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Satan

2008-11-09T12:37:44Z

AnthonyToddler: trying to remove too-obvious bias (some bias is ok, but I think too much just damages CP)

{{pp-semi|small=yes}}
{{twootheruses|the concept of Satan|the concept of "devil"|Devil}}

[[Image:GustaveDoreParadiseLostSatanProfile.jpg|260px|thumb|[[Gustave Doré]]'s depiction of Satan from [[John Milton]]'s ''[[Paradise Lost]]''.]]
'''Satan''' ([[Standard Hebrew]] '''Satan'el''', [[English language|English]] ''accuser'') is a term that originates from the [[Abrahamic faiths]], being traditionally applied to an [[angel]] in [[Judeo-Christian]] belief, and to a [[Genie|jinn]] in [[Islamic]] belief.

While Hebrew ha-Satan is "the accuser" and Satan itself means "to overcome" — the one who challenged the religious faith of humans in the books of [[Book of Job|Job]] and [[Book of Zechariah|Zechariah]] — Abrahamic religious belief systems other than [[Judaism]] relate this term to a [[demon]], a rebellious [[fallen angel]], [[devil]], minor god and [[idolatry|idol]], or as an [[allegory]] for [[knowledge]] or the enlightenment of mankind.

==Etymology==
[[Image:Codex Gigas devil.jpg|thumb|right|200px|[[Satan]] as seen in [[Codex Gigas]].]]

The word 'Satan', and the [[Arabic]] ''شيطان'' "shaitan", may derive from a Northwest Semitic root ''{{unicode|śṭn}}'', meaning "to be hostile", "to accuse."<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.bartleby.com/61/roots/S301.html| title=American Heritage® Dictionary: Semitic roots: sn| accessdate=2006-05-31}}</ref> An alternative explanation is provided by the Hebrew in {{bibleverse||Job|1:7|HE}}. When [[God]] asks him whence he has come, Satan answers: "From wandering (''{{unicode|mi'ŝuṭ}}'') the earth and walking on it" (מִשּׁוּט בָּאָרֶץ, וּמֵהִתְהַלֵּךְ בָּה). The root ''{{unicode|ŝuṭ}}'' signifies wandering on foot or sailing. 'Satan' would thus be "the Wanderer".

'Satan' is {{unicode|שָׂטָן}} ''Satan'' in [[Standard Hebrew]], ''{{unicode|Śāṭān}}'' in [[Tiberian Hebrew]], {{unicode|סטנא}} ''{{unicode|Sāṭānā'}}'' in [[Aramaic language|Aramaic]], Σατανάς ''Satanás'' in [[Koine Greek]], {{unicode|شيطان}} ''{{unicode|Šeytân}}'' in [[Persian language|Persian]], {{unicode|شيطان}} ''{{unicode|Šayṭān}}'' in [[Arabic language|Arabic]], {{unicode|ሳይጣን}} ''{{Unicode|Sāyṭān}}'' in [[Ge'ez alphabet|Ge'ez]], ''{{unicode|Şeytan}}'' in [[Turkish language|Turkish]], and {{unicode|شيطان}} ''{{unicode|Shāitān}}'' in [[Urdu language|Urdu]].

==In Judaism==
===In the Hebrew Apocrypha===
[[The Apocrypha]] are religious writings which are not generally accepted as scripture by [[Judaism]] and many modern-day Protestant sects of [[Christianity]]. These works usually bore the names of ancient Hebrew worthies in order to establish their validity among the true writers' contemporaries. To reconcile the late appearance of the texts with their claims to primitive antiquity, alleged authors are represented as "shutting up and sealing" (Dan. XII. 4:9) the works until the time of their fulfillment had arrived; as the texts were not meant for their own generations but for far-distant ages (also cited in [[Assumption of Moses]] I. 16:17).

In the [[Book of Wisdom]], the devil is represented as the being who brought death into the world.<ref>"But by the envy of the devil, death came into the world" - Book of Wisdom II. 24</ref>

The 2nd Book of Enoch, also called the [[2 Enoch|Slavonic Book of Enoch]], contains references to a Watcher [[Grigori]] called Satanael.<ref>[[2 Enoch]] 18:3</ref> It is a [[pseudepigraphic]] text of an uncertain date and unknown authorship. The text describes Satanael as being the prince of the Grigori who was cast out of heaven<ref>"And I threw him out from the height with his angels, and he was flying in the air continuously above the bottomless" - [[2 Enoch]] 29:4</ref> and an evil spirit who knew the difference between what was "righteous" and "sinful".<ref>"The devil is the evil spirit of the lower places, as a fugitive he made Sotona from the heavens as his name was Satanail, thus he became different from the angels, but his nature did not change his intelligence as far as his understanding of righteous and sinful things" - [[2 Enoch]] 31:4</ref> A similar story is found in the book of [[1 Enoch]]; however, in that book, the leader of the Grigori is called [[Samyaza|Semjâzâ]].

In the apocryphal literature, Satan rules over a host of angels.<ref>''[[Martyrdom of Isaiah]]'', 2:2; ''[[Vita Adæ et Evæ]]'', 16)</ref> [[Mastema]], who induced God to test Abraham through the sacrifice of Isaac, is identical with Satan in both name and nature.<ref>[[Book of Jubilees]], xvii. 18</ref>

For the [[Chasidic Jew]]s of the eighteenth century, Ha-satan was ''Baal Davar''.<ref>The Dictionary of Angels" by Gustav Davidson, © 1967</ref>

The [[Book of Enoch]] contains references to [[Satariel]], thought also to be [[Sataniel]] and [[Satanel|Satan'el]] (entomology dating back to [[Babylonian]] origins). The similar spellings mirror that of his angelic brethren [[Michael (archangel)|Michael]], [[Raphael (angel)|Raphael]], [[Uriel]] and [[Gabriel]], previous to his expulsion from Heaven.

===As the "accuser"===
Where Satan does appear in the Bible, he plays the role of the Accuser.

According to the article on 'Satan' in the [[Jewish Encyclopedia]], Satan's role as the accuser is found:
{{bquote|in the prologue to the Book of Job, where Satan appears, together with other celestial beings before the Deity, replying to the inquiry of God as to whence he had come, with the words: 'From going to and fro in the earth, and from walking up and down in it.' (Job 1:7) Both question and answer, as well as the dialogue which follows, characterize Satan as having the evil purpose of searching out men's sins and appearing as their accuser. He is, therefore, the celestial prosecutor, who sees only iniquity; for he persists in his evil opinion of Job even after the man of Uz has passed successfully through his first trial by surrendering to the will of God, whereupon Satan demands another test through physical suffering. (ib. ii. 3-5.)}}

{{bquote|Yet it is also evident from the prologue that Satan has no power of independent action, but requires the permission of God, which he may not transgress. He cannot be regarded, therefore, as an opponent of the Deity; and the doctrine of monotheism is disturbed by his existence no more than by the presence of other beings before the face of God. This view is also retained in Zech. 3:1-2, where Satan is described as the adversary of the high priest [[Joshua]], and of the people of God whose representative the hierarch is; and he there opposes the 'angel of the Lord' who bids him be silent in the name of God.}}

{{bquote|In both of these passages Satan acts only under permission; but in I Chron. 21:1 he appears as one who is able to provoke [[David]] to destroy Israel. The Chronicler (third century B.C.) regards Satan as an independent agent, a view which is the more striking since the source whence he drew his account (II Sam. 24:1) speaks of God Himself as the one who moved David against the children of [[Israel]]. Since the older conception refers all events, whether good or bad, to God alone, (I Sam. 16:14; I Kings 22:22; Isa. 45:7; etc) it is possible that the Chronicler, and perhaps even [[Zechariah (Hebrew prophet)|Zechariah]], were influenced by [[Zoroastrianism]], even though in the case of the prophet Jewish [[monism]] strongly opposed [[Iran]]ian [[dualism]]. (Stave, ''Einfluss des Parsismus auf das Judenthum,'' pp. 253 et seq.) An immediate influence of the Babylonian concept of the 'accuser, persecutor, and oppressor' (Schrader, ''K. A. T.'' 3d ed., p. 463) is impossible, since traces of such an influence, if it had existed, would have appeared in the earlier portions of the Bible."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=270&letter=S|title=Jewish Encyclopaedia}}</ref>}}

==In Christianity==
{{main|Devil in Christianity}}
{{seealso|War in Heaven}}

In Christianity, terms that are synonymous with 'Satan' include:
* The most common English synonym for 'Satan' is 'Devil', which descends from [[Middle English]] ''devel'', from [[Old English]] ''dēofol'', that in turn represents an early [[Germanic languages|Germanic]] borrowing of Latin ''diabolus'' (also the source of 'diabolical'). This in turn was borrowed from Greek ''diabolos'' "slanderer," from ''diaballein'' "to slander": ''dia-'' "across, through" + ''ballein'' "to hurl."<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.bartleby.com/61/94/D0179400.html| title=American Heritage® Dictionary: Devil| accessdate=2006-05-31}}</ref> In the [[New Testament]], 'Satan' occurs more than thirty times in passages alongside ''Diabolos'' (Greek for "the devil"), referring to the same person or thing as Satan.<ref>{{bibleverse||Revelation|12:9}}</ref>
* [[Lucifer]] is sometimes used in Christian theology to refer to Satan, as a result of identifying the fallen "son of the dawn" of Isaiah 14:12 with the "accuser" of other passages in the Old Testament.
* [[Beelzebub]] is originally the name of a [[Philistine]] god (more specifically a certain type of [[Baal]], from ''Ba‘al Zebûb'', lit. "Lord of Flies") but is also used in the New Testament as a synonym for Satan. A corrupted version, "Belzeboub," appears in [[The Divine Comedy]].
* "The dragon" and "the old serpent" in the [[Book of Revelation]] 12:9, 20:2 have also been identified with Satan, as have "the prince of this world" in the [[Book of John]] 12:31, 14:30; "the prince of the power of the air" also called Meririm, and "the spirit that now worketh in the children of disobedience" in the [[Book of Ephesians]] 2:2; and "the god of this world" in [[2 Corinthians]] 4:4.<ref>{{bibleverse|2|Corinthians|2:2}}</ref>
* [[Leviathan]] is described as "that crooked serpent," which is also used to describe Satan in Revelation 12:9. 'Sar ha Olam,' a possible name for [[Metatron]], is described as Satan by [[Michael (archangel)|Michael]], [[Jehoel]] and [[Paul of Tarsus|St. Paul]].
[[Image:Gustave Dore Inferno34.jpg|thumb|left|235px|Satan as depicted in [[Cocytus|the Ninth Circle of Hell]] in [[Dante Alighieri]]'s ''[[Divine Comedy|Inferno]]'', illustrated by [[Gustave Doré]].]]
In mainstream Christianity's understanding of the holy Hebrew scriptures, the [[Torah]], Satan is a synonym for the [[Devil]]. For most Christians, he is believed to be an [[angel]] who rebelled against [[God]]— and also the one who spoke through the [[serpent (symbolism)|serpent]] and seduced Eve into disobeying God's command. His ultimate goal is to lead people away from the love of God — to lead them to fallacies which God opposes. Satan is also identified as the accuser of [[Book of Job|Job]], the tempter in the [[Gospels]], the secret power of lawlessness in {{bibleverse|2|Thessalonians|2:7}}, and the dragon in the [[Book of Revelation]]. Before his alleged insurrection, Satan was among the highest of all angels and the "[[Lucifer|brightest in the sky]]." His pride is considered a reason why he would not bow to God as all other angels did, but sought to rule heaven himself. The popularly held beliefs that Satan was once a prideful angel who eventually rebels against God, however, are barely portrayed explicitly in the Bible and are mostly based on inference. Moreover, in mainstream Christianity he is called "the ruler of the demons" (Matt. 12:24), "the ruler of the world" and even "the god of this world." (2 Cor. 4:4). The Book of Revelation describes how Satan will be cast out of Heaven, down to the earth, having "great anger" and waging war against "those who obey God's commandments and hold to the testimony of [[Jesus]]". Ultimately, Satan is thrown into the "lake of fire" ({{bibleref|Revelation|20:10}}), not as ruler, but as one among many, being tormented day and night for all eternity.

In other, non-mainstream, Christian beliefs (e.g. the beliefs of the [[Devil in Christianity#Christadelphians|Christadelphians]]) the word "satan" in the Bible is not regarded as referring to a supernatural, personal being but to any 'adversary' and figuratively refers to human sin and temptation.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.christadelphia.org/pamphlet/devil.htm |title=Do you Believe in a Devil? He is a saint. |accessdate=2007-05-29 }}</ref>

==In Islam==
{{main|Shaitan|Iblis}}
''Shaitan'' (شيطان) is the equivalent of Satan in [[Islam]].

While Shaitan (شيطان, from the root {{unicode|šṭn شط⁬ن}}) is an [[adjective]] (meaning "astray" or "distant", sometimes translated as "devil") that can be applied to both [[man]] ("al-ins", الإنس) and [[Genie|Jinn]]. [[Iblis]] ({{pronounced|ˈibliːs}}) is the personal name of the Devil who is mentioned in the [[Qur'an]]ic account of [[Genesis]].<ref>[http://www.themystica.org/mystica/articles/i/iblis.html Iblis]</ref>

Whenever the Qur'an refers to the creature who refused to prostrate before [[Adam and Eve|Adam]] at the time of the latter's creation, it refers to him as [[Iblis]]. The Islamic view of Iblis has both similarities and differences with Christian and Jewish views. The character of Satan is generally similar to the one presented in Judeo-Christian thought. However, according to Islamic belief, Satan is not considered to be a 'fallen' angel, but a [[Genie|jinn]] who was among the ranks of angels due to his wisdom and piety; in Islamic belief, angels always follow God's commands, but jinns (like humans) have free will, which explains why Satan was able to rebel against God's command of bowing to Adam<ref>{{quran-usc|17|61}}; {{quran-usc|2|34}}</ref>.

==Other instances of Satan==
Although some other faiths may have an evil figure or entity ''likened'' to Satan (see [[Devil]]), few have a figure actually named 'Satan'.

===Yazidism===
An alternate name for the main deity in the tentatively Indo-European pantheon of the [[Yazidi]], Malek Taus, is Shaitan.<ref>Drower, E.S. The Peacock Angel. Being Some Account of Votaries of a Secret Cult and their Sanctuaries. London: John Murray, 1941. [http://www.avesta.org/yezidi/peacock.htm]</ref>

===In the Bahá'í Faith===
In the [[Bahá'í Faith]], 'Satan' is not regarded as an independent evil power as he is in some faiths, but signifies the "base nature" of humans. [[`Abdu'l-Bahá]] explains: "This lower nature in man is symbolized as Satan -- the evil ego within us, not an evil personality outside."<ref>From The Promulgation of Universal Peace p. 470 [http://reference.bahai.org/en/t/ab/PUP/pup-96.html]</ref></blockquote>

===In Satanism===
{{main|Satanism|LaVeyan Satanism}}
Much "Satanic" lore does not originate from actual Satanists, but from Christians. Best-known would be the [[medieval]] [[folklore]] and [[theology]] surrounding [[demons]] and [[witches]]. A more recent example is the so-called [[Satanic ritual abuse]] scare of the 1980s; beginning with the memoir ''[[Michelle Remembers]]'' – which depicts Satanism as a vast conspiracy of elites with a predilection for [[child abuse]] and [[human sacrifice]]. This genre regularly describes Satan as actually appearing in person in order to receive worship. Claims of Satanic child-molesting or murder rings are largely unsubstantiated.

People claiming to be Satanists – or outsiders claiming to describe Satanism – ascribe a wide variety of beliefs to this movement. These range from the literal worship of a spiritual being ([[Theistic Satanism]]); to a kind of subversive ritual performance stressing the mockery of Christian symbols (most notably the [[Black Mass]]); to the claimed rediscovery of an ancient but misunderstood religion (e.g. [[Setianism]], which conflates Satan with the Egyptian god [[Set (mythology)|Set]]).

The most prominent and widely known Satanist in recent years was [[Anton Szandor LaVey]], who founded the [[Church of Satan]] in 1966. LaVey wrote ''[[The Satanic Bible]]'' (1969) and other works which remain highly influential (though controversial) among avowed Satanists. LaVey rejects the Black Mass, cruelty to animals, or a literal belief in (or worship of) Satan, instead considering Satan as the human instinct within ourselves, which is what [[LaVeyan Satanism]] celebrates. Instead he supports a view of human beings as animals and rejects many social structures that he believes inhibit human instincts.

==Images of Satan==
In art and literature, Satan has been depicted in numerous ways throughout history. According to one interpretation of the book of ''[[Genesis]]'', Satan is identified as the [[snake|serpent]] who convinced [[Eve (Bible)|Eve]] to eat the forbidden fruit; thus, Satan has often been depicted as a serpent. (However, some care to argue that [[Lilith]] was the one who persuaded Eve to take this act upon herself.) This interpretation goes back at least as far as the time of the writing of the book of Revelation, which specifically identifies Satan as being the serpent (Rev. 20:2). In truth, Genesis makes no direct reference to the serpent having another identity, Satan or any other. It has been postulated by many Biblical scholars that Eden's snake is just a snake, able to speak, reason, and tempt Eve because it serves the explanatory purpose.

==See also==
* [[Yazdânism]]
* [[Morgoth]]
* [[God]]
* [[Yama]]
* [[Satanism]]
* [[Hail Satan]]

==References==
===Notes===
{{reflist}}

===Bibliography===
<div class="references-small">
* {{cite book
| last = Bamberger | first = Bernard J.
| authorlink = Bernard J. Bamberger
| title=Fallen Angels: Soldiers of Satan's Realm
| publisher=Jewish Publication Society of America
| year= 2006
| id=ISBN 0-8276-0797-0
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Forsyth | first = Neil
| authorlink = Neil Forsyth
| title=The Old Enemy: Satan & the Combat Myth
| publisher=Princeton University Press; Reprint edition
| year=1987
| id=ISBN 0-691-01474-4
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Forsyth | first = Neil
| authorlink =
| title=The Satanic Epic
| publisher=Princeton University Press; Reprint edition
| year=1987
| id=ISBN 0-691-11339-4
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Gentry | first = Kenneth L. Jr
| authorlink = Kenneth L. Jr. Gentry
| title=The Beast of Revelation
| publisher=American Vision
| year=2002
| id=ISBN 0-915815-41-9
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Graves | first = Kersey
| authorlink = Kersey Graves
| title=Biography of Satan: Exposing the Origins of the Devil
| publisher=Book Tree
| year=1995
| id=ISBN 1-885395-11-6
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Pagels | first = Elaine
| authorlink = Elaine Pagels
| title=The Origin of Satan
| publisher=Vintage; Reprint edition
| year=1995
| id=ISBN 0-679-72232-7
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Rudwin | first = Maximilian
| authorlink = Maximilian Rudwin
| title=The Devil in Legend and Literature
| publisher=Open Court
| year=1970
| id=ISBN 0-87548-248-1
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Russell | first = Jeffrey Burton
| authorlink = Jeffrey Burton Russell
| title=The Devil: Perceptions of Evil from Antiquity to Primitive Christianity
| publisher=Cornell University Press; Reprint edition
| year=1977
| id=ISBN 0-8014-9413-3
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Russell | first = Jeffrey Burton
| authorlink =
| title=The Prince of Darkness: Radical Evil and the Power of Good in History
| publisher=Cornell University Press; Reprint edition
| year=1992
| id=ISBN 0-8014-8056-6
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Russell | first = Jeffrey Burton
| authorlink =
| title=The Birth of Satan : Tracing the Devil's Biblical Roots
| publisher=Palgrave Macmillan
| year=2005
| id=ISBN 1-4039-6933-7
}}

</div>

==External links==
{{wiktionary}}
{{wikiquote}}
* [http://www.churchofsatan.com/ Church Of Satan]
* [http://www.thebaptist.org/Lucifer.htm Lucifer - Know His Devices] a Baptist Christian perspective
* [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/04764a.htm Catholic Encyclopedia]
* [http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=270&letter=S&search=Satan Jewish Encyclopedia]
* [http://www.secweb.org/index.aspx?action=viewAsset&id=310 Internet Infidels - The Implausibility of Satan] by Paul Doland
* [http://www.sacred-texts.org Sacred Texts site] hosts texts--scriptures, literature and scholarly works--on Satan, Satanism and related religious matters
* [http://knol.google.com/k/lev-regelson/satan-and-antichrist/1i7aar4mqflvt/8#.htm Bible Texts about Satan a. Antichrist]

[[Category:Abrahamic mythology]]
[[Category:Individual angels]]
[[Category:Demons in Christianity]]
[[Category:Fallen angels]]
[[Category:Satanism]]
[[Category:Hell]]

[[ar:الشيطان في اليهودية]]
[[bg:Сатана]]
[[ca:Satan]]
[[cs:Satan]]
[[da:Satan]]
[[de:Satan]]
[[et:Saatan]]
[[es:Satanás]]
[[eo:Satano]]
[[fa:شیطان]]
[[fr:Satan]]
[[fur:Satane]]
[[gl:Demonio]]
[[ko:사탄]]
[[hi:शैतान]]
[[hr:Sotona]]
[[id:Setan]]
[[it:Satana]]
[[he:שטן]]
[[la:Satanas]]
[[lt:Šėtonas]]
[[hu:Sátán]]
[[ms:Syaitan]]
[[nl:Satan]]
[[ja:サタン]]
[[no:Satan]]
[[nn:Satan]]
[[pl:Szatan]]
[[pt:Satanás]]
[[ro:Satan]]
[[qu:Saqra]]
[[ru:Сатана]]
[[simple:Satan]]
[[sk:Satan]]
[[szl:Šatan]]
[[fi:Saatana]]
[[sv:Satan]]
[[ta:சாத்தான்]]
[[th:ซาตาน]]
[[tr:Şeytan]]
[[uk:Сатана]]
[[zh:撒旦]]

Islam

2008-11-09T12:37:31Z

AnthonyToddler: trying to remove too-obvious bias (some bias is ok, but I think too much just damages CP)

{{pp-semi|small=yes}}
:''For other meanings, including people named 'Islam', see [[Islam (disambiguation)]].''
[[Image:Mosque.Qibla.01.jpg|thumb|right|Muslims performing [[salah]] (Islamic prayer)]]
'''Islam''' ([[Arabic language|Arabic]]: {{Audio|ar-al_islam.ogg|الإسلام; ''al-'islām''}}; pronounced: {{IPA|[ɪs.ˈlæːm]}}<ref group=note>There are ten pronunciations of ''Islam'' in English, differing in whether the first or second syllable has the stress, whether the ''s'' is pronounced {{IPA|/z/}} or {{IPA|/s/}}, and whether the ''a'' is pronounced as in ''father,'' as in ''cat,'' or when the stress is on the ''i'' as in the ''a'' of ''sofa'' (Merriam Webster). The most common are {{IPA-en|ˈɪzləm/, /ˈɪsləm/, /ɪzˈlɑːm/, /ɪsˈlɑːm}} (Oxford English Dictionary, Random House) and {{IPA-en|ˈɪzlɑːm/, /ˈɪslɑːm}} (American Heritage Dictionary).</ref>) is a [[Monotheism|monotheistic]], [[Abrahamic religion]] originating with the teachings of the [[Prophets of Islam|Islamic prophet]] [[Muhammad]], a 7th century [[Arab]] religious and political figure. The word ''Islam'' means "submission", or the total surrender of oneself to [[God in Islam|God]] ({{lang-ar|الله}}, Allāh).<ref>[http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/notislam/misconceptions.html#HEADING1 USC-MSA Compendium of Muslim Texts]</ref> An adherent of Islam is known as a [[Muslim]], meaning "one who submits [to God]".<ref name="EoI-Islam">{{cite encyclopedia | title=Islam | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online | author=L. Gardet | coauthors=J. Jomier | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref><ref name="Lanes Lexicon">{{cite web|url=http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume4/00000137.pdf|title=Lane's lexicon |accessdate=2007-07-03|format=PDF}}</ref> The word ''Muslim'' is the participle of the same verb of which ''Islām'' is the infinitive. There are between 1 billion and 1.8 billion Muslims, making Islam the [[major religious groups|second-largest religion in the world]], after [[Christianity]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.adherents.com/Religions_By_Adherents.html#Islam |title=Major Religions of the World—Ranked by Number of Adherents |accessdate=2007-07-03 |format=HTML |work= }}</ref>

Muslims believe that God [[revelation|revealed]] the [[Qur'an]] to Muhammad, God's [[Seal of the prophets|final prophet]], through the angel [[Jibreel|Gabriel]], and regard the Qur'an and the [[Sunnah]] (words and deeds of Muhammad) as the fundamental sources of Islam.<ref>See:

*Esposito (1996), p.41
*Ghamidi (2001): [http://www.renaissance.com.pk/JulRefl2y6.html Sources of Islam]</ref> They do not regard Muhammad as the founder of a new religion, but as the restorer of the original monotheistic faith of [[Ibrahim|Abraham]], [[Islamic view of Moses|Moses]], [[Islamic view of Jesus|Jesus]], and other [[Prophets in Islam|prophets]]. Islamic tradition holds that [[Jew]]s and [[Christian]]s [[Tahrif|distorted the revelations]] God gave to these prophets by either altering the text, introducing a false interpretation, or both.<ref name="Distorted">See:
*Accad (2003): According to Ibn Taymiya, although only some Muslims accept the textual veracity of the entire Bible, most Muslims will grant the veracity of most of it.
*Esposito (1998), pp.6,12
*Esposito (2002b), pp.4–5
*F. E. Peters (2003), p.9
*{{cite encyclopedia | title=Muhammad | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online | author=F. Buhl | coauthors=A. T. Welch | accessdate=2007-05-02}}
*{{cite encyclopedia | title=Tahrif | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online | author=Hava Lazarus-Yafeh | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref>

Islam includes many religious practices. Adherents are generally required to observe the [[Five Pillars of Islam]], which are five duties that unite Muslims into a community.<ref>Esposito (2002b), p.17</ref> In addition to the Five Pillars, [[Sharia|Islamic law]] (''sharia'') has developed a tradition of rulings that touch on virtually all aspects of life and society. This tradition encompasses everything from practical matters like [[Islamic dietary laws|dietary laws]] and [[Islamic banking|banking]] to [[jihad|warfare]] and [[zakat|welfare]].<ref>See:

*Esposito (2002b), pp.111,112,118
*{{cite encyclopedia | title=Shari'ah | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica Online | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref>{{Islam}}
Almost all Muslims belong to one of two major denominations, the [[Sunni Islam|Sunni]] (85%) and [[Shia Islam|Shi'a]] (15%). The schism developed in the late 7th century following disagreements over the religious and political leadership of the Muslim community. Islam is the predominant religion in [[Africa]] and the [[Middle East]], as well as in major parts of [[Asia]]. Large communities are also found in [[Islam in China|China]], the [[Balkan Peninsula]] in [[Eastern Europe]] and [[Islam in Russia|Russia]]. There are also large Muslim immigrant communities in other parts of the world, such as [[Western Europe]]. About 20% of Muslims live in [[Arab world|Arab countries]],<ref>See:
*Esposito (2002b), p.21
*Esposito (2004), pp.2,43</ref> 30% in the [[Indian subcontinent]] and 15.6% in [[Indonesia]], the largest Muslim country by population.<ref> See [[Demographics of Islam|these figures]]</ref>

