanish]], [[Portuguese]] and [[Italian]], are descended from it.

Tocharian

2007-10-30T13:59:39Z

Alaric:

Tocharian was the [[Indo-European]] language spoken by people in the desert region of Western [[China]] and shows similarities to [[Celtic]] and [[Italic]] languages, suggesting its speakers had made the long migration from Europe at some stage. The Tocharians mummified their dead, and finds of cloth on these mummies show remarkable similarities to tartans used e.g. by Celts like those in [[Scotland]]. The surviving bodies show that the Tocharians were of European appearance and not like their Chinese or Mongolian neighbours.

Tocharian

2007-10-30T13:58:55Z

Alaric: New page: Tocharian was the Indo-European language spoken by people in the desert region of Western China and shows similarities to Celtic and Italic languages, suggesting its speake...

Tocharian was the [[Indo-European]] language spoken by people in the desert region of Western [[China]] and shows similarities to [[Celtic]] and [[Italic]] languages, suggesting its speakers had made the long migration from Europe at some stage. The Tocahrians mummified their dead, and finds of cloth on these mummies show remarkable similarities to tartans used e.g. by Celts like those in [[Scotland]]. The surviving bodies show that the Tocharians were of European appearance and not like their Chinese or Mongolian neighbours.

Gaelic

2007-10-30T13:39:56Z

Alaric:

Gaelic refers to three closely related modern [[Indo-European]] [[Celtic]] languages spoken on the islands [[Great Britain]] and [[Ireland]]. Irish Gaelic, usually known as ''Irish'' (or ''Gaeilge'' in its own speech), is spoken on the island of [[Ireland]], Manx Gaelic on the Isle of Man, and Scottish Gaelic (or ''Gaidhlig'') in the Western [[Highlands of Scotland]] and The [[Hebrides]]. Scottish Gaelic was at one stage the dominant (but never the only) language in [[Scotland]]. These three languages form the Goidelic (from ‘goidel’(Ir.)= an Irishman) group of [[Celtic]] languages as opposed to the Brythonic group which comprises Welsh, Cornish and Breton. Gaelic has been in danger of becoming extinct in many of the traditional Gaelic speaking areas, but now a Gaelic renaissance has slowed this trend if not yet reversed it.

==Further Readings==
*[http://www.ceantar.org/Dicts/MF2/index.html], Gaelic Dictionary.

[[Category:Scottish Languages]]
[[Category:Languages]]

Scotland

2007-10-30T13:22:07Z

Alaric: /* History */

[[Image:Lion rampant.png|thumb|right|The Scottish Royal Coat of Arms- Better known as the Lion Rampant]]

'''Scotland''' is the second largest country of the [[United Kingdom]].
It is about three-eighths the size of its larger neighbour England, but is much less populous; most of the population lives in the ''central belt'', a band across central Scotland between the capital [[Edinburgh]] and the city of [[Glasgow]]. Other cities are [[Aberdeen]], [[Dundee]] and [[Inverness]].

== Introduction ==

{| class="wikitable" style="float:right"
|- bgcolor=cccccc
! Position || Current Holder
|-
| [[British_monarchy|Monarch]] || Queen [[Elizabeth II]]
|-
| [[UK_Prime_Ministers|Prime Minster]] || [[Gordon Brown]] MP
|-
| [[Secretary of State for Scotland|Secretary of State]] || [[Des Browne]] MP
|-
| [[First Minister of Scotland|First Minister]] || [[Alex Salmond]] MSP
|}

Scotland is historically Christian; the national church is the [[Church of Scotland]]

Scotland includes the island groups of [[Orkney]], [[Shetland]], the [[Inner Hebrides|Inner]] and [[Outer Hebrides]], the islands of the [[Firth of Clyde]] including [[Arran]], [[Bute]], [[Cumbrae]] & [[Wee Cumbrae]] and various other smaller islands.

[[Ben Nevis]], the highest mountain in the [[United Kingdom]], is in the Scottish [[Highlands of Scotland|Highlands]], as are most of the nations highest mountains. Those with heights above 914m (3000 feet) are eponymously named [[Munro| Munros]] after Sir Hector Munro, the first person to compile such a list.<ref> for a complete list of Munros see http://www.sol.co.uk/d/dickwall/munroes.htm</ref>

==Cities==
[[Image:Scotland.gif|thumb|right|250px|A map of Scotland.]]

Scotland has four major cities. They are [[Aberdeen]], [[Dundee]], [[Edinburgh]] and [[Glasgow]]. [[Inverness]] and [[Stirling]] were granted city status recently but are in fact smaller than some of the larger Scottish towns like Paisley and Perth.

== History ==
Scotland has been inhabited since at least 8500BC, when the first [[Mesolithic]] hunter-gatherers are thought to have migrated to Scotland. These inhabitants showed advanced knowledge of astronomy, creating several [[Stonehenge]]-like monuments.

At the time of the [[Romans]] the tribes in what became Scotland were similar to those further south, and can be considered to be [[Celtic]] peoples. Those from the North-East were called ‘Picti’ (Picts) by Roman writers, which could mean ‘painted people' and refer to tattoos. The Romans never subdued these northern tribes, and after a brief period when the Antonine Wall between the Firths of Forth and Clyde was the Roman Empire’s northern frontier, they drew back and had [[Hadrian’s Wall]] as the frontier. They did try and influence the tribes between the two Walls, and when kingdoms like Strathclyde emerged in the early [[Dark Ages]], their rulers often bore Roman names or titles, the dynasties having been founded by Roman officials. The Scots themselves began arriving as settlers in the West of Scotland at this time (AD 400-500). They were from a part of the north of [[Ireland]] and spoke Old Irish, which changed to become Scottish [[Gaelic]], and eventually replaced Pictish. They sometimes warred with the Picts and [[Briton]]s and sometimes allied with them, but a unified kingdom under the Scottish king Kenneth Mac Alpin was established in AD 843, called ‘Alba’ (still the [[Gaelic]] name for Scotland). This kingdom took over Strathclyde in the early 11th century to form the basis of Mediaeval Scotland. [[Normans]] and their decscendents such as Robert the Bruce ('de Brus' was a Norman surname) became important nobles in Scotland.

==Union with England==

After the death of Queen [[Elizabeth I]] of England in 1603, James VI of Scotland ascended to the Throne of England, becoming [[James I]] of England. He was the first monarch to call himself King of Great Britain. This is referred to as the Union of the Crowns. James was also at this time King of [[Ireland]].

