Conservapedia - User contributions [en]

Talk:Stephen Hawking

2010-11-01T23:56:22Z

AndrewWi: /* Divorce */

==Divorce==

How would divorce influence his "promotion of his pseudoscience fantasies"? There's no causality, and unless the claim can be cited beyond simply stating that, "It's unknown," it doesn't belong on an educational website. [[User:JaneX|JaneX]] 16:51, 8 October 2010 (EDT)
:Good point... added references and removed the "it is unknown" bit. [[User:AndrewWi|AndrewWi]] 19:56, 1 November 2010 (EDT)

Stephen Hawking

2010-11-01T23:55:09Z

AndrewWi: Added line addressing the connection between Atheism and marriageability

[[Image:Bvfgdtre.jpg|right|thumb|Stephen Hawking]]
'''Stephen Hawking''' is a [[United Kingdom|British]] [[physicist]] and [[author]]. He was born on January 8, 1942.

Despite suffering from Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis for most of his adult life he has written books popularizing [[science]]. His most famous books are ''[[A Brief History of Time]]'', ''[[Black Holes and Baby Universes]]'' , ''[[The Universe in a Nutshell]]'' and ''The Grand Design,'' in which he argues against the idea of the need for a Creator. <ref>http://www.theblaze.com/stories/hawking-says-god-not-needed-for-creation/</ref>

Hawking is credited with the development of the [[Big Bang]] Theory of the [[creation]] of the [[universe]]. He theorized that information can escape from a [[black hole]] in the form of [[Hawking Radiation]] wherein virtual dual particles will came close to the [[Event Horizon]] of a [[black hole]]. One half of the virtual dual particle will escape the pull of gravity, taking with it the information of the second virtual particle. It is thought that this eventually will cause the evaporation of the [[black hole]]<ref>http://library.thinkquest.org/C007571/english/advance/english.htm</ref>. He is also credited with advancing the understandings of [[black holes]]. Since 1979 he has been the [[Lucasian Professor of Mathematics]] at [[Cambridge University]], a post once held by [[Isaac Newton]] and [[Paul Dirac]].<ref>[http://www.hawking.org.uk Stephen W. Hawking's webpages]</ref>

Stephen Hawking combines his research with family life and acts to popularize science. He has appeared on [[The Simpsons]] and [[Star Trek|Star Trek: The Next Generation]] [[TV]] shows and contributed vocals through his speech synthesizer to the [[Pink Floyd]] album [[The Division Bell]] on the track [[Keep Talking]].

Hawking has been divorced twice.<ref>http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/1531891/Hawking-and-second-wife-agree-to-divorce.html</ref>. The link between atheism and a lack of marriageability has been well documented (See [[Atheism and marriageability]]), connecting to Hawking's personal history to his promotion of atheistic pseudoscientific fantasies<ref>http://www.outsidecontext.com/2010/10/02/stephen-hawking-the-grand-design-book-review-by-basho/</ref>.

Unfortunately, Hawking has yet to accept Jesus Christ as his Lord and Savior, and has indeed made the foolish comment that there is no place for a creator, claiming that all of God's Creation is self-contained and not affected by anything outside itself.<ref>http://www.qsmithwmu.com/stephen_hawking's_cosmology_and_theism_(1994).htm</ref>
==References==
<references/>

==External links==

*Creation Ministries International, [http://creation.com/stephen-hawking-god ''Hawking atheopathy: Famous physicist goes beyond the evidence'']
[[Category:Physicists|Hawking, Stephen]]

Uranium-lead dating

2010-11-01T23:44:03Z

AndrewWi: Added a line presenting the Creationist point of view, but still needs more!

'''Uranium-lead dating''' is one of several [[radiometric dating]] techniques. It is the oldest method and generally considered to be the most accurate. It dates a material based on the [[half-life|half-lives]] for the decay of U<sub>238</sub> to Pb<sub>206</sub> or of U<sub>235</sub> to Pb<sub>207</sub>. <ref>http://geology.about.com/od/geotime_dating/a/uraniumlead.htm</ref>

This dating method is used on several minerals, however, it works best with the mineral zircon (ZrSiO<sub>4</sub>). Because the formation of zircon rejects lead from its structure but allows uranium in the place of zirconium atoms, any lead present in it's structure must be radiogenic. Given the amount of radiogenic lead and uranium in a sample, the age of the crystal can be determined. Zircon is also preferred for its high toughness and ease of separation from other rocks.

Uranium-lead dating has been used to place a date of 252.6 million years ago on the end of the [[Permian|Permian period]] and the beginning of the [[Triassic|Triassic period]] with a margin of error much smaller than other dating methods had given.<ref>http://www.physorg.com/news1197.html</ref>

Creation Scientists have pointed out that Uranium-lead dating relies heavily on the assumption that the laws of physics have not changed in the past. There are many evidences to suggest that God may have sped up the rate of uranium decay in the first few days of creation.

==References==
<references/>
[[Category:Geology]]

Uranium-lead dating

2010-11-01T22:53:31Z

AndrewWi: Removed some rampant vandalism trying to smear the Bible.

Pseudoscience

2010-11-01T20:52:41Z

AndrewWi: /* See also */

'''Pseudoscience''' is theory or speculation which has the trappings and [[rhetoric]] of [[science]], and is presented as science, but is not generally accepted as valid science by the scientific community. Theories are typically classed as pseudoscientific if they fail the [[scientific method]]. Pseudoscientific theories are typically not [[falsifiable]], lack objectivity, and their purveyors show unwillingness to allow neutral outsiders to observe, test, or replicate their findings. There is no definitive or objective definition of the term "pseudoscience", which is also sometimes used as a pejorative term.<ref>R. G. A. Dolby, ''Uncertain Knowledge: An Image of Science for a Changing World'', Published by Cambridge University Press, 2002. ISBN 0521892627, 9780521892629, 380 pages. [http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xd3ylT3WTLEC&pg=PA191&dq=pseudoscience+pejorative&num=100&as_brr=3 Page 191]</ref><ref>Brian Stableford, ''Science Fact and Science Fiction'', Published by CRC Press, 2006, ISBN 0415974607, 9780415974608, 729 pages. [http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=uefwmdROKTAC&pg=PA410&dq=pseudoscience+pejorative&num=100&as_brr=3 Page 410]</ref>

== Falsifiability ==
The most cited element of scientific theory is [[falsifiability]], established by [[philosopher]] [[Karl Popper]]. A falsifiable theory makes predictions, which can be used to test it. Thus, the theory of gravity is falsifiable, as it predicts that an apple held above the ground and released will fall. If it fails the test, it is discarded, and if it passes, it is not proven, but better supported.

== Disproven science ==
The term pseudoscience is also often applied to theories which ''are'' falsifiable and have in fact been falsified and discarded. [[Phrenology]] predicted that psychological traits could be inferred from the shape of the skull, but no actual link was ever found. Various [[astrological]] theories predicted regular planetary effects on the earth and human health, but testing those failed.

The existence of God is thus not considered scientific theory, as no test can possibly be conceived which categorically disproves His existence. The same is the case for [[string theory]], which is a mathematical unification of scientific theory, but makes no predictions. Such things fall outside the realm of science.

== Charlatanism ==
The label ''pseudoscientist'' is commonly given to cranks and [[charlatans]], who claim abnormal powers and abilities, but refuse to demonstrate them in objective, controlled, monitored environments. For example, [[Uri Geller]] claims to be able to bend spoons without applying pressure to them, but he cannot do it in front of scientists or journalists. Countless conjurers and mediums claim to be able to speak with the dead, but controlled circumstances reveal that they are really only conducting clever psychological tricks.

== Metaphysics ==
Spiritual, metaphysical, philosophical, and religious beliefs are occasionally confused with pseudoscience, as there is often an overlap in rhetoric, and charlatans blur the lines between scientific and philosophical ideas of knowledge.

== Public belief ==
Despite evidence and logic against pseudoscientific theories, many remain popular among the public. Homeopathic medicine is available at most health-food stores and is a multi-billion dollar business, and 31% of Americans believe in astrology.

Notably, twice as many [[Democrats]] believe in astrology as [[Republicans]], showing a strong bent of irrationality and scientific illiteracy among [[liberals]].<ref>http://www.harrisinteractive.com/harris_poll/index.asp?PID=359</ref>

==Examples of pseudosciences==
[[Image:5712dawkins.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Within the [[evolution|evolutionary]] science community and the [[creation science]] community, Richard Dawkins has faced charges of engaging in pseudoscience and also has faced charges of committing elementary errors.<ref>http://www.truefreethinker.com/articles/send-clowns-–-richard-dawkins-obliges</ref><ref>http://creation.com/the-greatest-hoax-on-earth/main.php</ref> For more information, please see: [[Richard Dawkins and pseudoscience]] ]]
*[[Animal magnetism]]
*[[Astrology]]
*[[Dianetics]]
*Much of the work of [[Richard Dawkins]]<ref>http://www.truefreethinker.com/articles/send-clowns-–-richard-dawkins-obliges</ref><ref>http://creation.com/the-greatest-hoax-on-earth/main.php</ref> (see: [[Richard Dawkins and pseudoscience]])
*Much of the work of [[Carl Sagan]]
*Much of the work of [[Stephen Hawking]]
*[[Environmentalism]]
*[[Evolution|Evolutionary biology]]<ref>http://www.icr.org/home/resources/resources_tracts_scientificcaseagainstevolution/</ref><ref>http://www.grisda.org/origins/04004.htm</ref><ref>http://www.uncommondescent.com/darwinism/there-is-no-theory-of-evolution/</ref> <ref>http://members.iinet.net.au/~sejones/PoE/pe05scnc.html</ref><ref>http://www.parentcompany.com/science_kit/sk3b.htm</ref><ref>http://www.apologeticspress.org/rr/reprints/Evolution-Fact-or-Theory.pdf</ref>
*[[Theory of Relativity]]
*[[Free Energy]]
*[[Graphology]]
*[[Global warming]]
*[[Homeopathy]]
*[[Big Bang]] astronomy
*[[Iridology]]
*[[Lysenkoism]]
*[[Mesmerism]]
*[[Orgone therapy]]
*[[Osteopathy]]
*[[Parapsychology]]
*[[Phrenology]]
*[[Psychoanalysis]]
*[[Reflexology]]
*[[Transgenderism]]
*[[Ufology]]

== See also ==

*[[Essay: You obviously don't understand how science works|You obviously don't understand how science works]] - [[Satire]]
*[[Counterexamples to Evolution]]
*[[Counterexamples to Relativity]]
*[[Counterexamples to the Big Bang]]

==References==
<references/>

[[Category: Pseudoscience]]

Pseudoscience

2010-11-01T20:52:22Z

AndrewWi: Added references to some of Conservapedia's best "Counterexamples" pages.

'''Pseudoscience''' is theory or speculation which has the trappings and [[rhetoric]] of [[science]], and is presented as science, but is not generally accepted as valid science by the scientific community. Theories are typically classed as pseudoscientific if they fail the [[scientific method]]. Pseudoscientific theories are typically not [[falsifiable]], lack objectivity, and their purveyors show unwillingness to allow neutral outsiders to observe, test, or replicate their findings. There is no definitive or objective definition of the term "pseudoscience", which is also sometimes used as a pejorative term.<ref>R. G. A. Dolby, ''Uncertain Knowledge: An Image of Science for a Changing World'', Published by Cambridge University Press, 2002. ISBN 0521892627, 9780521892629, 380 pages. [http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xd3ylT3WTLEC&pg=PA191&dq=pseudoscience+pejorative&num=100&as_brr=3 Page 191]</ref><ref>Brian Stableford, ''Science Fact and Science Fiction'', Published by CRC Press, 2006, ISBN 0415974607, 9780415974608, 729 pages. [http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=uefwmdROKTAC&pg=PA410&dq=pseudoscience+pejorative&num=100&as_brr=3 Page 410]</ref>

== Falsifiability ==
The most cited element of scientific theory is [[falsifiability]], established by [[philosopher]] [[Karl Popper]]. A falsifiable theory makes predictions, which can be used to test it. Thus, the theory of gravity is falsifiable, as it predicts that an apple held above the ground and released will fall. If it fails the test, it is discarded, and if it passes, it is not proven, but better supported.