==Etymology and meaning==
{{main|S-L-M}}

The word ''Islam'' is a [[verbal noun]] originating from the [[triliteral]] root ''s-l-m'', and is derived from the [[Arabic grammar#Verb|Arabic verb]] ''Aslama'', which means "to accept, surrender or submit." Thus, Islam means acceptance of and submission to God, and believers must demonstrate this by worshipping him, following his commands, and avoiding [[polytheism]]. The word is given a number of meanings in the [[Qur'an]]. In some verses (''[[ayat]]''), the quality of Islam as an internal conviction is stressed: "Whomsoever God desires to guide, He expands his breast to Islam."<ref>{{cite quran|6|125|style=ref}}, {{cite quran|61|7|style=ref}}, {{cite quran|39|22|style=ref}}</ref> Other verses connect ''islām'' and ''[[Deen (Arabic term)|dīn]]'' (usually translated as "religion"): "Today, I have perfected your religion (''dīn'') for you; I have completed My blessing upon you; I have approved Islam for your religion."<ref>{{cite quran|5|3|style=ref}}, {{cite quran|3|19|style=ref}}, {{cite quran|3|83|style=ref}}</ref> Still others describe Islam as an action of returning to God—more than just a verbal affirmation of faith.<ref>See:

*{{cite quran|9|74|style=ref}}, {{cite quran|49|14|style=ref}}
*{{cite encyclopedia | title=Islam | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online | author=L. Gardet | coauthors=J. Jomier | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref> Another technical meaning in Islamic thought is as one part of a triad of ''islam'', ''[[Iman (concept)|imān]]'' (faith), and ''[[ihsan|ihsān]]'' (excellence); where it represents acts of worship (''`[[ibadah|ibādah]]'') and Islamic law (''[[sharia]]'').<ref>Cyril Glassé, ''The Concise Encyclopedia of Islam'', p. 192</ref>

==Articles of faith==
{{main|Aqidah|Iman}}

The Qur'an states that all Muslims must believe in God, his revelations, his [[Angels in Islam|angels]], his [[Prophets in Islam|messengers]], and in the "[[Qiyamah|Day of Judgment]]".<ref>{{cite quran|2|4|style=ref}}, {{cite quran|2|285|style=ref}}, {{cite quran|4|136|style=ref}}</ref> Also, there are other beliefs that differ between [[Kalam|particular sects]]. The [[Sunni]] concept of predestination is called [[Qadr (doctrine)|divine decree]],<ref>{{Muslim|1|1}}</ref> while the [[Shi'a]] version is called [[Adalah|divine justice]]. Unique to the Shi'a is the doctrine of ''[[Imamah (Shia doctrine)|Imamah]]'', or the political and spiritual leadership of the [[Imam]]s.<ref>See:
*Farah (2003), p.109
*Momen (1987), p.176</ref>

Muslims believe that God [[revelation|revealed]] his final message to humanity through the Islamic prophet Muhammad via the [[Gabriel|archangel Gabriel]] (''Jibrīl''). For them, Muhammad was God's final prophet and the Qur'an is the revelations he received over more than two decades.<ref>Esposito (2004), pp.17,18,21</ref> In Islam, prophets are men selected by God to be his messengers. Muslims believe that prophets are human and not divine, though some are able to perform miracles to prove their claim. Islamic prophets are considered to be the closest to perfection of all humans, and are uniquely the recipients of divine [[revelation]]—either directly from God or through angels. The Qur'an mentions the names of numerous figures considered [[prophets in Islam]], including [[Adam (Bible)|Adam]], [[Islamic view of Noah|Noah]], [[Abraham]], [[Musa|Moses]] and [[Jesus in Islam|Jesus]], among others.<ref>See:
*Momem (1987), p.176
*{{cite encyclopedia | title=Islam | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica Online | accessdate=2007-05-20}}</ref> Islamic theology says that all of God's messengers since Adam preached the message of Islam—submission to the will of God. Islam is described in the Qur'an as "the primordial nature upon which God created mankind",<ref>{{cite quran|30|30|style=ref}}</ref> and the Qur'an states that the [[proper name]] ''Muslim'' was given by Abraham.<ref>See:
*{{cite quran|22|78|style=ref}}
*"Islam", ''Encyclopedia of Religion''</ref>

As a historical phenomenon, Islam originated in [[Arabia]] in the early 7th century.<ref>"Islam", ''Encyclopedia of Religion''</ref> Islamic texts depict Judaism and Christianity as prophetic successor traditions to the teachings of Abraham. The Qur'an calls [[Jew]]s and [[Christian]]s "[[People of the Book]]" (''ahl al-kitāb''), and distinguishes them from polytheists. Muslims believe that parts of the previously revealed scriptures, the ''[[Tawrat]]'' ([[Torah]]) and the ''[[Injil]]'' ([[Gospels]]), had become [[tahrif|distorted]]—either in interpretation, in text, or both.<ref name="Distorted" />

===God===
{{main|God in Islam}}
{{seealso|Oneness of God (Islam)|Allah}}

Islam's fundamental theological concept is ''[[tawhīd]]''—the belief that there is only one god. The Arabic term for God is ''Allāh''; most scholars believe it was derived from a contraction of the words ''[[al-]]'' (the) and ''{{transl|ar|ISO|[[ʾilāh]]}}'' (deity, masculine form), meaning "the god" (''{{transl|ar|ISO|al-ilāh}}''), but others trace its origin to the Aramaic ''Alāhā''.<ref>See:
*"Islam and Christianity", ''Encyclopedia of Christianity'' (2001): Arabic-speaking [[Christian]]s and [[Jew]]s also refer to God as ''Allāh''.
*{{cite encyclopedia | title=Allah | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online | author=L. Gardet | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref> The first of the Five Pillars of Islam, ''tawhīd'' is expressed in the ''[[shahadah]]'' (testification), which declares that there is no god but God, and that Muhammad is God's messenger. In traditional Islamic theology, God is beyond all comprehension; Muslims are not expected to visualize God but to worship and adore him as a protector. Although Muslims believe that [[Jesus]] was a prophet, they reject the Christian doctrine of the [[Trinity]], comparing it to polytheism. In Islamic theology, [[Jesus]] was just a man and not the son of God;<ref>{{cite encyclopedia | title=Tathlith, Trinity | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an Online | author=David Thomas | accessdate=2007-05-11}}: Contrary to Muslim understanding, some scholars have suggested that the Qur'an only opposes certain deviant forms of Trinitarian belief.</ref> God is described in a chapter (''[[sura]]'') of the Qur'an as "…God, the One and Only; God, the Eternal, Absolute; He begetteth not, nor is He begotten; And there is none like unto Him."<ref>See:
*{{cite quran|112|1|end=4|style=ref}}
*Esposito (2002b), pp.74–76
*Esposito (2004), p.22
*Griffith (2006), p.248
*{{cite encyclopedia | title=Allah, Tawhid | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica Online | author=D. Gimaret | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref>

===Qur'an===
{{main|Islamic holy books|Qur'an}}
{{Seealso|Origin and development of the Qur'an}}
[[Image:FirstSurahKoran.jpg|right|thumb|The [[Al-Fatiha|first sura]] in a Qur'anic manuscript by [[Hattat Aziz Efendi]]]]

Muslims consider the Qur'an to be the literal word of God; it is the central [[religious text]] of Islam.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia | title=Qur'an| encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica Online | accessdate=2007-05-17}}</ref> Muslims believe that the verses of the Qur'an were revealed to Muhammad by God through the angel Gabriel on many occasions between 610 and his death on June 8, 632. The Qur'an was reportedly written down by Muhammad's companions (''[[sahabah]]'') while he was alive, although the prime method of transmission was orally. It was compiled in the time of [[Abu Bakr]], the first [[caliph]], and was standardized under the administration of [[Uthman]], the third caliph. From textual evidence [[Islamic studies]] scholars find that the Qur'an of today has not changed significantly over the years.<ref>See:
*William Montgomery Watt in ''The Cambridge History of Islam'', p.32
*Richard Bell, William Montgomery Watt, ''Introduction to the Qur'an'', p.51
*F. E. Peters (1991), pp.3–5: "Few have failed to be convinced that … the Quran is … the words of Muhammad, perhaps even dictated by him after their recitation."</ref>

The Qur'an is divided into 114 [[sura]]s, or chapters, which combined, contain 6,236 ''[[ayah|āyāt]]'', or verses. The chronologically earlier suras, revealed at Mecca, are primarily concerned with ethical and spiritual topics. The later Medinan suras mostly discuss social and moral issues relevant to the Muslim community.<ref>See:
*{{cite encyclopedia | title=Islam | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica Online | accessdate=2007-05-17}}
*{{cite encyclopedia | title=Qur'an | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica Online | accessdate=2007-05-17}}

</ref> The Qur'an is more concerned with moral guidance than legal instruction, and is considered the "sourcebook of Islamic principles and values".<ref>Esposito (2004), p.79</ref> Muslim jurists consult the ''[[hadith]]'', or the written record of Muhammad's life, to both supplement the Qur'an and assist with its interpretation. The science of Qur'anic commentary and exegesis is known as ''[[tafsir]]''.<ref>See:
*Esposito (2004), pp.79–81
*{{cite encyclopedia | title=Tafsir | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica Online | accessdate=2007-05-17}}</ref>

The word ''Qur'an'' means "recitation". When Muslims speak in the abstract about "the Qur'an", they usually mean the scripture as recited in Arabic rather than the printed work or any translation of it. To Muslims, the Qur'an is perfect only as revealed in the original Arabic; translations are necessarily deficient because of language differences, the fallibility of translators, and the impossibility of preserving the original's inspired style. Translations are therefore regarded only as commentaries on the Qur'an, or "interpretations of its meaning", not as the Qur'an itself.<ref>See:
*Teece (2003), pp.12,13
*C. Turner (2006), p.42
*{{cite encyclopedia | title=Qur'an | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online | accessdate=2007-05-02}}: The word ''Qur'an'' was invented and first used in the Qur'an itself. There are [[Quran#Etymology|two different theories]] about this term and its formation.</ref>

===Angels===
{{main|Angels in Islam}}

Belief in angels is crucial to the faith of Islam. The Arabic word for angel (''malak'') means "messenger", like its counterparts in Hebrew (''malakh'') and Greek (''angelos''). According to the Qur'an, angels do not possess [[free will]], and worship God in perfect obedience.<ref>{{cite quran|21|19|end=20|style=ref}}, {{cite quran|35|1|style=ref}}</ref> Angels' duties include communicating revelations from God, glorifying God, recording every person's actions, and taking a person's soul at the time of death. They are also thought to intercede on man's behalf. The Qur'an describes angels as "messengers with wings—two, or three, or four (pairs): He [God] adds to Creation as He pleases…"<ref>See:
*{{cite quran|35|1|style=ref}}
*Esposito (2002b), pp.26–28
*{{cite encyclopedia | title=Malā'ika | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online | author=W. Madelung | accessdate=2007-05-02}}
*{{cite encyclopedia | title=Angel | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an Online | author=Gisela Webb | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref>

===Muhammad===
{{main|Muhammad}}

Muhammad (c. 570 – June 8, 632) was an Arab religious, political, and military leader who founded the religion of Islam as a historical phenomenon. Muslims view him not as the creator of a new religion, but as the restorer of the original, uncorrupted monotheistic faith of Adam, Abraham and others. In Muslim tradition, Muhammad is viewed as the last and the greatest in a series of [[Prophets in Islam|prophets]]—as the man closest to perfection, the possessor of all virtues.<ref>See:
*Esposito (1998), p.12
*Esposito (2002b), pp.4–5
*F. E. Peters (2003), p.9
*{{cite encyclopedia | title=Muhammad | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica Online | accessdate=2007-05-17}}</ref> For the last 23 years of his life, beginning at age 40, Muhammad reported receiving revelations from God. The content of these revelations, known as the Qur'an, was memorized and recorded by his [[Sahaba|companions]].<ref>See:
*{{cite quran|18|110|style=ref}}
*{{cite encyclopedia | title=Muhammad | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online | author=F. Buhl | coauthors=A. T. Welch | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref>

[[Image:Masjid Nabawi. Medina, Saudi Arabia.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Masjid al-Nabawi]] ("Mosque of the Prophet") in [[Medina|Madina]] is the site of Muhammad's tomb.]]

During this time, Muhammad preached to the people of [[Mecca]], imploring them to abandon polytheism. Although some converted to Islam, Muhammad and his followers were persecuted by the leading Meccan authorities. After 13 years of preaching, Muhammad and the Muslims performed the ''[[Hijra (Islam)|Hijra]]'' ("emigration") to the city of [[Medina]] (formerly known as ''Yathrib'') in 622. There, with the Medinan converts (''[[Ansar (Islam)|Ansar]]'') and the Meccan migrants (''[[Muhajirun]]''), Muhammad established his political and [[Theocracy|religious authority]]. Within years, two battles had been fought against Meccan forces: the [[Battle of Badr]] in 624, which was a Muslim victory, and the [[Battle of Uhud]] in 625, which ended inconclusively. Conflict with Medinan Jewish clans who opposed the Muslims led to their exile, enslavement or death, and the Jewish enclave of [[Battle of Khaybar|Khaybar]] was subdued. At the same time, Meccan trade routes were cut off as Muhammad brought surrounding desert tribes under his control.<ref>See:
*F.E.Peters(2003), pp.78,79,194
*Lapidus (2002), pp.23–28</ref> By 629 Muhammad was victorious in the nearly bloodless [[Conquest of Mecca]], and by the time of his death in 632 he ruled over the [[Arabian Peninsula|Arabian peninsula]].<ref name="EoI-Muhammad">{{cite encyclopedia | title=Muhammad | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online | author=F. Buhl | coauthors=A. T. Welch | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref>

In Islam, the "[[normative]]" example of Muhammad's life is called the ''[[Sunnah]]'' (literally "trodden path"). This example is preserved in traditions known as [[hadith]] ("reports"), which recount his words, his actions, and his personal characteristics. The classical Muslim jurist [[ash-Shafi'i]] (d. 820) emphasized the importance of the Sunnah in [[Sharia|Islamic law]], and Muslims are encouraged to emulate Muhammad's actions in their daily lives. The Sunnah is seen as crucial to guiding interpretation of the Qur'an.<ref>See:
*''Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World'' (2003), p.666
*{{cite encyclopedia | title=Hadith | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online | author=J. Robson | accessdate=2007-05-02}}
*{{cite encyclopedia | title=Sunna | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online | author=D. W. Brown | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref>

=== Resurrection and judgment ===
{{main|Qiyama}}

Belief in the "Day of Resurrection", ''[[Qiyamah|yawm al-Qiyāmah]]'' (also known as ''yawm ad-dīn'', "Day of Judgment" and ''as-sā`a'', "the Last Hour") is also crucial for Muslims. They believe that the time of ''Qiyāmah'' is preordained by God but unknown to man. The trials and [[tribulation]]s preceding and during the ''Qiyāmah'' are described in the Qur'an and the [[hadith]], and also in the commentaries of [[Ulema|Islamic scholar]]s. The Qur'an emphasizes [[Resurrection of the Dead|bodily resurrection]], a break from the [[pre-Islamic Arabia]]n understanding of death. It states that resurrection will be followed by the gathering of mankind, culminating in their judgment by God.<ref>See:
*"Resurrection", ''The New Encyclopedia of Islam'' (2003)
*{{cite encyclopedia | title=Avicenna | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online | accessdate=2007-05-02}}: Ibn Sīnā, Abū ʿAlī al-Ḥusayn b. ʿAbd Allāh b. Sīnā is known in the West as "Avicenna".
*{{cite encyclopedia | title=Qiyama | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online | author=L. Gardet | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref>

The Qur'an lists several sins that can condemn a person to hell, such as disbelief, [[riba|usury]] and dishonesty. Muslims view paradise (''[[jannah]]'') as a place of joy and bliss, with Qur'anic references describing its features and the physical pleasures to come. There are also references to a greater joy—acceptance by God (''ridwān'').<ref>{{cite quran|9|72|style=ref}}</ref> Mystical traditions in Islam place these heavenly delights in the context of an ecstatic awareness of God.<ref>See:
*Smith (2006), p.89; ''Encyclopedia of Islam and Muslim World'', p.565
*"Heaven", ''The Columbia Encyclopedia'' (2000)
*{{cite encyclopedia | title=Garden | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an Online | author=Asma Afsaruddin | accessdate=2007-05-08}}
*{{cite encyclopedia | title=Paradise | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica Online | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref>

===Predestination===
{{main|Predestination in Islam|Adalah}}

In accordance with the Islamic belief in [[predestination]], or divine preordainment (''al-qadā wa'l-qadar''), God has full knowledge and control over all that occurs. This is explained in Qur'anic verses such as "Say: 'Nothing will happen to us except what Allah has decreed for us: He is our protector'…"<ref>See:
*{{cite quran|9|51|style=ref}}
*D. Cohen-Mor (2001), p.4: "The idea of predestination is reinforced by the frequent mention of events 'being written' or 'being in a book' before they happen: 'Say: "Nothing will happen to us except what Allah has decreed for us…" ' "
*{{cite encyclopedia | title=Fate | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an Online | author=Ahmet T. Karamustafa | accessdate=2007-05-02}}: The verb ''qadara'' literally means "to measure, to determine". Here it is used to mean that "God measures and orders his creation".</ref> For Muslims, everything in the world that occurs, good or evil, has been preordained and nothing can happen unless permitted by God. In Islamic theology, divine preordainment does not suggest an absence of God's indignation against evil, because any evils that do occur are thought to result in future benefits men may not be able to see. According to Muslim theologians, although events are pre-ordained, man possesses free will in that he has the faculty to choose between right and wrong, and is thus responsible for his actions. According to Islamic tradition, all that has been decreed by God is written in ''al-Lawh al-Mahfūz'', the "Preserved Tablet".<ref>See:
*Farah (2003), pp.119–122
*Patton (1900), p.130</ref>

The Shi'a understanding of predestination is called "divine justice" (''Adalah''). This doctrine, originally developed by the [[Mu'tazila]], stresses the importance of man's responsibility for his own actions. In contrast, the Sunni deemphasize the role of individual free will in the context of God's creation and foreknowledge of all things.<ref>Momen (1987), pp.177,178</ref>

==Duties and practices==
===Five Pillars===
{{main|Five Pillars of Islam}}

[[Image:Arabic Plaque, Great Mosque, Xian.jpg|thumb|right|Islam's basic creed (''[[shahadah]]'') written on a plaque in the [[Great Mosque of Xi'an]], China]]
[[Image:Kabaa.jpg|thumb|right|Rituals of the [[Hajj]] (pilgrimage) include walking seven times around the [[Kaaba]] in Mecca.]]

[[The Five Pillars of Islam]] (Arabic: اركان الدين) are five practices essential to Sunni Islam. Shi'a Muslims subscribe to eight ritual practices which substantially overlap with the Five Pillars.<ref>See:
*Momem (1987), p.178
*{{cite encyclopedia | title=Pillars of Islam | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica Online | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref> They are:
*The '''''[[shahadah]]''''', which is the basic creed or tenet of Islam: "''{{transl|ar|ISO|'ašhadu 'al-lā ilāha illā-llāhu wa 'ašhadu 'anna muħammadan rasūlu-llāh}}''", or "I testify that there is none worthy of worship except God and I testify that Muhammad is the Messenger of God." This testament is a foundation for all other beliefs and practices in Islam (although technically the Shi'a do not consider the ''shahadah'' to be a separate pillar, just a belief). Muslims must repeat the ''shahadah'' in prayer, and non-Muslims wishing to convert to Islam are required to recite the creed.<ref>See:
*Farah (1994), p.135
*Momen (1987), p.178
*"Islam", ''Encyclopedia of Religious Rites, Rituals, and Festivals''(2004)</ref>

*'''''[[Salah]]''''', or ritual prayer, which must be performed five times a day. (However, the Shi'a are permitted to run together the noon with the afternoon prayers, and the evening with the night prayers). Each salah is done facing towards the [[Kaaba]] in Mecca. Salah is intended to focus the mind on God, and is seen as a personal communication with him that expresses gratitude and worship. Salah is compulsory but flexibility in the specifics is allowed depending on circumstances. In many Muslim countries, reminders called [[Adhan]] (call to prayer) are broadcast publicly from local mosques at the appropriate times. The prayers are recited in the [[Arabic language]], and consist of verses from the Qur'an.<ref>See:
*Esposito (2002b), pp.18,19
*Hedáyetullah (2006), pp.53–55
*Kobeisy (2004), pp.22–34
*Momen (1987), p.178</ref>

*'''''[[Zakat]]''''', or [[alms|alms-giving]]. This is the practice of giving based on accumulated wealth, and is obligatory for all Muslims who can afford it. A fixed portion is spent to help the poor or needy, and also to assist the spread of Islam. The zakat is considered a religious obligation (as opposed to voluntary charity) that the well-off owe to the needy because their wealth is seen as a "trust from God's bounty". The Qur'an and the hadith also suggest a Muslim give even more as an act of voluntary alms-giving (''[[sadaqah]]''). Many Shi'ites are expected to pay an additional amount in the form of a ''[[khums]]'' tax, which they consider to be a separate ritual practice.<ref>See:
*{{cite quran|2|177|style=ref}}
*Esposito (2004), p.90
*Momen (1987), p.179
*{{cite encyclopedia | title=Zakat | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica Online | accessdate=2007-05-11}}
*{{cite encyclopedia | title=Zakat | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an Online | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref>
*'''''[[Sawm]]''''', or [[Sawm of Ramadan|fasting during the month of Ramadan]]. Muslims must not eat or drink (among other things) from dawn to dusk during this month, and must be mindful of other sins. The fast is to encourage a feeling of nearness to God, and during it Muslims should express their gratitude for and dependence on him, atone for their past sins, and think of the needy. ''Sawm'' is not obligatory for several groups for whom it would constitute an undue burden. For others, flexibility is allowed depending on circumstances, but missed fasts usually must be made up quickly.<ref>See:
*{{cite quran|2|184|style=ref}}
*Esposito (2004), pp.90,91
*{{cite encyclopedia | title=Islam | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica Online | accessdate=2007-05-02}}
*{{cite web | url=http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/fundamentals/pillars/fasting/tajuddin/fast_21.html#HEADING20 | title=For whom fasting is mandatory | publisher=USC-MSA | work=Compendium of Muslim Texts | accessdate=2007-04-18}}</ref>
*The '''''[[Hajj]]''''', which is the pilgrimage during the [[Islamic calendar|Islamic month]] of ''[[Dhu al-Hijjah]]'' in the city of [[Mecca]]. Every [[able-bodied]] Muslim who can afford it must make the pilgrimage to Mecca at least once in his or her lifetime. When the pilgrim is about ten kilometers from Mecca, he must dress in [[Ihram clothing|''Ihram'' clothing]], which consists of two white seamless sheets. Rituals of the Hajj include walking seven times around the [[Kaaba]], touching the [[Black Stone]], running seven times between [[Al-Safa and Al-Marwah|Mount Safa]] and [[Al-Safa and Al-Marwah|Mount Marwah]], and symbolically [[Stoning of the Devil|stoning the Devil]] in [[Mina, Saudi Arabia|Mina]]. The pilgrim, or the ''hajji'', is honored in his or her community, although Islamic teachers say that the Hajj should be an expression of devotion to God instead of a means to gain social standing.<ref>See:
*Farah (1994), pp.145–147
*Goldschmidt (2005), p.48
*{{cite encyclopedia | title=Hajj | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica Online | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref>

In addition to the ''khums'' tax, Shi'a Muslims consider three additional practices essential to the religion of Islam. The first is [[jihad]], which is also important to the Sunni, but not considered a pillar. The second is ''[[Amr-Bil-Ma'rūf]]'', the "Enjoining to Do Good", which calls for every Muslim to live a virtuous life and to encourage others to do the same. The third is ''[[Nahi-Anil-Munkar]]'', the "Exhortation to Desist from Evil", which tells Muslims to refrain from vice and from evil actions and to also encourage others to do the same.<ref>Momen (1987), p.180</ref>

===Law===
{{main|Sharia|Fiqh}}

The ''Sharia'' (literally: "the path leading to the watering place") is Islamic law formed by traditional Islamic scholarship. In Islam, Sharia is the expression of the divine will, and "constitutes a system of duties that are incumbent upon a Muslim by virtue of his religious belief".<ref name="BritannicaShariah">{{cite encyclopedia | title=Shari'ah | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica Online | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref>

Islamic law covers all aspects of life, from matters of state, like governance and [[Diplomacy|foreign relations]], to issues of daily living. The Qur'an defines ''[[hudud]]'' as the punishments for five specific crimes: unlawful intercourse, false accusation of unlawful intercourse, consumption of alcohol, theft, and highway robbery. The Qur'an and Sunnah also contain laws of [[Islamic Inheritance jurisprudence|inheritance]], [[Islamic marital jurisprudence|marriage]], and [[Qisas|restitution for injuries and murder]], as well as rules for [[sawm|fasting]], [[Sadaqah|charity]], and [[salat|prayer]]. However, these [[wajib|prescriptions]] and [[Haraam|prohibitions]] may be broad, so their application in practice varies. [[Ulema|Islamic scholars]] (known as ''ulema'') have elaborated systems of law on the basis of these rules and their interpretations.<ref>See:
*Menski (2006), p.290
*{{cite encyclopedia | title=Hadd | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online | author=B. Carra de Vaux | coauthors=J. Schacht, A.M. Goichon | accessdate=2007-05-02}}
*{{cite encyclopedia | title=Sharia | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online | author=N. Calder | coauthors=M. B. Hooker | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref>

''[[Fiqh]]'', or "jurisprudence", is defined as the knowledge of the practical rules of the religion. The method Islamic jurists use to derive rulings is known as ''[[usul al-fiqh]]'' ("legal theory", or "principles of jurisprudence"). According to Islamic legal theory, law has four fundamental roots, which are given precedence in this order: the Qur'an, the Sunnah (actions and sayings of Muhammad), the consensus of the Muslim jurists (''[[ijma]]''), and analogical reasoning (''[[qiyas]]''). For early Islamic jurists, theory was less important than pragmatic application of the law. In the 9th century, the jurist [[ash-Shafi'i]] provided a theoretical basis for Islamic law by codifying the principles of jurisprudence (including the four fundamental roots) in his book ''ar-Risālah''.<ref>Weiss (2002), pp.xvii,162</ref>

====Religion and state====
Islamic law does not distinguish between "matters of church" and "matters of state"; the ulema function as both jurists and theologians. In practice, Islamic rulers frequently bypassed the Sharia courts with a parallel system of so-called "Grievance courts" over which they had sole control. As the Muslim world came into contact with Western secular ideals, Muslim societies responded in different ways. [[Turkey]] has been governed as a secular state ever since the reforms of [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk]]. In contrast, the [[1979 Iranian Revolution]] replaced a mostly secular regime with an [[Islamic republic]] led by the [[Ruholla Khomeini|Ayatollah Ruholla Khomeini]].<ref>See:
*Esposito (2004), p. 84
*Lapidus (2002), pp. 502–507,845
*Lewis (2003), p. 100</ref>