The Parliaments of Scotland and [[England]] were not united until 1707 and it is this date that is recognized as the formation of [[Great Britain]]. This is referred to as the Union of the Parliaments. (The [[United Kingdom]] was to come into being with the addition of [[Ireland]] in 1801.)The formation of the Irish Free State in 1922 resulted in the current name of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland.

Scotland has its own Parliament of 129 members as well as sending 59 Members of Parliament(MPs) to represent its interests in the [[United Kingdom]] parliament which sits in [[London]]. Scottish MPs have historically been recognized for their political skills and appointed to the Cabinet in larger numbers than is proportionate. The current Prime Minister [[Gordon Brown]], is Scottish, and formerly he was [[Chancellor of the Exchequer]].

Relationships between Scottish and English MPs before [[devolution]] were sometimes tense because of what the former [[Conservative|Conservative Party]] MP, by then an [[Ulster Unionist]], [[Enoch Powell]] dubbed ''The West Lothian question''. The name arose in 1977 after [[Tam Dalyell]], Labour MP for West Lothian in Scotland, asked during a debate in the [[Houses of Parliament]] over Scottish and Welsh [[devolution]]:

<blockquote>''For how long will English constituencies and English Honourable members tolerate... at least 119 Honourable Members from Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland exercising an important, and probably often decisive, effect on British politics while they themselves have no say in the same matters in Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland?''</blockquote>

He pointed out that he as MP for West Lothian could vote on matters affecting English constituencies but not his own constituency.

== Sports and culture==

The national preoccupation, indeed obsession, is [[football (soccer)]]. Other diversions include [[rugby]], [[lawn bowls]], [[motorsports]], [[horseracing]], [[shinty]] (similar to hockey), [[curling]], sports of the [[Highland Games]] - such as tossing the [[caber]] and, of course, [[golf]] - Scotland is the home of golf. The Royal and Ancient Golf Club at [[St Andrews]] is the governing body of world golf.

Scotland is famous for its disproportionate amount of inventions and discoveries (as immortalized in [[Wha's Like Us]]), its world class universities, the Scottish Enlightenment, being the one of the first industrial nations while still preserving some of the last great wildernesses of Europe, and being the home of [[golf]].

The symbol of Scotland is the [[thistle]]. The Scottish flag is the Cross of St. Andrew, a white diagonal cross on a dark blue background. The design originated in the 9th century and it is the oldest national flag still in use anywhere in the world. Other things associated with the country are [[kilts]] ([[tartan]] skirt like garments worn by Scotsmen), and the haunting music of the [[bagpipes]]. Famous Scottish products include [[pie]]s, [[haggis]] and Scotch [[whisky]].

Scotland's motto is ''Nemo Me Impune Lacessit'' ("No one provokes me with impunity")<ref>http://www.scotland-guide.co.uk/ALL_AREAS_IN_SCOTLAND/Glasgow/Areas/Centre/Mercat_Cross.htm </ref> which translates as ''Wha daur meddle wi me?'' in [[Scots]] and in [[English]] as ''Who would dare mess with me?''.

==External Links==
*[http://www.n-cyclopedia.com/scottish-history/index.htm A Brief History of Scotland]

==References==
<references/>

[[Category:Scotland]]
[[Category:United Kingdom]]

Scotland

2007-10-30T13:13:07Z

Alaric: /* History */

[[Image:Lion rampant.png|thumb|right|The Scottish Royal Coat of Arms- Better known as the Lion Rampant]]

'''Scotland''' is the second largest country of the [[United Kingdom]].
It is about three-eighths the size of its larger neighbour England, but is much less populous; most of the population lives in the ''central belt'', a band across central Scotland between the capital [[Edinburgh]] and the city of [[Glasgow]]. Other cities are [[Aberdeen]], [[Dundee]] and [[Inverness]].

== Introduction ==

{| class="wikitable" style="float:right"
|- bgcolor=cccccc
! Position || Current Holder
|-
| [[British_monarchy|Monarch]] || Queen [[Elizabeth II]]
|-
| [[UK_Prime_Ministers|Prime Minster]] || [[Gordon Brown]] MP
|-
| [[Secretary of State for Scotland|Secretary of State]] || [[Des Browne]] MP
|-
| [[First Minister of Scotland|First Minister]] || [[Alex Salmond]] MSP
|}

Scotland is historically Christian; the national church is the [[Church of Scotland]]

Scotland includes the island groups of [[Orkney]], [[Shetland]], the [[Inner Hebrides|Inner]] and [[Outer Hebrides]], the islands of the [[Firth of Clyde]] including [[Arran]], [[Bute]], [[Cumbrae]] & [[Wee Cumbrae]] and various other smaller islands.

[[Ben Nevis]], the highest mountain in the [[United Kingdom]], is in the Scottish [[Highlands of Scotland|Highlands]], as are most of the nations highest mountains. Those with heights above 914m (3000 feet) are eponymously named [[Munro| Munros]] after Sir Hector Munro, the first person to compile such a list.<ref> for a complete list of Munros see http://www.sol.co.uk/d/dickwall/munroes.htm</ref>

==Cities==
[[Image:Scotland.gif|thumb|right|250px|A map of Scotland.]]

Scotland has four major cities. They are [[Aberdeen]], [[Dundee]], [[Edinburgh]] and [[Glasgow]]. [[Inverness]] and [[Stirling]] were granted city status recently but are in fact smaller than some of the larger Scottish towns like Paisley and Perth.

== History ==
Scotland has been inhabited since at least 8500BC, when the first [[Mesolithic]] hunter-gatherers are thought to have migrated to Scotland. These inhabitants showed advanced knowledge of astronomy, creating several [[Stonehenge]]-like monuments.

At the time of the [[Romans]] the tribes in what became Scotland were similar to those further south, and can be considered to be [[Celtic]] peoples. Those from the North-East were called ‘Picti’ (Picts) by Roman writers, which could mean ‘painted people' and refer to tattoos. The Romans never subdued these northern tribes, and after a brief period when the Antonine Wall between the Firths of Forth and Clyde was the Roman Empire’s northern frontier, they drew back and had [[Hadrian’s Wall]] as the frontier. They did try and influence the tribes between the two Walls, and when kingdoms like Strathclyde emerged in the early [[Dark Ages]], their rulers often bore Roman names or titles, the dynasties having been founded by Roman officials. The Scots themselves began arriving as settlers in the West of Scotland at this time (AD 400-500). They were from a part of the north of [[Ireland]] and spoke Old Irish, which changed to become [[Scottish Gaelic]], and eventually replaced Pictish. They sometimes warred with the Picts and [[Briton]]s and sometimes allied with them, but a unified kingdom under the Scottish king Kenneth Mac Alpin was established in AD 843, called ‘Alba’ (still the [[Gaelic]] name for Scotland). This kingdom took over Strathclyde in the early 11th century to form the basis of Mediaeval Scotland. [[Normans]] and their decscendents such as Robert the Bruce ('de Brus' was a Norman surname) became important nobles in Scotland.