== Disproven science ==
The term pseudoscience is also often applied to theories which ''are'' falsifiable and have in fact been falsified and discarded. [[Phrenology]] predicted that psychological traits could be inferred from the shape of the skull, but no actual link was ever found. Various [[astrological]] theories predicted regular planetary effects on the earth and human health, but testing those failed.

The existence of God is thus not considered scientific theory, as no test can possibly be conceived which categorically disproves His existence. The same is the case for [[string theory]], which is a mathematical unification of scientific theory, but makes no predictions. Such things fall outside the realm of science.

== Charlatanism ==
The label ''pseudoscientist'' is commonly given to cranks and [[charlatans]], who claim abnormal powers and abilities, but refuse to demonstrate them in objective, controlled, monitored environments. For example, [[Uri Geller]] claims to be able to bend spoons without applying pressure to them, but he cannot do it in front of scientists or journalists. Countless conjurers and mediums claim to be able to speak with the dead, but controlled circumstances reveal that they are really only conducting clever psychological tricks.

== Metaphysics ==
Spiritual, metaphysical, philosophical, and religious beliefs are occasionally confused with pseudoscience, as there is often an overlap in rhetoric, and charlatans blur the lines between scientific and philosophical ideas of knowledge.

== Public belief ==
Despite evidence and logic against pseudoscientific theories, many remain popular among the public. Homeopathic medicine is available at most health-food stores and is a multi-billion dollar business, and 31% of Americans believe in astrology.

Notably, twice as many [[Democrats]] believe in astrology as [[Republicans]], showing a strong bent of irrationality and scientific illiteracy among [[liberals]].<ref>http://www.harrisinteractive.com/harris_poll/index.asp?PID=359</ref>

==Examples of pseudosciences==
[[Image:5712dawkins.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Within the [[evolution|evolutionary]] science community and the [[creation science]] community, Richard Dawkins has faced charges of engaging in pseudoscience and also has faced charges of committing elementary errors.<ref>http://www.truefreethinker.com/articles/send-clowns-–-richard-dawkins-obliges</ref><ref>http://creation.com/the-greatest-hoax-on-earth/main.php</ref> For more information, please see: [[Richard Dawkins and pseudoscience]] ]]
*[[Animal magnetism]]
*[[Astrology]]
*[[Dianetics]]
*Much of the work of [[Richard Dawkins]]<ref>http://www.truefreethinker.com/articles/send-clowns-–-richard-dawkins-obliges</ref><ref>http://creation.com/the-greatest-hoax-on-earth/main.php</ref> (see: [[Richard Dawkins and pseudoscience]])
*Much of the work of [[Carl Sagan]]
*Much of the work of [[Stephen Hawking]]
*[[Environmentalism]]
*[[Evolution|Evolutionary biology]]<ref>http://www.icr.org/home/resources/resources_tracts_scientificcaseagainstevolution/</ref><ref>http://www.grisda.org/origins/04004.htm</ref><ref>http://www.uncommondescent.com/darwinism/there-is-no-theory-of-evolution/</ref> <ref>http://members.iinet.net.au/~sejones/PoE/pe05scnc.html</ref><ref>http://www.parentcompany.com/science_kit/sk3b.htm</ref><ref>http://www.apologeticspress.org/rr/reprints/Evolution-Fact-or-Theory.pdf</ref>
*[[Theory of Relativity]]
*[[Free Energy]]
*[[Graphology]]
*[[Global warming]]
*[[Homeopathy]]
*[[Big Bang]] astronomy
*[[Iridology]]
*[[Lysenkoism]]
*[[Mesmerism]]
*[[Orgone therapy]]
*[[Osteopathy]]
*[[Parapsychology]]
*[[Phrenology]]
*[[Psychoanalysis]]
*[[Reflexology]]
*[[Transgenderism]]
*[[Ufology]]

== See also ==

*[[Essay: You obviously don't understand how science works|You obviously don't understand how science works]] - [[Satire]]
[[Counterexamples to Evolution]]
[[Counterexamples to Relativity]]
[[Counterexamples to the Big Bang]]

==References==
<references/>

[[Category: Pseudoscience]]

Counterexample

2010-11-01T20:49:54Z

AndrewWi: /* In Science and Logic */

A '''counterexample''' is an example that is opposite to a theory or argument.

==In Science and Logic==

A '''counterexample''' cannot disprove correlation or causation. An example of flawed [[liberal logic]] is the use of a counterexample to argue that a theory is false, as in "I don't go to church and I'm not a bad person, and therefore church is not needed."

Another example is the well-proven theory that cigarettes cause [[lung cancer]]. An '''counterexample''' of the (rare) individual who might smoke his entire life and not develop lung cancer. The counterexample does not disprove the theory.

A theory of universality, such as the claim that ''all'' species [[theory of evolution|evolved]], can be disproved by just one '''counterexample''', such as a species (like the [[whale]]) that lacks a plausible evolutionary path. See [[Counterexamples to Evolution]], [[Counterexamples to Relativity]].
[[category:logic]]

==In Mathematics==

The word counterexample originated in mathematics. It means an example that contradicts a general statement; therefore, the single example proves the statement false. Consider the statement

"Every number ending in the digit 7 is prime." 7, 17, 37, 47, 57, and 67 are all prime, but 27 is not, so 27 is a counterexample.[[Category:Mathematics]]

Talk:Carl Sagan

2010-10-08T19:50:21Z

AndrewWi:

Going to have to revisit this article. Carl Sagan brought science and astronomy in to the mainstream in the '80s and inspired many to get involve in the sciences. He was a brilliant writer and speaker on many topics...much more than just discussing the possibility of life outside of our solar system. [[User:Brewer13210|Brewer13210]] 07:26, 16 April 2007 (EDT)

:I was reading his stuff in the 70s as a school kid.
:[[User:WhatIsG0ing0n|WhatIsG0ing0n]] 07:28, 16 April 2007 (EDT)
::My first introduction to Carl Sagan came in 1980 when ''Cosmos'' first aired on PBS. Both informative and inspirational, it made some long lasting impressions on me. [[User:Brewer13210|Brewer13210]] 09:19, 16 April 2007 (EDT)
:::I was 3 when Cosmos came out, and I still remember sitting with my father, in the dark, watching the 'spaceship of the mind' hurdling through space, visiting the planets. Ah, memories...I know that is the impetus behind my interest in science. [[User:WesleyS|WesleyS]][[User Talk:WesleyS|<sup>Hello!</sup>]] 21:18, 3 December 2008 (EST)

::::Billions and billions ... it's enough to curdle your milk. Hey, remember when Carl Sagan debated [[Fred Singer]] about the Kuwaiti oil fires being like [[nuclear winter]]? Singer treated Sagan's dire prediction as a hypothesis and said let's wait a week and see if it's correct. It turned out Sagan's hypothesis was wrong. --[[User:Ed Poor|Ed Poor]] <sup>[[User talk:Ed Poor|Talk]]</sup> 21:23, 3 December 2008 (EST)

On the line referencing Sagan's "gullible fans" and "pseudoscience fantasies", this seems simply too slanderous to count as an informative statement that deserves a spot in an encyclopedia. I'd vote for removing this line. Any objections?[[User:AndrewWi|AndrewWi]] 15:50, 8 October 2010 (EDT)
::::Yes and you did not show the comments were slanderous. I did add material as well. [[User:Conservative|conservative]] 04:30, 10 September 2010 (EDT)
::::: "Gullible" is a subjective description, given without any source to support it, and was thus slanderous. However, I see you've taken that out and have included references to explain "pseudoscience fantasies", so I won't press the point. The section on the Barna Group seems to be lifted from the "Another Atheist Pothead" satire, and more addresses atheism rather than Carl Sagan's work. Perhaps this should be moved to the [[Atheism]] page? [[User:AndrewWi|AndrewWi]] 15:50, 8 October 2010 (EDT)

Talk:Carl Sagan

2010-10-08T19:48:42Z

AndrewWi:

Going to have to revisit this article. Carl Sagan brought science and astronomy in to the mainstream in the '80s and inspired many to get involve in the sciences. He was a brilliant writer and speaker on many topics...much more than just discussing the possibility of life outside of our solar system. [[User:Brewer13210|Brewer13210]] 07:26, 16 April 2007 (EDT)

:I was reading his stuff in the 70s as a school kid.
:[[User:WhatIsG0ing0n|WhatIsG0ing0n]] 07:28, 16 April 2007 (EDT)
::My first introduction to Carl Sagan came in 1980 when ''Cosmos'' first aired on PBS. Both informative and inspirational, it made some long lasting impressions on me. [[User:Brewer13210|Brewer13210]] 09:19, 16 April 2007 (EDT)
:::I was 3 when Cosmos came out, and I still remember sitting with my father, in the dark, watching the 'spaceship of the mind' hurdling through space, visiting the planets. Ah, memories...I know that is the impetus behind my interest in science. [[User:WesleyS|WesleyS]][[User Talk:WesleyS|<sup>Hello!</sup>]] 21:18, 3 December 2008 (EST)

::::Billions and billions ... it's enough to curdle your milk. Hey, remember when Carl Sagan debated [[Fred Singer]] about the Kuwaiti oil fires being like [[nuclear winter]]? Singer treated Sagan's dire prediction as a hypothesis and said let's wait a week and see if it's correct. It turned out Sagan's hypothesis was wrong. --[[User:Ed Poor|Ed Poor]] <sup>[[User talk:Ed Poor|Talk]]</sup> 21:23, 3 December 2008 (EST)

On the line referencing Sagan's "gullible fans" and "pseudoscience fantasies", this seems simply too slanderous to count as an informative statement that deserves a spot in an encyclopedia. I'd vote for removing this line. Any objections?
::::Yes and you did not show the comments were slanderous. I did add material as well. [[User:Conservative|conservative]] 04:30, 10 September 2010 (EDT)
::::: "Gullible" is a subjective description, given without any source to support it, and was thus slanderous. However, I see you've taken that out and have included references to explain "pseudoscience fantasies", so I won't press the point. The section on the Barna Group seems to be lifted from the "Another Atheist Pothead" satire, and more addresses atheism rather than Carl Sagan's work. Perhaps this should be moved to the [[Atheism]] page?

Arnold Schoenberg

2010-10-08T19:36:24Z

AndrewWi: Added a mention of "Five pieces for Orchestra"

'''Arnold Schönberg''' (1874-1951), Austrian composer, was largely self-taught; not having any formal training until he was in his twenties. His early works, written around the turn of the century, especially the massive “Gurrelieder” orchestral song cycle and passionately lyrical “Verklärte Nacht” for strings, continue the Germanic tradition, notably of Wagner; however within little more than a decade he was to revolutionise Western music by abandoning the use of a tonal centre – a complete break away from traditional harmony.<ref>http://www.schoenberg.at/1_as/bio/biographie_e.htm (See under the year "1908")</ref>

Before developing his new interpretations of free atonality and serialism, Schoenberg was well trained in traditional composition and orchestration. His early work "Five pieces for Orchestra" is an excellent example of mixing traditional harmonies with 20th century orchestration techniques.