===Etiquette and diet===
{{Main|Adab (behavior)|Islamic dietary laws}}

Many practices fall in the category of ''adab'', or Islamic etiquette. This includes greeting others with "''[[As-Salamu Alaykum|as-salamu `alaykum]]''" ("peace be unto you"), saying ''[[bismillah]]'' ("in [[Names of God|the name of God]]") before meals, and using only the right hand for eating and drinking. [[Islamic hygienical jurisprudence|Islamic hygienic]] practices mainly fall into the category of personal cleanliness and health, such as the [[Khitan (circumcision)|circumcision of male offspring]]. [[Islamic funeral|Islamic burial rituals]] include saying the ''[[Salat al-Janazah]]'' ("funeral prayer") over the bathed and enshrouded dead body, and burying it in a grave. Muslims, like Jews, are restricted in their diet, and prohibited foods include pig products, blood, [[carrion]], and [[Alcoholic beverage|alcohol]]. All meat must come from a [[herbivorous]] animal slaughtered in the name of God by a Muslim, Jew, or Christian, with the exception of game that one has hunted or fished for oneself. Food permissible for Muslims is known as [[halal]] food.<ref>See:
*{{cite quran|5|5|style=ref}}
*Curtis (2005), p.164
*Esposito (2002b), p.111
*Ghamidi (2001): [http://www.renaissance.com.pk/janisla2y2.html Customs and Behavioral Laws]
*Ghamidi (2001): [http://www.renaissance.com.pk/febislaw2y2.html The Dietary Laws]
*Ghamidi (2001): [http://www.renaissance.com.pk/DecIslaw2y5.htm Various types of the prayer]
*{{cite encyclopedia | title=Slaughter | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an Online | author=Ersilia Francesca | accessdate=2007-05-08}}</ref>

===Jihad===
{{mainarticle|Jihad|Islamic military jurisprudence}}

Jihad means "to strive or struggle" (in the way of God) and is considered the "[[sixth pillar of Islam]]" by a minority of Muslim authorities.<ref name="jih">Esposito (2003), p.93</ref> Jihad, in its broadest sense, is classically defined as "exerting one's utmost power, efforts, endeavors, or ability in contending with an object of disapprobation." Depending on the object being a visible enemy, the devil, and aspects of one's own self, different categories of Jihad are defined.<ref>Firestone (1999) pp. 17-18</ref> Jihad when used without any qualifier is understood in its military aspect.<ref> Reuven Firestone (1999), The Meaning of Jihād, p. 17-18 </ref><ref> Britannica Encyclopedia, Jihad </ref> Jihad also refers to one's striving to attain religious and moral perfection.<ref>See:
*Brockopp (2003) pp. 99–100
*Esposito (2003), p.93
*{{cite encyclopedia | title=jihad | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica Online | accessdate=2007-06-13}}</ref> Some Muslim authorities, especially among the Shi'a and [[Sufism|Sufis]], distinguish between the "greater jihad", which pertains to spiritual self-perfection, and the "lesser jihad", defined as warfare.<ref>See:
*Firestone (1999) p.17
*"Djihad", ''Encyclopedia of Islam Online''.</ref>

Within [[fiqh|Islamic jurisprudence]], jihad is usually taken to mean military exertion against non-Muslim combatants in the [[Defensive Jihad|defense]] or [[Offensive jihad|expansion]] of the [[Islamic state]], the ultimate purpose of which is to universalize Islam. Jihad, the only form of warfare permissible in Islamic law, may be declared against apostates, rebels, highway robbers, violent groups, unIslamic leaders or states which refuse to submit to the authority of Islam.<ref>Firestone (1999) p.17</ref><ref name="jihad">{{cite encyclopedia | title=Djihād | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref> Most Muslims today interpret Jihad as only a defensive form of warfare: the external Jihad includes a struggle to make the Islamic societies conform to the Islamic norms of justice.<ref> Knowing the Enemy: Jihadist Ideology and the War on Terror, Mary R. Habeck, Yale University Press, p.108-109, 118 </ref>

Under most circumstances and for most Muslims, jihad is a collective duty (''[[fard|fard kifaya]]''): its performance by some individuals exempts the others. Only for those vested with authority, especially the sovereign ([[imam]]), does jihad become an individual duty. For the rest of the populace, this happens only in the case of a [[general mobilization]].<ref name="jihad" /> For most [[Twelvers|Shias]], [[offensive jihad]] can only be declared by a [[Imamah (Shi'a twelver doctrine)|divinely appointed leader]] of the Muslim community, and as such is suspended since [[Muhammad al-Mahdi]]'s occultation in 868 AD.<ref>cf. Sachedina (1998) p. 105 and 106</ref>

==History==
{{main|Muslim history|Spread of Islam}}

Islam's historical development resulted in major political, economic, and military effects inside and outside the [[Islamic world]]. Within a century of Muhammad's first recitations of the [[Qur'an]], an Islamic empire stretched from the [[Atlantic Ocean]] in the west to [[Central Asia]] in the east. This new polity soon broke into civil war, and successor states fought each other and outside forces. However, Islam continued to spread into regions like [[Africa]], the [[Indian subcontinent]], and [[Southeast Asia]]. The Islamic civilization was one of the most advanced in the world during the [[Middle Ages]], but was surpassed by Europe with the economic and military growth of the West. During the 18th and 19th centuries, Islamic dynasties such as the [[Ottomans]] and [[Mughals]] fell under the sway of European imperial powers. In the 20th century [[Islamic revival|new religious and political movements]] and newfound wealth in the Islamic world led to both rebirth and conflict.<ref>See:
*Lapidus (2002), pp.50,112,197,380,489,578,817
*Lewis (2004), pp.29,51–56</ref>

===Rise of the caliphate and Islamic civil war (632–750)===
{{see|Succession to Muhammad|Muslim conquests|Battle of Karbala}}

Muhammad began preaching Islam at [[Mecca]] before [[Hijra (Islam)|migrating]] to [[Medina]], from where he united the [[tribes of Arabia]] into a singular Arab Muslim religious polity. With Muhammad's death in 632, disagreement broke out over who would succeed him as leader of the Muslim community. [[Umar ibn al-Khattab]], a prominent [[sahaba|companion]] of Muhammad, nominated [[Abu Bakr]], who was Muhammad's intimate friend and collaborator. Others added their support and Abu Bakr was made the first [[caliph]]. This choice was disputed by some of Muhammad's companions, who held that [[Ali ibn Abi Talib]], his cousin and son-in-law, had been designated his successor. Abu Bakr's immediate task was to avenge a recent defeat by [[Byzantine]] (or [[Eastern Roman Empire]]) forces, although he first had to put down a rebellion by Arab tribes in an episode known as the [[Ridda wars]], or "Wars of Apostasy".<ref>See:
*Holt (1977a), p.57
*Hourani (2003), p.22
*Lapidus (2002), p.32
*Madelung (1996), p.43
*Tabatabaei (1979), p.30–50</ref>

[[Image:Age of Caliphs.png|thumb|left|300px|The territory of the [[Caliphate]] in 750]]

His death in 634 resulted in the succession of Umar as the caliph, followed by [[Uthman ibn al-Affan]] and Ali ibn Abi Talib. These four are known as ''al-khulafā' ar-rāshidūn'' ("[[Rightly Guided Caliphs]]"). Under them, the territory under Muslim rule expanded deeply into [[Persian Empire|Persian]] and [[Byzantine]] territories.<ref>See
*Holt (1977a), p.74
*{{cite encyclopedia | title=Islam | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online | author=L. Gardet | coauthors=J. Jomier | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref>

When Umar was assassinated in 644, [[the election of Uthman]] as successor was met with increasing opposition. In 656, Uthman was also killed, and Ali assumed the position of caliph. After fighting off opposition in the [[First Fitna|first civil war]] (the "First Fitna"), Ali was assassinated by [[Kharijites]] in 661. Following this, [[Muawiyah I|Mu'awiyah]], who was governor of [[Levant]], seized power and began the [[Umayyad dynasty]].<ref>Holt (1977a), pp.67–72</ref>

These disputes over religious and political leadership would give rise to schism in the Muslim community. The majority accepted the legitimacy of the three rulers prior to Ali, and became known as [[Sunni]]s. A minority disagreed, and believed that Ali was the only rightful successor; they became known as the [[Shi'a]].<ref>Waines (2003) p.46</ref> After Mu'awiyah's death in 680, conflict over succession broke out again in a civil war known as the "[[Second Fitna]]". Afterward, the Umayyad dynasty prevailed for seventy years, and was able to conquer the [[Maghreb|Maghrib]] and [[Al-Andalus]] (the [[Iberian Peninsula]], former [[Visigoths|Visigothic]] [[Hispania]]) and the [[Gallia Narbonensis|Narbonnese Gaul]]} in the west as well as expand Muslim territory into [[Sindh]] and the fringes of [[Central Asia]].<ref>Donald Puchala, ‘’Theory and History in International Relations,’’ page 137. Routledge, 2003.</ref> While the Muslim-Arab elite engaged in conquest, some devout Muslims began to question the piety of indulgence in a worldly life, emphasizing rather poverty, humility and avoidance of sin based on renunciation of bodily desires. Devout Muslim ascetic exemplars such as [[Hasan al-Basri]] would inspire a movement that would evolve into [[Sufism]].<ref>See:
*Lapidus (2002), pp.90,91
*{{cite encyclopedia | title=Sufism | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica Online | accessdate=2007-05-13}}</ref>

For the Umayyad aristocracy, Islam was viewed as a religion for Arabs only;<ref>Hawting (2000), p.4</ref> the economy of the Umayyad empire was based on the assumption that a majority of non-Muslims ([[Dhimmis]]) would pay taxes to the minority of Muslim Arabs. A non-Arab who wanted to convert to Islam was supposed to first become a client of an Arab tribe. Even after conversion, these new Muslims (''[[mawali]]'') did not achieve social and economic equality with the Arabs. The descendants of Muhammad's uncle [[Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib]] rallied discontented ''mawali'', poor Arabs, and some Shi'a against the Umayyads and overthrew them with the help of their propagandist and general [[Abu Muslim]], inaugurating the [[Abbasid|Abbasid dynasty]] in 750.<ref>Lapidus (2002), p.56; Lewis (1993), pp. 71–83</ref> Under the Abbasids, Islamic civilization flourished in the "[[Islamic Golden Age]]", with its capital at the cosmopolitan city of Baghdad.<ref>See:
*Holt (1977a), pp.80,92,105
*Holt (1977b), pp.661–663
*Lapidus (2002), p.56
*Lewis (1993), p.84
*{{cite encyclopedia | title=Islam | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online | author=L. Gardet | coauthors=J. Jomier | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref>

===Golden Age (750–1258)===
{{main|Islamic Golden Age}}
{{see|Muslim Agricultural Revolution}}

[[Image:Hattin.jpg|thumb|right|Artistic depiction of the Battle of Hattin in 1187, where Jerusalem was recaptured by Saladin's Ayyubid forces]]

By the late 9th century, the Abbasid caliphate began to fracture as various regions gained increasing levels of autonomy. Across North Africa, Persia, and Central Asia [[emirate]]s formed as provinces broke away. The monolithic Arab empire gave way to a more religiously homogenized [[Muslim world]] where the Shia [[Fatimid]]s contested even the religious authority of the caliphate. By 1055 the [[Seljuq Turks]] had eliminated the Abbasids as a military power, nevertheless they continued to respect the caliph's titular authority.<ref>See:
*Lapidus (2002), p.103–143
*{{cite encyclopedia | title=Abbasid Dynasty | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica Online | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref> During this time expansion of the Muslim world continued, by both conquest and peaceful [[Dawah|proselytism]] even as both Islam and Muslim trade networks were extending into sub-Saharan [[West Africa]], [[Central Asia]], [[Volga Bulgaria]] and the [[Malay archipelago]].<ref name="EoI-Islam" />

The Golden Age saw new legal, philosophical, and religious developments. The [[Six major Hadith collections|major hadith collections]] were compiled and the four modern Sunni [[Madh'hab]]s were established. Islamic law was advanced greatly by the efforts of the early 9th century jurist [[al-Shafi'i]]; he codified a method to establish the reliability of hadith, a topic which had been a locus of dispute among Islamic scholars.<ref>Lapidus (2002), p.86</ref> Philosophers [[Ibn Sina]] (Avicenna) and [[Al-Farabi]] sought to incorporate Greek principles into Islamic theology, while others like the 11th century theologian [[Abu Hamid al-Ghazzali]] argued against them and ultimately prevailed.<ref>See:
*Lapidus (2002), p.160
*Waines (2003) p.126,127</ref> Finally, Sufism and Shi'ism both underwent major changes in the 9th century. [[Sufism]] became a full-fledged movement that had moved towards mysticism and away from its ascetic roots, while Shi'ism split due to disagreements over the succession of Imams.<ref>See:
*Esposito (2004), pp.44–45
*Lapidus (2002), pp.90–94
*{{cite encyclopedia | title=Sufism | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica Online | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref>

The spread of the Islamic dominion induced hostility among [[Middle ages|medieval]] [[ecclesiastical]] Christian authors who saw Islam as an adversary in the light of the large numbers of new Muslim converts. This opposition resulted in polemical treatises which depicted Islam as the religion of the [[antichrist]] and of Muslims as libidinous and subhuman.<ref>Tolan (2002) xv, xvi, 41</ref> In the [[Middle Ages|medieval period]], a few Arab philosophers like the poet [[Al-Ma'arri]] adopted a critical approach to Islam, and the Jewish philosopher [[Maimonides]] contrasted Islamic views of morality to Jewish views that he himself elaborated.<ref>See:
*Novak (February 1999)
*Sahas (1997), pp.76–80</ref>

===Crusades, Reconquista and Mongol invasion===
{{main|Crusades|Reconquista}}
{{see|Mongol invasion of Central Asia|Ilkhanate}}

Starting in the 9th century, Muslim conquests in the West began to be reversed. The [[Reconquista]] was launched against Muslim [[Taifa|principalities]] in [[Iberian Peninsula|Iberia]], and Muslim [[History of Islam in southern Italy|Italian possessions]] were lost to the [[Normans]]. From the 11th century onwards alliances of European Christian kingdoms mobilized to launch a series of wars known as the [[Crusade]]s, bringing the Muslim world into conflict with [[Christendom]]. Initially successful in their goal of taking the [[Holy Land (Biblical)|Holy land]], and establishing the [[Crusader states]], Crusader gains in the Holy Land were later reversed by subsequent Muslim generals such as [[Saladin]]; who recaptured [[Jerusalem]] during the [[Second Crusade]].<ref>Lapidus (2002), pp.288–290,310</ref> In the east the [[Mongol Empire]] put an end to the Abbassid dynasty at the [[Battle of Baghdad (1258)|Battle of Baghdad in 1258]], as they overran in Muslim lands in a series of invasions. Meanwhile in Egypt, the slave-soldier [[Mamluk]]s took control in an uprising in 1250<ref>See:
*Lapidus (2002), p.292
*{{cite encyclopedia | title=Islamic World | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica Online | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref> and in alliance with the [[Golden Horde]] were able to halt the Mongol armies at the [[Battle of Ain Jalut]]. [[Mongol empire|Mongol rule]] extended across the breadth of almost all Muslim lands in [[Asia]] and Islam was temporarily replaced by [[Buddhism]] as the official religion of the land. Over the next century the Mongol [[Khanate]]s converted to Islam and this religious and cultural absorption ushered in a new age of Mongol-Islamic synthesis that shaped the further spread of Islam in central Asia and the [[Indian subcontinent]].

===Turkish, Iranian and Indian empires (1030–1918)===
The [[Great Seljuq Empire|Seljuk Turks]] conquered Abbassid lands and adopted Islam and become the ''de facto'' rulers of the caliphate. They captured [[Anatolia]] by defeating the [[Byzantine]]s at the [[Battle of Manzikert]], thereby precipitating the call for Crusades. They however fell apart rapidly in the second half of the 12th century giving rise to various semi-autonomous [[Turkic peoples|Turkic dynasties]]. In the 13th and 14th centuries the [[Ottoman empire]] (named after [[Osman I]]) emerged from among these ''"Ghazi emirates''" and established itself after a string of conquests that included the [[Balkans]], parts of [[Greece]], and western [[Anatolia]]. In 1453 under [[Mehmed II]] the Ottomans laid siege to [[Constantinople]], the capital of Byzantium, [[Fall of Constantinople|which succumbed]] shortly thereafter, having been overwhelmed by a far greater number of Ottoman troops and to a lesser extent, [[cannon]]ry.<ref>See
*Holt (1977a), p.263
*Lapidus (2002), p.250
*{{cite encyclopedia | title=Istanbul | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica Online | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref>

Beginning in the 13th century, Sufism underwent a transformation, largely as a result of the efforts of [[al-Ghazzali]] to legitimize and reorganize the movement. He developed the model of the Sufi order—a community of spiritual teachers and students.<ref>Esposito (2004), pp.104,105</ref> Also of importance to Sufism was the creation of the [[Masnavi]], a collection of mystical poetry by the 13th century [[Persian language|Persian]] poet [[Jalal ad-Din Muhammad Rumi|Rumi]]. The Masnavi had a profound influence on the development of Sufi religious thought; to many Sufis it is second in importance only to the Qur'an.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia | title=Islamic Art | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica Online | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref>

[[Image:TajMahalbyAmalMongia.jpg|thumb|left|The [[Taj Mahal]] is a [[mausoleum]] located in [[Agra]], India, that was built under [[Mughal Empire|Mughal rule]]<ref>Esposito (2004), p.65</ref>]]

In the early 16th century, the Shi'i [[Safavid dynasty]] assumed control in Persia and established Shi'a Islam as an official religion there, and despite periodic setbacks, the Safavids remained powerful for two centuries. Meanwhile, Mamluk Egypt fell to the Ottomans in 1517, who then launched a European campaign which reached as far as [[Siege of Vienna|the gates of Vienna]] in 1529.<ref>See:
*Lapidus (2002), pp.198,234,244,245,254
*{{cite encyclopedia | title=Islam | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online | author=L. Gardet | coauthors=J. Jomier | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref> After the invasion of Persia, and sack of Baghdad by the Mongols in 1258, [[Delhi]] became the most important cultural centre of the Muslim east.<ref name="Ikram">Ikram, S. M. 1964. Muslim Civilization in India. New York: Columbia University Press</ref> Many Islamic dynasties ruled parts of the Indian subcontinent starting from the 12th century. The prominent ones include the [[Delhi Sultanate]] (1206–1526) and the [[Mughal empire]] (1526–1857). These empires helped in the spread of Islam in [[South Asia]], but by the early-18th century the [[Maratha empire]] became the pre-eminent power in the north of India. By the mid-18th century the [[British empire]] had formally ended the Mughal dynasty,<ref>Lapidus (2002), pp.358,378–380,624</ref>, and at the end of the 18th century overthrew the Muslim-ruled [[Kingdom of Mysore]]. In the 18th century the [[Wahhabi]] movement took hold in Saudi Arabia. Founded by the preacher [[Muhammad ibn Abdul Wahhab|Ibn Abd al-Wahhab]], Wahhabism is a fundamentalist ideology that condemns practices like Sufism and the veneration of saints as un-Islamic.<ref>See:
*Lapidus (2002), p.572
*Watt (1973), p.18: Wahhabism should not be confused with the early Kharijite sect of Wahabiyya, which was named after Abd-Allah ibn-Wahb ar-Rasibi, who opposed Ali at Nahrawan.</ref>

By the 17th and 18th centuries, despite attempts at modernization, the [[Ottoman empire]] had begun to feel threatened by European economic and military advantages. In the 19th century, the [[Rise of nationalism under the Ottoman Empire|rise of nationalism]] resulted in Greece declaring and winning independence in 1829, with several Balkan states following suit after the Ottomans suffered defeat in the [[Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878)|Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878]]. The Ottoman era came to a close at the end of [[World War I]] and the [[Caliphate]] was abolished in 1924.<ref>Lapidus (2002), pp.380,489–493</ref><ref>[http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/2000/488/chrncls.htm] New Turkey</ref>

In the 19th century, the [[Salafi]], [[Deobandi]] and [[Barelwi]] movements were initiated.

===Modern times (1918–present)===
{{see|Fall of the Ottoman Empire|Arab Revolt|Arab-Israeli conflict|Iranian revolution}}

By the early years of the 20th century, most of the Muslim world outside the Ottoman empire had been absorbed into the empires of non-Islamic European powers. After [[World War I]] losses, nearly all of the Ottoman empire was also parceled out as European [[protectorate]]s or [[sphere of influence|spheres of influence]]. In the course of the 20th century, most of these European-ruled territories became independent, and new issues such as oil wealth and relations with the State of [[Israel]] have assumed prominence.<ref>Lapidus (2002), pp.281–282,380,489–493,556,578,823,835</ref> During this time, many Muslims migrated, as indentured servants, from mostly India and [[Indonesia]] to the [[Caribbean]], forming the largest Muslim populations by percentage in the [[Americas]].<ref>Muslim Minorities in the West: Visible and Invisible By Yvonne Yazbeck Haddad, Jane I. Smith, pg 271</ref> Additionally, the resulting urbanization and increase in trade in [[Africa]] brought Muslims to settle in new areas and spread their faith. As a result, Islam in sub-Saharan Africa likely doubled between 1869 and 1914.<ref>Bulliet, Richard, Pamela Crossley, Daniel Headrick, Steven Hirsch, Lyman Johnson, and David Northrup. The Earth and Its Peoples. 3. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2005. ISBN 0618427708</ref> The [[Organization of the Islamic Conference]] (OIC), consisting of [[Islam by country|Muslim countries]], was formally established in September 1969 after the burning of the [[Al-Aqsa Mosque]] in [[Jerusalem]].<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/country_profiles/1555062.stm Organization of the Islamic Conference]</ref>

The 20th century saw the creation of many new Islamic "revivalist" movements. Groups such as the [[Muslim Brotherhood]] in Egypt and [[Jamaat-e-Islami]] in Pakistan advocate a totalistic and theocratic alternative to secular political ideologies. Sometimes called [[Islamist]], they see Western cultural values as a threat, and promote Islam as a comprehensive solution to every public and private question of importance. In countries like Iran and Afghanistan (under the [[Taliban]]), revolutionary movements replaced [[Secularism|secular]] regimes with Islamist states, while transnational groups like [[Osama bin Laden]]'s [[al-Qaeda]] engage in [[Islamic terrorism|terrorism]] to further their goals. In contrast, [[Liberal Islam]] is a movement that attempts to reconcile religious tradition with modern norms of secular governance and [[human rights]]. Its supporters say that there are multiple ways to read Islam's sacred texts, and stress the need to leave room for "independent thought on religious matters".<ref>See:
*Esposito (2004), pp.118,119,179
*Lapidus (2002), pp.823–830</ref>

Modern [[Criticism of Islam|critique of Islam]] includes accusations that Islam is intolerant of criticism and that Islamic law is too hard on [[Apostasy in Islam|apostates]]. Critics like [[Ibn Warraq]] question the morality of the Qu'ran, saying that its contents justify the mistreatment of women and encourage [[antisemitic]] remarks by Muslim theologians.<ref>See:
*Rippin (2001), p.288
*{{cite news | publisher=NYRB | work=[[The New York Review of Books]] | date=10-05-2006 | title=Islam in Europe | author=Timothy Garton Ash | url=http://www.nybooks.com/articles/19371}}

</ref> Such claims are disputed by Muslim writers like [[Fazlur Rahman Malik]],<ref>For example see ''Major Themes of the Qur'an'' by Fazlur Rahman Malik in which he argues against the treatment of the Qur'an as either a piecemeal or an evolutionary progression of ideas. See review by William A. Graham (1983), p.446.</ref> [[Syed Ameer Ali]],<ref>For example see ''The Spirit of Islam'' by Syed Ameer Ali (1849-1928). It is described by [[David Samuel Margoliouth]] (1905) as "probably the best achievement in the way of an apology for Mohammed". See Margoliouth, preface ''[[Mohammed and the Rise of Islam]]''.</ref> [[Ahmed Deedat]],<ref>Westerlund (2003)</ref> and [[Yusuf Estes]].<ref>{{cite news | publisher=Advance, [[University of Connecticut]] | date=2003-11-17 | title=Ramadan Awareness Event Designed To Debunk Negative Images | author=Elizabeth Omara-Otunnu | url=http://advance.uconn.edu/2003/031117/03111715.htm}}</ref> Others like [[Daniel Pipes]] and [[Martin Kramer]] focus more on criticizing the spread of Islamic fundamentalism, a danger they feel has been ignored.<ref>{{cite news | last=Bernstein | first=Richard | title= Experts on Islam Pointing Fingers At One Another | url=http://select.nytimes.com/search/restricted/article?res=F70D16F734540C708CDDA80994D9404482 | publisher=[[The New York Times]] | accessdate=2007-05-14}}</ref> [[Montgomery Watt]] and Norman Daniel dismiss many of the criticisms as the product of old myths and polemics.<ref>See:
*Seibert (1994), pp.88–89
*Watt (1974), p.231</ref> The rise of [[Islamophobia]], according to [[Carl Ernst]], had contributed to the negative views about Islam and Muslims in the West.<ref>Ernst (2004), p.11</ref>

[[Pascal Bruckner]] and [[Paul Berman]] on the other hand have entered the "Islam in Europe" debate. Berman identifies a "reactionary turn in the intellectual world" represented by Western scholars who idealize Islam.<ref>{{cite magazine| last = Berman| first = Paul| authorlink = Paul Berman| title = Who's Afraid of Tariq Ramadan?: The Islamist, the journalist, and the defense of liberalism.| journal = [[The New Republic]]| publisher = | location = | date = June 4 2007| url = http://www.tnr.com/politics/story.html?id=fd52e6a4-efc5-42fd-983b-1282a16ac8dd}}</ref></blockquote>

==Community==
{{main|Muslim world}}
===Demographics===
{{see also|Islam by country|Demographics of Islam}}
[[Image:World Muslim Population Map.png|right|350px|thumb|'''Muslim percentage of population by country''']]
Commonly cited estimates of the Muslim population in 2007 range from 1 billion to 1.8 billion. Approximately 85% are [[Sunni]] and 15% are [[Shi'a]], with a small minority belonging to other sects. Some 30–40 countries are [[List of Muslim majority countries|Muslim-majority]], and Arabs account for around 20% of all Muslims worldwide. [[South Asia]] and [[Southeast Asia]] contain the most populous Muslim countries, with [[Indonesia]], [[India]], [[Pakistan]], and [[Bangladesh]] having more than 100 million adherents each.<ref name="Islam_by_country">{{cite web
|url=http://www.nationmaster.com/graph/rel_isl_num_of_mus-religion-islam-number-of-muslim
|title=Number of Muslim by country
|publisher=nationmaster.com
|accessdate=2007-05-30}}</ref> According to U.S. government figures, in 2006 there were 20 million Muslims in China.<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2006/71338.htm
|title=International Religious Freedom Report 2006—China (includes Tibet, Hong Kong, and Macau)
|year=2006
|publisher=U.S. department of State, Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor
|accessdate=2007-05-30}}</ref> In the [[Middle East]], the non-Arab countries of [[Turkey]] and [[Iran]] are the largest Muslim-majority countries; in [[Africa]], [[Egypt]] and [[Nigeria]] have the most populous Muslim communities.<ref name="Islam_by_country" /> Islam is the second largest religion after [[Christianity]] in many [[Europe]]an countries.<ref>See:
*Esposito (2004) pp.2,43
*{{cite encyclopedia | title=Islamic World | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica Online | accessdate=2007-05-02}}