==Union with England==

After the death of Queen [[Elizabeth I]] of England in 1603, James VI of Scotland ascended to the Throne of England, becoming [[James I]] of England. He was the first monarch to call himself King of Great Britain. This is referred to as the Union of the Crowns. James was also at this time King of [[Ireland]].

The Parliaments of Scotland and [[England]] were not united until 1707 and it is this date that is recognized as the formation of [[Great Britain]]. This is referred to as the Union of the Parliaments. (The [[United Kingdom]] was to come into being with the addition of [[Ireland]] in 1801.)The formation of the Irish Free State in 1922 resulted in the current name of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland.

Scotland has its own Parliament of 129 members as well as sending 59 Members of Parliament(MPs) to represent its interests in the [[United Kingdom]] parliament which sits in [[London]]. Scottish MPs have historically been recognized for their political skills and appointed to the Cabinet in larger numbers than is proportionate. The current Prime Minister [[Gordon Brown]], is Scottish, and formerly he was [[Chancellor of the Exchequer]].

Relationships between Scottish and English MPs before [[devolution]] were sometimes tense because of what the former [[Conservative|Conservative Party]] MP, by then an [[Ulster Unionist]], [[Enoch Powell]] dubbed ''The West Lothian question''. The name arose in 1977 after [[Tam Dalyell]], Labour MP for West Lothian in Scotland, asked during a debate in the [[Houses of Parliament]] over Scottish and Welsh [[devolution]]:

<blockquote>''For how long will English constituencies and English Honourable members tolerate... at least 119 Honourable Members from Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland exercising an important, and probably often decisive, effect on British politics while they themselves have no say in the same matters in Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland?''</blockquote>

He pointed out that he as MP for West Lothian could vote on matters affecting English constituencies but not his own constituency.

== Sports and culture==

The national preoccupation, indeed obsession, is [[football (soccer)]]. Other diversions include [[rugby]], [[lawn bowls]], [[motorsports]], [[horseracing]], [[shinty]] (similar to hockey), [[curling]], sports of the [[Highland Games]] - such as tossing the [[caber]] and, of course, [[golf]] - Scotland is the home of golf. The Royal and Ancient Golf Club at [[St Andrews]] is the governing body of world golf.

Scotland is famous for its disproportionate amount of inventions and discoveries (as immortalized in [[Wha's Like Us]]), its world class universities, the Scottish Enlightenment, being the one of the first industrial nations while still preserving some of the last great wildernesses of Europe, and being the home of [[golf]].

The symbol of Scotland is the [[thistle]]. The Scottish flag is the Cross of St. Andrew, a white diagonal cross on a dark blue background. The design originated in the 9th century and it is the oldest national flag still in use anywhere in the world. Other things associated with the country are [[kilts]] ([[tartan]] skirt like garments worn by Scotsmen), and the haunting music of the [[bagpipes]]. Famous Scottish products include [[pie]]s, [[haggis]] and Scotch [[whisky]].

Scotland's motto is ''Nemo Me Impune Lacessit'' ("No one provokes me with impunity")<ref>http://www.scotland-guide.co.uk/ALL_AREAS_IN_SCOTLAND/Glasgow/Areas/Centre/Mercat_Cross.htm </ref> which translates as ''Wha daur meddle wi me?'' in [[Scots]] and in [[English]] as ''Who would dare mess with me?''.

==External Links==
*[http://www.n-cyclopedia.com/scottish-history/index.htm A Brief History of Scotland]

==References==
<references/>

[[Category:Scotland]]
[[Category:United Kingdom]]

Briton

2007-10-30T13:08:03Z

Alaric:

A '''Briton''' is the term for one of the people of [[Great Britain]]. The ancient Brythons were the people indigenous to the island now constituting [[Great Britain]].

Britons at the time of the invasion of the [[Romans]] were divided up into [[Celtic]] tribes, such as the Brigantes in what became Northern [[England]] and the Iceni in Norfolk. They spoke the Brythonic language, the ancestor of [[Welsh]]. After the AD 43 Roman invasion under [[Claudius]], some Britons allied themselves with the [[Romans]] and others like Caratacos fought hard against them. Prasutagos of the Iceni was one that allied to Rome, but when he died the dreadful treatment that his wife, [[Boudica]] and her daughters suffered at the hands of a Roman procurator caused a revolt to erupt and Camulodunum (Colchester) and Londinium ([[London]]) were amongst the cities destroyed. Boudica’s revolt was brutally suppressed.

Most Britons were Romanised in the centuries of Roman rule. But those in [[Wales]] and those beyond [[Hadrian’s Wall]] were less so, and they formed kingdoms in the early [[Dark Ages]] such as Gwynedd (in North Wales) and Strathclyde (in the west of what later became Scotland). The [[Anglo-Saxons]] took over much land from the Britons, and Old English replaced Brythonic (which we can start calling Cymraeg or Old [[Welsh]]) in the lands that became [[England]].
[[Category:United Kingdom]]

Scotland

2007-10-30T12:04:23Z

Alaric: /* History */

[[Image:Lion rampant.png|thumb|right|The Scottish Royal Coat of Arms- Better known as the Lion Rampant]]

'''Scotland''' is the second largest country of the [[United Kingdom]].
It is about three-eighths the size of its larger neighbour England, but is much less populous; most of the population lives in the ''central belt'', a band across central Scotland between the capital [[Edinburgh]] and the city of [[Glasgow]]. Other cities are [[Aberdeen]], [[Dundee]] and [[Inverness]].

== Introduction ==

{| class="wikitable" style="float:right"
|- bgcolor=cccccc
! Position || Current Holder
|-
| [[British_monarchy|Monarch]] || Queen [[Elizabeth II]]
|-
| [[UK_Prime_Ministers|Prime Minster]] || [[Gordon Brown]] MP
|-
| [[Secretary of State for Scotland|Secretary of State]] || [[Des Browne]] MP
|-
| [[First Minister of Scotland|First Minister]] || [[Alex Salmond]] MSP
|}

Scotland is historically Christian; the national church is the [[Church of Scotland]]

Scotland includes the island groups of [[Orkney]], [[Shetland]], the [[Inner Hebrides|Inner]] and [[Outer Hebrides]], the islands of the [[Firth of Clyde]] including [[Arran]], [[Bute]], [[Cumbrae]] & [[Wee Cumbrae]] and various other smaller islands.