This “free atonal” technique - developed in various genres: chamber pieces, songs, stage works - culminating in his most famous work, “Pierrot Lunaire”, for “song-speech” and 5 instruments (Op.21) - won him adherents as well as much criticism. With his two most prominent students, [[Anton Webern]] and [[Alban Berg]], he formed what is known as the “Second Viennese School” (a misnomer, really, as there never was a “First Viennese School”.) By 1923, Schönberg began codifying a new system of organizing atonal music, which he termed the "twelve-note" method of composition, later to be called "serialism." <ref>http://www.schoenberg.at/1_as/bio/biographie_e.htm (See under the year "1923")</ref> Webern and Berg immediately began composing with these new rules as well. Notable works of this period in Schönberg's development include the Variations for Orchestra (Op. 31) and the Piano Concerto (Op. 42). As radical as his music was, and despite its inaccessibility to the traditional “ear”, he was known to be technically proficient in the Brahmsian tradition and was in demand as a teacher. By 1924 he had gained sufficient official acceptance to be appointed professor at the Prussian Academy of Arts (where, as a Jew, he was forced to leave in 1933.)

He also wrote a number of books on composition, and was a highly respected painter in the Expressionist school.<ref>Norbert Wolf, Uta Grosnick, ''Expressionism,'' 2004</ref>

Schönberg moved to the United States in 1934 where his music turned somewhat back towards tonality, although it also became structurally more complex. He began teaching at UCLA and his compositional output declined. He died in Los Angeles in 1951.

==Quotes==
"I am at least as conservative as Edison and Ford have been. But I am, unfortunately, not quite as progressive as they were in their own fields."<ref>"My Attitude Towards Politics" (1950), Reprinted in ''Style and Idea'', University of California Press, p. 505. (Also available on [http://books.google.com/books?id=K9lMP5oqKEgC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Style++and+Idea&ei=hw5hS56WKJvKMa2V3e8N&cd=1&hl=en#v=onepage&q=edison&f=false Google Books])</ref>

[[Category: Composers]]
{{DEFAULTSORT:Schoenberg, Arnold}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

M. C. Escher

2010-10-08T19:29:08Z

AndrewWi: Noted that much of Escher's work was in lithographs.

'''M. C. Escher''' (Maurits Cornelis Escher) (1898-1971) was a [[Dutch]] graphic artist. His work consisted mostly of prints: lithographs, woodcuts, and wood engravings. His work has connections with mathematical themes. Many of them are based on [[tessellation]]s. One of his best known works is "Relativity", which displays several staircases with inhabitants walking each way on them: gravity pulls some inhabitants in different directions than others. "Relativity", like many of Escher's works, was originally done as a lithograph, but then later 'translated' to an ink-print.

His transformation pictures feature regular, repeating patterns of objects which change and transform, row by row or column by column. For example, in ''Sky and Water,'' rows of birds start out as realistic and detailed. In successive rows, the birds become less realistic, more stylized, and more vague, and gradually transform themselves into empty spaces between rows of fish at the bottom of the page. Meanwhile, the empty spaces between the birds gradually become more and more fish-shaped and transform themselves into solid fish.

One of his most elaborate transformation pictures, ''Metamorphose II'' is only nine inches high but over thirteen feet long (and difficult to frame!). A square pattern made from the word "Metamorphose" is transformed successively into a chessboard, lizards, hexagons, a beehive, bees, birds, fish, a rhombic pattern, a town (specifically Atrani, in Italy), then a chessboard with pieces (the rook on the chessboard is also a tower from Atrani's fortifications), and back again to the words "Metamorphose."

Some of his graphics are beautifully elaborated "impossible figures." ''Ascending and Descending'' shows a building with an impossible staircase forms a connected rectangle. One row of monk-like figures traverses the stair in a clockwise direction, always ascending, yet always returning to the same place, while another row traverses the same stairs in a counterclockwise direction, always descending, yet always returning to the same place.

M. C. Escher's work was popularized in the United States during the late 1950s and early 1960s by Martin Gardner, who wrote a regular column on mathematical recreations for ''Scientific American'' and devoted several columns to explorations of Escher's mathematical themes. The mind-boggling characteristics of his work also appealed to the appreciators of the "[[psychedelic]]" in the 1960s, and cheap poster versions of Escher arts found their way to the walls of college dormitory rooms.

==External links==
*[http://www.mcescher.com/ The Official M. C. Escher website]

[[Category:Artists|Escher, M. C.]]

Francis Crick

2010-10-08T19:24:10Z

AndrewWi: Corrected some layout errors.

[[File:Francis_Crick.jpg|thumb|right|Francis Crick]]
'''Francis Crick''' (1916 - 2004) was the British [[biophysicist]] who, together with the American [[James Watson]] discovered the structure of the molecule [[DNA]]. For this discovery Crick was awarded the [[Nobel Prize]] for Medicine in 1962 with Watson and [[Maurice Wilkins]]. Crick's level of contribution to the discovery of DNA is somewhat dubious, as he has been known to engage in pseudoscience.<ref>Press release from the British Humanist Association: [http://www.humanism.org.uk/site/cms/contentViewArticle.asp?article=1348 Darwin Day a natural holiday?] (12 February 2003).</ref> The exclusion of [[Rosalind Franklin]] from the Nobel prize is controversial since she did much of the [[X-ray]] crystallography work that made Crick and Watson's observations possible. The accusation of sexism often leveled at the judges is unfair however as the prize is never awarded posthumously and Franklin died, tragically, from [[cancer]] in 1958.

The discovery of the double helical structure of DNA is widely regarded as one of the most important of the 20th century as it is the basis for all future work on [[genetics]] and the theory of [[intelligent design]]. Crick's later research elucidated the mechanism whereby the nucleotide bases on a strand of DNA are transcribed into the [[amino acid]] 'building blocks' of protein molecules. Crick described himself as an [[agnostic]] with "a strong inclination towards [[atheism]]."<ref>Francis Crick, What Mad Pursuit: a Personal View of Scientific Discovery, Basic Books reprint edition, 1990, ISBN 0-465-09138-5, p. 145.</ref>

==References==
<references />

{{DEFAULTSORT:Crick, Francis}}

[[Category:Nobel laureates in Physiology or Medicine]]
[[Category:Biologists]]

Francis Crick

2010-10-08T19:23:35Z

AndrewWi: Noted Crick's unfortunate involvement in pseudoscience.

[[File:Francis_Crick.jpg|thumb|right|Francis Crick]]
'''Francis Crick''' (1916 - 2004) was the British [[biophysicist]] who, together with the American [[James Watson]] discovered the structure of the molecule [[DNA]]. For this discovery Crick was awarded the [[Nobel Prize]] for Medicine in 1962 with Watson and [[Maurice Wilkins]]. Crick's level of contribution to the discovery of DNA is somewhat dubious, as he has been known to engage in pseudoscience.<ref>Press release from the British Humanist Association: [http://www.humanism.org.uk/site/cms/contentViewArticle.asp?article=1348 Darwin Day a natural holiday?] (12 February 2003).</ref>

The exclusion of [[Rosalind Franklin]] from the Nobel prize is controversial since she did much of the [[X-ray]] crystallography work that made Crick and Watson's observations possible. The accusation of sexism often leveled at the judges is unfair however as the prize is never awarded posthumously and Franklin died, tragically, from [[cancer]] in 1958.

The discovery of the double helical structure of DNA is widely regarded as one of the most important of the 20th century as it is the basis for all future work on [[genetics]] and the theory of [[intelligent design]]. Crick's later research elucidated the mechanism whereby the nucleotide bases on a strand of DNA are transcribed into the [[amino acid]] 'building blocks' of protein molecules. Crick described himself as an [[agnostic]] with "a strong inclination towards [[atheism]]."<ref>Francis Crick, What Mad Pursuit: a Personal View of Scientific Discovery, Basic Books reprint edition, 1990, ISBN 0-465-09138-5, p. 145.</ref>

==References==
<references />

{{DEFAULTSORT:Crick, Francis}}

[[Category:Nobel laureates in Physiology or Medicine]]
[[Category:Biologists]]

Stephen Hawking

2010-10-08T19:18:13Z

AndrewWi: Added a comment on a possible connection between divorce rate and pseudoscience.

[[Image:Bvfgdtre.jpg|right|thumb|Stephen Hawking]]
'''Stephen Hawking''' is a [[United Kingdom|British]] [[physicist]] and [[author]]. He was born on January 8, 1942.

Despite suffering from Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis for most of his adult life he has written books popularizing [[science]]. His most famous books are ''[[A Brief History of Time]]'', ''[[Black Holes and Baby Universes]]'' , ''[[The Universe in a Nutshell]]'' and ''The Grand Design,'' in which he argues against the idea of the need for a Creator. <ref>http://www.theblaze.com/stories/hawking-says-god-not-needed-for-creation/</ref>

Hawking is credited with the development of the [[Big Bang]] Theory of the [[creation]] of the [[universe]]. He theorized that information can escape from a [[black hole]] in the form of [[Hawking Radiation]] wherein virtual dual particles will came close to the [[Event Horizon]] of a [[black hole]]. One half of the virtual dual particle will escape the pull of gravity, taking with it the information of the second virtual particle. It is thought that this eventually will cause the evaporation of the [[black hole]]<ref>http://library.thinkquest.org/C007571/english/advance/english.htm</ref>. He is also credited with advancing the understandings of [[black holes]]. Since 1979 he has been the [[Lucasian Professor of Mathematics]] at [[Cambridge University]], a post once held by [[Isaac Newton]] and [[Paul Dirac]].<ref>[http://www.hawking.org.uk Stephen W. Hawking's webpages]</ref>

Stephen Hawking combines his research with family life and acts to popularize science. He has appeared on [[The Simpsons]] and [[Star Trek|Star Trek: The Next Generation]] [[TV]] shows and contributed vocals through his speech synthesizer to the [[Pink Floyd]] album [[The Division Bell]] on the track [[Keep Talking]].

Hawking has been divorced twice.<ref>http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/1531891/Hawking-and-second-wife-agree-to-divorce.html</ref> It is unknown whether Hawking's history of divorces has contributed to his promotion of his pseudoscience fantasies.

Unfortunately, Hawking has yet to accept Jesus Christ as his Lord and Savior, and has indeed made the foolish comment that there is no place for a creator, claiming that all of God's Creation is self-contained and not affected by anything outside itself.<ref>http://www.qsmithwmu.com/stephen_hawking's_cosmology_and_theism_(1994).htm</ref>
==References==
<references/>

==External links==

*Creation Ministries International, [http://creation.com/stephen-hawking-god ''Hawking atheopathy: Famous physicist goes beyond the evidence'']
[[Category:Physicists|Hawking, Stephen]]

Pseudoscience

2010-09-04T16:42:05Z

AndrewWi: Added a reference to Stephen Hawking, considering his recent statement that there is scientifically no reason for God to be involved in the start of the universe.