{{cite web | url=http://www.adherents.com/Religions_By_Adherents.html | title=Major Religions of the World Ranked by Number of Adherents | publisher=Adherents.com | accessdate=2007-01-09}}
*{{cite web | title=Muslims in Europe: Country guide | url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/4385768.stm | publisher=BBC | work=BBC News | date=[[2005-12-23]] | accessdate=2006-09-28}}
*{{cite web | title=Religion In Britain | url= http://www.statistics.gov.uk/cci/nugget.asp?id=293 | publisher=Office for National Statistics | work=National Statistics | date=[[2003-02-13]] | accessdate=2006-08-27}}</ref>

===Mosques===
{{main|Mosque}}

A mosque is a [[places of worship|place of worship]] for Muslims, who often refer to it by its Arabic name, ''masjid''. The word ''mosque'' in English refers to all types of buildings dedicated to Islamic worship, although there is a distinction in Arabic between the smaller, privately owned mosque and the larger, "collective" mosque (''masjid jāmi`''). Although the primary purpose of the mosque is to serve as a place of prayer, it is also important to the [[ummah|Muslim community]] as a place to meet and study. Modern mosques have evolved greatly from the early designs of the 7th century, and contain a variety of architectural elements such as [[minaret]]s.<ref>See:
*{{cite encyclopedia | title=Masdjid | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online | author= J. Pedersen | coauthors=R. Hillenbrand, J. Burton-Page, et al. | accessdate=2007-05-02}}
*{{cite encyclopedia | title=Mosque | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica Online | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref>

===Family life===
{{seealso|Women and Islam}}
The basic unit of Islamic society is the [[family]], and Islam defines the obligations and legal rights of family members. The father is seen as financially responsible for his family, and is obliged to cater for their well-being. The division of [[inheritance]] is specified in the Qur'an, which states that most of it is to pass to the immediate family, while a portion is set aside for the payment of debts and the making of bequests. The woman's share of inheritance is generally half of that of a man with the same rights of succession.<ref>"al-Mar'a". ''Encyclopaedia of Islam''</ref> [[Marriage in Islam]] is a civil [[nikah|contract]] which consists of an offer and acceptance between two qualified parties in the presence of two witnesses. The groom is required to pay a bridal gift (''[[mahr]]'') to the bride, as stipulated in the contract.<ref>
*Waines (2003) pp. 93–96
*The Oxford Dictionary of Islam (2003), p.339
*Esposito (1998) p. 79</ref>
[[Image:Snowy Mosque.JPG|thumb|left|Canterbury Mosque, New Zealand; June 2006. Built over 1984-85 it was the world's southern-most mosque until 1999.]]
A man may have up to four wives if he believes he can treat them equally, while a woman may have only one husband. In most Muslim countries, the process of divorce in Islam is known as ''[[Talaq (Nikah)|talaq]]'', which the husband initiates by pronouncing the word "divorce".<ref>*"Talak". ''Encyclopaedia of Islam''</ref> Scholars disagree whether Islamic holy texts justify traditional Islamic practices such as [[hijab|veiling]] and seclusion ([[purdah]]). Starting in the 20th century, Muslim social reformers argued against these and other practices such as [[Polygamy in Islam|polygamy]], with varying success. At the same time, many Muslim women have attempted to reconcile tradition with modernity by combining an active life with outward modesty. Certain [[Islamist]] groups like the [[Taliban]] have sought to continue traditional law as applied to women.<ref>
*Esposito (2004), pp.95,96,235–241
*{{cite encyclopedia | title=Marriage and Divorce | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an | author=Harald Motzki | accessdate=2007-05-15}}
*{{cite encyclopedia | title=Marriage Practices | encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Women & Islamic Cultures | author=Lori Peek | accessdate=2007-05-15}}
</ref>

===Calendar===
{{main|Islamic calendar}}

The formal beginning of the Muslim era was chosen to be the [[Hijra (Islam)|Hijra]] in 622 CE, which was an important turning point in Muhammad's fortunes. The assignment of this year as the year 1 AH (''Anno Hegirae'') in the Islamic calendar was reportedly made by [[Umar|Caliph Umar]]. It is a [[lunar calendar]], with nineteen ordinary years of 354 days and eleven leap years of 355 days in a thirty-year cycle. Islamic dates cannot be converted to CE/AD dates simply by adding 622 years: allowance must also be made for the fact that each Hijri century corresponds to only 97 years in the Christian calendar.<ref>See:
*Adil (2002), p.288
*F. E. Peters (2003), p.67
*{{cite encyclopedia | title=Tarikh̲ | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online | author=B. van Dalen | coauthors=R. S. Humphreys, Manuela Marín, et al. | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref>

The year 1428 AH coincides almost completely with 2007 CE.

Islamic [[Muslim holidays|holy days]] fall on fixed dates of the lunar calendar, which means that they occur in [[Seasons|different seasons]] in different years in the [[Gregorian calendar]]. The most important Islamic festivals are ''[[Eid al-Fitr]]'' (Arabic: عيد الفطر) on the 1st of ''[[Shawwal]]'', marking the end of the fasting month ''[[Ramadan]]'', and ''[[Eid al-Adha]]'' (Arabic: عيد الأضحى) on the 10th of ''[[Dhu al-Hijjah]]'', coinciding with the pilgrimage to Mecca.<ref>Ghamidi (2001): [http://www.renaissance.com.pk/janisla2y2.html Customs and Behavioral Laws]</ref>

==Other religions==
{{main|Islam and other religions}}
[[Image:Dome of the rock distance.jpg|thumb|right|A view of the [[Dome of the Rock]] on the [[Temple Mount]] in [[Jerusalem]], a holy site in both Islam and [[Judaism]] that has been a source of controversy]]
[[Image:Al aqsa moschee 2.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Al-Aqsa Mosque]] congregation building. Muslims believe that Muhammad ascended to heaven on this site.]]

According to Islamic doctrine, Islam was the primordial religion of mankind, professed by [[Adam (Bible)|Adam]].<ref>Friedmann (2003), pp. 14–16</ref> At some point, a religious split occurred, and God began sending prophets to bring his revelations to the people.<ref>Friedmann (2003), pp. 18–19</ref> In this view, [[Abraham]], [[Moses]], [[Nevi'im|Hebrew prophets]], and [[Jesus]] were all [[Prophets in Islam]], but their message and the texts of the [[Torah]] and the [[Gospels]] were [[tahrif|corrupted]] by [[Jew]]s and [[Christians]]. Similarly, children of non-Muslim families are born Muslims, but are converted to another faith by their parents.<ref>Friedmann (2003), p. 18</ref> The idea of Islamic supremacy is encapsulated in the formula "Islam is exalted and nothing is exalted above it."<ref>Friedmann (2003), p. 35</ref> Pursuant to this principle, Muslim women may not marry non-Muslim men, defamation of Islam is prohibited, and the testimony of a non-Muslim is inadmissible against a Muslim.<ref>See:
*Friedmann (2003), p. 35;
*Lewis (1984), p. 39</ref>

Islamic law divides non-Muslims into several categories, depending on their relation with the Islamic state. Christians and Jews who live under Islamic rule are known as ''[[dhimmis]]'' ("protected peoples"). According to this pact, the personal safety and security of property of the dhimmis were guaranteed in return for paying tribute (''[[jizya]]'') to the Islamic state and acknowledging Muslim supremacy. Historically, dhimmis enjoyed a measure of communal autonomy under their own religious leaders, but were subject to legal, social and religious restrictions meant to highlight their inferiority.<ref>See:
*Lewis (1984), pp.9, 27, 36;
*Friedmann (2003), p. 37;</ref> The status was extended to other groups like Zoroastrians and Hindus<ref>Ernst (2005), Following Muhammad, p.46</ref>, but not to [[atheist]]s or [[agnostic]]s.<ref>Lewis (2001), p.273</ref> Those who live in non-Muslim lands (''[[dar al-harb]]'') are known as ''[[harbi]]s'', and upon entering into an alliance with the Muslim state become known as ''ahl al-ahd''. Those who receive a guarantee of safety while residing temporarily in Muslim lands are known as ''ahl al-amān''. Their legal position is similar to that of the dhimmi except that they are not required to pay the jizya. The people of armistice (''ahl al-hudna'') are those who live outside of Muslim territory and agree to refrain from attacking the Muslims.<ref>Friedmann (2003), p. 55</ref><ref>"Aman", ''Encyclopaedia of Islam''</ref> [[apostasy in Islam|Apostasy]] is prohibited, and is punishable by death.<ref>A woman who apostasizes is to be executed according to some jurists, or imprisoned according to others.</ref><ref>"Murtadd", ''Encyclopedia of Islam''</ref>

The [[Alevi]], [[Yazidi]], [[Druze]], [[Ahmadiyya Muslim Community|Ahmadiyya]], [[Bábís|Bábí]], [[Bahá'í Faith|Bahá'í]], [[Berghouata]] and [[Ha-Mim]] movements either emerged out of Islam or came to share certain beliefs with Islam. Some consider themselves separate while others still sects of Islam though controversial in certain beliefs with mainstream Muslims. [[Sikhism]], founded by [[Guru Nanak]] in late 15th century [[Punjab region|Punjab]], incorporates aspects of both Islam and [[Hinduism]].<ref> Encyclopedia of Islam, "Sikhs" </ref>

==Denominations==
{{main|Divisions of Islam}}
[[Image:MuslimDistribution2.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Map showing distribution of Shia and Sunni Muslims in Africa, Asia and Europe.]]
Islam consists of a number of [[religious denomination]]s that are essentially similar in belief but which have significant theological and legal differences. The primary division is between the [[Sunni Islam|Sunni]] and the [[Shi'a]], with [[Sufi]]sm generally considered to be a mystical inflection of Islam rather than a distinct school. According to most sources, approximately 85% of the world's Muslims are Sunni and approximately 15% are Shi'a, with a small minority who are members of other [[Islamic sects]].<ref>See:
*Esposito (2002b), p.2
*{{cite web | url=http://countrystudies.us/afghanistan/61.htm | title=Sunni and Shia Islam | work=Country Studies | publisher=U.S. Library of Congress | accessdate=2007-01-09}}</ref>

===Sunni===
{{main|Sunni}}
[[Sunni]] Muslims are the largest group in Islam. In [[Arabic]], ''as-Sunnah'' literally means "principle" or "path". The Sunnah (the example of Muhammad's life) as recorded in the Qur'an and the hadith is the main pillar of Sunni doctrine. Sunnis believe that the first four [[caliph]]s were the rightful successors to Muhammad; since God did not specify any particular leaders to succeed him, those leaders had to be elected. Sunnis recognize four major legal traditions, or [[madhhab]]s: [[Hanafi]], [[Maliki]], [[Shafi'i]], and [[Hanbali]]. All four accept the validity of the others and a Muslim might choose any one that he or she finds agreeable, but other Islamic sects are believed to have departed from the majority by introducing innovations (''[[bidah]]''). There are also several orthodox theological or philosophical traditions within Sunnism. For example, the recent [[Salafi]] movement sees itself as restorationist and claims to derive its teachings from the original sources of Islam.<ref>See:
*Esposito (2003), pp.275,306
*{{cite encyclopedia | title=Shariah | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica Online | accessdate=2007-05-02}}
*{{cite encyclopedia | title=Sunnite | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica Online | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref>

===Shi'a===
{{main|Shi'a}}
{{see also|Succession to Muhammad}}
[[Image:Divisions of Islam.png|thumb|right|Divisions of Islam]]
The [[Shi'a]], who constitute the second-largest branch of Islam, believe in the political and religious [[Islamic leadership|leadership]] of [[Imamah (Shia doctrine)|Imam]]s from the progeny of [[Ali ibn Abi Talib]], who according to most Shi'a are in a state of ''[[ismah]]'', meaning infallibility. They believe that Ali ibn Abi Talib, as the cousin and son-in-law of Muhammad, was his rightful successor, and they call him the first ''Imam'' (leader), rejecting the legitimacy of the previous Muslim caliphs. To most Shi'a, an Imam rules by right of divine appointment and holds "absolute spiritual authority" among Muslims, having final say in matters of doctrine and revelation.<ref>See
*Lapidus (2002), p.46
*{{cite encyclopedia | title=Imam | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica Online | accessdate=2007-05-02}}
*{{cite encyclopedia | title=Shi'ite | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica Online | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref><ref>[http://www.al-shia.com/html/eng/p.php?p=shia'&url=Introduction Imamat, by [[Naser Makarem Shirazi]]]</ref> Although the Shi'a share many core practices with the Sunni, the two branches disagree over the proper importance and validity of specific collections of hadith. The Shi'a follow a legal tradition called [[Ja'fari jurisprudence]].<ref>See:
*Ahmed (1999), pp.44–45
*Nasr (1994), p.466</ref> Shi'a Islam has several branches, the largest of which is the [[Twelvers]] (''{{transl|ar|ISO|iṯnāʿašariyya}}''), while the others are the [[Ismaili]], the [[Sevener]]s, and the [[Zaidiyyah]].<ref>See:
*Kramer (1987), [http://www.geocities.com/martinkramerorg/Alawis.htm Syria's Alawis and Shi'ism pp.237–254]
*[http://philtar.ucsm.ac.uk/encyclopedia/islam/shia/index.html Shia branches]</ref>

===Sufism===
{{main|Sufism}}

Not strictly a denomination, [[Sufism]] is a mystical-ascetic form of Islam. By focusing on the more spiritual aspects of religion, Sufis strive to obtain direct experience of God by making use of "intuitive and emotional faculties" that one must be trained to use.<ref>Trimingham (1998), p.1</ref> Sufism and [[Islamic law]] are usually considered to be complementary, although Sufism has been criticized by some Muslims for being an unjustified [[bidah|religious innovation]]. Most Sufi orders, or ''[[tariqa]]s'', can be classified as either Sunni or Shi'a.<ref>See:
*Esposito (2003), p.302
*Malik (2006), p.3
*B. S. Turner (1998), p.145
*{{cite web | url=http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/aftoc.html | work=Country Studies | publisher=U. S. Library of Congress (Federal Research Division) | title=Afghanistan: A Country Study | accessdate=2007-04-18 | pages=150}}</ref>

===Others===
The [[Kharijites]] are a sect that dates back to the early days of Islam. The only surviving branch of the Kharijites is [[Ibadism]]. Unlike most Kharijite groups, Ibadism does not regard sinful Muslims as unbelievers. The [[Imam]]ate is an important topic in Ibadi legal literature, which stipulates that the leader should be chosen solely on the basis of his knowledge and piety, and is to be deposed if he acts unjustly. Most Ibadi Muslims live in [[Oman]].<ref>See:
*[http://www.uga.edu/islam/ibadis.html IBADI ISLAM: AN INTRODUCTION]
*J. A. Williams (1994), p.173
*{{cite encyclopedia | title=al-Ibāḍiyya | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref>

==See also==
{{portal}}
{{Further|[[:Category:Islam]]}}
{{Col-begin|width=}}

{{Col-1-of-2}}
*[[Islamic Peace]]
*[[Islamic art]]
*[[Islamic economics]]
*[[Islamic ethics]]
*[[Islamic literature]]
*[[Islamic studies]]
*[[Islam and modernity]]
*[[Islamism]]
*[[Islamization]]
*[[Mohammedanism]]

{{Col-2-of-2}}
*[[List of Muslims]]
*[[List of Muslim empires]]
*[[List of notable converts to Islam]]
*[[List of notable former Muslims]]
*[[List of wars in the Muslim world]]
*[[Timeline of Islamic history]]
*[[Animal welfare in Islam]]
*[[Children's rights in Islam]]
*[[Prisoners rights in Islam]]
*[[Persecution of Muslims]]
*[[Prophets of Islam]]
{{Col-end}}

==References==
=== Notes ===
{{reflist|3}}
|
=== Books and journals ===
<div class="references-small">
*{{cite journal | last=Accad | first=Martin | title=The Gospels in the Muslim Discourse of the Ninth to the Fourteenth Centuries: An Exegetical Inventorial Table (Part I) | journal=Islam and Christian-Muslim Relations | volume=14 | issue=1 |year=2003 | id=ISSN 0959-6410}}
*{{cite book | last=Adil | first=Hajjah Amina | coauthors=Shaykh Nazim Adil Al-Haqqani, Shaykh Muhammad Hisham Kabbani | title=Muhammad: The Messenger of Islam | publisher=Islamic Supreme Council of America | year=2002 | id=ISBN 978-1930409118}}
*{{cite book | last=Ahmed | first=Akbar | title=Islam Today: A Short Introduction to the Muslim World | publisher=I. B. Tauris | edition=2.00 | year=1999 | id=ISBN 978-1860642579}}
*{{cite book | last=Brockopp | first=Jonathan E. | title=Islamic Ethics of Life: abortion, war and euthanasia | publisher=University of South Carolina press | year=2003 | id=ISBN 1570034710}}
*{{cite book | last=Cohen-Mor | first=Dalya | title=A Matter of Fate: The Concept of Fate in the Arab World as Reflected in Modern Arabic Literature | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=2001 | id=ISBN 0195133986}}
*{{cite book | last=Curtis | first=Patricia A. | year=2005 | title=A Guide to Food Laws and Regulations | publisher=Blackwell Publishing Professional | id=ISBN 978-0813819464}}
*{{cite book | last=Eglash | first=Ron | year=1999 | title=African Fractals: Modern Computing and Indigenous Design | publisher=Rutgers University Press | id=ISBN 0-8135-2614-0}}
*{{cite book | last=Ernst | first=Carl | authorlink=Carl Ernst | year=2004 | title = Following Muhammad: Rethinking Islam in the Contemporary World | publisher=University of North Carolina Press | id=ISBN 0-8078-5577-4}}
*{{cite book | last=Esposito | first=John | authorlink=John Esposito | coauthors=John Obert Voll | title=Islam and Democracy | year=1996 | publisher=Oxford University Press | id=ISBN 0-19-510816-7}}
*{{cite book | last=Esposito | first=John | authorlink=John Esposito | title=Islam: The Straight Path | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=1998 | edition=3rd | id=ISBN 978-0195112344}}
*{{cite book | last=Esposito | first=John | authorlink=John Esposito | coauthors=Yvonne Yazbeck Haddad | title=Muslims on the Americanization Path? | year=2000a | publisher=Oxford University Press | id=ISBN 0-19-513526-1}}
*{{cite book | last=Esposito | first=John | authorlink=John Esposito | year=2000b | title=Oxford History of Islam | publisher=Oxford University Press | id=978-0195107999}}
*{{cite book | last=Esposito | first=John | authorlink=John Esposito | year=2002a | title=Unholy War: Terror in the Name of Islam | publisher=Oxford University Press | id=ISBN 978-0195168860}}
*{{cite book | last=Esposito | first=John | authorlink=John Esposito | year=2002b | title=What Everyone Needs to Know about Islam | publisher=Oxford University Press | id=ISBN 0-19-515713-3}}
*{{cite book | last=Esposito | first=John | authorlink=John Esposito | title=[[The Oxford Dictionary of Islam]] | publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] | year=2003 | id=ISBN 0-19-512558-4}}
*{{cite book | last=Esposito | first=John | authorlink=John Esposito | title=Islam: The Straight Path | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=2004 | edition=3rd Rev Upd | id=ISBN 978-0195182668}}
*{{cite book | last=Farah | first=Caesar | authorlink=Caesar E. Farah | title=Islam: Beliefs and Observances | publisher=Barron's Educational Series | year=1994 | edition=5th | id=ISBN 978-0812018530}}
*{{cite book | last=Farah | first=Caesar | authorlink=Caesar E. Farah | title=Islam: Beliefs and Observances | publisher=Barron's Educational Series | year=2003 | edition=7th | id=ISBN 978-0764122266}}
*{{cite book | last=Firestone | first=Reuven | title=Jihad: The Origin of Holy War in Islam | publisher= Oxford University Press | year=1999 | id=ISBN 019-5125800}}
*{{cite book | last=Friedmann | first=Yohanan | authorlink=Yohanan Friedmann | title=Tolerance and Coercion in Islam: Interfaith Relations in the Muslim Tradition | publisher= Cambridge University Press | year=2003 | id=ISBN 978-0521026994}}
*{{cite book | last=Ghamidi | first=Javed | authorlink=Javed Ahmed Ghamidi | title=[[Mizan]] | publisher=[[Al-Mawrid|Dar al-Ishraq]] | year=2001 | id={{OCLC|52901690}}}}
*{{cite book | last=Goldschmidt, Jr. | first=Arthur | coauthors=Lawrence Davidson | title=A Concise History of the Middle East | publisher=Westview Press | year=2005 | edition=8th | id=ISBN 978-0813342757}}
*{{cite book | last=Griffith | first=Ruth Marie | coauthors=Barbara Dianne Savage | title=Women and Religion in the African Diaspora: Knowledge, Power, and Performance | publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press | year=2006 | id=ISBN 0801883709}}
*{{cite book | last=Hawting| first=G. R. | authorlink= G.R. Hawting | title=The First Dynasty of Islam: The Umayyad Caliphate AD 661–750 | publisher=Routledge | year=2000 | id=ISBN 0415240735}}
*{{cite book | last=Hedayetullah | first=Muhammad | title=Dynamics of Islam: An Exposition | publisher=Trafford Publishing | year=2006 | id=ISBN 978-1553698425}}
*{{cite book | last=Holt | first=P. M. | coauthors=[[Bernard Lewis]] | title=Cambridge History of Islam, Vol. 1 | year=1977a | publisher=Cambridge University Press | id=ISBN 0521291364}}
*{{cite book | last=Holt | first=P. M. | coauthors=Ann K. S. Lambton, [[Bernard Lewis]] | title=Cambridge History of Islam, Vol. 2 | year=1977b | publisher=Cambridge University Press | id=ISBN 0521291372}}
*{{cite book | last=Hourani | first=Albert | authorlink=Albert Hourani | coauthor=[[Malise Ruthven|Ruthven, Malise]] | title=A History of the Arab Peoples | year=2003 | publisher=Belknap Press; Revised edition | id=ISBN 978-0674010178}}
*{{cite book | last=Humphreys | first=Stephen | title=Between Memory and Desire | year=2005 | publisher=University of California Press | id=ISBN 052-0246918}}
*{{cite book | last=Kobeisy | first=Ahmed Nezar | title=Counseling American Muslims: Understanding the Faith and Helping the People | publisher=Praeger Publishers | year=2004 | id=ISBN 978-0313324727}}
*{{cite book | last=Koprulu | first=Mehmed Fuad | coauthors=Leiser, Gary | title=The Origins of the Ottoman Empire | publisher=SUNY Press | year=1992 | id=ISBN 0791408191}}
*{{cite book | last=Kramer | first=Martin | title=Shi'Ism, Resistance, and Revolution | publisher=Westview Press | year=1987 | id=ISBN 978-0813304533}}
*{{cite book | last=Kugle | first=Scott Alan | title=Rebel Between Spirit And Law: Ahmad Zarruq, Sainthood, And Authority in Islam | publisher=Indiana University Press| year=2006 | id=ISBN 0253347114}}
*{{cite book | last=Lapidus| first=Ira | title=A History of Islamic Societies | publisher=Cambridge University Press | year=2002 | edition=2nd | id=ISBN 978-0521779333}}
*{{cite book | last=Lewis | first=Bernard | authorlink=Bernard Lewis | title=The Jews of Islam | publisher=Routledge & Kegan Paul | year=1984 | id=ISBN 0-7102-0462-0}}
*{{cite book | last=Lewis | first=Bernard | authorlink=Bernard Lewis | title=The Arabs in History | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=1993 | id=ISBN 0-1928-5258-2}}
*{{cite book | last=Lewis | first=Bernard | authorlink=Bernard Lewis | title=The Middle East | publisher=Scribner | year=1997 | id=ISBN 978-0684832807}}
*{{cite book | last=Lewis | first=Bernard | authorlink=Bernard Lewis | title=Islam in History: Ideas, People, and Events in the Middle East | publisher=Open Court | edition=2nd | year=2001 | id=ISBN 978-0812695182}}
*{{cite book | last=Lewis | first=Bernard | authorlink=Bernard Lewis | title=What Went Wrong?: The Clash Between Islam and Modernity in the Middle East | publisher=Harper Perennial | edition=Reprint | year=2003 | id=ISBN 978-0060516055}}
*{{cite book | last=Lewis | first=Bernard | authorlink=Bernard Lewis | title=The Crisis of Islam: Holy War and Unholy Terror | publisher=Random House, Inc., New York | year=2004 | id=ISBN 978-0812967852}}
*{{cite book | last=Madelung | first=Wilferd | authorlink=Wilferd Madelung | title=The Succession to Muhammad: A Study of the Early Caliphate | publisher=Cambridge University Press | year=1996 | id=ISBN 0521646960}}
*{{cite book | last=Malik| first=Jamal| coauthors=John R Hinnells, Inc NetLibrary | title=Sufism in the West | publisher= Routledge | year=2006 | id=ISBN 0415274087}}
*{{cite book | last=Menski | first=Werner F. | title=Comparative Law in a Global Context: The Legal Systems of Asia and Africa | publisher=Cambridge University Press | year=2006 | id=ISBN 0521858593}}
*{{cite journal | last=Mohammad | first=Noor | title=The Doctrine of Jihad: An Introduction | journal=Journal of Law and Religion | volume=3 | issue=2 |year=1985}}
*{{cite book | last=Momen | first=Moojan | title=An Introduction to Shi`i Islam: The History and Doctrines of Twelver Shi`ism | publisher=Yale University Press | year=1987 | id=ISBN 978-0300035315}}
*{{cite book | last=Nasr | first=Seyed Muhammad | title=Our Religions: The Seven World Religions Introduced by Preeminent Scholars from Each Tradition (Chapter 7) | publisher=HarperCollins | year=1994| id=ISBN 0-06067-700-7}}
*{{cite journal | last=Novak | first=David | title=The Mind of Maimonides | journal=[[First Things]] |month=February | year=1999}}
*{{cite book | last=Parrinder | first=Geoffrey | authorlink=Geoffrey Parrinder | title=World Religions: From Ancient History to the Present | publisher=Hamlyn Publishing Group Limited | year=1971 | id=ISBN 0-87196-129-6}}
*{{cite journal | last=Patton | first=Walter M. | title=The Doctrine of Freedom in the Korân | journal=The American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literatures |month=April | year=1900 | volume=16 | issue=3 | publisher=Brill Academic Publishers | id=ISBN 9004103147}}
*{{cite journal | last=Peters | first=F. E. | authorlink=F. E. Peters | title=The Quest for Historical Muhammad | journal=International Journal of Middle East Studies |year=1991}}
*{{cite book | last=Peters | first=F. E. | authorlink=F. E. Peters | title=Islam: A Guide for Jews and Christians | publisher=Princeton University Press | year=2003 | id=ISBN 0-691-11553-2}}
*{{cite book | last=Peters | first=Rudolph | authorlink=Rudolph Peters | title=Jihad in Medieval and Modern Islam | publisher=Brill Academic Publishers | year=1977 | id = ISBN 90-04-04854-5}}
*{{cite book | last=Rippin | first=Andrew | authorlink=Andrew Rippin | title=Muslims: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices | publisher=Routledge | edition=2nd | year=2001 | id=ISBN 978-0415217811}}
*{{cite book | last=Ruthven | first=Malise | title=Fundamentalism: The Search for Meaning | publisher= Oxford University Press | year=2005 | id = ISBN 01-92-80606-8}}
*{{cite book | last=Sahas | first=Daniel J. | title=John of Damascus on Islam: The Heresy of the Ishmaelites | publisher=Brill Academic Publishers | year=1997 | id=ISBN 978-9004034952}}
*{{cite book | last=[[Abdulaziz Sachedina|Sachedina]] | first=Abdulaziz | title=The Just Ruler in Shi'ite Islam: The Comprehensive Authority of the Jurist in Imamite Jurisprudence | publisher=Oxford University Press US | year=1998 | id=ISBN 0195119150}}
*{{cite journal | last=Seibert | first=Robert F. | title=Review: Islam and the West: The Making of an Image (Norman Daniel)| journal=Review of Religious Research |year=1994 | volume=36 | issue=1}}
*{{cite book | last=Sells | first=Michael Anthony | authorlink=Michael Anthony Sells | coauthors=Emran Qureshi | title=The New Crusades: Constructing the Muslim Enemy | publisher=Columbia University Press | year=2003 | id=ISBN 0231126670}}
*{{cite book | last=Smith | first=Jane I. | title=The Islamic Understanding of Death and Resurrection | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=2006 | id=ISBN 978-0195156492}}
*{{cite book | last=Stillman | first=Norman | authorlink=Norman Stillman | title=The Jews of Arab Lands: A History and Source Book | publisher=Jewish Publication Society of America | location=Philadelphia | year=1979 | id=ISBN 1-82760-198-1}}
*{{cite book | last=Tabatabae | first=Sayyid Mohammad Hosayn | coauthors=Seyyed Hossein Nasr (translator) | authorlink=Allameh Tabatabaei | title= Shi'ite Islam
|publisher=Suny press| year=1979 | id=ISBN 0-87395-272-3}}
*{{cite book | last=Tabatabae | first=Sayyid Mohammad Hosayn | coauthors=R. Campbell (translator) | authorlink=Allameh Tabatabaei | title= Islamic teachings: An Overview and a Glance at the Life of the Holy Prophet of Islam | publisher=Green Gold | year=2002 | id=ISBN 0-922817-00-6}}
*{{cite book | last=Teece | first=Geoff | title=Religion in Focus: Islam | publisher=Franklin Watts Ltd | year=2003 | id=ISBN 978-0749647964}}
*{{cite book | last=Tolan | first=John V. | title=Saracens: Islam in the Medieval European Imagination | publisher=Columbia University Press | year=2002}}
*{{cite book | last=Trimingham| first=John Spencer | title=The Sufi Orders in Islam | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=1998| id=ISBN 0195120582}}
*{{cite book | last=Tritton | first=Arthur S. | authorlink=Arthur Stanley Tritton| title=The Caliphs and their Non-Muslim Subjects: A Critical Study of the Covenant of Umar | publisher=Frank Cass Publisher | location=London | year=1970 |origyear = 1930 | id=ISBN 0-7146-1996-5}}
*{{cite book | last=Turner | first=Colin | title=Islam: the Basics | publisher=Routledge (UK) | year=2006 | id=ISBN 041534106X}}
*{{cite book | last=Turner | first=Bryan S. | title=Weber and Islam | publisher=Routledge (UK) | year=1998 | id=ISBN 0415174589}}
*{{cite book | last=Waines | first=David | title=An Introduction to Islam | publisher=Cambridge University Press | year=2003 | id=ISBN 0521539064}}
*{{cite book | last=Warraq | first=Ibn | title=The Quest for Historical Muhammad | publisher=Prometheus | year=2000 | id=ISBN 978-1573927871}}
*{{cite book | last=Warraq | first=Ibn | title=Leaving Islam: Apostates Speak Out | publisher=Prometheus | year=2003 | id=ISBN 1-59102-068-9}}
*{{cite book | last=Watt | first=W. Montgomery | authorlink=William Montgomery Watt | title=The Formative Period of Islamic Thought | publisher=University Press Edinburgh| year=1973 | id=ISBN 0-85-224254-X}}
*{{cite book | last=Watt | first=W. Montgomery | authorlink=William Montgomery Watt | title=Muhammad: Prophet and Statesman | publisher=Oxford University Press | edition=New | year=1974 | id=ISBN 0-19-881078-4}}
*{{cite book | last=Weiss | first=Bernard G. | title=Studies in Islamic Legal Theory | year=2002 | location=Boston | publisher=Brill Academic publishers | id=ISBN 9004120661}}
*{{cite book | last=Williams | first=John Alden | title=The Word of Islam | year=1994 | publisher=University of Texas Press | id=ISBN 0-292-79076-7}}
*{{cite book | last=Williams | first=Mary E. | title=The Middle East | year=2000 | publisher=Greenhaven Pr | id=ISBN 0737701331}}