[[Ben Nevis]], the highest mountain in the [[United Kingdom]], is in the Scottish [[Highlands of Scotland|Highlands]], as are most of the nations highest mountains. Those with heights above 914m (3000 feet) are eponymously named [[Munro| Munros]] after Sir Hector Munro, the first person to compile such a list.<ref> for a complete list of Munros see http://www.sol.co.uk/d/dickwall/munroes.htm</ref>

==Cities==
[[Image:Scotland.gif|thumb|right|250px|A map of Scotland.]]

Scotland has four major cities. They are [[Aberdeen]], [[Dundee]], [[Edinburgh]] and [[Glasgow]]. [[Inverness]] and [[Stirling]] were granted city status recently but are in fact smaller than some of the larger Scottish towns like Paisley and Perth.

== History ==
Scotland has been inhabited since at least 8500BC, when the first [[Mesolithic]] hunter-gatherers are thought to have migrated to Scotland. These inhabitants showed advanced knowledge of astronomy, creating several [[Stonehenge]]-like monuments.

At the time of the [[Romans]] the tribes in what became Scotland were similar to those further south, and can be considered to be [[Celtic]] peoples. Those from the North-East were called ‘Picti’ (Picts) by Roman writers, which could mean ‘painted people' and refer to tattoos. The Romans never subdued these northern tribes, and after a brief period when the Antonine Wall between the Firths of Forth and Clyde was the Roman Empire’s northern frontier, they drew back and had [[Hadrian’s Wall]] as the frontier. They did try and influence the tribes between the two Walls, and when kingdoms like Strathclyde emerged in the early [[Dark Ages]], their rulers often bore Roman names or titles, the dynasties having been founded by Roman officials. The Scots themselves began arriving as settlers I the West of Scotland at this time (AD 400-500). They were from a part of the north of [[Ireland]] and spoke Old Irish, which changed to become [[Scottish Gaelic]], and eventually replaced Pictish. They sometimes warred with the Picts and [[Britons]] and sometimes allied with them, but a unified kingdom under the Scottish king Kenneth Mac Alpin was established in AD 843, called ‘Alba’ (still the [[Gaelic]] name for Scotland). This kingdom took over Strathclyde in the early 11th century.

==Union with England==

After the death of Queen [[Elizabeth I]] of England in 1603, James VI of Scotland ascended to the Throne of England, becoming [[James I]] of England. He was the first monarch to call himself King of Great Britain. This is referred to as the Union of the Crowns. James was also at this time King of [[Ireland]].

The Parliaments of Scotland and [[England]] were not united until 1707 and it is this date that is recognized as the formation of [[Great Britain]]. This is referred to as the Union of the Parliaments. (The [[United Kingdom]] was to come into being with the addition of [[Ireland]] in 1801.)The formation of the Irish Free State in 1922 resulted in the current name of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland.

Scotland has its own Parliament of 129 members as well as sending 59 Members of Parliament(MPs) to represent its interests in the [[United Kingdom]] parliament which sits in [[London]]. Scottish MPs have historically been recognized for their political skills and appointed to the Cabinet in larger numbers than is proportionate. The current Prime Minister [[Gordon Brown]], is Scottish, and formerly he was [[Chancellor of the Exchequer]].

Relationships between Scottish and English MPs before [[devolution]] were sometimes tense because of what the former [[Conservative|Conservative Party]] MP, by then an [[Ulster Unionist]], [[Enoch Powell]] dubbed ''The West Lothian question''. The name arose in 1977 after [[Tam Dalyell]], Labour MP for West Lothian in Scotland, asked during a debate in the [[Houses of Parliament]] over Scottish and Welsh [[devolution]]:

<blockquote>''For how long will English constituencies and English Honourable members tolerate... at least 119 Honourable Members from Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland exercising an important, and probably often decisive, effect on British politics while they themselves have no say in the same matters in Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland?''</blockquote>

He pointed out that he as MP for West Lothian could vote on matters affecting English constituencies but not his own constituency.

== Sports and culture==

The national preoccupation, indeed obsession, is [[football (soccer)]]. Other diversions include [[rugby]], [[lawn bowls]], [[motorsports]], [[horseracing]], [[shinty]] (similar to hockey), [[curling]], sports of the [[Highland Games]] - such as tossing the [[caber]] and, of course, [[golf]] - Scotland is the home of golf. The Royal and Ancient Golf Club at [[St Andrews]] is the governing body of world golf.

Scotland is famous for its disproportionate amount of inventions and discoveries (as immortalized in [[Wha's Like Us]]), its world class universities, the Scottish Enlightenment, being the one of the first industrial nations while still preserving some of the last great wildernesses of Europe, and being the home of [[golf]].

The symbol of Scotland is the [[thistle]]. The Scottish flag is the Cross of St. Andrew, a white diagonal cross on a dark blue background. The design originated in the 9th century and it is the oldest national flag still in use anywhere in the world. Other things associated with the country are [[kilts]] ([[tartan]] skirt like garments worn by Scotsmen), and the haunting music of the [[bagpipes]]. Famous Scottish products include [[pie]]s, [[haggis]] and Scotch [[whisky]].

Scotland's motto is ''Nemo Me Impune Lacessit'' ("No one provokes me with impunity")<ref>http://www.scotland-guide.co.uk/ALL_AREAS_IN_SCOTLAND/Glasgow/Areas/Centre/Mercat_Cross.htm </ref> which translates as ''Wha daur meddle wi me?'' in [[Scots]] and in [[English]] as ''Who would dare mess with me?''.

==External Links==
*[http://www.n-cyclopedia.com/scottish-history/index.htm A Brief History of Scotland]

==References==
<references/>

[[Category:Scotland]]
[[Category:United Kingdom]]

Scotland

2007-10-30T12:03:21Z

Alaric: /* History */

[[Image:Lion rampant.png|thumb|right|The Scottish Royal Coat of Arms- Better known as the Lion Rampant]]

'''Scotland''' is the second largest country of the [[United Kingdom]].
It is about three-eighths the size of its larger neighbour England, but is much less populous; most of the population lives in the ''central belt'', a band across central Scotland between the capital [[Edinburgh]] and the city of [[Glasgow]]. Other cities are [[Aberdeen]], [[Dundee]] and [[Inverness]].