'''Pseudoscience''' is theory or speculation which has the trappings and [[rhetoric]] of [[science]], and is presented as science, but is not generally accepted as valid science by the scientific community. Theories are typically classed as pseudoscientific if they fail the [[scientific method]]. Pseudoscientific theories are typically not [[falsifiable]], lack objectivity, and their purveyors show unwillingness to allow neutral outsiders to observe, test, or replicate their findings. There is no definitive or objective definition of the term "pseudoscience", which is also sometimes used as a pejorative term.<ref>R. G. A. Dolby, ''Uncertain Knowledge: An Image of Science for a Changing World'', Published by Cambridge University Press, 2002. ISBN 0521892627, 9780521892629, 380 pages. [http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xd3ylT3WTLEC&pg=PA191&dq=pseudoscience+pejorative&num=100&as_brr=3 Page 191]</ref><ref>Brian Stableford, ''Science Fact and Science Fiction'', Published by CRC Press, 2006, ISBN 0415974607, 9780415974608, 729 pages. [http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=uefwmdROKTAC&pg=PA410&dq=pseudoscience+pejorative&num=100&as_brr=3 Page 410]</ref>

== Falsifiability ==
The most cited element of scientific theory is [[falsifiability]], established by [[philosopher]] [[Karl Popper]]. A falsifiable theory makes predictions, which can be used to test it. Thus, the theory of gravity is falsifiable, as it predicts that an apple held above the ground and released will fall. If it fails the test, it is discarded, and if it passes, it is not proven, but better supported.

== Disproven science ==
The term pseudoscience is also often applied to theories which ''are'' falsifiable and have in fact been falsified and discarded. [[Phrenology]] predicted that psychological traits could be inferred from the shape of the skull, but no actual link was ever found. Various [[astrological]] theories predicted regular planetary effects on the earth and human health, but testing those failed.

The existence of God is thus not considered scientific theory, as no test can possibly be conceived which categorically disproves His existence. The same is the case for [[string theory]], which is a mathematical unification of scientific theory, but makes no predictions. Such things fall outside the realm of science.

== Charlatanism ==
The label ''pseudoscientist'' is commonly given to cranks and [[charlatans]], who claim abnormal powers and abilities, but refuse to demonstrate them in objective, controlled, monitored environments. For example, [[Uri Geller]] claims to be able to bend spoons without applying pressure to them, but he cannot do it in front of scientists or journalists. Countless conjurers and mediums claim to be able to speak with the dead, but controlled circumstances reveal that they are really only conducting clever psychological tricks.

== Metaphysics ==
Spiritual, metaphysical, philosophical, and religious beliefs are occasionally confused with pseudoscience, as there is often an overlap in rhetoric, and charlatans blur the lines between scientific and philosophical ideas of knowledge.

== Public belief ==
Despite evidence and logic against pseudoscientific theories, many remain popular among the public. Homeopathic medicine is available at most health-food stores and is a multi-billion dollar business, and 31% of Americans believe in astrology.

Notably, twice as many [[Democrats]] believe in astrology as [[Republicans]], showing a strong bent of irrationality and scientific illiteracy among [[liberals]].<ref>http://www.harrisinteractive.com/harris_poll/index.asp?PID=359</ref>

==Examples of pseudosciences==
[[Image:5712dawkins.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Within the [[evolution|evolutionary]] science community and the [[creation science]] community, Richard Dawkins has faced charges of engaging in pseudoscience and also has faced charges of committing elementary errors.<ref>http://www.truefreethinker.com/articles/send-clowns-–-richard-dawkins-obliges</ref><ref>http://creation.com/the-greatest-hoax-on-earth/main.php</ref> For more information, please see: [[Richard Dawkins and pseudoscience]] ]]
*[[Animal magnetism]]
*[[Astrology]]
*[[Dianetics]]
*Much of the work of [[Richard Dawkins]]<ref>http://www.truefreethinker.com/articles/send-clowns-–-richard-dawkins-obliges</ref><ref>http://creation.com/the-greatest-hoax-on-earth/main.php</ref> (see: [[Richard Dawkins and pseudoscience]])
*Much of the work of [[Carl Sagan]]
*Much of the work of [[Stephen Hawking]]
*[[Environmentalism]]
*[[Evolution|Evolutionary biology]]<ref>http://www.icr.org/home/resources/resources_tracts_scientificcaseagainstevolution/</ref><ref>http://www.grisda.org/origins/04004.htm</ref><ref>http://www.uncommondescent.com/darwinism/there-is-no-theory-of-evolution/</ref> <ref>http://members.iinet.net.au/~sejones/PoE/pe05scnc.html</ref><ref>http://www.parentcompany.com/science_kit/sk3b.htm</ref><ref>http://www.apologeticspress.org/rr/reprints/Evolution-Fact-or-Theory.pdf</ref>
*[[Theory of Relativity]]
*[[Free Energy]]
*[[Graphology]]
*[[Global warming]]
*[[Homeopathy]]
*[[Big Bang]] astronomy
*[[Iridology]]
*[[Lysenkoism]]
*[[Mesmerism]]
*[[Orgone therapy]]
*[[Osteopathy]]
*[[Parapsychology]]
*[[Phrenology]]
*[[Psychoanalysis]]
*[[Reflexology]]
*[[Transgenderism]]
*[[Ufology]]

==References==
<references/>

[[Category: Pseudoscience]]

Claude Shannon

2010-08-17T20:23:07Z

AndrewWi: Included a reference to Shannon's most widely known work.

'''Claude Shannon''' (April 30, 1916 – February 24, 2001) was an American electrical [[engineer]] and the father of modern [[communications theory (engineering)|communications theory]].<ref>{{hnb|MIT News Office|2001}}</ref> He is credited as one of the founders of [[information theory]], especially due to his writing of "A Mathematic Theory of Communication" in 1948, widely considered one of the most important founding documents of information theory.

== See also ==

[[Information]]

[[Information theory]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}
== Sources ==
*{{Harvard reference
| Surname = MIT News Office
| Year = 2001
| Date = 2001-02-27
| Title = MIT Professor Claude Shannon dies; was founder of digital communications
| Publisher = Massachusetts Institute of Technology
| URL = http://web.mit.edu/newsoffice/2001/shannon.html
}} retrieved on 2008-01-06
[[Category:Engineers]]

M. C. Escher

2010-08-17T20:21:11Z

AndrewWi: Added a reference to "Relativity", one of Escher's best known works.

'''M. C. Escher''' (Maurits Cornelis Escher) (1898-1971) was a [[Dutch]] graphic artist. His work consisted mostly of prints: lithographs, woodcuts, and wood engravings. His work has connections with mathematical themes. Many of them are based on [[tessellation]]s. One of his best known works is "Relativity", which displays several staircases with inhabitants walking each way on them: gravity pulls some inhabitants in different directions than others.

His transformation pictures feature regular, repeating patterns of objects which change and transform, row by row or column by column. For example, in ''Sky and Water,'' rows of birds start out as realistic and detailed. In successive rows, the birds become less realistic, more stylized, and more vague, and gradually transform themselves into empty spaces between rows of fish at the bottom of the page. Meanwhile, the empty spaces between the birds gradually become more and more fish-shaped and transform themselves into solid fish.

One of his most elaborate transformation pictures, ''Metamorphose II'' is only nine inches high but over thirteen feet long (and difficult to frame!). A square pattern made from the word "Metamorphose" is transformed successively into a chessboard, lizards, hexagons, a beehive, bees, birds, fish, a rhombic pattern, a town (specifically Atrani, in Italy), then a chessboard with pieces (the rook on the chessboard is also a tower from Atrani's fortifications), and back again to the words "Metamorphose."

Some of his graphics are beautifully elaborated "impossible figures." ''Ascending and Descending'' shows a building with an impossible staircase forms a connected rectangle. One row of monk-like figures traverses the stair in a clockwise direction, always ascending, yet always returning to the same place, while another row traverses the same stairs in a counterclockwise direction, always descending, yet always returning to the same place.

M. C. Escher's work was popularized in the United States during the late 1950s and early 1960s by Martin Gardner, who wrote a regular column on mathematical recreations for ''Scientific American'' and devoted several columns to explorations of Escher's mathematical themes. The mind-boggling characteristics of his work also appealed to the appreciators of the "[[psychedelic]]" in the 1960s, and cheap poster versions of Escher arts found their way to the walls of college dormitory rooms.

==External links==
*[http://www.mcescher.com/ The Official M. C. Escher website]

[[Category:Artists|Escher, M. C.]]

Carl Sagan

2010-08-14T23:57:40Z

AndrewWi: As suggested in the talk section of the page last week, removed the line suggesting that Sagan's work was pseudoscience, and that his fans are gullible.

'''Carl Sagan''' (1934-1996) was a professor of [[astronomy]] at [[Cornell University]] in Ithaca, New York, who became a celebrity on television and a vocal advocate for increased searches for intelligent life in outer space. In addition, Carl Sagan was an [[atheism|atheist]].<ref>http://creation.com/atheism</ref> ''Time'' magazine reported that Carl Sagan "talked with [[Jimmy Carter]] about such esoteric matters as [[black hole]]s and [[exobiology]] (the study of possible extraterrestrial life)."<ref>[http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,951539,00.html Frederic Golden, "The Cosmic Explainer," Time.com 20 Oct. 1980.]</ref> He was instrumental in the development of Search for Extra-Terrestrial Intelligence. ([[SETI]]) Carl Sagan was also an avid marijuana smoker who claimed marijuana gave him scientific insights.<ref>http://cosmologytalk.tribe.net/thread/7e25b81c-2529-44c6-b388-f926c2475e6a</ref>

Professor Sagan, like many scientists throughout the 20th century, believed that intelligent life may exist on planets other than Earth. <blockquote>"The significance of a finding that there are other beings who share this universe with us would be absolutely phenomenal, it would be an epochal event in human history," Sagan declared.<ref>[http://www.cnn.com/US/9612/20/sagan/ Norma Quarles, "Carl Sagan Dies at 62," CNN.com 20 Dec. 1996.]</ref></blockquote>

Indeed, Sagan's most popular work of fiction ''Contact'', later made into a movie, was about finding extraterrestrial life.

To Sagan, there was nothing beyond physical reality.

<blockquote>"The cosmos is all that is, or ever was, or ever will be."<ref>Cosmos series, 1980</ref></blockquote>

Professor Sagan would slip in a subtle pitch for [[disarmament]] as he proclaimed his devotion to finding extraterrestrial life:<ref>[http://www.cnn.com/US/9612/20/sagan/ Quarles]</ref>

:"We have looked close-up at dozens of new worlds. Worlds we never saw before. And unless we are so stupid to destroy ourselves, we are going to be moving out to space in the next century," he said. "And if I'm fortunate enough to have played a part in the first preliminary reconnaissance in the [[solar system]], that's a terrifically exciting thing."

He often made his opposition to nuclear weapons clear. An episode of Cosmos, "Who Speaks for Earth," dealt with the possibility of nuclear annihilation explicitly.

From a religious point of view, Sagan was an [[atheist]] or an [[agnostic]] depending upon how it is interpreted. In practice he was an atheist, but as a scientist could never say with certainty that evidence couldn't arise that is currently unknown that would point toward a god force, he is more correctly described as being agnostic.<ref>http://www.nndb.com/people/324/000022258/</ref><ref>http://www.adherents.com/people/ps/Carl_Sagan.html</ref>

At the height of his popularity, Sagan became something of a media celebrity, occasionally appearing on popular entertainment programs. His speaking style became well known, and one phrase of his was often spoofed and referenced in the media—"'''BILLIONS''' and '''BILLIONS'''"—with the words emphasized and drawn out, though he never actually used it.<ref>http://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/bday/1109.html</ref>

Sagan had a notable effect on the space program, being the man who conceived the first written message to go into space, on gold plaques attached to the Pioneer 10 and 11 spacecraft. Later, he would be a part of the team that assembled golden records, containing information on Earth's culture and daily life, that would go out with the Voyager space probes later.