====Encyclopedias====
*{{cite encyclopedia | editor=William H. McNeill, Jerry H. Bentley, David Christian | encyclopedia=Berkshire Encyclopedia of World History | publisher=Berkshire Publishing Group | year=2005 | id=ISBN 978-0974309101}}
*{{cite encyclopedia | editor=Gabriel Oussani | encyclopedia=[[Catholic Encyclopedia]] | year=1910}}
*{{cite encyclopedia | editor=Paul Lagasse, Lora Goldman, Archie Hobson, Susan R. Norton | encyclopedia=The Columbia Encyclopedia | publisher=Gale Group | year=2000 | edition=6th | id=ISBN 978-1593392369}}
*{{cite encyclopedia | encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica Online|Encyclopaedia Britannica Online]] | publisher=Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.}}
*{{cite encyclopedia | editor=Erwin Fahlbusch, William Geoffrey Bromiley | encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Christianity | publisher=Eerdmans Publishing Company, and Brill| year=2001 | edition=1st| id=ISBN 0-8028-2414-5}}
*{{cite encyclopedia | editor=John Bowden | encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Christianity | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=2005 | edition=1st | id=ISBN 0-19-522393-4}}
*{{cite encyclopedia | editor=George Thomas Kurian, Graham T. T. Molitor | encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of the Future | publisher=MacMillan Reference Books | year=1995 | id=ISBN 978-0028972053}}
*{{cite encyclopedia | editor=P.J. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C.E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel, W.P. Heinrichs | encyclopedia=[[Encyclopaedia of Islam Online]] | publisher=Brill Academic Publishers | id=ISSN 1573-3912}}
*{{cite encyclopedia | editor=Richard C. Martin, Said Amir Arjomand, Marcia Hermansen, Abdulkader Tayob, Rochelle Davis, John Obert Voll | encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World | publisher=MacMillan Reference Books | year=2003 | id=ISBN 978-0028656038}}
*{{cite encyclopedia | editor=Jane Dammen McAuliffe | encyclopedia=[[Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an|Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an Online]] | publisher=Brill Academic Publishers}}
*{{cite encyclopedia | editor=Lindsay Jones | encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Religion | publisher=MacMillan Reference Books | year=2005 | edition=2nd | id=ISBN 978-0028657332}}
*{{cite encyclopedia | editor=Salamone Frank | encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Religious Rites, Rituals, and Festivals | publisher=Routledge | edition=1st | year=2004 | id=ISBN 978-0415941808}}
*{{cite encyclopedia | editor=Peter N. Stearns | edition=6th | year=2000 | encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of World History Online | publisher=Bartleby}}
*{{cite encyclopedia | editor=[[Josef W. Meri]] | encyclopedia=Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopedia | publisher=[[Routledge]] | year=2005 | id=ISBN 041-5966906}}
*{{cite encyclopedia | editor=[[Wendy Doniger]] | encyclopedia=Merriam-Webster's Encyclopedia of World Religions | publisher=[[Merriam-Webster]] | year=1999 | id=ISBN 087-7790442}}
*{{cite encyclopedia | editor=Glasse Cyril | encyclopedia=New Encyclopedia of Islam: A Revised Edition of the Concise Encyclopedia of Islam | publisher=AltaMira Press | year=2003 | id=ISSN 978-0759101906}}
*{{cite encyclopedia | editor=Edward Craig | encyclopedia=Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy | publisher=Routledge | year=1998 | edition=1st| id=ISBN 978-0415073103}}

===Further reading===
*{{cite book | last=Arberry | first=A. J. | authorlink=A. J. Arberry | title=The Koran Interpreted: A Translation | publisher=Touchstone | edition=1st | year=1996 | id=ISBN 978-0684825076}}
*{{cite book | last=Hawting | first=Gerald R. | authorlink=Gerald R. Hawting | title=The First Dynasty of Islam: The Umayyard Caliphate AD 661–750 | publisher=Routledge | year=2000 | id=ISBN 0415240727}}
*{{cite book | last=Khan | first=Muhammad Muhsin | authorlink=Muhammad Muhsin Khan | coauthors=Al-Hilali Khan, Muhammad Taqi-ud-Din | title=Noble Quran | year=1999 | publisher=Dar-us-Salam Publications | edition=1st | id=ISBN 978-9960740799}}
*{{cite book | last=Kramer (ed.) | first=Martin | authorlink=Martin Kramer | title=The Jewish Discovery of Islam: Studies in Honor of Bernard Lewis | publisher=Syracuse University | year=1999 | id=ISBN 978-9652240408}}
*{{cite book | last=Kuban | first=Dogan | title=Muslim Religious Architecture | publisher=Brill Academic Publishers | year=1974 | id=ISBN 9004038132}}
*{{cite book | last=Lewis | first=Bernard | authorlink=Bernard Lewis | title=Islam in History: Ideas, People, and Events in the Middle East | publisher=Open Court | year=1993 | id=ISBN 978-0812692174}}
*{{cite book | last=Lewis | first=Bernard | authorlink=Bernard Lewis | title=Islam and the West | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=1994 | id=ISBN 978-0195090611}}
*{{cite book | last=Lewis | first=Bernard | authorlink=Bernard Lewis | title=Cultures in Conflict: Christians, Muslims, and Jews in the Age of Discovery | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=1996 | id=ISBN 978-0195102833}}
*{{cite book | last=Mubarkpuri | first=Saifur-Rahman | title=[[The Sealed Nectar]]: Biography of the Prophet | publisher=Dar-us-Salam Publications | year=2002 | id=ISBN 978-1591440710}}
*{{cite book | last=Najeebabadi | first=Akbar Shah | title=History of Islam | publisher=Dar-us-Salam Publications | year=2001 | id=ISBN 978-1591440345}}
*{{cite book | last=Nigosian | first=S. A. | title=Islam: Its History, Teaching, and Practices | publisher=Indiana University Press | year=2004 | edition=New Edition | id=ISBN 978-0253216274}}
*{{cite book | last=Rahman | first=Fazlur | authorlink=Fazlur Rahman | title=Islam | publisher=University of Chicago Press | year=1979 | edition=2nd | id=ISBN 0-226-70281-2}}
*Tausch, Arno (2008, with Christian Bischof, and Karl Mueller), "Muslim Calvinism”, internal security and the Lisbon process in Europe Amsterdam : Rozenberg Publishers
*{{cite book | last=Walker | first=Benjamin | authorlink=Benjamin Walker | title=Foundations of Islam: The Making of a World Faith | publisher=Peter Owen Publishers | year=1998 | id=ISBN 978-0720610383}}</div>

==External links==
{{sisterlinks}}
;Academic resources
*[http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA University of Southern California Compendium of Muslim Texts]
*[http://philtar.ucsm.ac.uk/encyclopedia/islam Encyclopedia of Islam (Overview of World Religions)]
*[http://arabworld.nitle.org/introduction.php?module_id=2 Unit on Islam] from the [[NITLE]] Arab Culture and Civilization Online Resource
*[http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9105852/Islam Islam], article at ''Enyclopaedia Britannica Online''

;Directories
*Islam in [http://wwwuser.gwdg.de/~mriexin/euroislam.html Western Europe], [http://wwwuser.gwdg.de/~mriexin/UKIslam.html the United Kingdom], [http://wwwuser.gwdg.de/~mriexin/DIslam.html Germany] and [http://wwwuser.gwdg.de/~mriexin/sasislam.html South Asia]
*{{dmoz|Society/Religion_and_Spirituality/Islam/}}
*[http://www.gutenberg.org/wiki/Islam_%28Bookshelf%29 Islam (Bookshelf)] at [[Project Gutenberg]]

;Islam - text, audio and video
*[http://www.gutenberg.org/files/16955/16955.zip Three Translations of The Koran (Al-Qur'an) side by side]
*[http://www.ikre-bismi-rabbike.net/kuran.php Kur'an audio (recordings of many Qur'an recitals - easy to stream and play)]
*[http://www.islaminside.org/audio.php Quranic auido downloadable or streamable by different reciters]
*[http://www.guidedways.com/quranreciter/ Qur'an audio and reading material in numerous languages]

;Islam and the arts
*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/ BBC Islam Focus]
*[http://www.lacma.org/islamic_art/intro.htm Islamic Art at the Los Angeles County Museum of Art]
*[http://www.muslimheritage.com/ Muslim Heritage] (Foundation for Science Technology and Civilisation, UK)
*[http://www.islamicarchitecture.org/ Islamic Architecture (IAORG)] illustrated descriptions and reviews of a large number of mosques, palaces, and monuments.



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Pat Robertson

2008-11-09T12:36:58Z

AnthonyToddler: trying to remove too-obvious bias (some bias is ok, but I think too much just damages CP)

{{Infobox Person
|image =
|caption =
| name = Pat Robertson
| birth_name = Marion Gordon Robertson
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|1930|3|22}}
| birth_place = [[Lexington, Virginia|Lexington]], [[Virginia]], [[United States]]
| occupation = [[Televangelist]]
| spouse = Adelia Elmer
| children = Timothy Bryan Robertson Elizabeth Faith Robertson [[Gordon P. Robertson|Gordon Perry Robertson]] Anne Carter Robertson
| parents = [[Absalom Willis Robertson]] Gladys Churchill
}}
'''Marion Gordon "Pat" Robertson''' (born March 22, 1930)<ref name="officialbio">{{cite web |url=http://www.patrobertson.com/Biography/index.asp |title=Official biography |accessdate=2007-03-31}}</ref> is a controversial [[televangelist]] from the [[United States]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/4805952.stm |title="Top US evangelist targets Islam" |date=2007-03-14 |publisher=[[BBC News]] |accessdate=2007-03-31}}</ref> He is the founder of numerous organizations and corporations, including the [[American Center for Law and Justice]] (ACLJ), [[Christian Broadcasting Network]] (CBN), the [[Christian Coalition of America|Christian Coalition]], Flying Hospital, International Family Entertainment, [[Operation Blessing International|Operation Blessing International Relief and Development Corporation]], and [[Regent University]].<ref name="officialbio" /><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cc.org/about.cfm |title="About Us" |publisher=[[Christian Coalition]] |accessdate=2007-03-31}}</ref> He is the host of ''[[The 700 Club]],'' a Christian TV program airing on channels throughout the United States and on CBN affiliates worldwide.<ref name="officialbio" />

Robertson is a [[Southern Baptist Convention|Southern Baptist]] and was active as an ordained minister with that denomination for many years, but holds to a [[charismatic movement|charismatic]] theology not traditionally common among Southern Baptists. He unsuccessfully campaigned to become the [[Republican Party of the United States|Republican Party]]'s nominee in the [[United States presidential election, 1988|1988 presidential election]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://mediamatters.org/issues_topics/people/patrobertson |title="Pat Robertson" |publisher=[[Media Matters for America]] |accessdate=2007-03-31}}</ref> As a result of his seeking political office, he no longer serves in an official role for any church. His media and financial resources make him a recognized, influential, and controversial public voice for [[conservative Christianity]] in the United States.

==Life and career==
===Family===
Robertson was born in [[Lexington, Virginia]], into a prominent political family. His parents were [[Absalom Willis Robertson]], a conservative [[United States Democratic Party|Democratic]] [[United States Senate|United States Senator]], and his wife Gladys Churchill ([[née]] Willis). He married Adelia "Dede" Elmer in 1954. His family includes four children, among them [[Gordon P. Robertson]], and at the time of writing (mid-2005) fourteen grandchildren.

At a young age, Robertson was given the nickname of ''Pat'' by his six-year-old brother, Willis Robertson, Jr., who enjoyed patting him on the cheeks when he was a baby while saying "''pat, pat, pat''". As he got older, Robertson thought about which first name he would like people to use. He considered "Marion" to be effeminate, and "M. Gordon" to be affected, so he opted for his childhood nickname "Pat". His strong awareness for the importance of names in the creation of a public image showed itself again during his presidential run when he threatened to sue NBC news for calling him a "television evangelist", which later became "televangelist", at a time when [[Jimmy Swaggart]] and [[Jim Bakker]] were objects of scandal. He insisted upon being called a "religious broadcaster".

===Education and military service===
When he was eleven, Robertson was enrolled in the preparatory [[McDonogh School]] outside [[Baltimore, Maryland]]. From 1940 until 1946 he attended [[The McCallie School]] in [[Chattanooga, Tennessee]]. He graduated with honors and enrolled at [[Washington and Lee University]], where he majored in history. The claim that he was elected to [[Phi Beta Kappa]], a prestigious national honor society, is not substantiated by the Phi Beta Kappa membership directory.<ref>Phi Beta Kappa Membership Directory, Vol 1. 2000.</ref> He also joined [[Sigma Alpha Epsilon]] fraternity. Robertson has said, "Although I worked hard at my studies, my real major centered around lovely young ladies who attended the nearby girls schools."<ref>[http://www.patrobertson.com/education/ "Education"], The Official Site of Pat Robertson.</ref>

In 1948, the [[Conscription|draft]] was reinstated and Robertson was given the option of joining the [[United States Marine Corps|Marine Corps]] or being drafted into the army. He opted for the former, which allowed him to finish college under the condition that he attend [[Officer Candidates School (U.S. Marine Corps)|Officer Candidates School]] (OCS) in [[Marine Corps Base Quantico|Quantico]], [[Virginia]] during the summer. He graduated ''[[magna cum laude]]'' with a [[Bachelor of Arts]] degree and was the first person to be [[Commissioned officer|commissioned]] as a [[Second Lieutenant#United States|Second Lieutenant]] at a graduation ceremony at Washington and Lee. In January 1951, Robertson served four months in Japan, "doing rehabilitation training for Marines wounded in [[Korea]]".

In his words, "We did long, grueling marches to toughen the men, plus refresher training in firearms and bayonet combat." In the same year, he transferred to Korea, "I ended up at the headquarters command of the First Marine Division," says Robertson. "The Division was in combat in the hot and dusty, then bitterly cold portion of North Korea just above the 38th Parallel later identified as the 'Punchbowl' and 'Heartbreak Ridge.' For that service in the Korean War, the Marine Corps awarded me three battle stars for 'action against the enemy.'"<ref>[http://www.patrobertson.com/militaryservice/ "Military Service"], The Official Site of Pat Robertson.</ref>

However, former Republican Congressman [[Pete McCloskey|Paul "Pete" McCloskey, Jr.]], who served with Robertson in Korea, claimed that Robertson was actually spared combat duty when his powerful father, a U.S. Senator, intervened on his behalf, claiming that instead Robertson spent most of his time in an office in [[Japan]]. According to McCloskey, his time in the service was not in combat but as the "liquor officer" responsible for keeping the [[officers' clubs]] supplied with liquor. There he also was known to drink liquors himself and to frequent prostitutes -- consequently, he even feared that he had contracted [[gonorrhea]].<ref> The Taking of Hill 610 And Other Essays on Friendship, by Paul N. McCloskey, Jr. (1992; Eaglet Books, 580 Mountain Home Road, Woodside, CA 94062)</ref>

Robertson was promoted to First Lieutenant in 1952 upon his return to the United States. He then went on to receive a [[Bachelor of Laws]] degree from [[Yale University Law School]] in 1955. However, he failed to pass the bar exam,<ref>[http://www.patrobertson.com/SpiritualJourney/SomethingMissing.asp "Spiritual Journey"], The Official Site of Pat Robertson.</ref> shortly thereafter underwent his religious conversion, and decided against pursuing a career in law. Instead, Robertson attended the [[New York Theological Seminary]], and was awarded a [[Master of Divinity]] degree in 1959.

===Religious career===
In 1956 Robertson found his faith through [[Netherlands|Dutch]] [[missionary]] [[Cornelius Vanderbreggen]], who impressed Robertson both by his lifestyle and his message. Vanderbreggen quoted [[Book of Proverbs|Proverbs]] (3:5, 6), "''Trust in the Lord with all thine heart; and lean not unto thine own understanding. In all thy ways acknowledge Him, and He shall direct thy paths''", which Robertson considers to be the "''guiding principle''" of his life. Soon afterwards, he was ''filled with the [[Holy Spirit]]'' and [[Glossolalia|''spoke in tongues'']]{{Fact|date=August 2007}} for the first time. He was ordained as a minister of the [[Southern Baptist Convention]] in 1961.

In 1960, Robertson established the [[Christian Broadcasting Network]] in [[Virginia Beach, Virginia]]. He started it by buying a small UHF station in nearby [[Portsmouth, Virginia|Portsmouth]]. Later in 1977 he purchased a local-access cable channel in the Hampton Roads area and called it CBN. Originally he went door-to-door in Virginia Beach, Hampton Roads, and other surrounding areas asking Christians to buy cable boxes so that they could receive his new channel. He also canvassed local churches in the Virginia Beach area to do the same, and solicited donations through public speaking engagements at local churches and on CBN. One of his friends, the pastor of Rock Church Virginia Beach- John Giminez was influential in helping Robertson establish CBN with donations, as well as offering the services of volunteers from his church.

CBN is now seen in 180 countries and broadcast in 71 languages. He founded the CBN Cable Network, which was renamed the CBN Family Channel in 1988 and later simply the Family Channel. When the Family Channel became too profitable for Robertson to keep it under the CBN umbrella without endangering CBN's nonprofit status, he formed [[International Family Entertainment Inc.]] in 1990 with the Family Channel as its main subsidiary. Robertson sold the Family Channel to the [[News Corporation]] in 1997, which renamed it Fox Family. A condition of the sale was that the station would continue airing Robertson's television program, ''The [[700 Club]]'', twice a day in perpetuity, regardless of any changes of ownership. The channel is now owned by [[The Walt Disney Company|Disney]] and run as "[[ABC Family]]". On December 3, 2007, Robertson resigned as chief executive of CBN; he was succeeded by his son, Gordon.<ref>[http://www.splc.org/newsflash.asp?id=1655&year Student Press Law Center - News Flashes]</ref>

Robertson founded CBN University in 1977 on CBN's Virginia Beach campus. It was renamed [[Regent University]] in 1989. Robertson serves as its [[chancellor]]. He is also founder and president of the [[American Center for Law and Justice]], a public interest law firm that defends Christians whose [[First Amendment to the United States Constitution|First Amendment]] rights have allegedly been violated. The law firm, headquartered in the same building that houses Regent's [[law school]], focuses on "[[pro-family]], pro-liberty and [[pro-life]]" cases nationwide.

Robertson is also an advocate of Christian [[dominionism]] - the idea that Christians have a right to rule.<ref name="Goldberg2006">Goldberg, Michelle. 2006. Kingdom Coming: The Rise of Christian Nationalism. 1st ed. W. W. Norton.</ref>

===1988 presidential bid===

In September, 1986, Robertson announced his intention to seek the [[United States Republican Party|Republican]] nomination for [[President of the United States]]. Robertson said he would pursue the nomination only if three million people signed up to volunteer for his campaign by September, 1987. Three million responded, and by the time Robertson announced he'd be running in September 1987, he also had raised millions of dollars for his campaign fund. He surrendered his ministerial credentials and turned leadership of CBN over to his son, Tim. His campaign, however, against incumbent [[Vice President of the United States|Vice President]] [[George H. W. Bush]], was seen as a long shot.

Robertson ran on a very [[American conservatism|conservative]] platform. Among his policies, he wanted to ban [[pornography]], reform the education system, and eliminate departments such as the [[United States Department of Education|Department of Education]] and the [[United States Department of Energy|Department of Energy]]. He also supported a [[Amendments to the Constitution of the United States|constitutional amendment]] requiring a [[Balanced Budget Amendment|balanced federal budget]].

During the start of the presidential [[primary election]] season in early 1988, Robertson's campaign was attacked because of a statement he had made about his military service. In his campaign literature, he stated he was a combat Marine who served in the [[Korean War]]. Other Marines in his battalion contradicted Robertson's version, claiming he had never spent a day in a combat environment. They asserted that instead of fighting in the war, Robertson's primary responsibility was supplying alcoholic beverages for his officers. (see Education and military service)<ref> See reference no. 8 </ref>

Robertson's campaign got off to a strong second-place finish in the [[Iowa caucus]], ahead of Bush.<ref>[http://iowapresidentialpolitics.com/caucus_info/bergenaswinebrenner.html "About the caucuses: Meaningful test"], Johan Bergenas, Iowa Presidential Politics.com.</ref>

Robertson did poorly in the subsequent [[New Hampshire primary]], however, and was unable to be competitive once the multiple-state primaries began. Robertson ended his campaign before the primaries were finished. His best finish was in [[Washington]], winning the majority of caucus delegates. However, his controversial win has been credited to procedural manipulation by Robertson supporters who delayed final voting until late into the evening when other supporters had gone home.<ref>[http://www.thenewstribune.com/news/local/story/273555.html "Primary versus caucus fight rolls on among state politicians"], Niki Sullivan, Tacoma News Tribune.</ref><ref>[http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=940DE2D81539F93AA35750C0A96E948260 " Bush routs Dole in primaries"], Michale Oreskes, New York Times.</ref> He later spoke at the [[1988 Republican National Convention]] in [[New Orleans]] and told his remaining supporters to cast their votes for Bush, who ended up winning the nomination and the election. He then returned to CBN and has remained there as a religious broadcaster.

===Books===
[[Image:NWO Pat Rob.jpg|thumb|right|150px|[[The New World Order (Robertson)|The New World Order]]]]

Robertson's books have been both successful and controversial. ''[[The Secret Kingdom]],'' ''[[Answers to 100 of Life's Most Probing Questions]],'' and ''[[The New World Order (Robertson)|The New World Order]]'' were each in their respective year of publication the number one religious book in America. {{Fact|date=February 2007}}

Robertson's tome ''The New World Order'' was described as a 'catch all for conspiracy theories' by Christian academic Don Wilkey:

<blockquote>Pat Robertson’s work, NEW WORLD ORDER, is a catch all for conspiracy theories. It combines the paranoia of the Old Right with modern versions. A summary of Robertson’s book is found on page 177 in which Pat says a conspiracy has existed in the world working through Freemasonry and a secret Order of the Illuminati, a group combining [[Freemasons|Masons]] and Jewish Bankers.<ref>Don Wilkey, [http://www.livingston.net/wilkyjr/link26.htm book review of ''New World Order''], "A Christian Looks At the Religious Right". Accessed December 11, 2006.</ref></blockquote>

Ephraim Radner also accuses Robertson of espousing anti-semitic beliefs in the same book:

<blockquote>In his published writings, especially his 1991 book The New World Order, Pat Robertson has propagated theories about a worldwide Jewish conspiracy. Michael Land raised the issue in February in the New York Times Book Review, and in April Jacob Heilbrun, writing in the New York Review of Books, cited chapter and verse of Robertson's borrowings from well-known anti-Semitic works.<ref>Ephraim Radner, [http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1058/is_n26_v112/ai_17497869 New world order, old world anti-Semitism — Pat Robertson of the Christian Coalition], ''Christian Century'', September 13, 1995. Accessed December 11, 2006.</ref></blockquote>

===Business interests===
He is the founder and chairman of [[Christian Broadcasting Network|The Christian Broadcasting Network (CBN) Inc.]], and founder of [[International Family Entertainment Inc.]], [[Regent University]], Operation Blessing International Relief and Development Corporation, American Center for Law and Justice, The Flying Hospital, Inc. and several other organizations and broadcast entities. Robertson was the founder and co-chairman of [[International Family Entertainment Inc.]] (IFE).