== Introduction ==

{| class="wikitable" style="float:right"
|- bgcolor=cccccc
! Position || Current Holder
|-
| [[British_monarchy|Monarch]] || Queen [[Elizabeth II]]
|-
| [[UK_Prime_Ministers|Prime Minster]] || [[Gordon Brown]] MP
|-
| [[Secretary of State for Scotland|Secretary of State]] || [[Des Browne]] MP
|-
| [[First Minister of Scotland|First Minister]] || [[Alex Salmond]] MSP
|}

Scotland is historically Christian; the national church is the [[Church of Scotland]]

Scotland includes the island groups of [[Orkney]], [[Shetland]], the [[Inner Hebrides|Inner]] and [[Outer Hebrides]], the islands of the [[Firth of Clyde]] including [[Arran]], [[Bute]], [[Cumbrae]] & [[Wee Cumbrae]] and various other smaller islands.

[[Ben Nevis]], the highest mountain in the [[United Kingdom]], is in the Scottish [[Highlands of Scotland|Highlands]], as are most of the nations highest mountains. Those with heights above 914m (3000 feet) are eponymously named [[Munro| Munros]] after Sir Hector Munro, the first person to compile such a list.<ref> for a complete list of Munros see http://www.sol.co.uk/d/dickwall/munroes.htm</ref>

==Cities==
[[Image:Scotland.gif|thumb|right|250px|A map of Scotland.]]

Scotland has four major cities. They are [[Aberdeen]], [[Dundee]], [[Edinburgh]] and [[Glasgow]]. [[Inverness]] and [[Stirling]] were granted city status recently but are in fact smaller than some of the larger Scottish towns like Paisley and Perth.

== History ==
Scotland has been inhabited since at least 8500BC, when the first [[Mesolithic]] hunter-gatherers are thought to have migrated to Scotland. These inhabitants showed advanced knowledge of astronomy, creating several [[Stonehenge]]-like monuments.

At the time of the [[Romans]] the tribes in what became Scotland were similar to those further south, and can be considered to be [[Celtic]] peoples. Those from the North-East were called ‘Picti’ (Picts) by Roman writers, which could mean ‘painted people' and refer to tattoos. The Romans never subdued these northern tribes, and after a brief period when the Antonine Wall between the Firths of Forth and Clyde was the Roman Empire’s northern frontier, they drew back and had [[Hadrian’s Wall]] as the frontier. They did try and influence the tribes between the two Walls, and when kingdoms like Strathclyde emerged in the early [[Dark Ages]], their rulers often bore Roman names or titles, the dynasties having been founded by Roman officials. The Scots themselves began arriving as settlers I the West of Scotland at this time (AD 400-500). They were from a part of the north of [[Ireland]] and spoke Old Irish, which changed to become [[Scots Gaelic]], and eventually replaced Pictish. They sometimes warred with the Picts and [[Britons]] and sometimes allied with them, but a unified kingdom under the Scottish king Kenneth Mac Alpin was established in AD 843, called ‘Alba’ (still the [[Gaelic]] name for Scotland). This kingdom took over Strathclyde in the early 11th century.

==Union with England==

After the death of Queen [[Elizabeth I]] of England in 1603, James VI of Scotland ascended to the Throne of England, becoming [[James I]] of England. He was the first monarch to call himself King of Great Britain. This is referred to as the Union of the Crowns. James was also at this time King of [[Ireland]].

The Parliaments of Scotland and [[England]] were not united until 1707 and it is this date that is recognized as the formation of [[Great Britain]]. This is referred to as the Union of the Parliaments. (The [[United Kingdom]] was to come into being with the addition of [[Ireland]] in 1801.)The formation of the Irish Free State in 1922 resulted in the current name of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland.

Scotland has its own Parliament of 129 members as well as sending 59 Members of Parliament(MPs) to represent its interests in the [[United Kingdom]] parliament which sits in [[London]]. Scottish MPs have historically been recognized for their political skills and appointed to the Cabinet in larger numbers than is proportionate. The current Prime Minister [[Gordon Brown]], is Scottish, and formerly he was [[Chancellor of the Exchequer]].

Relationships between Scottish and English MPs before [[devolution]] were sometimes tense because of what the former [[Conservative|Conservative Party]] MP, by then an [[Ulster Unionist]], [[Enoch Powell]] dubbed ''The West Lothian question''. The name arose in 1977 after [[Tam Dalyell]], Labour MP for West Lothian in Scotland, asked during a debate in the [[Houses of Parliament]] over Scottish and Welsh [[devolution]]:

<blockquote>''For how long will English constituencies and English Honourable members tolerate... at least 119 Honourable Members from Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland exercising an important, and probably often decisive, effect on British politics while they themselves have no say in the same matters in Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland?''</blockquote>

He pointed out that he as MP for West Lothian could vote on matters affecting English constituencies but not his own constituency.

== Sports and culture==

The national preoccupation, indeed obsession, is [[football (soccer)]]. Other diversions include [[rugby]], [[lawn bowls]], [[motorsports]], [[horseracing]], [[shinty]] (similar to hockey), [[curling]], sports of the [[Highland Games]] - such as tossing the [[caber]] and, of course, [[golf]] - Scotland is the home of golf. The Royal and Ancient Golf Club at [[St Andrews]] is the governing body of world golf.

Scotland is famous for its disproportionate amount of inventions and discoveries (as immortalized in [[Wha's Like Us]]), its world class universities, the Scottish Enlightenment, being the one of the first industrial nations while still preserving some of the last great wildernesses of Europe, and being the home of [[golf]].

The symbol of Scotland is the [[thistle]]. The Scottish flag is the Cross of St. Andrew, a white diagonal cross on a dark blue background. The design originated in the 9th century and it is the oldest national flag still in use anywhere in the world. Other things associated with the country are [[kilts]] ([[tartan]] skirt like garments worn by Scotsmen), and the haunting music of the [[bagpipes]]. Famous Scottish products include [[pie]]s, [[haggis]] and Scotch [[whisky]].

Scotland's motto is ''Nemo Me Impune Lacessit'' ("No one provokes me with impunity")<ref>http://www.scotland-guide.co.uk/ALL_AREAS_IN_SCOTLAND/Glasgow/Areas/Centre/Mercat_Cross.htm </ref> which translates as ''Wha daur meddle wi me?'' in [[Scots]] and in [[English]] as ''Who would dare mess with me?''.