==Climate change==

<blockquote>
"Though Dr. Sagan is one of the most frequently cited experts on atmospheric issues by the media, his predictions are often wrong. For example, at the outset of the Persian Gulf War, Sagan warned that if Saddam Hussein delivered on his threat to set fire to Kuwait's oil wells, so much black soot would be sent into the stratosphere that sunlight would be blocked and a variation of the "[[nuclear winter]]" scenario would occur. Hussein followed through on his threat and by the close of the war over 600 wells were on fire. But the fires had little environmental or climatic effect beyond the Gulf region and virtually no ill effects globally."<ref>http://www.nationalcenter.org/dos7124.htm</ref></blockquote>

[[Fred Singer]] famously rebutted Sagan's prediction on national TV and was vindicated a few days later, when Sagan's nuclear winter scenario failed to materialize.<ref>"Retired atmospheric physicist Fred Singer dismissed Sagan's prediction as nonsense, predicting ['''correctly'''] that the smoke would dissipate in a matter of days." [http://www.crystalinks.com/sagan.html] </ref>

== References ==

<references/>

{{DEFAULTSORT:Sagan, Carl}}
[[Category:Astronomers]]
[[Category:Authors]]
[[Category:Agnostics]]

Johann Sebastian Bach

2010-08-14T23:55:29Z

AndrewWi: Added the note that Bach's Leipzig position was highly respected one.

[[Image:Johann Bach.jpg|right]]
'''Johann Sebastian Bach''' (March 21, 1685 - July 28, 1750) was a [[German]] [[composer]] and organist active in the late [[Baroque]] era who has been recognized as one of greatest composers of the Western classical music tradition, often called the "master of masters."

By age 18, Bach was a church organist, and he stated his goal as composer and performer of music as follows:<ref>http://www.americanminute.com/index.php?date=2004-03-21&view=View</ref>

:"The aim and final end of all music should be none other than the glory of God and the refreshment of the soul. If heed is not paid to this, it is not true music but a diabolical bawling and twanging."

==Biography==

Bach came from an extremely musical family, which had been supported by local governments and churches throughout Germany for many years. After graduating from the St. Michael's School in Lüneburg, he became a court musician in Weimar, where his fame as a keyboardist began to spread. In this time, he also began a career as organ inspector, which he kept up in some form for the remainder of his life. Later in the year, Bach became the organist at St. Boniface's Church in Arnstadt with help from some family connections, where he often clashed with authorities over the quality of the choir and a long, unauthorized leave of absence where he visited the great composer Buxtehude, who became an important musical influence. After leaving the church and serving as the Kapellmeister and court organist in various cities, Bach ended up in [[Leipzig]] in 1723, where he spent the rest of his life.

As Cantor of the Thomasschule in Leipzig, Bach took on a greater variety of responsibilities, including teaching Latin and supervising the dormitories, and was never entirely respected by the authorities. Indeed, when he was hired, the council remarked "because the best men for the job could not be procured, we have been forced to accept a mediocre one instead."<ref>''New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians'', "J.S. Bach."</ref> The Leipzig position was considered one of the more prestigious posts that a musician could have in that country <ref> J. Peter Burkholder, A History of Western Music, pg. 443 </ref> Bach also simultaneously took the job of Director of Music in all of Leipzig's churches. In this capacity, he produced a stunning output of cantatas: between 1723 and 1729, he had produced close to three whole yearly cycles, or 300 cantatas.<ref>ibid.</ref>

After 1729, Bach also wrote much of his [[chamber music]], orchestral music, and keyboard works. He published many of the latter in his lifetime at his own expense,<ref>ibid.</ref> though most of his compositional output remained unpublished after his death.

Although Bach was always famous as an organist and his music remained well-loved in Leipzig, his music was mostly forgotten in Europe until several of his works were revived by the composer [[Felix Mendelssohn]], most importantly an 1829 performance of the [[St. Matthew Passion]].

Bach had several children who became famous composers in their own right, such as Wilhelm Friedemann Bach, Carl Phillipp Emmanuel Bach, and Johann Christian Bach.

==Music==

Bach was a devout [[Lutheran]], and much of his music was religious in nature. Bach attributed the beauty of his music to [[God]], by writing the letters "S.D.G." or "Soli Deo Gloria" in many of his scores. He is well-known for his complete mastery of [[counterpoint]], as well as his use of styles from many different regions of Europe. He also used the cruciform B-A-C-H motif in his work as a sign of devotion to [[Christ]], although future composers used it to pay homage to their great predecessor.

Important works include:
* The Mass in B Minor
* The [[St. Matthew Passion]]
* The St. John Passion
* The Christmas Oratorio (6 related cantatas)
* The 6 Brandenburg Concerti
* The Musical Offering
* The Art of Fugue
* The [[Well-Tempered Clavier|''Well-Tempered Clavier'']] (2 collections, each containing 24 preludes and fugues in all the major and minor keys)
* The 6 English Suites for keyboard
* The 6 French Suites for keyboard
* The 6 Partitas for keyboard
* many choral preludes, toccatas, toccatas and fugues, fugues, and other works for organ, including the famous Passacaglia and Fugue in C Minor and the Toccata and Fugue in D Minor
* The 4 Orchestral Suites
* The Goldberg Variations for keyboard
* The 12 2-part Inventions and 12 3-part Sinfonias for keyboard
* several hundred sacred and secular cantatas
* The 6 suites for unaccompanied cello

Some of his most famous pieces are drawn from the cantatas, including:
* ''Jesu, Joy of Man's Desiring''
* ''Sheep may Safely Graze''

Bach also had a great influence on composers who followed him. Composers such as [[Mozart]], [[Beethoven]], [[Schumann]], and Mendelssohn began using more contrapuntal elements in their works as a result of his influence. In addition, [[Chopin]]'s Preludes Op. 28 and [[Dmitri Shostakovich|Shostakovich]]'s Preludes and Fugues Op. 87 are based explicitly on the Well-Tempered Clavier. Other works that play explicit homage to Bach include Beethoven's Diabelli Variations and [[Franz Liszt]]'s Prelude and Fugue on B-A-C-H.

Important interpreters of Bach's works include:
* [[Glenn Gould]], pianist
* Wanda Landowska, harpischordist
* Rosalyn Tureck, pianist
* Angela Hewitt, pianist
* Pablo Casals, cellist
* [[Mark Steinbach]], organist
* Otto Klemperer, conductor
* Karl Richter, conductor, organist
* Phillippe Herreweghe, conductor

There have also been many "modernizations" of Bach's music by artists as varied as [[Wendy Carlos]] and [[Jethro Tull]].

==Trivia==
*Bach was an avid coffee-drinker, so much so that he wrote an ode to the drink in one of his secular cantatas (BMV 211), which was performed at Zimmerman's coffeehouse between 1732 and 1734.<ref>http://afactor.net/kitchen/coffee/kaffeeKantate.html</ref>
*Since Bach's music was virtually unknown outside of a small circle of Leipzig-based connoiseurs after his death, it was something of a miracle that composers Mozart and Beethoven learned of it.
**Beethoven's teacher as a boy, Christian-Gottlob Neefe (who came from Leipzig), made sure that Beethoven played Bach's Well-Tempered Clavier; the young genius had memorized all 48 by the age of 12!
**Mozart learned of Bach's music relatively late in life, in the 1780's, from Baron Gottfried van Swieten, an ambassador and connoiseur who brought Bach's music with him to Vienna (after he also had learned of it in Berlin). Swieten would hold all-night music sessions where only Bach and Handel was played; a few decades later, Beethoven would also be invited to Swieten's palace.







== External links ==

*[http://web.uvic.ca/~tonicxt/assign_1/composer.html Biography]
*[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PiqPxT_4FYk Glory to God Alone: The Life of J.S. Bach]
*[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ipzR9bhei_o Toccata and Fugue in D Minor] - an animation that's a cross between riding a roller coaster and playing Lode Runner



== References ==

<references/>

{{DEFAULTSORT:Bach, Johann Sebastian}}

[[Category:Composers]]
[[Category:German People]]

Galileo Galilei

2010-08-14T23:49:15Z

AndrewWi: /* Galileo's evidences for the Copernican model */

[[Image:Galileo.jpg|right|thumb|200px|'''Galileo Galilei'''<br> Subterman's portrait, circa 1640]]

'''Galileo Galilei''' (1564-1642), often referred to simply as '''Galileo''', was an [[Italy|Italian]] [[physicist]] and [[astronomer]] who improved the [[telescope]], contributed to the field of [[mechanical]] [[physics]], proposed the [[heliocentrism|heliocentric]] model of [[Copernicus]] as the accurate universal model, and later in life had a famous dispute with the [[Catholic Church]] in which they labeled him a [[heretic]]. The backdrop was the [[Reformation]]. Despite the Church being in a divided state, on this issue the [[Catholic Church]] spoke for all of Christianity. [[Protestant]]s [[Martin Luther]] and [[John Calvin]] had also both disputed the [[heliocentric]] model<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=JcMCmBnpHGsC&pg=PA155&dq=Galileo+Catholic+Priest&as_brr=3&ei=6BFJSZ2rD5qEkgSgzfSwAg#PPA155,M1 ''The Language of God: A Scientist Presents Evidence for Belief''], Francis S. Collins, Simon and Schuster, 2006, ISBN 0743286391, 9780743286398, 294 pages, p. 155</ref>.

Galileo first came to prominence when, in 1604, he demonstrated that a [[supernova]] was further away from the earth than the [[moon]]. At the time that was shocking as it was not expected within the earth-centered framework that existed at that time. It was also around this time that he invented a geometric and military compass. Galileo sought a patron, and made overtures to the Cosimo family, but had to supplement his income by selling his compass to students along with a handbook on how to use it. He also invented a primitive [[thermometer]] and a [[barometer]].

== His telescope and astronomical discoveries ==

In June or July of 1609, five years after his initial discovery, Galileo heard about the telescope, which had been invented in [[Netherlands|Holland]]. Without knowing the technical details of the construction of the device, he was able to create one for himself. Over time he continued to upgrade it. He found mountains on the Moon, viewed the phases of [[Venus]], and discovered four satellites around [[Jupiter]] as well as locating [[sunspots]].

In 1610 [[Galileo]] used the newly invented [[telescope]] to observe [[Jupiter]] and discovered four smaller bodies revolving around it.

[[NASA]] scientist Ron Baalke wrote
{{cquote| Galileo first observed the moons of Jupiter on January 7, 1610 through a homemade telescope. He originally thought he saw three stars near Jupiter, strung out in a line through the planet. The next evening, these stars seemed to have moved the wrong way, which caught his attention. Galileo continued to observe the stars and Jupiter for the next week. On January 13, a fourth star appeared. After a few weeks, Galileo had observed that the four stars never left the vicinity of Jupiter and appeared to be carried along with the planet, and that they changed their position with respect to each other and Jupiter. Finally, Galileo determined that what he was observing were not stars, but planetary bodies that were in orbit around Jupiter. [http://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/galileo/ganymede/discovery.html]}}

He published his finding in a paper titled "The Starry Messenger" which he dedicated to Grand Duke Cosimo II. His discoveries and publication led him to be appointed as Grand Duke court mathematician, a position he had coveted.