Formed in 1990, IFE produced and distributed family entertainment and information programming worldwide. IFE's principal business was The Family Channel, a satellite delivered cable-television network with 63 million U.S. subscribers. IFE, a publicly held company listed on the [[New York Stock Exchange]], was sold in 1997 to [[Fox Kids Worldwide, Inc.]] for $1.9 billion, whereupon it was renamed [[Fox Family Channel]]. [[The Walt Disney Company|Disney]] acquired FFC in 2001 and its name was changed again, to [[ABC Family]].

Robertson is a global businessman with media holdings in Asia, the United Kingdom, and Africa. He struck a deal with Pittsburgh, PA-based [[General Nutrition Center]] to produce and market a weight-loss shake he created and promoted on the 700 Club TV show.

In 1999, Robertson entered into a joint venture with the [[Bank of Scotland]] to provide financial services in the United States. However, the move was met with criticism in the UK due to Robertson's views on homosexuality. After Robertson commented that Scotland was "a dark land overrun by homosexuals", the Bank of Scotland canceled the venture.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/business/the_company_file/361736.stm BBC News | The Company File | Bank drops evangelist]</ref>

Robertson's extensive business interests have earned him a net worth estimated between $200 million and $1 billion.<ref>[http://www.sullivan-county.com/news/pat_quotes/palst.htm Palast investigates Pat Robertson]</ref>

==Political activism==
After his unsuccessful presidential campaign, Robertson started the [[Christian Coalition of America|Christian Coalition]], a 1.7 million member [[Christian right]] organization that campaigned mostly for conservative candidates. It became, almost instantly, one of the most influential organizations in American politics and one of the largest and most powerful lobbying groups in the United States.{{Fact|date=February 2007}} However, the organization's popularity has faded somewhat.{{Fact|date=February 2007}} It was sued by the [[Federal Election Commission]] "for coordinating its activities with Republican candidates for office in 1990, 1992 and 1994 and failing to report its expenditures"<ref>[http://www.au.org/site/News2?JServSessionIdr005=ao8o141u41.app7b&abbr=pr&page=NewsArticle&id=6105&news_iv_ctrl=1523 "In Closed-Door Session with Christian Coalition State Leaders, Pat Robertson Unveils Plan to Control GOP Presidential Nomination"], September 18 1997, Americans United for Separation of Church and State.</ref>

In 1994, the Coalition was fined for "improperly [aiding] then Representative Newt Gingrich (R-GA) and [[Oliver North]], who was then the Republican Senate nominee in Virginia."<ref>[http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1058/is_22_116/ai_55670890 "Christian Coalition wins on voter guides — allowed to distribute guides, but can not support candidates"], Rns, ''Christian Century'', August 11 1999.</ref> Robertson left the Coalition in 2001.

While Robertson is primarily popular among evangelical Christians, his support extends beyond the Christian community. In 2002, he received the ''State of [[Israel]] Friendship Award'' from the [[Zionist Organization of America]] for his consistent support for a [[Greater Israel]]. {{Fact|date=July 2008}} In that year the [[Coalition for Jewish Concerns]] also expressed its gratitude to Robertson for "unwavering support for Israel" and "standing up to evil".{{Fact|date=July 2008}}

Robertson has also been a governing member of the [[Council for National Policy]] (CNP). Seekgod.ca, which describes itself as "an independent Christian research and apologetics ministry"<ref>[http://www.seekgod.ca Seekgod.ca homepage]</ref> listed him on the CNP Board of Governors 1982, President Executive Committee 1985–86, member, 1984, 1988, 1998.<ref>[http://www.seekgod.ca/cnp.r.htm Research > The Council for National Policy (CNP)] on Seekgod.ca. Accessed December 11, 2006.</ref><ref>See also Barbara A. Simon, Esq., [http://www.publiceye.org/ifas/fw/9611/cnp.html CNP's radical agenda], Institute for First Amendment Studies, Inc., which makes several mentions of Robertson's role in CNP</ref>

On November 7, 2007, Robertson announced that he was endorsing [[Rudy Giuliani]] to be the Republican nominee in the 2008 Presidential election.<ref>[http://www.breitbart.com/article.php?id=D8SOUT000&show_article=1&lst=1 Pat Robertson Backs Giuliani's Bid]</ref>

While usually associated with the [[political right]], Pat Robertson has recently begun endorsing environmental causes. He appears in a commercial with [[Al Sharpton]], joking about this, and urging people to join the We can Solve it Campaign against [[global warming]]. <ref>http://www.wecansolveit.org/page/s/unlikelyalliance?source=Ad.com&subsource=SharptonandRobertson728X90</ref>

==Controversies and criticisms==
{{main|Pat Robertson controversies}}
Robertson is outspoken in both his faith and his politics and controversies surrounding him have often made headlines.

==Predictions==
Several times near [[New Year]] Robertson has announced that God told him several truths or events that would happen in the following year. "I have a relatively good track record," he said. "Sometimes I miss."<ref>[http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/16442877/ Pat Robertson warns of terrorist attack in ’07 - Life - MSNBC.com]</ref>

===1982: Doomsday===
In late 1976, Robertson predicted that the end of the world was coming in November or October 1982. In a May 1980 broadcast of ''The 700 Club'' he stated, "I guarantee you by the end of 1982 there is going to be a judgment on the world."<ref>[http://www.abhota.info/end3.htm "Doomsday: 1971 - 1997"]</ref>

===2006: Pacific Northwestern tsunami===
In May 2006, Robertson declared that storms and possibly a [[tsunami]] would hit America's coastline sometime in 2006. Robertson supposedly received this revelation from God during an annual personal prayer retreat in January. The claim was repeated four times on ''The 700 Club''.

On May 8, 2006 Robertson said, "If I heard the Lord right about 2006, the coasts of America will be lashed by storms." On May 17, 2006 he elaborated, "There well may be something as bad as a tsunami in the [[Pacific Northwest]]."<ref>[http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/html/nationworld/2003004452_pat19.html "God is warning of big storms, Robertson says"], May 19, 2006, The Associated Press.</ref> While this claim didn't garner the same level of controversy as some of his other statements, it was generally received with mild amusement by the Pacific Northwest media. The [[History Channel]]'s initial airing of its new series, ''Mega Disasters: West Coast Tsunami'', was broadcast the first week of May.

In fact, not only did a tsunami ''not'' affect the United States in 2006, but no hurricanes reached United States soil that year, either, and the [[2006 Atlantic hurricane season|2006 hurricane season]] was actually far tamer than the extremely active and dangerous [[2005 Atlantic hurricane season|2005 season]].

===2007: terror attack===
On the January 2, 2007 broadcast of ''The 700 Club'', Robertson said that [[God]] spoke to him and told him that "mass killings" were to come during 2007, due to a terrorist attack on the United States. He added, "The Lord didn't say [[nuclear terrorism|nuclear]]. But I do believe it will be something like that."<ref>[http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/16442877/ "Pat Robertson warns of terrorist attack in 2007"], January 2 2007, MSNBC.com.</ref> No terrorist attacks against the United States in general, or its interests, ever occurred in 2007. When a terrorist attack failed to happen, Robertson responded by saying, "All I can think is that somehow the people of God prayed and God in his mercy spared us."<ref name = "FoxNews-Predicts"/>

===2008: worldwide violence and American recession===
On the January 2, 2008 episode of ''The 700 Club'', Pat Robertson predicted that 2008 would be a year of worldwide violence. He also predicted that a [[recession]] would occur in the United States that would be followed by a [[stock market crash]] by 2010.<ref name = "FoxNews-Predicts">[http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,319728,00.html Pat Robertson Predicts Worldwide Violence, U.S. Recession in 2008]</ref>

===2008: Mideast Meltdown===
In October 2008 Robertson posted a press release on the [[Georgia (country)|Georgian]] Conflict speculating that the conflict is a [[Russia]]n ploy to enter the [[Middle East]], and that instability caused by a predicted pre-emptive strike by [[Israel]] on [[Iran]] would result in [[Syria]] and Iran launching nuclear strikes on other targets. He also said that if the [[United States]] were to oppose Russia's expansion, nuclear strikes on American soil are also pending. "We will suffer grave economic damage, but will not engage in military action to stop the conflict. However, we may not be spared nuclear strikes against coastal cities. In conclusion, it is my opinion that we have between 75 and 120 days before the Middle East starts spinning out of control." <ref name = "An Urgent Call To Prayer Regarding Georgia">[http://www.patrobertson.com/pressreleases/PatRobertsonRegardingGeorgia.asp Robertson predicts Mideast disaster and nuclear strikes on America during or shortly after American Election]</ref>

==Books==
* ''The New Millennium''
* ''Answers to 200 of Life's Most Probing Questions''
* ''The Secret Kingdom'' (1982)
* ''America's Dates with Destiny''
* ''The Plan''
* ''Beyond Reason: How Miracles can Change your Life''
* ''Turning Tide: The Fall of Liberalism and the Rise of Common Sense''
* ''Shout it from the Housetops'' an autobiography
* ''The End of the Age'' (1995, fiction)
* ''[[The New World Order (Robertson)|The New World Order]]'' (1991)
* ''[[Bring It On (book)|Bring It On]]''
* ''The Ten Offenses''
* ''Courting Disaster''

==Honors==
{{Refimprove|date=August 2007}}
*1975 The Distinguished Merit Citation from The National Conference of Christians and Jews.
*1976 Faith and Freedom Award in the field of broadcasting.
*1978 [[United States Department of Justice|Department of Justice]] Award from the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation]], 25th FBI Vesper Service.
*1979 National Conference of Christians and Jews — Distinguished Merit Citation.
*1982 Humanitarian of the Year by Food for the Hungry.
*1984 Man of the Year Award from the Women's National Republican Club.
*1984 Citation from the National Organization for the Advancement of Hispanics.
*1985 National Association of United Methodist Evangelists.
*1988 Man of the Year by Students for America.
*1989 Christian Broadcaster of the Year by the [[National Religious Broadcasters]].
*1992 One of America's 100 Cultural Elite by ''[[Newsweek]]'' Magazine.
*1994 Omega Fellowship Award by Food for the Hungry for Operation Blessing's fight against worldwide hunger.
*1994 Defender of Israel Award from the Christians' Israel Public Action Campaign for those who have made major contributions in strengthening U.S.-Israel relations.
*1994 John Connor Humanitarian Service Award from Operation Smile International.
*2000 Cross of Nails award for his vision, inspiration, and humanitarian work with The Flying Hospital.
*2002 State of Israel Friendship Award from the [[Zionist Organization of America]].

==See also==
{{portal|United States Marine Corps|USMC_logo.svg}}
*''[[The 700 Club]]''
*[[Christian Broadcasting Network]]
*[[Christian right]]
*[[Christian fundamentalism]]
*[[Christian Coalition of America]]
*[[Christian Zionism]]
*[[Moral majority]]
*[[Mobutu Sese Seko]]
*[[Operation Blessing]]

==References==

{{reflist|2}}

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
{{wikinewshas|news coverage of ''Pat Robertson''|
*[[n:US televangelist Pat Robertson apologizes for assassination remark|US televangelist Pat Robertson apologizes for assassination remark]]
*[[n:Religious broadcaster Pat Robertson warns Pennsylvania town of disaster|Religious broadcaster Pat Robertson warns Pennsylvania town of disaster]]
*[[n:Televangelist Pat Robertson suggests Sharon's stroke is act of God in response to Gaza withdrawal]]}}
*[http://www.patrobertson.com Official Pat Robertson Website]
*[http://www.patrobertson.tv Photos of Pat Robertson's Operation Blessing visit to New Orleans.]
*Brian Ross. [http://abcnews.go.com/WNT/HurricaneKatrina/story?id=1112518&page=1 Some Question Robertson's ''Katrina'' Charity], [[ABC News]], September 9, 2005.
*[http://msnbc.msn.com/id/12851397/?GT1=8199 "Preacher: God told him about storms, tsunami"]
*[http://www.hinduismtoday.com/archives/1995/7/1995-7-04.shtml"Pat Robertson Denounces Hinduism as 'Demonic'"]
*[http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/13027545/ 2000 lbs. leg press]
*[http://www.laprp.com/patients_speak.php Robertson talks about his '''prostate cancer surgery'''] with [[Laparoscopic Radical Prostatectomy]].

{{DEFAULTSORT:Robertson, Pat}}
[[Category:Television evangelists]]
[[Category:American religious leaders]]
[[Category:Regent University]]
[[Category:Baptists from the United States]]
[[Category:Christian religious leaders]]
[[Category:Christian ministers]]
[[Category:Christian writers]]
[[Category:American businesspeople]]
[[Category:American anti-communists]]
[[Category:Islam-related controversies]]
[[Category:Criticism of feminism]]
[[Category:Religious scandals]]
[[Category:United States presidential candidates, 1988]]
[[Category:United States Marine Corps officers]]
[[Category:Yale Law School alumni]]
[[Category:People from Virginia]]
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[[Category:Conspiracy theorists]]
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[[Category:Criticism of Islam]]
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[[Category:Anti-Masonry]]
[[Category:University or college founders]]
[[Category:Scottish-Americans]]

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Jesus

2008-11-09T12:36:28Z

AnthonyToddler: trying to remove too-obvious bias (some bias is ok, but I think too much just damages CP)

{{about|Jesus of Nazareth}}

{{pp-semi|small=yes}}

{{Infobox Person
| name = Jesus of Nazareth
| image =Christus Ravenna Mosaic.jpg
| caption =6th-century [[mosaic]] of Jesus at Church San Apollinare Nuovo in [[Ravenna]], Italy. Though [[Depiction of Jesus|depictions of Jesus]] are [[Cultural depictions of Jesus|culturally important]], no undisputed record of Jesus' appearance is known to exist.
| birth_date= 7–2 BC/BCE
| birth_place= [[Bethlehem]], [[Iudaea Province|Judea]] (traditional)
| death_place= [[Calvary]], Judea. (According to the [[New Testament]], he [[resurrection|rose]] on the third day after his death.)
| death_date= 26–36 AD/CE.
| death_cause= [[Crucifixion of Jesus|Crucifixion]] (Muslim scholars dispute the Gospel claim that Jesus was crucified)
| resting_place= A garden tomb, traditionally located in what is now the [[Church of the Holy Sepulchre]]<ref>[[Eusebius of Caesarea|Eusebius]], ''Life of Constantine''</ref>
| occupation= [[Carpenter]], itinerant [[Prophet|preacher]], [[Rabbi]]
| home_town=[[Nazareth]], [[Galilee]], [[Israel|current Israel]]
| ethnicity = [[Jewish]]
}}
'''Jesus of Nazareth''' (7–2 [[Before Christ|BC]]/[[Before Common Era|BCE]]—26–36 [[Anno Domini|AD]]/[[Common Era|CE]]),<ref>Some of the historians and Biblical scholars who place the birth and death of Jesus within this range include [[D. A. Carson]], [[Douglas J. Moo]] and [[Leon Morris]]. ''An Introduction to the New Testament.'' Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan Publishing House, 1992, 54, 56</ref><ref> [[Michael Grant (author)|Michael Grant]], ''Jesus: An Historian's Review of the Gospels'', Scribner's, 1977, p. 71; [[John P. Meier]], ''A Marginal Jew'', Doubleday, 1991–, vol. 1:214; [[E. P. Sanders]], ''The Historical Figure of Jesus'', Penguin Books, 1993, pp. 10–11, and [[Ben Witherington III]], "Primary Sources," ''Christian History'' 17 (1998) No. 3:12–20.</ref> also known as '''Jesus Christ''', is the central figure of [[Christianity]] and is revered by most [[Christian]] churches as the [[Son of God]] and the [[Incarnation (Christianity)|incarnation of God]]. [[Islam]] considers [[Jesus in Islam|Jesus]] a [[Prophets in Islam|prophet]], and he is an important figure in certain other religions.


The principal sources of information regarding Jesus' life and teachings are the four canonical [[gospel]]s though some scholars argue that other texts (such as the [[Gospel of Thomas]]) are as relevant as the canonical gospels to the historical Jesus.<ref>[[Amy-Jill Levine]], ''The Oxford History of the Biblical World'', New York, Oxford University Press, 1999, p 371, Chapter 10: Visions of Kingdoms: From Pompey to the First Jewish Revolt (63 BCE-70 CE)." M. Coogan et al. (eds.)</ref>
Most critical scholars in the fields of history and [[biblical studies]] believe that ancient texts on Jesus' life are at least partially accurate,<ref>[[Lee Strobel|Strobel, Lee]]. ''The Case for Christ: A Journalist's Personal Investigation of the Evidence for Jesus.'' Zondervan, 1998. ISBN 0310209307; Wright, N.T. ''The Challenge of Jesus: Rediscovering Who Jesus Was and Is.'' InterVarsity Press, 1999. ISBN 0830822003; Dunn, James D.G. ''The Evidence for Jesus." Westminster John Knox Press, 1985. ISBN 0664246982</ref><ref>Examples of authors who argue the [[Jesus myth hypothesis]]: [[Thomas L. Thompson]] ''The Messiah Myth: The Near Eastern Roots of Jesus and David '' (Jonathan Cape, Publisher, 2006); [[Michael Martin (philosopher)|Michael Martin]], ''The Case Against Christianity'' (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1991), 36–72; [[J.M. Robertson|John Mackinnon Robertson]]</ref>
agreeing that Jesus was a [[Galilee|Galilean]] [[Jew]] who was regarded as a teacher and [[faith healing|healer]]. They also generally accept that he was [[baptism|baptized]] by [[John the Baptist]], and was [[crucifixion|crucified]] in [[Jerusalem]] on orders of the [[Roman governor|Roman Prefect]] of [[Iudaea Province|Judaea]] [[Pontius Pilate]], on the charge of [[sedition]] against the [[Roman Empire]].<ref>[[Raymond E. Brown]], ''The Death of the Messiah: From Gethsemane to the Grave'' (New York: Doubleday, Anchor Bible Reference Library 1994), p. 964; D. A. Carson, et al., p. 50–56; [[Shaye J.D. Cohen]], ''From the Maccabees to the Mishnah'', Westminster Press, 1987, p. 78, 93, 105, 108; [[John Dominic Crossan]], ''The Historical Jesus: The Life of a Mediterranean Jewish Peasant'', HarperCollins, 1991, p. xi – xiii; Michael Grant, p. 34–35, 78, 166, 200; [[Paula Fredriksen]], ''Jesus of Nazareth, King of the Jews'', Alfred B. Knopf, 1999, p. 6–7, 105–110, 232–234, 266; John P. Meier, vol. 1:68, 146, 199, 278, 386, 2:726; E.P. Sanders, pp. 12–13; [[Geza Vermes]], Jesus the Jew (Philadelphia: Fortress Press 1973), p. 37.; [[Paul Maier|Paul L. Maier]], ''In the Fullness of Time'', Kregel, 1991, pp. 1, 99, 121, 171; [[Tom Wright (theologian)|N. T. Wright]], ''The Meaning of Jesus: Two Visions'', HarperCollins, 1998, pp. 32, 83, 100–102, 222; Ben Witherington III, pp. 12–20.</ref><ref> Though many historians may have certain reservations about the use of the Gospels for writing history, "even the most hesitant, however, will concede that we are probably on safe historical footing" concerning certain basic facts about the life of Jesus; Jo Ann H. Moran Cruz and Richard Gerberding, ''Medieval Worlds: An Introduction to European History'' Houghton Mifflin Company 2004, pp. 44–45.</ref> Aside from these few conclusions, academic studies remain inconclusive about the chronology, the central message of Jesus' preaching, his social class, cultural environment, and religious orientation.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=zFhvECwNQD0C&pg=PA352&lpg=PA352&dq=%22Visions+of+Kingdoms%22++%22to+the+First+Jewish+Revolt%22&source=web&ots=-shOTzBx4w&sig=DAJ3jCyO9VyFKmHa-kMX-R8fhFA&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&ct=result#PPA370,M1 |authorlink=Amy-Jill Levine |first=Amy-Jill |last=Irving |title=The Oxford History of the Biblical World |location=New York |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1999 |pages=p 370, Chapter 10: Visions of Kingdoms: From Pompey to the First Jewish Revolt (63 BCE-70 CE) |editor=M. Coogan et al.}}</ref>

[[Christian views of Jesus]] (see also [[Christology]]) center on the belief that Jesus is [[Christology|divine]], is the [[Christ|Messiah]] whose coming was [[Claimed Messianic prophecies of Jesus|prophesied in the Old Testament]], and that he was [[Death and resurrection of Jesus|resurrected]] after his crucifixion. Christians predominantly believe that Jesus is the "[[Son of God]]" (generally meaning that he is [[God the Son]], the second person in the [[Trinity]]), who came to provide [[Salvation#Christianity|salvation]] and [[Confession|reconciliation]] with [[God]] by his death for their [[Sin#Christian views of sin|sin]]s. Other Christian beliefs include Jesus' [[Virgin birth of Jesus|virgin birth]], performance of [[Miracles attributed to Jesus|miracles]], [[Ascension of Jesus|ascension]] into [[Heaven]], and future [[Second Coming]]. While the doctrine of the Trinity is widely accepted by Christians, a small minority instead hold various [[Nontrinitarianism|nontrinitarian]] beliefs concerning the divinity of Jesus.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|title=Antitrinitarianism|url=http://www.gameo.org/encyclopedia/contents/A597.html|last=Friedmann|first=Robert|year=1953|encyclopedia=Global Anabaptist Mennonite Encyclopedia Online|publisher=Global Anabaptist Mennonite Encyclopedia Online|accessdate=2008-06-08}}</ref>

In Islam, Jesus ({{lang-ar|عيسى}}, commonly transliterated as [[Jesus in Islam|Isa]]) is considered one of [[God in Islam|God]]'s important [[Prophets in Islam|prophets]],<ref>James Leslie Houlden, "Jesus: The Complete Guide," Continuum International Publishing Group, 2005, ISBN 082648011X</ref><ref>Prof. Dr. Şaban Ali Düzgün, "[http://www.diyanet.gov.tr/English/web_kitap.asp?yid=30 Uncovering Islam: Questions and Answers about Islamic Beliefs and Teachings]," Ankara: The Presidency of Religious Affairs Publishing, 2004</ref> a bringer of [[Injil|scripture]], and a worker of miracles. Jesus is also called "Messiah," but Islam does not teach that he was divine. Islam denies the [[death and resurrection of Jesus]], believing instead that [[Islamic view of Jesus' death|he ascended bodily to heaven]].<ref>[http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/quran/004.qmt.html#004.157 Compendium of Muslim Texts]</ref>

{{TOClimit|limit=3}}

==Etymology==

The name “Jesus” is an [[Anglicisation]] of the [[Greek language|Greek]] {{Polytonic|Ἰησοῦς}} (''{{lang|grc-Latn|Iēsoûs}}''), itself a [[Hellenisation]] of the [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] {{lang|he|יהושע}} (''Yehoshua'') or Hebrew-[[Aramaic language|Aramaic]] {{lang|he|ישוע}} (''[[Yeshua (name)|Yeshua]]''), meaning “[[Tetragrammaton|YHWH]] rescues”. “[[Christ]]” is a title derived from the Greek {{Polytonic|Χριστός}} (''{{lang|grc-Latn|Christós}}''), meaning the “Anointed One”, which corresponds to the Hebrew-derived “[[Messiah]]”.<ref>per ''The Catholic Encyclopedia'' [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/08374x.htm]</ref> Another common name for Jesus, '''Emmanuel''' or '''Immanuel''' is derived from the Aramaic "Imman-el", which translates as "God with us".

== Chronology ==
{{main|Chronology of Jesus}}
Scholars do not know the exact year or date of Jesus' birth or death. The [[Gospel of Matthew]] and the [[Gospel of Luke]] place Jesus' birth under the reign of [[Herod the Great]], who died in 4 BC/BCE,<ref>Edwin D. Freed, ''Stories of Jesus' Birth'', (Continuum International, 2004), page 119.</ref> although the Gospel of Luke also describes the birth as taking place during the [[Census of Quirinius|first census]] of the Roman provinces of [[History of Syria#Syria in antiquity|Syria]] and [[Iudaea Province|Iudaea]] in 6 AD/CE.<ref>Geza Vermes, ''The Nativity: History and Legend'', London, Penguin, 2006, page 22.</ref> Scholars generally assume a date of birth between 6 and 4 BC/BCE.<ref>James D. G. Dunn, Jesus Remembered, Eerdmans Publishing (2003), page 324.</ref> Due to a fourth century arrangement to offset the pagan Roman [[Saturnalia]] festival, the birth of Jesus is celebrated on [[December 25]]. Since the thirteenth century, celebration of the [[Christmas]] ("Christ's Mass") has become an important Christian tradition.<ref name="HC13">Howard Clarke, The Gospel of Matthew and its readers, Indiana University Press, p.13</ref> The common Western standard for numbering years, in which the current year is {{CURRENTYEAR}}, is based on an early medieval attempt to count the years from Jesus' birth.

Jesus' ministry followed that of [[John the Baptist]].<ref>Luke states that John's ministry began in the fifteenth year of the reign of [[Tiberius Caesar]], when [[Pontius Pilate]] was governor of [[Judea]], and [[Herod]] was [[tetrarch]] of [[Galilee]], and his brother Philip was tetrarch of the region of [[Iturea]] and [[Trachonitis]], and [[Lysanias]] was tetrarch of [[Abilene]], during the [[high priesthood]] of [[Annas]] and [[Caiaphas]].</ref> The Gospels, [[Josephus]], and [[Tacitus]] name Pontius Pilate as the Roman prefect who had Jesus crucified, and Pilate was prefect of Judea between 26 and 36 AD/CE.<ref>Joel B. Green, The Gospel of Luke, (Eerdmans, 1997), page 168.</ref> According to Matthew, Mark and Luke, Jesus was executed after [[Passover]] (a Jewish holiday occurring in northern spring) but according to John he was executed earlier in the day of preparation for the passover.<ref> Amy-Jill Levine, The Oxford Dictionary of the Biblical World, Oxford University Press, p.373</ref> Most Christians commemorate Jesus' crucifixion on [[Good Friday]] and celebrate his resurrection on [[Easter]] Sunday.