==External Links==
*[http://www.n-cyclopedia.com/scottish-history/index.htm A Brief History of Scotland]

==References==
<references/>

[[Category:Scotland]]
[[Category:United Kingdom]]

Lombards

2007-10-30T11:44:28Z

Alaric:

The Lombards were a West [[Germanic tribe]]. They were a warlike people, skilled horsemen, more barbaric than say the [[Ostrogoths]]. Their name derives from 'Langobard' = literally 'long beard'. They crossed the Alps in the 6th century AD into Northern [[Italy]], which region is still named Lombardy after them. Their ruler at this time was Alboin (whose name means 'Elf-friend'), and who overthrew Cunimund, his wife Rosamund's father. He allegedly made a drinking-cup out of his father-in-law's skull, with jewels in the eye-sockets. This kind of cup was called a 'scala' ('skull') in the Langobardic language. This West Germanic language was eventually replaced by [[Italian]] in their territories as the Lombard rulers were outnumbered by the Italian-speaking populace. The [[Papacy]] was fearful of Lombard power, and saw the poewerful [[Franks]] as their means to control them, so that Lombardy was added to [[Charlemagne]]'s Empire.

Several Nothern Italian cities formed the 'Lombard league' in the Middle Ages, and the north of Italy is still culturally and politically different from the south.

Lombards

2007-10-30T11:43:32Z

Alaric:

The Lombards were a West [[Germanic tribe]]. They were a warlike people, skilled horsemen, more barbaric than say the [[Ostrogoths]]. Their name derives from 'Langobard' = literally 'long beard'. They crossed the Alps in the 6th century AD into Northern [[Italy]], which region is still named Lombardy after them. Their ruler at this time was Alboin (whose name means 'Elf-friend'), and who overthrew Cunimund, his wife Rosamund's father. He allegedly made a drinking-cup out of his father-in-law's skull, with jewels in the eye-sockets. This kind of cup was called a 'scala' ('skull') in the Langobardic language. This West Germanic language was eventually replaced by Italian in their territories as the lombard rulers were outnumbered by the Italian-speaking populace. The [[Papacy]] was fearful of Lombard power, and saw the poewerful [[Franks]] as their means to control them, so that Lombardy was added to [[Charlemagne]]'s Empire.

Several Nothern Italian cities formed the 'Lombard league' in the Middle Ages, and the north of Italy is still culturally and politically different from the south.

Lombards

2007-10-30T11:43:05Z

Alaric: New page: The Lombards were a West Germanic Tribe. They were a warlike people, skilled horsemen, more barbaric than say the Ostrogoths. Their name derives from 'Langobard' = literally 'long...

The Lombards were a West [[Germanic Tribe]]. They were a warlike people, skilled horsemen, more barbaric than say the [[Ostrogoths]]. Their name derives from 'Langobard' = literally 'long beard'. They crossed the Alps in the 6th century AD into Northern [[Italy]], which region is still named Lombardy after them. Their ruler at this time was Alboin (whose name means 'Elf-friend'), and who overthrew Cunimund, his wife Rosamund's father. He allegedly made a drinking-cup out of his father-in-law's skull, with jewels in the eye-sockets. This kind of cup was called a 'scala' ('skull') in the Langobardic language. This West Germanic language was eventually replaced by Italian in their territories as the lombard rulers were outnumbered by the Italian-speaking populace. The [[Papacy]] was fearful of Lombard power, and saw the poewerful [[Franks]] as their means to control them, so that Lombardy was added to [[Charlemagne]]'s Empire.

Several Nothern Italian cities formed the 'Lombard league' in the Middle Ages, and the north of Italy is still culturally and politically different from the south.

Operation Barbarossa

2007-10-29T16:32:55Z

Alaric:

{{stub}}

'''Operation Barbarossa''', the largest military operation of all time, was Nazi Germany's invasion of the Soviet Union which began in summer 1941. It was a 'Blitzkrieg' ('lightning war') that saw the German Wehrmacht and its allies advance cover greater distances in less time than any other of their campaigns. It aimed to reach the capital of the [[USSR]], Moscow, before the dreaded Russian winter set in, but failed to do this. The [[Luftwaffe]] worked in co-ordination with the [[Panzer]] Divisions to ensure as rapid an advance as possible. This put great logistical strain on the Axis forces. This, coupled with tenacious defence by the Soviet Red Army, and the fact that the Soviet T34 tank was far better than anything the Germans then had available, probably stopped Hitlers' Generals (e.g. Guderian) from achieving their objectives. The Battle of Stalingrad in late 1942/early '43 was the turning point in the War on the Eastern Front, and a Nazi victory became practically impossible after that.

[[Category:World War II]]

Operation Barbarossa

2007-10-29T16:32:05Z

Alaric:

{{stub}}

'''Operation Barbarossa''', the largest military operation of all time, was Nazi Germany's invasion of the Soviet Union which began in summer 1941. It was a 'Blitzkrieg' ('lightning war') that saw the German Wehrmacht and its allies advance over greater distances in less time than any other of their campaigns. It aimed to reach the capital of the [[USSR]], Moscow, before the dreaded Russian winter set in, but failed to do this. The [[Luftwaffe]] worked in co-ordination with the [[Panzer Divisions]] to ensure as rapid an advance as possible. This put great logistical strain on the Axis forces. This, coupled with tenacious defence by the Soviet Red Army, and the fact that the Soviet T34 tank was far better than anything the Germans then had available, probably stopped Hitlers' Generals (e.g. Guderian) from achieving their objectives. The Battle of Stalingrad in late 1942/early '43 was the turning point in the War on the Eastern Front, and a Nazi victory became practically impossible after that.

[[Category:World War II]]

Germanic tribe

2007-10-29T16:10:18Z

Alaric: New page: Germanic tribes were the peoples of Southern Scandinavia and what is now Northern Germany and the Netherlands. The Roman historian Tacitus gives a remarkably detailed picture of them arou...

Germanic tribes were the peoples of Southern Scandinavia and what is now Northern Germany and the Netherlands. The Roman historian Tacitus gives a remarkably detailed picture of them around AD100, from knowledge gained from his father in law, the Roman general Agricola. They knew a bit of farming, and kept livestock. They worshipped many gods, including Tiw, Woden and Thunor (Thor) that Tuesday, Wednesday and Thursday are named after. They gave the warrior high status, thought it disgraceful to flee the battlefield, and were ruled by ‘kings’. They had no real ‘towns’ and farmed in woodland clearings.

They can be split in terms of geographical area/related languages to East Germanic (the [[Goth]]s, [[Vandals]], Gepids and Burgundians), North Germanic (the Norse or Norwegians, Danes, Swedes and the later Icelanders) and West Germanic (the [[Franks]], [[Angles]], [[Saxons]], Langobards (Lombards), etc.