== The city fathers of Florence and the new bell ==

As Galileo became more well known, he was commissioned by the city father's of [[Florence]] to find a way to cast a new bell for the town. The local artisans had been unsuccessful, as the wooden mold for the bell's inner surface kept rising when molten metal was poured between it and the mold for the outer surface. Using [[Archimedes]] as his guide, Galileo explained that bodies must be heavier than the volume of liquid they displace or they will float to the surface. This view went against [[Aristotle]] who had claimed that objects floated when they "pierced" the skin of a liquid and escaped from it. Based on what Galileo told them, the Florence bell-casters succeeded in their task by increasing the pressure on the inner mold. Since Galileo had also recently shown that Aristotle was wrong about falling objects, he was walking on sensitive ground.<ref>''Christian History'', Issue 76, "Galileo and the Powers Above"</ref>

== Advocacy of the Copernican system and conflict with Church authorities ==

Until the sixteenth century, the prevailing view was that the [[Sun]], Moon, [[star]]s and [[planet]]s circled the [[Earth]] (the [[geocentrism|geocentric]] system, based on the second century work of [[Ptolemy]]). Puzzled astronomers noticed that [[Mars]], [[Jupiter]] and [[Saturn]] sometimes seemed to move backwards, but their motions were well within the predictions of Ptolemy's theory. The moon was considered to have more freedom of movement.

A Polish astronomer, Nicolaus [[Copernicus]] (1473-1543), published a model of the solar system ''De Revolutionibus'' in 1543, in which the earth and other planets circled the sun. The Catholic Church endorsed the book. The book’s preface (which was not written by Copernicus) argued that astronomical models have merit if they correctly predict observations, even if the underlying hypotheses cannot be proved.<ref>[http://webexhibits.org/calendars/year-text-Copernicus.html ''On the Revolutions'' - English translation.]</ref> The scientific evidence was inconclusive.

However, ancient [[Greek]] thought was idolized since it was re-discovered several hundred years before, being viewed almost on par with the [[Bible]] itself. The Ptolemaic system was the prevailing view at the time. Initially it was not the theologians who balked at Galileo's ideas, but rather mathematicians at the University of [[Pisa]] who were so outraged that he challenged Aristotle that they refused to even look through his telescope at the stars. Galileo wrote a privately-circulated pamphlet which argued that the Bible should be interpreted in the light of increasing knowledge, and warning that scientific opinion should not be treated as an article of faith. In this way he matched the great church father [[Saint Augustine]]. Quoting another of the early church fathers Galileo wrote <blockquote>''The intention of the Holy Ghost is to teach us how one goes to heaven, not how heaven goes.''</blockquote>

In 1613 a [[Dominican]] friar, [[Tommaso Caccini]], got a hold of Galileo's writing and preached a sermon against him. A mangled version of Galileo's writing was sent to [[Rome]]. Galileo heard of this and sent the full version. He was not terribly alarmed, knowing that many of the best minds in [[Italy]], including the [[Vatican]]'s mathematicians, were convinced on the heliocentric universe that his works had help to substantiate. Caccini's Dominican superior was so embarrassed that he sent a letter of apology to Galileo.

Caccini wasn't through, however, and gave an unsolicited deposition to the Inquisition about Galileo's views, which largely demonstrated his own ignorance on the subject. Nevertheless, the theologians who were given the case ruled in a manner that was not pleasing to Galileo when it was handed down. Galileo was told by the Inquisition that he must only use Copernican concepts as a hypothesis for the sake of calculation, without claiming that they had been literally proven true. Because Galileo had overstated the scientific case for the heliocentric theory and given some dubious theological arguments, the Inquisition ruling decided that: 1) the immobility of the Sun at the center of the universe was absurd in philosophy and formally heretical, and that 2) the mobility of Earth was absurd in [[philosophy]] and at least erroneous in theology. <ref> [http://www.hps.cam.ac.uk/starry/galileo.html ''[[University of Cambridge]], Department of History and Philosophy of Science'' - Galileo Galilei]</ref> The following month the Church’s [[Index of Forbidden Books]] required that nine sentences in Copernicus's book be corrected.

Looking back, it is hard to understand the decision, but in defense of the arbiters of that time, the view through Galileo's telescope was nothing like the quality of telescopes today. To untrained laymen, it would be difficult to know what was being viewed. Also, the concept of stellar parallax, a condition that had to exist if Galileo was right, could not be properly detected at the time. (Parallax is real, but due to the incredibly far distances of the stars in relationship to the earth's movement around the sun, it could not be detected until 1838, over 200 years later.)

== Using the principle of falsifiability to improve the scientific method ==
[[Image:Galileo....jpg|left|120px]]
Galileo tested [[Aristotle]]'s theory that heavy objects fall faster than light ones and found it was a consequence of air resistance, not [[gravity]]. By making careful measurements he found he could use mathematics to measure the acceleration of gravity and predict the movements of [[pendulum]]s and tides.

One of Galileo's most well-known and important discoveries was that of the evidences for heliocentrism. Galileo's two main evidences in this respect both came from the ability of his telescope to carefully examine the heavens: the moons of Jupiter and the shadows on the face of Venus. Both of these provided strong evidence against geocentrism (at the time this doctrine was not simply limited to the earth's being the center of the universe, but also that no extraterrestrial orbits existed). <ref> David Filkin, "Stephen Hawking's Universe", David Filkin Enterprises Limited, 1997, pg.44 - 46</ref>

Galileo got approval from Rome to write his book ''Dialogue on the Tides'', which discussed both the Ptolemaic and Copernican hypotheses, as long as it discussed both systems and did not draw a conclusion that would make the heliocentric world view be viewed as fact instead of theory. Rome changed the title to ''Dialogue on the Two Chief World Systems'' and it was published in Florence in 1632. Unfortunately for Galileo, the work was not made to be evenhanded. Indeed, the Ptolemaic character, called 'Simplicius' often stumbled over his own errors and seemed quite foolish. Galileo had moved out of bounds and even his name 'Simplicius' seemed designed to embarrass the Church. The Church felt they had made themselves clear. At a different time, the reaction might have been different, but it was in the middle of the [[30 years war]], the most deadly war in Europe ever fought between Catholics and Protestants, and embarrassing one side could result in the loss in life. Galileo claimed approval by the Church for his entire work, and that was simply false. It would be analogous today to someone speaking in the name of an organization in a way that embarrasses it, and the result is typically the same: the person is promptly fired and, if the harm is serious, often prosecuted. Put another way, Galileo's act was treasonous at a time of war. The Catholic Church felt compelled at a time of crisis to clarify its authority. At no time was there any claim of papal infallibility; this was a matter of misrepresentation of the Church's position.

The Church officials, who felt Galileo had embarrassed them, found that Galileo had erred by advocating in the name of the Church that heliocentrism was scientifically proven. This was not compatible with the Inquisition's 1616 ruling and what Galileo had recently been told. In 1633 Galileo was ordered to stand trial in Rome. Galileo could have left the Church but instead chose to submit voluntarily its authority and decision. According to the terms of his sentence, renounced his [[thesis]] of his [[book]]. At first he was sentenced to life imprisonment, but this was immediately commuted to luxurious house arrest. His book was burned, and the sentence against him was read aloud in public in every university. <ref>[http://encarta.msn.com/encnet/refpages/RefArticle.aspx?refid=761557587&pn=3 ''MSN Encarta'' - Galileo (p3)]</ref> Galileo went back to studying motion and mechanics in his private villa. He received the Pope's personal blessing before he died, which is a rare honor.

Galileo's theory of tides that he also promoted was proven to be false.

==''Dialogues Concerning Two New Sciences''==

Galileo’s last book, the 1638 work ''Dialogues Concerning Two New Sciences'', dealt with motion and mechanics. This work helped inspire [[Isaac Newton]] to create his theory of [[gravity]], which linked Galileo’s mathematics and physics to [[Johannes Kepler|Kepler’s]] laws of planetary movement.

[[Image:Galileobones.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Galileo's drawing of how the dimensions of different-sized bones need to vary to make them equally strong in relation to their function]]
In ''Two New Sciences,'' Galileo revealed a sophisticated understanding of engineering and what now would be called [[dimensional analysis]], the way in which the proportions of an engineering structure need to change as the size of the structure is scaled up. He applied this to [[biology]], explaining why the bones of a large animal need to be thicker in proportion to their size than those of smaller animals.

In an age before stopwatches, Galileo was able to make quantitative observations of uniformly-accelerated motion, using his pulse as a time reference and watching the slow acceleration of objects moving down inclined planes.

This book contains his famous discussion and thought experiment, in which he shows both by logic and by appeal to experiment that light and heavy objects fall at the same speed (contradicting Aristotle). One of his discussants says "But I, Simplicio, who have made the test can assure you that a cannon ball weighing one or two hundred pounds, or even more, will not reach the ground by as much as a span ahead of a musket ball weighing only half a pound, provided both are dropped from a height of 200 cubits."<ref>Crew, Henry and Alfonso de Salvio (1914), ''Dialogues Concerning Two New Sciences by Galileo Galilei,'' Northwestern University, 1939 reprint of 1914 Macmillan edition, p. 62</ref>.

Another discussant points out that this result is logical, by positing a large stone that moves at a speed of eight and a smaller one which moves at a speed of four, and showing that this leads to a contradiction if the stones are tied together. Since the smaller stone tends to fall more slowly, it ought to retard the motion of the larger one, so the combination should fall more slowly than the large stone by itself. However, "the two stones when tied together make a stone larger than before," and hence ought to fall more quickly than the large stone by itself.

It is interesting to see how Galileo was able to obtain quantitative results in physics before algebra and calculus were invented. The book uses the methods of geometry, and lays out "proofs" of physical relationships using a style and terminology similar to [[Euclid]]'s Elements.

In 1741, a century after Galileo's death in January 1642, the dispute with the Catholic Church was finally settled officially when the Church under [[Pope Benedict XIV]] bid the [[Holy Office]] grant an imprimatur to the first edition of the <i>Complete Works of Galileo</i>.<ref> [http://www.catholiceducation.org/articles/history/world/wh0005.html The Galileo Affair]</ref>

Stillman Drake of the [[University of Toronto]] [http://www.utpjournals.com/product/utq/701/galileo46.html] was for the last decades of his life the most original and important scholar to study this seventeenth-century physicist.<ref>[http://www.chass.utoronto.ca/imago/drake.html|The Stillman Drake Collection]</ref>

==Charges of heresy and theological error==
{{QuoteBox|The Holy Tribunal in Galileo's condemnation states: "The proposition that the sun is the center of the world and does not move from its place is absurd and false philosophically and formally heretical, because it is expressly contrary to the Holy Scripture.<br /><br />The proposition that the earth is not the center of the world and immovable, but that it moves, and also with a diurnal motion, is equally absurd and false philosophically, and theologically considered, at least erroneous in faith." <ref>Henderson, Thomas H., [http://www.christiananswers.net/q-eden/galileo.html What were Galileo's scientific and biblical conflicts with the Church?], quoting Janelle Rohr, editor, Science & Religion--Opposing Viewpoints (Greenhaven Press, 1988), p. 24.</ref>}}

==Noteworthy Facts==




*For his promotion of the Copernican view of the Solar System as though it were the Church's position, Galileo was accused by the Catholic Church of disobeying its authority and misrepresenting its position. This was a crime that was sometimes punishable by death, just as treason is so punished today. He was later cleared, but forbidden from publicly misrepresenting the Church's position.<ref name="nasabio"> [http://starchild.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/StarChild/whos_who_level2/galileo.html Galileo Galilei] - NASA bio</ref>.

*Galileo published a book in 1632 restating his belief in Copernicus theory. He was again called before the inquisition, this time being found guilty of publishing a book in the Church's name despite its disapproval. He was confined to house arrest, but never condemned<ref name="nasabio" />.