== Life and teachings, as told in the Gospels ==
{{main|New Testament view on Jesus' life}}
{{Gospel Jesus}}
The [[Bible]]'s four [[biblical canon|canonical]] [[gospel]]s are the principal sources for the traditional [[Christian]] biography of Jesus' life. Scholars, although considering the gospel accounts to be [[historical method|historically useful]], differ widely as to their reliability.

The Gospels (especially Matthew) present Jesus' birth, life, death, and resurrection as fulfillments of [[Messianic prophecy in Christianity|prophecies found in the Hebrew Bible]]. See, for example, the [[virgin birth]], the [[flight into Egypt]], Immanuel ([[Isaiah 7:14]]), and the [[suffering servant]].<ref name="Christianity.com">{{cite web|url=http://Christianity.com/Christian%20Foundations/Jesus/11541169/|title="What the Old Testament Prophesied About the Messiah"|accessdate=2007-10-11}}</ref>

=== Character of Jesus ===
Each gospel portrays Jesus' life and its meaning differently.<ref name ="Harris">[[Stephen L Harris|Harris, Stephen L.]], Understanding the Bible. Palo Alto: Mayfield. 1985.</ref><ref name="MisJ">[[Bart D. Ehrman|Ehrman, Bart D.]]. [[Misquoting Jesus]]: The Story Behind Who Changed the Bible and Why. HarperCollins, 2005. ISBN 978-0-06-073817-4</ref> The gospel of John is not a biography of Jesus but a theological presentation of him as the divine Logos.<ref name="CC">[[Will Durant|Durant, Will]]. Caesar and Christ. New York: Simon and Schuster. 1972</ref> To combine these four stories into one story is tantamount to creating a fifth story, one different from each original.<ref name="MisJ" />

Mark presents Jesus a heroic, charismatic man of action and mighty deeds.<ref name ="Harris">[[Stephen L Harris|Harris, Stephen L.]], Understanding the Bible. Palo Alto: Mayfield. 1985.</ref> Matthew portrays him especially as the fulfillment of Hebrew prophecy and as a greater Moses.<ref name ="Harris">[[Stephen L Harris|Harris, Stephen L.]], Understanding the Bible. Palo Alto: Mayfield. 1985.</ref> Luke emphasizes Jesus' miraculous powers and his support for the poor and for women.<ref name ="Harris">[[Stephen L Harris|Harris, Stephen L.]], Understanding the Bible. Palo Alto: Mayfield. 1985.</ref> John views Jesus' earthly life as a manifestation of the eternal Word.<ref name ="Harris">[[Stephen L Harris|Harris, Stephen L.]], Understanding the Bible. Palo Alto: Mayfield. 1985.</ref>

=== Genealogy and family ===
{{main|Genealogy of Jesus|Desposyni|Jesus bloodline}}
[[Image:Czestochowska.jpg|thumb|left|125px|Jesus and Mary: [[Black Madonna of Częstochowa]]]]
Of the four gospels, only Matthew<ref>{{niv|Matthew|1:1-17|Matthew 1:1-17}}</ref> and Luke<ref>{{niv|Luke|3:23-38|Luke 3:23-38}}</ref> give accounts of Jesus' genealogy. The accounts in the two gospels are substantially different.<ref>Joseph A. Fitzmyer, The Gospel According to Luke I-IX. Anchor Bible. Garden City: Doubleday, 1981, pp. 499–500; I. Howard Marshall, The Gospel of Luke (The New International Greek Testament Commentary). Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1978, p. 158;</ref> The genealogies cannot be harmonized and contemporary scholars generally view the genealogies as theological constructs. More specifically, some have suggested that Matthew wants to underscore birth of a messianic child of royal lineage (mentioning Solomon) whereas Luke's genealogy is priestly (mentioning Levi).<ref>[[Howard W. Clarke]], The Gospel of Matthew and Its Readers, [[Indiana University Press]], 2003, p.1</ref>. Both accounts trace his line back to [[David|King David]] and from there to [[Abraham]]. These lists are identical between Abraham and David, but they differ between David and Joseph. Matthew starts with [[Solomon]] and proceeds through the kings of [[Kingdom of Judah|Judah]] to the last king, [[Jeconiah]]. After Jeconiah, the line of kings terminated when [[Babylonian captivity|Babylon conquered Judah]]. Thus, Matthew shows Jesus as a descendant of the kings of [[Land of Israel|Israel]]. Luke's genealogy is longer than Matthew's; it goes back to [[Adam and Eve|Adam]] and provides more names between David and Jesus.


[[Saint Joseph|Joseph]], husband of [[Mary (mother of Jesus)|Mary]], appears in descriptions of Jesus' childhood. No mention, however, is made of Joseph during the ministry of Jesus.

The New Testament books of Matthew, Mark, and [[Galatians]] tell of Jesus' relatives, including what may have been brothers and sisters.<ref>{{niv|Matthew|13:55–56|Matthew 13:55–56}}, {{niv|Mark|6:3|Mark 6:3}}, and {{niv|Galatians|1:19|Galatians 1:19}}</ref> The Greek word ''adelphos'' in these verses, often translated as ''brother'', can refer to any familial relation, and most Catholics and Eastern Orthodox Christians translate the word as ''kinsman'' or ''cousin'' in this context (see [[Perpetual virginity of Mary]]). Luke also mentions that [[Elizabeth (Biblical person)|Elizabeth]], mother of John the Baptist, was a "cousin" or "relative" of Mary ({{niv|Luke|1:36|Luke 1:36}}), which would make John a distant cousin of Jesus.

=== Nativity and early life ===
{{main|Annunciation|Nativity of Jesus|Child Jesus}}
[[Image:Gerard van Honthorst 002.jpg|thumb|left|165px|''Adoration of the Shepherds'', [[Gerard van Honthorst]], 17th century]]
According to Matthew and Luke, Jesus was born in [[Bethlehem]] of [[Judea]] to Mary, a virgin, by a miracle of the [[Holy Spirit]]. The Gospel of Luke gives an account of the [[angel]] [[Gabriel]] visiting Mary to tell her that she was chosen to bear the [[Son of God]] ({{niv|Luke|1:26–38|Luke 1:26–38}}). According to Luke, an order of [[Augustus|Caesar Augustus]] had forced Mary and Joseph to leave their homes in [[Nazareth]] and come to the home of Joseph's ancestors, the house of [[David]], for the [[Census of Quirinius]].

After Jesus' birth, the couple was forced to use a [[manger]] in place of a crib because of a shortage of accommodation ({{niv|Luke|2:1–7|Luke 2:1–7}}). According to Luke, an angel announced Jesus' birth to shepherds who left their flocks to see the newborn child and who subsequently publicized what they had witnessed throughout the area (see [[The First Noël]]). Matthew tells of the "[[Biblical Magi|Wise Men]]" or "[[Magi]]" who brought gifts to the infant Jesus after following a star which they believed was a sign that the [[King of the Jews]] had been born ({{niv|Matthew|2:1–12|Matthew 2:1–12}}).

Jesus' childhood home is identified as the town of Nazareth in [[Galilee]]. Except for a [[Flight into Egypt|journey to Egypt]] by his family in his infancy to escape Herod's [[Massacre of the Innocents]] and a short trip to [[Tyre, Lebanon|Tyre]] and [[Sidon]] (in what is now Lebanon), the Gospels place all other events in Jesus' life in [[History of ancient Israel and Judah|ancient Israel]].<ref>''For Egypt'': {{niv|Matthew|2:13–23|Matthew 2:13–23}}; ''For Tyre and sometimes Sidon'':{{niv|Matthew|15:21–28|Matthew 15:21–28}} and {{niv|Mark|7:24–30|Mark 7:24–3}}</ref> According to Matthew, the family remained in Egypt until Herod's death, whereupon they settled in Nazareth to avoid living under the authority of Herod's son and successor [[Herod Archelaus|Archelaus]] ({{niv|Matthew|2:19–23|Matthew 2:19–23}}).

[[Image:Bogojavlenie.jpg|thumb|175px|right|[[Baptism of Jesus|Baptism of Christ]] (ortodox icon)]]

Only Luke tells that Jesus was found teaching in the temple by his parents after being lost. The [[Finding in the Temple]] ({{niv|Luke|2:41–52|Luke 2:41–52}}) is the only event between Jesus' infancy and baptism mentioned in any of the canonical Gospels, however [[List of gospels#infancy gospels|infancy gospels]] were popular in antiquity. According to Luke, Jesus was "about thirty years of age" when he was baptized ({{niv|Luke|3:23|Luke 3:23}}). In Mark, Jesus is called a [[carpenter]]. Matthew says he was a carpenter's son, however, the Greek word used in the Gospel is "tekton" meaning "builder," which suggests he could have been an artisan of some type as well.({{niv|Mark|6:3|Mark 6:3}}, {{niv|Matthew|13:55|Matthew 13:55}}).

=== Baptism and Temptation ===
{{main|Baptism of Jesus|Temptation of Jesus|John the Baptist}}
All three [[synoptic Gospels]] describe the [[Baptism of Jesus]] by [[John the Baptist]], an event which Biblical scholars describe as the beginning of Jesus' public ministry. According to these accounts, Jesus came to the [[Jordan River]] where John the Baptist had been preaching and baptizing people in the crowd. After Jesus was baptized and rose from the water, Mark states Jesus "saw the heavens parting and the Spirit descending upon Him like a dove. Then a voice came from heaven saying: 'You are My beloved Son, in whom I am well pleased'" ({{nkjv|Mark|1:10–11|Mark 1:10–11}}).
[[Image:Ary Scheffer - The Temptation of Christ (1854).jpg|thumb|right|175px|''Temptation of Christ'', [[Ary Scheffer]], 19th c.]]
Mark starts his narration with Jesus' baptism, specifying that it is a token of repentance and for forgiveness of sins.<ref name ="Harris">[[Stephen L Harris|Harris, Stephen L.]], Understanding the Bible. Palo Alto: Mayfield. 1985.</ref> Why Jesus would need forgiveness of sins has long been a puzzle to the Church, and Matthew omits this reference, emphasizing Jesus' superiority to John.<ref name ="Harris">[[Stephen L Harris|Harris, Stephen L.]], Understanding the Bible. Palo Alto: Mayfield. 1985.</ref><ref>Early Christian accounts reflect some perplexity at Jesus being baptized, especially by a subordinate figure. See "Baptism of Christ." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005</ref> Matthew describes John as initially hesitant to comply with Jesus' request for John to baptize him, stating that it was Jesus who should baptize him. Jesus persisted, "It is proper for us to do this to fulfill all righteousness" ({{niv|Matthew|3:15|Matthew 3:15}}). In Matthew, God's public dedication informs the reader that Jesus has become God's anointed ("Christ").<ref name ="Harris">[[Stephen L Harris|Harris, Stephen L.]], Understanding the Bible. Palo Alto: Mayfield. 1985.</ref> The Gospel of John does not describe the baptism nor refer to John as the "Baptist," but it does attest that Jesus is the very one about whom John had been preaching — the Son of God. John also emphasizes Jesus' superiority over John.<ref name ="Harris">[[Stephen L Harris|Harris, Stephen L.]], Understanding the Bible. Palo Alto: Mayfield. 1985.</ref>

Following his baptism, Jesus was led into the desert by God where he [[fasting|fasted]] for forty days and forty nights ({{niv|Matthew|4:1–2|Matthew 4:1–2}}). During this time, the [[Devil in Christianity|devil]] appeared to him and tempted Jesus three times. Each time, Jesus refused temptation with a quotation of [[scripture]] from the [[Book of Deuteronomy]]. The devil departed and angels came and brought nourishment to Jesus ({{niv|Matthew|4:1–11|Matthew 4:1–11}}, {{niv|Mark|1:12–13|Mark 1:12–13}}, {{niv|Luke|4:1–13|Luke 4:1–13}}).

John doesn't record Jesus' temptation in the wilderness. In John, Jesus leads a program of baptism in Judea, and his disciples baptize more people than John ({{niv|John|3:22-23|John 3:22-23}}, {{niv|John|4:1-3|John 4:1-3}}).

=== Ministry ===
{{main|Ministry of Jesus|Sermon on the Mount|Sermon on the Plain|Twelve Apostles|Transfiguration of Jesus}}
Mark says that Jesus came to "give his life as a ransom for many," <ref>{{niv|Mark|10:45|Mark 10:45}}</ref> Luke that he was sent to "preach the good news of the [[Kingdom of God]],"<ref>{{niv|Luke|4:43|Luke 4:43}}</ref>, and John that he came so that those who believed in him would have eternal life.<ref>{{niv|John|20:31|John 20:31}}.</ref> Over the course of his ministry, Jesus is said to have [[Miracles of Jesus|performed various miracles]], including healings, [[exorcism]]s, [[walking on water]], [[turning water into wine]], and raising several people, such as [[Lazarus]], from the dead ({{niv|John|11:1–44|John 11:1–44}}, {{niv|Matthew|9:25|Matthew 9:25}}, and {{niv|Luke|7:15|Luke 7:15}}).

John describes three different [[passover]] feasts over the course of Jesus' ministry, implying that Jesus preached for at least "two years plus a month or two."<ref>Meier 1991 vol. 1:405</ref> The [[Synoptic Gospels]] suggest a span of only one year.<ref>Introduction. [[Robert W. Funk|Funk, Robert W.]], Roy W. Hoover, and the Jesus Seminar. ''The five gospels.'' HarperSanFrancisco. 1993.</ref><ref>"The Thompson Chain-Reference Study Bible NIV," published December 1999, B.B. Kirkbride Bible Co., Inc.; William Adler & Paul Tuffin, "The Chronography of George Synkellos: A Byzantine Chronicle of Universal History from the Creation," Oxford University Press (2002), p. 466</ref> In the synoptics, Jesus' ministry takes place mainly in Galilee, until he travels to Jerusalem, where he cleanses the Temple and is executed.<ref name = "ActJ">[[Robert W. Funk|Funk, Robert W.]] and the [[Jesus Seminar]]. ''The acts of Jesus: the search for the authentic deeds of Jesus.'' HarperSanFrancisco. 1998.</ref> In John, Jesus spends most of his ministry in and around Jerusalem, cleansing the temple at his ministry's beginning.<ref name = "ActJ">[[Robert W. Funk|Funk, Robert W.]] and the [[Jesus Seminar]]. ''The acts of Jesus: the search for the authentic deeds of Jesus.'' HarperSanFrancisco. 1998.</ref>

Jesus called Jewish peasants to be his [[Twelve Apostles]], though many of his followers were considered [[Disciple (Christianity)|disciples]]. Jesus directs the apostles' mission only to those of the house of Israel ({{niv|Matthew|15:24|Matthew 15:24}}, {{niv|Matthew|10:1-6|Matthew 10:1-6}}). Three apostles, Peter, James, and John, are accorded a special status. In Mathhew, Jesus confers authority on Peter in particular and on the apostles in general, founding the Christian church.

Jesus led an [[Apocalypse|apocalyptic]] following. He preached that the [[End times|end of the current world]] would come unexpectedly, and that he would return to judge the world, especially according to [[The Sheep and the Goats|how they treated the vulnerable]]; for this reason, he called on his followers to be ever alert and faithful. Jesus also taught that repentance was necessary to escape [[hell]], and promised to give those who believe in him eternal life ({{niv|John|3:16–18|John 3:16–18}}).

In Mark, Jesus' identity as the Messiah is obscured (see [[Messianic secret]]).<ref>"Messianic Secret." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005</ref> Mark states that "this generation" will be given no sign, while Matthew and Luke say they will be given no sign but the sign of Jonah.<ref>[[Robert W. Funk|Funk, Robert W.]], Roy W. Hoover, and the Jesus Seminar. ''The five gospels.'' HarperSanFrancisco. 1993. pages 72-73.</ref> In John, and not in the synoptics, Jesus is outspoken about his divine identity and mission.<ref>"John, Gospel of St." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005</ref> Here he punctuates his ministry with several miraculous signs of his authority.

[[Image:Bloch-SermonOnTheMount.jpg|left|thumb|250px|''Sermon on the Mount'', [[Carl Heinrich Bloch]], 19th c.]]
At the height of his ministry, Jesus is said to have attracted huge crowds numbering in the thousands, primarily in the areas of [[Galilee]] and Perea (in modern-day [[Israel]] and [[Jordan]] respectively).<ref>In ''John'', Jesus' ministry takes place in and around Jerusalem.</ref> Some of Jesus' most famous teachings come from the [[Sermon on the Mount]], which contained the [[Beatitudes]] and the [[Lord's Prayer]]. Jesus often employed [[Parables of Jesus|parables]], such as the [[Parable of the Prodigal Son]] and the [[Parable of the Sower]]. His teachings encouraged unconditional self-sacrificing [[agape|God-like love]] for God and for all people. During his sermons, he preached about service and humility, the forgiveness of sin, faith, [[Turn the other cheek|turning the other cheek]], [[Expounding of the Law#Love|love for one's enemies]] as well as friends, and the need to follow the spirit of [[Torah|the law]] in addition to the letter.<ref>''Sermon on the Mount'': {{niv|Matthew|5–7|Matthew 5–7}}; ''Prodigal Son'': {{niv|Luke|15:11–32|Luke 15:11–32}}; ''Parable of the Sower'': {{niv|Matthew|13:1–9|Matthew 13:1–9}}; ''Agape'': {{niv|Matthew|22:34–40|Matthew 22:34–40}}.</ref>

Table fellowship is central to Jesus' ministry in the Gospels.<ref name="EJ">Crossan, John Dominic. The essential Jesus. Edison: Castle Books. 1998.</ref> He and his disciples eat with sinners (who neglect purity rules)<ref name = "ActJ">[[Robert W. Funk|Funk, Robert W.]] and the [[Jesus Seminar]]. ''The acts of Jesus: the search for the authentic deeds of Jesus.'' HarperSanFrancisco. 1998.</ref> and tax collectors (imperial [[publicani]], despised as extortionists). The apostle [[Matthew the Evangelist|Matthew]] is a tax collector. When the [[Pharisees]] object to Jesus eating with sinners and tax collectors, Jesus replies that it is the sick who need a physician, not the healthy.<ref name = "ActJ">[[Robert W. Funk|Funk, Robert W.]] and the [[Jesus Seminar]]. ''The acts of Jesus: the search for the authentic deeds of Jesus.'' HarperSanFrancisco. 1998.</ref><ref>{{niv|Matthew|9:9–13|Matthew 9:9–13}})</ref> Jesus also defends his disciples against charges that they do not follow purity laws when eating. Jesus himself is also accused of being a drunk and a glutton.<ref name = "ActJ">[[Robert W. Funk|Funk, Robert W.]] and the [[Jesus Seminar]]. ''The acts of Jesus: the search for the authentic deeds of Jesus.'' HarperSanFrancisco. 1998.</ref> Jesus' miracles and teachings often involve food and feasting.<ref name="EJ"/> He instructs his missionaries to eat with the people that they preach to and heal.<ref name="EJ"/> In the synoptics, Jesus institutes a new covenant with a ritual meal before he is crucified.

Jesus' outreach to outsiders includes the [[Samaritans]], who followed [[Samaritanism|a different form]] of the Israelite religion, as reflected in his preaching to the Samaritans of [[Sychar]] ({{niv|John|4:1–42|John 4:1–42}}) and in the Good Samaritan.

According to the synoptic gospels, Jesus led three of [[Twelve Apostles|his apostles]] — [[Simon Peter|Peter]], [[John the Apostle|John]], and [[James the Great|James]] — to the top of a mountain to pray. While there, he was [[Transfiguration of Jesus|transfigured]] before them, his face shining like the sun and his clothes brilliant white; [[Elijah]] and [[Moses]] appeared adjacent to him. A bright cloud overshadowed them, and a voice from the sky said, "This is my beloved son, with whom I am well pleased."<ref>{{niv|Matthew|17:1–6|Matthew 17:1–6}}, {{niv|Mark|9:1–8|Mark 9:1–8}}, {{niv|Luke|9:28–36|Luke 9:28–36}}</ref> The gospels also state that toward the end of his ministry, Jesus began to warn his disciples of his future death and resurrection ({{niv|Matthew|16:21–28|Matthew 16:21–28}}).

In the Synoptic Gospels, Jesus speaks primarily about the Kingdom of God (or Heaven).<ref>Introduction. [[Robert W. Funk|Funk, Robert W.]], Roy W. Hoover, and the Jesus Seminar. ''The five gospels.'' HarperSanFrancisco. 1993.</ref> In John, he speaks at length about himself and his divine role.<ref>Introduction. [[Robert W. Funk|Funk, Robert W.]], Roy W. Hoover, and the Jesus Seminar. ''The five gospels.'' HarperSanFrancisco. 1993.</ref> Here Jesus uses the phrase "I am" in talking of himself{{niv|John|8:58|John 8:58}} in ways which designates God in the Hebrew Bible {{niv|Exodus|3:14|Exodus 3:14}}, a statement taken by some writers as claiming identity with God.<ref>"Jesus was claiming for himself the title "I AM" by which God designates himself... he was claiming to be God." - Wayne Grudem, ''Systematic Theology'', page 546, Zondervan.</ref>

=== Arrest, trial, and death ===
{{main|Jesus and the Money Changers|Last Supper|Arrest of Jesus|Sanhedrin Trial of Jesus|Crucifixion of Jesus}}
[[Image:Eccehomo2.jpg|thumb|right|175px|''[[Ecce Homo]] (Behold the Man!)'', [[Antonio Ciseri]], 19th c.: Pontius Pilate presents a [[scourge]]d Jesus of Nazareth to onlookers: a very popular motif in Christian art.]]
In the account given by the synoptic gospels, Jesus came with his followers to Jerusalem during the Passover festival where a large crowd came to meet him, shouting, "[[Hosanna]]! Blessed is he who comes in the name of the Lord! Blessed is the King of Israel!"<ref>The crowd was quoting {{niv|Psalms|118:26|Psalms 118:26}}; found in {{niv|John|12:13–16|John 12:13–16}}.</ref> Following his [[triumphal entry]],<ref>John puts the cleansing of the temple at the start of Jesus' ministry.</ref> Jesus created a disturbance at [[Herod's Temple]] by [[Jesus and the Money Changers|overturning the tables of the moneychangers]] who set up shop there, and claiming that they had made the Temple a "den of robbers." ({{niv|Mark|11:17|Mark 11:17}}). Later that week, Jesus celebrated the [[Passover|Passover meal]] with his disciples — an event subsequently known as the [[Last Supper]] — in which he prophesied that he would be betrayed by one of his disciples, and would then be executed. In this ritual he took bread and wine in hand, saying: "this is my body which is given for you" and "this cup which is poured out for you is the New Covenant in my blood," and instructed them to "do this in [[Eucharist|remembrance]] of me" ({{niv|Luke|22:7–20|Luke 22:7–20}}). Following the supper, Jesus and his disciples went to pray in the [[Garden of Gethsemane]].

While in the Garden, Jesus was [[Arrest of Jesus|arrested]] by temple guards on the orders of the [[Sanhedrin]] and the high priest, [[Caiaphas]] ({{niv|Luke|22:47–52|Luke 22:47–52}}, {{niv|Matthew|26:47–56|Matthew 26:47–56}}). The arrest took place clandestinely at night to avoid a riot, as Jesus was popular with the people at large ({{niv|Mark|14:2|Mark 14:2}}). [[Judas Iscariot]], one of his apostles, betrayed Jesus by identifying him to the guards with [[The Kiss of Judas|a kiss]]. Simon Peter, another one of Jesus' apostles, used a sword to attack one of Jesus' captors, cutting off his ear, which, according to Luke, Jesus immediately healed miraculously.<ref>The apostle is identified as [[Saint Peter|Simon Peter]] in {{niv|john|18:10|John 18:10}}; the healing of the ear is found in {{niv|luke|22:51|Luke 22:51}}.</ref> Jesus rebuked the apostle, stating "all they that take the sword shall perish by the sword" ({{niv|Matthew|26:52|Matthew 26:52}}). After his arrest, Jesus' apostles went into hiding.

[[Image:Cristo crucificado.jpg|thumb|left|175px|''[[Crucifixion]]'', [[Diego Velázquez]], 17th c.]]

During the [[Sanhedrin Trial of Jesus]], the high priests and elders asked Jesus, "Are you the [[Son of God]]?" When he replied, "You are right in saying I am," they condemned Jesus for [[blasphemy]] ({{niv|luke|22:70–71|Luke 22:70–71}}). The high priests then turned him over to the Roman [[List of Kings of Judea#Roman Procurators|procurator]] [[Pontius Pilate]], based on an accusation of [[sedition]] for forbidding the payment of taxes [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Luke%2023:1-2;&version=8; Luke 23:1-2] and claiming to be King of the Jews.<ref>{{niv|Matthew|27:11|Matthew 27:11}}; {{niv|Mark|15:2|Mark 15:12}}.</ref> When Jesus came before Pilate, Pilate asked him, "Are you the king of the Jews?" to which he replied, "It is as you say." According to the Gospels, Pilate personally felt that Jesus was not guilty of any crime against the Romans, and since there was a custom at Passover for the Roman governor to free a prisoner (a custom not recorded outside the Gospels), Pilate offered the crowd a choice between Jesus of Nazareth and an insurrectionist named [[Barabbas]]. The crowd chose to have Barabbas freed and Jesus crucified. Pilate washed his hands to indicate that he was innocent of the injustice of the decision ({{niv|Matthew|27:11–26|Matthew 27:11–26}}).

According to all four Gospels, Jesus died before late afternoon at [[Calvary]], which was also called [[Golgotha]]. The wealthy Judean [[Joseph of Arimathea]], a member of the [[Sanhedrin]] according to Mark and Luke, received Pilate's permission to take possession of Jesus' body, placing it in a tomb.<ref>{{niv|Mark|15:42–46|Mark 15:42–46}}; {{niv|Luke|23:50–56|Luke 23:50–56}}.</ref> According to John, Joseph was aided by [[Nicodemus]], who joined him to help bury Jesus, and who appears in other parts of John's gospel ({{niv|John|19:38–42|John 19:38–42}}). The three Synoptic Gospels tell of the [[crucifixion eclipse|darkening of the sky]] from twelve until three that afternoon; Matthew also mentions an [[earthquake]] ({{niv|Matthew|27:51|Matthew 27:51}}, the earth breaking open and a number of righteous dead people rising out of the grave and going into Jerusalem.

=== Resurrection and Ascension ===
{{main|Harrowing of Hell|Resurrection appearances of Jesus|Great Commission|Ascension of Jesus Christ|Second Coming}}
[[Image:Grunewald - christ.jpg|thumb|right|175px|''Christ en majesté'', [[Matthias Grünewald]], 16th c.: [[Resurrection of Jesus]]]]
The Gospels state that Jesus [[resurrection of Jesus|rose from the dead]] on the third day after his [[crucifixion]].<ref name="Resurrection">{{sourcetext|source=Bible|version=King James|book=Matthew |chapter=28|verse=5|range=-10}}; {{niv|mark|16:9|Mark 16:9}}; {{niv|luke|24:12–16|Luke 24:12–16}}; {{niv|John|20:10–17|John 20:10–17}}; {{niv|Acts|2:24|Acts 2:24}}; {{niv|1Cor|6:14|1Cor 6:14}}</ref> In the Gospel of Matthew, an angel appeared near the tomb of Jesus and announced his resurrection to [[Mary Magdelene]] and "another Mary" who had arrived to [[anoint]] the body ({{niv|Matthew|28:1–10|Matthew 28:1–10}}). According to Luke there were two angels ({{niv|Luke|24:4|Luke 24:4}}), and according to Mark there was a youth dressed in white ({{niv|Mark|16:5|Mark 16:5}}). The "[[Mark 16|longer ending]]" to Mark states that on the morning of his resurrection, Jesus first appeared to Mary Magdalene ({{niv|Mark|16:9|Mark 16:9}}). John states that when Mary looked into the tomb, two angels asked her why she was crying; and as she turned round she initially failed to recognize Jesus until he spoke her name ({{niv|john|20:11–18|John 20:11–18}}).