Their move into the [[Roman Empire]] in the 4th, 5th and 6th centuries AD, under pressure from the [[Huns]] to the east, is considered to mark the start of the European Dark Ages. From the chaotic times of the 5th century, things eventually settled down and kingdoms like [[England]], [[France]], [[Denmark]] and [[Germany]] (for many centuries the so-called Holy Roman Empire) owe their origins to Germanic tribes. Regions like Lombardy (Italy) and Burgundy (France) preserve some of their lost names.

Vandals

2007-10-29T15:46:04Z

Alaric:

The '''Vandals''' were an Eastern [[Germanic tribe]]. They were prominent in the 5th century AD, including sacking [[Rome]] in 455 AD. They probably originated in Scandinavia, and crossed the Baltic to mainland Europe. They crossed the frozen River Rhine at the end of AD 407, along with other barbarian peoples. Allied to a Sarmatian tribe called the Alans, they swept through Gaul (modern [[France]]) and then Spain. They seized Roman ships and in AD 427 crossed to North Africa under their formidable leader, Gaiseric. North African grain was the lifeblood of the (Western) [[Roman Empire]], and the Vandal seizure of this best agricultural land, and their piracy/raiding in the Mediterranean, had a devastating effect. The Eastern Roman Empire fought a terrible war to regain North Africa, which succeeded, but at great cost.

Andalusia in Spain is named after them, as from a Moorish/Arabic perspective it was ‘Al Andalus’: the Land of the Vandals (the invaders having crossed from there to Africa).

[[Category:European History]]

Forest

2007-10-29T15:27:04Z

Alaric:

'''Forests''' are now considered to be collections of [[tree|trees]] as a whole, or large areas of trees. Tropical Rainforest is found around the Equatorial regions, and has perhaps the greatest number of kinds of life of any habitat, and a major role in taking in carbon dioxide and releasing oxygen.

The word 'forest' did not used to mean 'a place of trees', however. 'Forest' was a Norman French word, brought to England after 1066. It had the meaning of 'a place of deer (for hunting)'. The Normans designated large areas as 'forest', so that the king and his nobles could hunt there. 'Forest Law' applied, with severe penalties for those 'Saxons' caught killing, or attempting to kill, 'beasts of the chase' (deer, wild boar, etc.). An English forest did not have to be tree-covered: some were mainly wooded forests, like The New Forest, others were mainly moorland, like The Forest of Bowland. Sherwood Forest at the time the [[Robin Hood]] legend is set was in fact mainly heathland (heather etc.) and had relatively few, small woods.

[[Category:Geography]]
[[Category:Trees]]
[[Category:Articles needing major improvement]]

Battle of Britain

2007-10-29T15:10:26Z

Alaric:

The '''Battle of Britain''' was a battle in [[World War Two]] fought between the German [[Luftwaffe]] and the British [[Royal Air Force]] (RAF), after France amd the Low Countries had fallen to the armies of Nazi Germany. The battle was fought between July 1940 and May 1941, and is regarded as the Nazis' first major defeat.

The Germans initially attempted to destroy British airfields. They saw this as a necessary prelude to a land invasion (the planned 'Operation Sealion' that never actualy occurred). They did not succeed in this: RAF 'Hurricane' and 'Spitfire' aircraft piloted by 'The Few' caused them to have heavy casualties. The Messerschmidt Bf109 fighter that the Luftwaffe had as its main support for the twin-engined Heinkel, Dornier and Junkers bombers was at the limit of its range.

They then switched to targetting British cities. London suffered air raids in 'The Blitz' and Coventry, an historic city in the English Midlands, was almost destroyed by a firestorm.

{{DEFAULTSORT:Britain, Battle of}}
[[Category:World War II Battles]]

Huns

2007-10-29T14:53:51Z

Alaric:

{{stub}}
The Huns were an Asiatic nomadic people, probably originating in what is now Kyrgizstan. They were excellent horsemen, almost living 'in the saddle', and moved their herds and flocks from one place to another on the steppes to graze the animals. They perfected the art of shooting their short, 'composite' bows from horseback, making them formidable warriors. They may have attacked [[China]], where they were perhaps known as 'Hsiong-nu'. They then turned west and began a journey eventually to Europe. They clashed with the [[Ostrogoths]] in the late 4th century AD, who were then living where the [[Ukraine]] now lies. This pushed the Ostrogoths and Visigoths (who lived west of the Ostrogoths, around the Carpathians/in Transylvania) into Roman territory and is regarded as a signifcant step towards the so-called 'Dark Ages'.

The Romans considered the Huns to be the most barbaric of all barbarians, and found their appearance repulsive (this was in part Roman opinion of ‘oriental’ features, but also many Steppe nomads used to bind the heads of their children to distort the shape of the skull as they grew up, and would sometimes slash their own faces to leave deliberate scars). Even the Goths though that the Huns were descended from ‘witches and evil spirits’ from the East.

The most famous leader of the Huns was [[Attila]] (406-453), the "Scourge of God", who having put the [[Balkans]] (to the very walls of [[Constantinople]]), [[France]], and northern [[Italy]], to fire and the sword, and then extracted tribute from the Romans to not ravage them any more, expired from a surfeit of [[alcohol]] and a nosebleed at his wedding, though other sources say he died during sexual intercourse.

[[category:European History]]

Huns

2007-10-29T14:42:03Z

Alaric:

{{stub}}
The Huns were an Asiatic momadic people, probably originating in what is now Kyrgizstan. They were excellent horsemen, almost living 'in the saddle', and moved their herds and flocks from one place to another on the steppes to graze the animals. They perfected the art of shooting their short, 'composite' bows from horseback, making them formidable warriors. They may have attacked [[China]], where they were perhaps known as 'Hsiong-nu'. They then turned west and began a journey eventually to Europe. They clashed with the [[Ostrogoths]] in the late 4th century AD, who were then living where the [[Ukraine]] now lies. This pushed the Ostrogoths and Visigoths (who lived west of the Ostrogoths, around the Carpathians/in Transylvania) into Roman territory and is regarded as a signifcant step towards the so-called 'Dark Ages'

The most famous leader of the Huns was [[Attila]] (406-453), the "Scourge of God", who having put the [[Balkans]] (to the very walls of [[Constantinople]]), [[France]], and northern [[Italy]], to fire and the sword, and then extracted tribute from the Romans to not ravage them any more, expired from a surfeit of [[alcohol]] and a nosebleed at his wedding, though other sources say he died during sexual intercourse.