*The Catholic church admitted that mistakes had been made in 1992. In a speech Pope John Paul II declared the Galileo case closed, but did not admit that the church was wrong on the charge of misrepresenting the Church view at the time he was convicted.<ref>[http://www-history.mcs.st-and.ac.uk/Biographies/Galileo.html]</ref>

==External Links==
*[http://www.relativitycalculator.com/Galileo.shtml   Galileo Galilei - father of modern science according to Einstein]
==Further reading==
* Drake, Stillman. ''Galileo: Pioneer Scientist.'' (1990). 261 pp.
* Drake, Stillman. ''Galileo.'' (1981). 100 pp.
* Fantoli, Annibale. ''Galileo: For Copernicanism and for the Church.'' (1994). 540pp
* Feldhay, Rivka. ''Galileo and the Church: Political Inquisition or Critical Dialogue?'' (1995). 303 pp.
* Finocchiaro, Maurice A., ed. ''The Galileo Affair: A Documentary History.'' (1989). 382 pp. primary sources
* Reston, James. ''Galileo: A Life.'' (1994). 319 pp., popular
* Sharratt, Michael. ''Galileo: Decisive Innovator.'' (1994). 247 pp.

== References ==

<references />

{{DEFAULTSORT: Galileo Galilei}}
[[category:Physicists]]
[[Category:Astronomers]]
[[Category:Italian People]]
[[category:Platonists]]

Allele

2010-08-14T23:37:58Z

AndrewWi:

An '''allele''' is a variant form of a [[gene]]. Since many organisms have two [[chromosomes|chromosome]], they each have two alleles. Individuals that are homozygous possess two of the same allele, individuals that are heterozygous contain two different alleles. In the case that an individual is heterozygous, the allele that is expressed is known as the dominant allele.

==Classification of alleles==

There are two classification systems to categorize alleles.

===Recessive/Dominant===

The more common, and less scientifically-meaningful, is the [[recessive]]/[[dominant]] relationship. A recessive allele must be homozygous in order for the [[phenotype]] to be observed, whereas the phenotype caused by a dominant allele may mask recessive alleles.

More complex interactions may occur, such as co-dominance, when two dominant alleles may both manifest a phenotype. The weakness with this classification system is that an allele’s behavior depends on which other alleles are present, and so an allele may be recessive in some cases, and dominant (or co-dominant) in another.

====Example====

A useful illustrative example is the gene that encodes blood type. The “I” gene encodes a protein on the surface of blood cells. There are three common alleles: I[A], I[B], and I[O]. A human will have two of these alleles. A and B confer blood types A and B, respectively. An individual with two A alleles, or an A and an O allele will be blood type A, while an individual with two B alleles or a B and O allele will be blood type B. Hence, the O allele is recessive to both A and B alleles, and A and B are dominant to O. A and B are co-dominant, so that a person with A and B alleles will have blood type AB.

===Morphy===

A system proposed by Hermann Muller, and still in use today, is the classification of morphy.

====Amorph====
An amorphic allele, also called a null allele, is the absence of genetic information. This type of allele is usually caused by deletion of a gene, or deletion of enough of the gene so as to render it functionless.

====Hypomorph====
A hypomorphic allele has normal function, but less than normal. This type of allele is usually caused by damage to the gene, or more often, damage to the control or regulatory features of the gene. These often have a normal protein product, but less of it.

====Hypermorph====
A hypermorphic allele has increased gene function. Similar to a hypomorph, these alleles usually have alterations in the control or regulatory features of a gene.

====Neomorph====
A neomorphic allele has a novel or new function. These are often caused by the fusion of two existing genes, creating a hybrid protein product, or the fusion of one gene’s control or regulatory features with the protein encoding region of another gene, causing a gene to be expressed in a new pattern in an organism

====Antimorph====
An antimorphic allele inhibits or interferes with the function of another allele, causing a reduction in gene function of a normal allele.

This is the scientifically preferred nomenclature, since an allele’s morphy is dependent upon its relationship to a normal, or “wild-type,” allele. In general, amorphic and hypomorphic alleles are classified as “loss-of-function,” and often coincide with “recessive” alleles; hypermorphic, neomorphic, and antimorphic alleles generally are referred to as “gain-of-function,” and often coincide with dominant alleles.

[[Category:Genetics]]

Pseudoscience

2010-08-14T23:34:44Z

AndrewWi: Added the (liberal) Theory of Relativity, and some of the work of atheist Carl Sagan to the list of pseudosciences.

'''Pseudoscience''' is theory or speculation which has the trappings and [[rhetoric]] of [[science]], and is presented as science, but is not generally accepted as valid science by the scientific community. Theories are typically classed as pseudoscientific if they fail the [[scientific method]]. Pseudoscientific theories are typically not [[falsifiable]], lack objectivity, and their purveyors show unwillingness to allow neutral outsiders to observe, test, or replicate their findings. There is no definitive or objective definition of the term "pseudoscience", which is also sometimes used as a pejorative term.<ref>R. G. A. Dolby, ''Uncertain Knowledge: An Image of Science for a Changing World'', Published by Cambridge University Press, 2002. ISBN 0521892627, 9780521892629, 380 pages. [http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xd3ylT3WTLEC&pg=PA191&dq=pseudoscience+pejorative&num=100&as_brr=3 Page 191]</ref><ref>Brian Stableford, ''Science Fact and Science Fiction'', Published by CRC Press, 2006, ISBN 0415974607, 9780415974608, 729 pages. [http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=uefwmdROKTAC&pg=PA410&dq=pseudoscience+pejorative&num=100&as_brr=3 Page 410]</ref>

== Falsifiability ==
The most cited element of scientific theory is [[falsifiability]], established by [[philosopher]] [[Karl Popper]]. A falsifiable theory makes predictions, which can be used to test it. Thus, the theory of gravity is falsifiable, as it predicts that an apple held above the ground and released will fall. If it fails the test, it is discarded, and if it passes, it is not proven, but better supported.

== Disproven science ==
The term pseudoscience is also often applied to theories which ''are'' falsifiable and have in fact been falsified and discarded. [[Phrenology]] predicted that psychological traits could be inferred from the shape of the skull, but no actual link was ever found. Various [[astrological]] theories predicted regular planetary effects on the earth and human health, but testing those failed.

The existence of God is thus not considered scientific theory, as no test can possibly be conceived which categorically disproves His existence. The same is the case for [[string theory]], which is a mathematical unification of scientific theory, but makes no predictions. Such things fall outside the realm of science.

== Charlatanism ==
The label ''pseudoscientist'' is commonly given to cranks and [[charlatans]], who claim abnormal powers and abilities, but refuse to demonstrate them in objective, controlled, monitored environments. For example, [[Uri Geller]] claims to be able to bend spoons without applying pressure to them, but he cannot do it in front of scientists or journalists. Countless conjurers and mediums claim to be able to speak with the dead, but controlled circumstances reveal that they are really only conducting clever psychological tricks.

== Metaphysics ==
Spiritual, metaphysical, philosophical, and religious beliefs are occasionally confused with pseudoscience, as there is often an overlap in rhetoric, and charlatans blur the lines between scientific and philosophical ideas of knowledge.

== Public belief ==
Despite evidence and logic against pseudoscientific theories, many remain popular among the public. Homeopathic medicine is available at most health-food stores and is a multi-billion dollar business, and 31% of Americans believe in astrology.

Notably, twice as many [[Democrats]] believe in astrology as [[Republicans]], showing a strong bent of irrationality and scientific illiteracy among [[liberals]].<ref>http://www.harrisinteractive.com/harris_poll/index.asp?PID=359</ref>

==Examples of pseudosciences==
[[Image:5712dawkins.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Within the [[evolution|evolutionary]] science community and the [[creation science]] community, Richard Dawkins has faced charges of engaging in pseudoscience and also has faced charges of committing elementary errors.<ref>http://www.truefreethinker.com/articles/send-clowns-–-richard-dawkins-obliges</ref><ref>http://creation.com/the-greatest-hoax-on-earth/main.php</ref> For more information, please see: [[Richard Dawkins and pseudoscience]] ]]
*[[Animal magnetism]]
*[[Astrology]]
*[[Dianetics]]
*Much of the work of [[Richard Dawkins]]<ref>http://www.truefreethinker.com/articles/send-clowns-–-richard-dawkins-obliges</ref><ref>http://creation.com/the-greatest-hoax-on-earth/main.php</ref> (see: [[Richard Dawkins and pseudoscience]])
*Much of the work of [[Carl Sagan]]
*[[Environmentalism]]
*[[Evolution|Evolutionary biology]]<ref>http://www.icr.org/home/resources/resources_tracts_scientificcaseagainstevolution/</ref><ref>http://www.grisda.org/origins/04004.htm</ref><ref>http://www.uncommondescent.com/darwinism/there-is-no-theory-of-evolution/</ref> <ref>http://members.iinet.net.au/~sejones/PoE/pe05scnc.html</ref><ref>http://www.parentcompany.com/science_kit/sk3b.htm</ref><ref>http://www.apologeticspress.org/rr/reprints/Evolution-Fact-or-Theory.pdf</ref>
*[[Theory of Relativity]]
*[[Free Energy]]
*[[Graphology]]
*[[Global warming]]
*[[Homeopathy]]
*[[Iridology]]
*[[Lysenkoism]]
*[[Mesmerism]]
*[[Orgone therapy]]
*[[Osteopathy]]
*[[Parapsychology]]
*[[Phrenology]]
*[[Psychoanalysis]]
*[[Reflexology]]
*[[Transgenderism]]
*[[Ufology]]

==References==
<references/>

[[Category: Pseudoscience]]

Pseudoscience

2010-08-14T23:33:24Z

AndrewWi:

'''Pseudoscience''' is theory or speculation which has the trappings and [[rhetoric]] of [[science]], and is presented as science, but is not generally accepted as valid science by the scientific community. Theories are typically classed as pseudoscientific if they fail the [[scientific method]]. Pseudoscientific theories are typically not [[falsifiable]], lack objectivity, and their purveyors show unwillingness to allow neutral outsiders to observe, test, or replicate their findings. There is no definitive or objective definition of the term "pseudoscience", which is also sometimes used as a pejorative term.<ref>R. G. A. Dolby, ''Uncertain Knowledge: An Image of Science for a Changing World'', Published by Cambridge University Press, 2002. ISBN 0521892627, 9780521892629, 380 pages. [http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xd3ylT3WTLEC&pg=PA191&dq=pseudoscience+pejorative&num=100&as_brr=3 Page 191]</ref><ref>Brian Stableford, ''Science Fact and Science Fiction'', Published by CRC Press, 2006, ISBN 0415974607, 9780415974608, 729 pages. [http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=uefwmdROKTAC&pg=PA410&dq=pseudoscience+pejorative&num=100&as_brr=3 Page 410]</ref>

== Falsifiability ==
The most cited element of scientific theory is [[falsifiability]], established by [[philosopher]] [[Karl Popper]]. A falsifiable theory makes predictions, which can be used to test it. Thus, the theory of gravity is falsifiable, as it predicts that an apple held above the ground and released will fall. If it fails the test, it is discarded, and if it passes, it is not proven, but better supported.

== Disproven science ==
The term pseudoscience is also often applied to theories which ''are'' falsifiable and have in fact been falsified and discarded. [[Phrenology]] predicted that psychological traits could be inferred from the shape of the skull, but no actual link was ever found. Various [[astrological]] theories predicted regular planetary effects on the earth and human health, but testing those failed.

The existence of God is thus not considered scientific theory, as no test can possibly be conceived which categorically disproves His existence. The same is the case for [[string theory]], which is a mathematical unification of scientific theory, but makes no predictions. Such things fall outside the realm of science.