[[category:European History]]

Attila the Hun

2007-10-29T14:28:27Z

Alaric:

[[Image:attilla.gif|right|thumb|Atilla the Hun]]
'''Attila''' was the Final and greatest king of the [[Huns]]. He nearly conquered the entire [[Roman Empire]]. He laid waste to cities in northern Italy, but it is said that he was dissuaded from further bloodshed in the region by Pope Leo I on the shores of Lake Bolsena.(1)

Attila was King of the Huns from A.D. 434 to 453, and he was perhaps the most vicious and barbaric military leader in history. Known as “Attila the Hun,” everyone was completely terrified of him and called him the “Scourge of God.” One rumor was that Attila was a cannibal. He married seven women in his lifetime. The Huns were so barbaric that they did not use fire, and would simply eat raw or semi-raw meat that they found in dead animals. They were extremely fierce in battle. Superb horsemen, the Huns could shoot a bow accurately while riding a horse, benefiting from stirrups that their opponents did not have. The Huns would scream in battle and not follow any system of organized warfare, instead preferring complete chaos on the battlefield. They would fight to the death without any regard for their own safety.

Attila the Hun himself lived a simple life, wearing plain clothes consisting of layered animal skin. An envoy from the Eastern Roman empire who met with Attila once at dinner described it as follows: “By mixing up the languages of the Italians with those of the Huns and Goths, [an entertainer] fascinated everyone and made them break out into uncontrollable laughter, all that is except Attila. He remained impassive, without any change of expression, and neither by word or gesture did he seem to share in the merriment ….” The impression left was that Attila lacked a sense of humor and cared about nothing but power.

As a young warrior, Attila had been captured and released by the Romans, and he vowed to return to Rome victorious as king. Relying on seers and “gods”, Attila nearly did conquer the Roman Empire. For five years from A.D. 445 to 450 he devastated the eastern Roman empire, destroying anything in his path between the Rhine and the Caspian Sea. In 451 he amassed perhaps the largest army in the history of the world until that time, a total of a half-million men. This army was not just comprised of Huns, but other subject peoples like the [[Ostrogoths]] were included. In fact Attila’s name appears to be not his real Hunnish name, but a Gothic nickname meaning ‘Little Father’, given to him by Ostrogothic mercenaries. His horde began riding towards Rome. He quickly conquered Gaul (present-day France) and devastated any European city in his path. He was not stopped until an alliance of the [[Visigoths]] and Romans surprised the Huns and forced them to retreat by about a hundred miles. One of the most bloody battles in all of history, the [[Battle of Chalons]], ensued. The Visigoths and Romans defeated the Huns there.

But Attila was clever, and redirected his Huns towards Rome by invading Italy. He was headed towards the heart of the Roman empire: Rome itself. He destroyed everything in his path in the Roman countryside. Unable to stop Attila the Hun by force, a peaceful mission led by [[Pope Leo I]] traveled out to meet Attila in 452 and try to persuade him to spare Rome. Moral persuasion worked where violence had not, and Attila did not invade Rome.

A year later, at only age 47, Attila died apparently from a mere nosebleed. It was an ironic cause of death for one of the most feared warriors in the history of the world. Upon his death his empire fell apart with his sons fighting amongst themselves and the people he subjugated rising in rebellion. The Huns disappeared from European history.

(1)Norman Davies - "Europe, A History".

[[Category:Military Commanders]]

Attila the Hun

2007-10-29T14:24:11Z

Alaric:

[[Image:attilla.gif|right|thumb|Atilla the Hun]]
'''Attila''' was the Final and greatest king of the [[Huns]]. He nearly conquered the entire [[Roman Empire]]. He laid waste to cities in northern Italy, but it is said that he was dissuaded from further bloodshed in the region by Pope Leo I on the shores of Lake Bolsena.(1)

Attila was King of the Huns from A.D. 434 to 453, and he was perhaps the most vicious and barbaric military leader in history. Known as “Attila the Hun,” everyone was completely terrified of him and called him the “Scourge of God.” One rumor was that Attila was a cannibal. He married seven women in his lifetime. The Huns were so barbaric that they did not use fire, and would simply eat raw or semi-raw meat that they found in dead animals. They were extremely fierce in battle. Superb horsemen, the Huns could shoot a bow accurately while riding a horse, benefiting from stirrups that their opponents did not have. The Huns would scream in battle and not follow any system of organized warfare, instead preferring complete chaos on the battlefield. They would fight to the death without any regard for their own safety.

Attila the Hun himself lived a simple life, wearing plain clothes consisting of layered animal skin. An envoy from the Eastern Roman empire who met with Attila once at dinner described it as follows: “By mixing up the languages of the Italians with those of the Huns and Goths, [an entertainer] fascinated everyone and made them break out into uncontrollable laughter, all that is except Attila. He remained impassive, without any change of expression, and neither by word or gesture did he seem to share in the merriment ….” The impression left was that Attila lacked a sense of humor and cared about nothing but power.

As a young warrior, Attila had been captured and released by the Romans, and he vowed to return to Rome victorious as king. Relying on seers and “gods”, Attila nearly did conquer the Roman Empire. For five years from A.D. 445 to 450 he devastated the eastern Roman empire, destroying anything in his path between the Rhine and the Caspian Sea. In 451 he amassed perhaps the largest army in the history of the world until that time, a total of a half-million men. This army was not just comprised of Huns, but other subject peoples like the [[Ostrogoths]] were included. In fact Attila’s name appears to be not his real Hunnish name, but in fact a Gothic nickname meaning ‘Little Father’, given to him by Ostrogothic mercenaries. His horde began riding towards Rome. He quickly conquered Gaul (present-day France) and devastated any European city in his path. He was not stopped until an alliance of the [[Visigoths]] and Romans surprised the Huns and forced them to retreat by about a hundred miles. One of the most bloody battles in all of history, the [[Battle of Chalons]], ensued. The Visigoths and Romans defeated the Huns there.

But Attila was clever, and redirected his Huns towards Rome by invading Italy. He was headed towards the heart of the Roman empire: Rome itself. He destroyed everything in his path in the Roman countryside. Unable to stop Attila the Hun by force, a peaceful mission led by [[Pope Leo I]] traveled out to meet Attila in 452 and try to persuade him to spare Rome. Moral persuasion worked where violence had not, and Attila did not invade Rome.

A year later, at only age 47, Attila died apparently from a mere nosebleed. It was an ironic cause of death for one of the most feared warriors in the history of the world. Upon his death his empire fell apart with his sons fighting amongst themselves and the people he subjugated rising in rebellion. The Huns disappeared from European history.

(1)Norman Davies - "Europe, A History".

[[Category:Military Commanders]]