== Charlatanism ==
The label ''pseudoscientist'' is commonly given to cranks and [[charlatans]], who claim abnormal powers and abilities, but refuse to demonstrate them in objective, controlled, monitored environments. For example, [[Uri Geller]] claims to be able to bend spoons without applying pressure to them, but he cannot do it in front of scientists or journalists. Countless conjurers and mediums claim to be able to speak with the dead, but controlled circumstances reveal that they are really only conducting clever psychological tricks.

== Metaphysics ==
Spiritual, metaphysical, philosophical, and religious beliefs are occasionally confused with pseudoscience, as there is often an overlap in rhetoric, and charlatans blur the lines between scientific and philosophical ideas of knowledge.

== Public belief ==
Despite evidence and logic against pseudoscientific theories, many remain popular among the public. Homeopathic medicine is available at most health-food stores and is a multi-billion dollar business, and 31% of Americans believe in astrology.

Notably, twice as many [[Democrats]] believe in astrology as [[Republicans]], showing a strong bent of irrationality and scientific illiteracy among [[liberals]].<ref>http://www.harrisinteractive.com/harris_poll/index.asp?PID=359</ref>

==Examples of pseudosciences==
[[Image:5712dawkins.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Within the [[evolution|evolutionary]] science community and the [[creation science]] community, Richard Dawkins has faced charges of engaging in pseudoscience and also has faced charges of committing elementary errors.<ref>http://www.truefreethinker.com/articles/send-clowns-–-richard-dawkins-obliges</ref><ref>http://creation.com/the-greatest-hoax-on-earth/main.php</ref> For more information, please see: [[Richard Dawkins and pseudoscience]] ]]
*[[Animal magnetism]]
*[[Astrology]]
*[[Dianetics]]
*Much of the work of [[Richard Dawkins]]<ref>http://www.truefreethinker.com/articles/send-clowns-–-richard-dawkins-obliges</ref><ref>http://creation.com/the-greatest-hoax-on-earth/main.php</ref> (see: [[Richard Dawkins and pseudoscience]])
*[[Environmentalism]]
*[[Evolution|Evolutionary biology]]<ref>http://www.icr.org/home/resources/resources_tracts_scientificcaseagainstevolution/</ref><ref>http://www.grisda.org/origins/04004.htm</ref><ref>http://www.uncommondescent.com/darwinism/there-is-no-theory-of-evolution/</ref> <ref>http://members.iinet.net.au/~sejones/PoE/pe05scnc.html</ref><ref>http://www.parentcompany.com/science_kit/sk3b.htm</ref><ref>http://www.apologeticspress.org/rr/reprints/Evolution-Fact-or-Theory.pdf</ref>
*[[Theory of Relativity]]
*[[Free Energy]]
*[[Graphology]]
*[[Global warming]]
*[[Homeopathy]]
*[[Iridology]]
*[[Lysenkoism]]
*[[Mesmerism]]
*[[Orgone therapy]]
*[[Osteopathy]]
*[[Parapsychology]]
*[[Phrenology]]
*[[Psychoanalysis]]
*[[Reflexology]]
*[[Transgenderism]]
*[[Ufology]]

==References==
<references/>

[[Category: Pseudoscience]]

Talk:Carl Sagan

2010-08-06T03:41:30Z

AndrewWi: Began the topic to discuss removing the "gullible fans" line.

Homo habilis

2010-08-06T03:38:08Z

AndrewWi: Added a possible explanation of Homo Habilis finds suggest by "Of Pandas And People".

[[Image:Homo habilis.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Homo habilis skull]]
Evolutionists believe that '''Homo habilis''' was an early member of the [[genus]] [[homo]] that lived from about 2.5 million years ago to about 1.8 million years ago. According to them, it was followed by [[Homo ergaster]]. [[Young Earth Creationism|Young Earth creationists]] reject the evolutionary timescale and believe that Homo habilis were humans or apes drowned in the [[Great Flood]] about 5,500 years ago.

The book "Of Pandas And People" suggests that the presence of tools found near Homo Habilis finds might be explained by human fossils being found nearby <ref> Percival Davis, "Of Pandas And People", Haughton Publishing Company, Dallas, Texas, 1993 </ref>

== References ==
<div class="references-small">
<references />
</div>

[[Category:Hominid]]

National Center for Science Education

2010-08-06T03:30:51Z

AndrewWi: Fixed the missing References tag

The '''National Center for Science Education''' (NCSE) is a not-for-profit organization that advocates teaching the [[theory of evolution]] in [[U.S.]] [[public school]]s, to the exclusion of [[scientific creationism]] and [[intelligent design]], which it erroneously contends is a form of [[creationism]]. The NCSE acted as a consultant for the plaintiffs in the 2005 [[Kitzmiller vs. Dover Trial]] <ref> Eugenie C. Scott, "Evolution vs. Creationism: An Introduction", Greenwood Press, 2009 </ref>

The NCSE is responsible for "[[Project Steve]]", a propaganda campaign based on a logically-fallacious ''[[Logical fallacies#Proof by numbers|argument ad populum]]''.

== External links ==
*[http://www.natcenscied.org/ National Center for Science Education]

== References ==
<div class="references-small">
<references />
</div>

[[category:Political Organizations]]

National Center for Science Education

2010-08-06T03:26:05Z

AndrewWi:

The '''National Center for Science Education''' (NCSE) is a not-for-profit organization that advocates teaching the [[theory of evolution]] in [[U.S.]] [[public school]]s, to the exclusion of [[scientific creationism]] and [[intelligent design]], which it erroneously contends is a form of [[creationism]]. The NCSE acted as a consultant for the plaintiffs in the 2005 [[Kitzmiller vs. Dover Trial]] <ref> Eugenie C. Scott, "Evolution vs. Creationism: An Introduction", Greenwood Press, 2009 <ref/>

The NCSE is responsible for "[[Project Steve]]", a propaganda campaign based on a logically-fallacious ''[[Logical fallacies#Proof by numbers|argument ad populum]]''.

== External links ==
*[http://www.natcenscied.org/ National Center for Science Education]

[[category:Political Organizations]]

National Center for Science Education

2010-08-06T03:25:37Z

AndrewWi: Added a line mentioning the NCSE's participation in the Kitzmiller vs. Dover trial.

Thermodynamics

2010-08-06T03:17:24Z

AndrewWi:

'''Thermodynamics''' is the study of the effects of work, heat, and energy on a system. Thermodynamics is only concerned with so-called ''macroscopic'' observations, which are observations on large numbers of particles.<ref>http://www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/K-12/airplane/thermo.html</ref> Measurements in thermodynamics are usually reported on the [[Kelvin scale]] <ref>David Halliday, "Fundamentals of Physics Extended", John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1997 </ref>

==Thermodynamics and statistical mechanics==

For systems consisting of many particles (such as a [[gas]] consisting of many [[molecule]]s), it is possible to describe and predict the properties of the system accurately, even though it is virtually impossible to know what individual particles do. In essence, because of the large number of particles, one can apply [[statistics]] to learn about the "average" behavior of the system. The branch of [[physics]] known as [[statistical mechanics]] does just this.

"Classical" thermodynamics, on the other hand, predates this field, and makes ''no'' explicit reference to the constituent particles of a system. It consists of a number of "empirical" laws, which are derived purely from observations on thermodynamical systems, such as vessels of gas, or [[steam engine]]s. Well-known "laws" of thermodynamics are:<ref>Mark W. Zemansky, ''Heat and Thermodynamics'', McGraw-Hill, New York, 1957</ref>

;[[The Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics]]
:allows us to define the concept of [[temperature]], by stating that "''Two systems in thermal [[equilibrium]] with a third one are in thermal equilibrium with each other''". This law is called "zeroth" because it was only formulated after the three others, but is actually more fundamental, and hence deserves a lower number.
;[[The First Law of Thermodynamics]]
:states that [[energy]] is conserved and that [[heat]] and [[work]] are transfers of energy.
; [[Second Law of Thermodynamics|The Second Law of Thermodynamics]]
:states (in one of its various formulations) that [[entropy]] in an isolated system cannot decrease, and that ''irreversible processes'' can only make it increase.<ref>Gregory H. Wannier, ''Statistical Physics'', John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1966</ref> An equivalent formulation states that heat cannot spontaneously flow from a cooler body to a hotter body.
;[[The Third Law of Thermodynamics]]
:also known as ''Nernst's Law'', states that it is not possible to bring any system to the [[absolute zero]] of temperature in a finite number of operations. Also stated as follows: The entropy of a perfect crystal at absolute zero is zero.

These laws tell us to what constraints ''any'' system is subject. For example, it allows us to calculate the maximum possible efficiency of an [[engine]] once we know the temperature at which it operates.

The particular properties of a specific system cannot be calculated from these laws alone. More information is required: so-called ''thermodynamic equations of state'' tell us how a particular system will behave under thermodynamic processes. A simple example of such an equation is the [[Ideal Gas Law]] that applies to dilute gases.

== References ==
<div class="references-small">
<references />
</div>

[[category:physics]]

Thermodynamics

2010-08-06T03:15:29Z

AndrewWi:

'''Thermodynamics''' is the study of the effects of work, heat, and energy on a system. Thermodynamics is only concerned with so-called ''macroscopic'' observations, which are observations on large numbers of particles.<ref>http://www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/K-12/airplane/thermo.html</ref> Measurements in thermodynamics are usually reported on the [Kelvin scale] <ref>David Halliday, "Fundamentals of Physics Extended", John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1997 </ref>

==Thermodynamics and statistical mechanics==

For systems consisting of many particles (such as a [[gas]] consisting of many [[molecule]]s), it is possible to describe and predict the properties of the system accurately, even though it is virtually impossible to know what individual particles do. In essence, because of the large number of particles, one can apply [[statistics]] to learn about the "average" behavior of the system. The branch of [[physics]] known as [[statistical mechanics]] does just this.

"Classical" thermodynamics, on the other hand, predates this field, and makes ''no'' explicit reference to the constituent particles of a system. It consists of a number of "empirical" laws, which are derived purely from observations on thermodynamical systems, such as vessels of gas, or [[steam engine]]s. Well-known "laws" of thermodynamics are:<ref>Mark W. Zemansky, ''Heat and Thermodynamics'', McGraw-Hill, New York, 1957</ref>

;[[The Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics]]
:allows us to define the concept of [[temperature]], by stating that "''Two systems in thermal [[equilibrium]] with a third one are in thermal equilibrium with each other''". This law is called "zeroth" because it was only formulated after the three others, but is actually more fundamental, and hence deserves a lower number.
;[[The First Law of Thermodynamics]]
:states that [[energy]] is conserved and that [[heat]] and [[work]] are transfers of energy.
; [[Second Law of Thermodynamics|The Second Law of Thermodynamics]]
:states (in one of its various formulations) that [[entropy]] in an isolated system cannot decrease, and that ''irreversible processes'' can only make it increase.<ref>Gregory H. Wannier, ''Statistical Physics'', John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1966</ref> An equivalent formulation states that heat cannot spontaneously flow from a cooler body to a hotter body.
;[[The Third Law of Thermodynamics]]
:also known as ''Nernst's Law'', states that it is not possible to bring any system to the [[absolute zero]] of temperature in a finite number of operations. Also stated as follows: The entropy of a perfect crystal at absolute zero is zero.

These laws tell us to what constraints ''any'' system is subject. For example, it allows us to calculate the maximum possible efficiency of an [[engine]] once we know the temperature at which it operates.

The particular properties of a specific system cannot be calculated from these laws alone. More information is required: so-called ''thermodynamic equations of state'' tell us how a particular system will behave under thermodynamic processes. A simple example of such an equation is the [[Ideal Gas Law]] that applies to dilute gases.

== References ==
<div class="references-small">
<references />
</div>

[[category:physics]]