The Gospels all recount appearances by Jesus to his disciples. In Matthew, Jesus proclaims the great commission to baptize the nations. In John, Jesus commissions Peter as the shepherd of the new community.<ref>[[Robert W. Funk|Funk, Robert W.]] and the [[Jesus Seminar]]. ''The acts of Jesus: the search for the authentic deeds of Jesus.'' HarperSanFrancisco. 1998. p. 491</ref> Also in John, Jesus demonstrates his physical presence to "[[doubting Thomas]]."<ref name ="Harris">[[Stephen L Harris|Harris, Stephen L.]], Understanding the Bible. Palo Alto: Mayfield. 1985.</ref>

The [[Acts of the Apostles]] state that Jesus appeared to various people in various places over the next forty days. Hours after his resurrection, he appeared to two travelers on the road to [[Emmaus]] ({{niv|Luke|24:13–35|Luke 24:13–35}}). To his assembled disciples he showed himself on the evening after his resurrection ({{niv|John|20:19|John 20:19}}). Although his own ministry had been specifically to Jews, Jesus is said to have sent his apostles to the Gentiles with the [[Great Commission]] and [[Ascension of Jesus Christ|ascended]] to heaven while a cloud concealed him from their sight. According to Acts, [[Paul of Tarsus]] had a vision of Jesus during his [[Road to Damascus]] experience. Jesus promised to [[Second Coming|come again]] to fulfill the remainder of [[Messianic prophecy]].<ref>''Ministering to Israel'': {{niv|Matthew|15:24|Matthew 15:24}}; ''ascension'': {{niv|Mark|16:19|Mark 16:19}}; {{niv|Luke|24:51|Luke 24:51}}{{niv|Acts|1:6–11|Acts 1:6–11.}}; ''Paul's conversion on the road to Damascus'': {{niv|Acts|9:1–19|Acts 9:1–19.}}, {{bibleverse-nb || Acts|22:1–22|31}}; {{bibleverse-nb || Acts|26:9–24|31}}; ''Second coming'': {{niv|Matthew|24:36–44|Matthew 24:36–44}}</ref>

== Historical views ==
{{main|Historical Jesus|Quest for the historical Jesus}}
Scholars have used the [[historical method]] to develop probable reconstructions of Jesus' life. Over the past two hundred years, the image of Jesus among historical scholars has come to be very different from the common image of Jesus that was based on the gospels.<ref>[[Marcus Borg|Borg, Marcus J.]] in Borg, Marcus J. and N. T. Wright. The Meaning of Jesus: Two visions. New York: HarperCollins. 2007.</ref> Some scholars draw a distinction between Jesus as reconstructed through historical methods and Jesus as understood through a theological point of view, while other scholars hold that a [[Religious perspectives on Jesus|theological Jesus]] represents a historical figure.<ref>See, for an example of the latter, Pope [[Benedict XVI]], ''Jesus of Nazareth''. Doubleday, 2007. ISBN 978-0-385-52341-7</ref> The principal sources of information regarding Jesus' life and teachings are the gospels, especially the synoptic gospels: [[Gospel of Mark|Mark]], [[Gospel of Matthew|Matthew]], and [[Gospel of Luke|Luke]]. Biblical scholars and historians accept the historical existence of Jesus.<ref>"The nonhistoricity thesis has always been controversial, and it has consistently failed to convince scholars of many disciplines and religious creeds. ... Biblical scholars and classical historians now regard it as effectively refuted." - [[Robert E. Van Voorst|Van Voorst, Robert E.]] ''Jesus Outside the New Testament: An Introduction to the Ancient Evidence'' (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2000), p. 16.</ref><ref>"The denial of Jesus' historicity has never convinced any large number of people, in or our of technical circless, nor did it in the first part of the century." Walter P. Weaver, ''The Historical Jesus in the Twentieth Century, 1900-1950'', (Continuum International, 1999), page 71.</ref><ref>"about once every generation someone reruns the thesis that Jesus never existed and that the Jesus tradition is a wholesale invention," J. G. Dunn, ''Jesus Remembered'', (Eerdmans, 2003), page 142.</ref><ref>"There is almost universal agreement that Jesus lived." Bernard L. Ramm, ''An Evangelical Christology: Ecumenic and Historic'', (Regent College Publishing, 1993), page 19.</ref><ref>"some judgements are so probable as to be certain; for example, Jesus really existed," Marcus Borg, 'A Vision of the Christian Life', in Marcus J. Borg and N T Wright, ''The Meaning of Jesus: Two Visions'', (HarperCollins, 1999), page 236.</ref>

The English title of Albert Schweitzer's 1906 book, ''The Quest of the Historical Jesus,'' is a label for the post-Enlightenment effort to describe Jesus using critical historical methods.<ref name="Oxford:Historical">Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005 - article "Historical Jesus, Quest of the"</ref> Since the end of the 18th century, scholars have examined the gospels and tried to formulate historical biographies of Jesus. Contemporary efforts benefit from a better understanding of 1st-century Judaism, renewed Roman Catholic biblical scholarship, broad acceptance of critical historical methods, sociological insights, and literary analysis of Jesus' sayings.<ref name="Oxford:Historical" />

=== Constructing a historical view ===
{{main|Historical Jesus|Cultural and historical background of Jesus}}
Historians analyze the gospels to try to discern the historical man on whom these stories are based. They compare what the gospels say to historical events relevant to the times and places where the gospels were written. They try to answer historical questions about Jesus, such as why he was crucified.

Most scholars agree the Gospel of Mark was written about the time of the destruction of [[Herod's Temple|the Jewish Temple]] by the Romans under [[Titus]] in the year 70, and that the other gospels were written between 70–100.<ref>Meier (1991), pp.43–4</ref> The historical outlook on Jesus relies on [[Biblical criticism|critical analysis of the Bible]], especially the gospels. Many scholars have sought to reconstruct Jesus' life in terms of contemporaneous political, cultural, and religious currents in Israel, including differences between Galilee and Judea, and between different sects such as the [[Pharisees]], [[Sadducees]], [[Essenes]] and [[Zealots]],<ref>For a comparison of the Jesus movement to the Zealots, see [[S. G. F. Brandon]], ''Jesus and the Zealots: a study of the political factor in primitive Christianity,'' Manchester University Press (1967) ISBN 0–684–31010–4</ref><ref name="comparison">For a general comparison of Jesus' teachings to other schools of first century Judaism, see [[John P. Meier]], ''Companions and Competitors (A Marginal Jew: Rethinking the Historical Jesus, Volume 3)'' Anchor Bible, 2001. ISBN 0–385–46993–4.</ref> and in terms of conflicts among Jews in the context of Roman occupation.

=== Descriptions ===

Historians generally describe Jesus as a healer who preached the restoration of God's kingdom.<ref>[[Shaye J.D. Cohen]], ''From the Maccabees to the Mishnah'', Westminster Press, 1987, p. 78, 93, 105, 108; [[John Dominic Crossan]], ''The Historical Jesus: The Life of a Mediterranean Jewish Peasant'', HarperCollins, 1991, p. xi – xiii; Michael Grant, p. 34–35, 78, 166, 200; [[Paula Fredriksen]], ''Jesus of Nazareth, King of the Jews'', Alfred B. Knopf, 1999, p. 6–7, 105–110, 232–234, 266; John P. Meier, vol. 1:68, 146, 199, 278, 386, 2:726; E.P. Sanders, pp. 12–13; [[Geza Vermes]], Jesus the Jew (Philadelphia: Fortress Press 1973), p. 37.;</ref> Most historians agree he was baptized by John the Baptist, and was crucified by the Romans.

John the Baptist led a large apocalyptic movement. He demanded repentance and baptism. Jesus was baptized and later began his ministry. After John was executed, some of his followers apparently took Jesus as their new leader.<ref name=autogenerated1>Sanders, E.P. ''Jesus and Judaism.'' Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1987; [[Geza Vermes|Vermes, Geza]]. ''Jesus the Jew: A Historian's Reading of the Gospels.'' Minneapolis: Augsburg Fortress, 1981; [[Paula Fredriksen|Fredriksen, Paula]]. ''From Jesus to Christ.'' New Haven: Yale University Press, 2000.</ref> Historians are nearly unanimous in accepting Jesus' baptism as a historical event.<ref name=autogenerated1 />

According to Robert Funk, Jesus taught in pithy parables and with striking images.<ref name = "5G">[[Robert W. Funk|Funk, Robert W.]], Roy W. Hoover, and the Jesus Seminar. ''The five gospels.'' HarperSanFrancisco. 1993.</ref> He likened the Kingdom of Heaven to small and lowly things, such as yeast or a mustard seed,<ref name = "5G">[[Robert W. Funk|Funk, Robert W.]], Roy W. Hoover, and the Jesus Seminar. ''The five gospels.'' HarperSanFrancisco. 1993. page 21.</ref> that have great effects.

Jesus placed a special emphasis on God as one's heavenly father.<ref name = "5G">[[Robert W. Funk|Funk, Robert W.]], Roy W. Hoover, and the Jesus Seminar. ''The five gospels.'' HarperSanFrancisco. 1993. page 21.</ref>

=== Names and titles ===
{{Jesus}}
{{main|Names and titles of Jesus in the New Testament}}
Jesus probably lived in [[Galilee]] for most of his life and he probably spoke [[Aramaic]] and [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.godward.org/Hebrew%20Roots/did%20jesus%20speak%20hebrew.htm|title=Brian Knowles: Which Language Did Jesus Speak – Aramaic or Hebrew?}}</ref> The name "Jesus" comes from an alternate spelling of the [[Latin language|Latin]] (''Iēsus'') which in turn comes from the [[Koine Greek|Greek]] name Iesous (''{{Polytonic|Ιησους}}''). The name has also been translated into English as "[[Joshua]]."<ref>[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/08374x.htm "Origin of the Name of Jesus Christ"]. ''Catholic Encyclopedia''. Retrieved April 14, 2007.''</ref> Further examination of the [[Septuagint]] finds that the Greek, in turn, is a transliteration of the Hebrew/[[Aramaic language|Aramaic]] [[Yeshua (name)|Yeshua]] ({{lang|he|ישוע}}) (''Yeshua'' — he will save) a contraction of Hebrew name ''Yehoshua'' ({{lang|he|יהושוע}} ''Yeho'' — [[Yahweh]] [is] ''shua`'' — deliverance/rescue, usually Romanized as ''Joshua''). Scholars believe that one of these was likely the name that Jesus was known by during his lifetime by his peers.<ref>Durant, Will. ''Caesar and Christ''. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1944. p. 558; John P. Meier, ''A Marginal Jew''. New York: Doubleday, 1991 vol. 1:205–7;</ref>

''[[Christ]]'' (which is a title and not a part of his name) is an Anglicization of the Greek term for ''[[Messiah]]'' (''χριστός'', from the verb ''χρίω'' "to anoint"), and literally means "anointed one." Historians have debated what this title might have meant at the time Jesus lived; some historians have suggested that other titles applied to Jesus in the New Testament had meanings in the first century quite different from those meanings ascribed today.<ref>Vermes, "Jesus the Jew: A Historian's Reading of the Gospels"</ref>

The titles "Divine," "[[Son of God]]," "God," "God from God," "Lord," "Redeemer," "Liberator,", "The Prince of Peace", "The Wonder Counsellor" and "Saviour of the World" were each applied to the Roman emperors. [[John Dominic Crossan]] considers that the application of them to Jesus by the early Christians would have been regarded as denying them to the emperor(s). "They were taking the identity of the Roman emperor and giving it to a Jewish peasant. Either that was a peculiar joke and a very low lampoon, or it was what the Romans called ''majestas'' and we call high treason."<ref> Crossan, John Dominic, God and Empire, 2007, p. 28</ref>

Many New Testament scholars argue that Jesus himself made no claims to being God.<ref>"A further point of broad agreement among New Testament scholars is ... that the historical Jesus did not make the claim to deity that later Christian thought was to make for him: he did not understand himself to be God, or God the Son, incarnate. " - [[John Hick]], ''The Metaphor of God Incarnate: Christology in a Pluralistic Age'', Westminster John Knox Press, page 27.</ref><ref>[[Michael Ramsey]], ''Jesus and the Living Past'' (Oxford University Press, 1980), page 39: 'Jesus did not claim deity for himself'</ref><ref>[[C. F. D. Moule]], ''The Origin of Christology'' : 'Any case for a "high" Christology that depended on the authenticity of the alleged claims of Jesus about himself, especially in the Fourth Gospel, would indeed be precarious'</ref><ref>[[James Dunn|James Dunn (theologian)]], ''Christology in the Making'', (SCM Press 1980), page 254: 'We cannot claim that Jesus believed himself to be the incarnate Son of God' and 'There is no question in my mind that the doctrine of incarnation comes to clear expression within the NT…John 1.14 ranks as a classic formulation of the Christian belief in Jesus as incarnate God.' Page xiii. .</ref><ref>Brian Hebblethwaite, ''The Incarnation'' (Cambridge University Press, 1987), page 74: 'it is no longer possible to defend the divinity of Jesus by reference to the claims of Jesus' .</ref><ref>John A. T. Robinson, ''Honest to God'', Westminster Press (1963), Page 47: 'It is, indeed, an open question whether Jesus ever claimed to be the Son of God, let alone God.'</ref><ref>Larry Hurtado, ''Lord Jesus Christ: Devotion to Jesus in Earliest Christianity'', page 5, describes the view that Jesus made 'both his messiahship and his divinity clear to his disciples during his ministry' as 'naive and ahistorical'.</ref> Most Christians identified Jesus as divine from a very early period, although holding a variety of views as to what exactly this implied.<ref>Larry Hurtado, ''Lord Jesus Christ: Devotion to Jesus in Earliest Christianity'', (Eerdmans, 2005), page 650.</ref>

=== Religious groups ===

Scholars refer to the religious background of the early 1st century to better reconstruct Jesus' life. Some scholars identify him with one or another group.

====Pharisees====
[[Pharisees]] were a powerful force in 1st-century Judea. Early Christians shared several beliefs of the Pharisees, such as resurrection, retribution in the next world, angels, human freedom, and Divine Providence.<ref>"Pharisees." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005</ref> After the fall of the Temple, the Pharisee outlook was established in Rabbinic Judaism. Some scholars speculate that Jesus was himself a [[Pharisee]].<ref>Based on a comparison of the Gospels with the [[Talmud]] and other Jewish literature. [[Hyam Maccoby|Maccoby, Hyam]] ''Jesus the Pharisee,'' Scm Press, 2003. ISBN 0–334–02914–7; [[Harvey Falk|Falk, Harvey]] ''Jesus the Pharisee: A New Look at the Jewishness of Jesus,'' Wipf & Stock Publishers (2003). ISBN 1–59244–313–3.</ref> In Jesus' day, the two main schools of thought among the Pharisees were the [[House of Hillel]], which had been founded by the eminent [[Tannaim|Tanna]], [[Hillel the Elder]], and the [[House of Shammai]]. Jesus' assertion of hypocrisy may have been directed against the stricter members of the House of Shammai, although he also agreed with their teachings on divorce ({{niv|Mark|10:1–12|Mark 10:1–12}}).<ref>[[Jacob Neusner|Neusner, Jacob]] ''A Rabbi Talks With Jesus,'' McGill-Queen's University Press, 2000. ISBN 0–7735–2046–5. Rabbi Neusner contends that Jesus' teachings were closer to the House of Shammai than the House of Hillel.</ref> Jesus also commented on the House of Hillel's teachings ([[Babylonian Talmud]], [[Shabbat]] 31a) concerning the [[Shema Yisrael|greatest commandment]] ({{niv|Mark|12:28–34|Mark 12:28–34}}) and the [[Ethic of reciprocity|Golden Rule]] ({{niv|Matthew|7:12|Matthew 7:12}}).

Historians do not know whether there were Pharisees in Galilee during Jesus' life, or what they would be like if there were.<ref name = "ActJ">[[Robert W. Funk|Funk, Robert W.]] and the [[Jesus Seminar]]. ''The acts of Jesus: the search for the authentic deeds of Jesus.'' HarperSanFrancisco. 1998.</ref>

====Sadducees====
The [[Sadducee]] sect was particularly powerful in Jerusalem. They accepted the written Law only, rejecting the traditional interpretations accepted by the Pharisees, such as belief in retribution in an afterlife, resurrection of the body, angels, and spirits. After Jesus caused a disturbance at the Temple, it seems{{weasel-inline|Date=November 2008}} to have been the Sadducees who had him arrested and turned over to the Romans for execution. After the fall of Jerusalem, they disappeared from history.<ref>"Sadducees." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005</ref>

====Essenes====
[[Essenes]] were apocalyptic ascetics, one of the three (or four) major Jewish schools of the time, though they were not mentioned in the [[New Testament]].<ref>Based on a comparison of the Gospels with the [[Dead Sea Scrolls]], especially the [[Teacher of Righteousness]] and Pierced Messiah. [[Robert Eisenman|Eisenman, Robert]] ''James the Brother of Jesus: The Key to Unlocking the Secrets of Early Christianity and the Dead Sea Scrolls,'' Penguin (Non-Classics), 1998. ISBN 0–14–025773-X; [[Hartmut Stegemann|Stegemann, Hartmut]] ''The Library of Qumran: On the Essenes, Qumran, John the Baptist, and Jesus.'' Grand Rapids MI, 1998. See also Broshi, Magen, "What Jesus Learned from the Essenes," ''[[Biblical Archaeology Review]],'' 30:1, pg. 32–37, 64. Magen notes similarities between Jesus' teachings on the virtue of poverty and divorce, and Essene teachings as related in Josephus' ''[[The Jewish Wars]]'' and in the [[Damascus Document]] of the Dead Sea Scrolls, respectively. See also [[Keith Akers| Akers, Keith]] ''The Lost Religion of Jesus.'' Lantern, 2000. ISBN 1-930051-26-3.</ref> Some scholars theorize that Jesus was an [[Essene]], or close to them. Among these scholars is [[Pope Benedict XVI]], who supposes in his book on Jesus that "it appears that not only John the Baptist, but possibly Jesus and his family as well, were close to the Qumran community."<ref> Joseph Ratzinger, Pope Benedict XVI, Jesus of Nazareth, p. 14</ref>

====Apocalyptic sect====
Most scholars hold that the movement Jesus led was apocalyptic, expecting God to intervene imminently to restore Israel. John the Baptist's movement was apocalyptic, and Jesus began his public career as one of his followers.<ref>Crossan, John Dominic. The essential Jesus. Edison: Castle Books. 1998. p. 146</ref> Scholars commonly surmise that Jesus' eschatology was apocalyptic, like John's.<ref>See [[Albert Schweitzer|Schwietzer, Albert]] ''The Quest of the Historical Jesus: A Critical Study of its Progress from Reimarus to Wrede,'' pp. 370–371, 402. Scribner (1968), ISBN 0–02–089240–3; [[Bart Ehrman|Ehrman, Bart]] ''Apocalyptic Prophet of the New Millennium,'' Oxford University Press USA, 1999. ISBN 0–19–512474-X. Crossan, however, makes a distinction between John's apocalyptic ministry and Jesus' ethical ministry. See [[John Dominic Crossan|Crossan, John Dominic]], ''The Birth of Christianity: Discovering What Happened in the Years Immediately After the Execution of Jesus,'' pp. 305–344. Harper Collins, 1998. ISBN 0–06–061659–8.</ref>

===="Nazarene"====
The Gospels record that Jesus was a [[Nazarene]], a term commonly taken to refer to his place of birth, but sometimes as a religious affiliation.<ref name="comparison">.</ref>

====Zealots====
The [[Zealots]] were a revolutionary party opposed to Roman rule, one of those parties that, according to [[Josephus]] inspired the fanatical stand in Jerusalem that led to its destruction in the year 70.<ref name = "Cross-2005-Zealots">"Zealots." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005</ref> Luke identifies Simon, a disciple, as a "zealot," which might mean a member of the [[Zealot]] party (which would therefore have been already in existence in the lifetime of Jesus) or a zealous person.<ref name = "Cross-2005-Zealots"/> The notion that Jesus himself was a Zealot does not do justice to the earliest Synoptic material describing him.<ref>"Jesus Christ." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005</ref>

=== Christian scripture as historical texts ===
{{main|Higher criticism}}

Historians examine Christian scripture for important clues about the historical Jesus. They sort out sayings and events that are more likely to be genuine and use those to construct their portraits of Jesus. The Gospel tradition has certainly preserved several authentic fragments of Jesus' teaching.

The New Testament was at least substantially complete by AD 100, making its books, especially the synoptic gospels, historically relevant.<ref>"The New Testament was complete, or substantially complete, about AD 100, the majority of the writings being in existence twenty to forty years before this ...the situation is encouraging from the historian's point of view, for the first three Gospels were written at a time when many were alive who could remember the things that Jesus said and did... At any rate, the time elapsing between the evangelic events and the writing of most of the New Testament books was, from the standpoint of historical research, satisfactorily short." Bruce, F. F.: ''The New Testament Documents: Are They Reliable?'', pp. 12-14, InterVarsity Press, USA, 1997.</ref> The Gospel tradition certainly preserves several fragments of Jesus' teaching.<ref>"There is no reason to doubt that we have in the Gospel tradition several authentic fragments of His [Jesus Christ's] teaching (albeit in Greek translation)." "Jesus Christ." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005</ref> The [[Gospel of Mark]] is believed to have been written c. 70 AD/CE.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/mark.html |title=Early Christian Writings: Gospel of Mark |accessdate=2008-01-15 |last=Peter |first=Kirby |date=2001-2007 }}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last=Achtemeier |first=Paul J. |author= |authorlink= |coauthors= |editor= |encyclopedia=The Anchor Bible Dictonary |title=The Gospel of Mark |url= |accessdate=2008-01-16 |edition= |date= |year=1991- |publisher=Doubleday |volume=4 |location=New York, New York |isbn=0385193629 |doi= |pages=545 |quote= }}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last = Meier | first = John P. | authorlink = John P. Meier | coauthors = | title = A Marginal Jew | publisher = Doubleday | year = 1991 | location = New York, New York | pages = v.2 955-6 | url = | doi = | id = | isbn = 0385469934 }}</ref> [[Gospel of Matthew|Matthew]] is placed at being sometime after this date and Luke is thought by some scholars to have been written as early as 60 AD/CE, although others argue for a later date ranging from 70 to 100 AD/CE.<ref>A. Harnack, ''The Date of Acts and the Synoptic Gospels'' (1911), p. 90; J. A. T. Robinson, ''Redating the New Testament'', pp. 86-92; I. H. Marshall, ''Luke'', p. 35; A. J. Mattill Jr., ‘The Date and Purpose of Luke-Acts: Rackham reconsidered, in ''Catholic Biblical Quarterly'' 40 (1978), pp. 335-350.</ref><ref name="ODCC self">"Matthew, Gospel acc. to St." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New York: [[Oxford University Press]]. 2005</ref>

Biblical scholars hold that the works describing Jesus were initially communicated by [[oral history|oral tradition]], and were not committed to writing until several decades after Jesus' crucifixion. After the original oral stories were written down in Greek, they were transcribed, and later translated into other languages. Contemporary textual critic [[Bart D. Ehrman]] cites numerous places where the gospels, and other New Testament books, were apparently altered by Christian scribes.<ref name="MisJ">[[Bart D. Ehrman|Ehrman, Bart D.]]. [[Misquoting Jesus]]: The Story Behind Who Changed the Bible and Why. HarperCollins, 2005. ISBN 978-0-06-073817-4</ref>

Critical scholars consider scriptural accounts more likely when they are attested in multiple texts, plausible in Jesus' historical environment, and potentially embarrassing to the author's Christian community. The "[[criterion of embarrassment]]" holds that stories about events with aspects embarassing to Christians (such as the denial of Jesus by [[Saint Peter|Peter]], or the fleeing of Jesus' followers after his arrest) would likely not have been included if those accounts were fictional.<ref name="A Marginal Jew"> Meier, John P., [[John P. Meier#A Marginal Jew: Rethinking the Historical Jesus|''A Marginal Jew: Rethinking the Historical Jesus'']], Doubleday: 1991. vol 1: p. 168–171.</ref> Sayings attributed to Jesus are deemed more likely to reflect his character when they are distinctive, vivid, paradoxical, surprising, and contrary to social and religious expectations, such as "Blessed are the poor."<ref name = "5G intro">[[Robert W. Funk|Funk, Robert W.]], Roy W. Hoover, and the [[Jesus Seminar]]. ''The five gospels.'' HarperSanFrancisco. 1993. Introduction, p. 1-38</ref> Short, memorable parables and aphorisms capable of being transmitted orally are also thought more likely to be authentic.<ref name = "5G intro">[[Robert W. Funk|Funk, Robert W.]], Roy W. Hoover, and the [[Jesus Seminar]]. ''The five gospels.'' HarperSanFrancisco. 1993. Introduction, p. 1-38</ref>

The earliest [[extant text]]s which refer to Jesus are [[Paul the Apostle|Paul's]] letters (mid-1st century), which affirm Jesus' crucifixion. Some scholars hold that the Gospel of Thomas, a collection of 114 sayings of Jesus, predates the four orthodox gospels, and was composed around mid-first century.<ref>Kenneth Keulman, Critical Moments in Religious History, Mercer University Press, p.56</ref><ref>Andrew F. Gregory, Christopher Mark Tuckett, The Reception of the New Testament in the Apostolic Fathers, Oxford University Press, p.178</ref>

=== Mythical view ===
{{Main|Jesus myth hypothesis}}
{{see|Jesus Christ and comparative mythology}}
A few scholars have questioned the existence of Jesus as an actual historical figure. Among the proponents of non-historicity was [[Bruno Bauer]] in the 19th century. Non-historicity was somewhat influential in biblical studies during the early 20th century.
(The views of scholars who entirely rejected Jesus' historicity then were summarized in the chapter on Jesus in [[Will Durant]]'s ''Caesar and Christ'' (in 1944); they were based on a suggested lack of eyewitness, a lack of direct archaeological evidence, the failure of certain ancient works to mention Jesus, and similarities early Christianity shares with then-contemporary religion and mythology.<ref>Durant 1944:553-7</ref>)

More recently, arguments for non-historicity have been discussed by authors such as [[George Albert Wells]] and [[Robert M. Price]]. Additionally, [[The Jesus Puzzle]] and [[The Jesus Mysteries]] are examples of popular works promoting the non-historical hypothesis.

Nevertheless, non-historicity has been rejected by almost all Biblical scholars and historians.<ref>Bruce, FF (1982). ''New Testament Documents: Are They Reliable?'' InterVarsity Press, ISBN 087784691X</ref><ref>Herzog II, WR (2005). ''Prophet and Teacher''. WJK, ISBN 0664225284</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Komoszewski|first=JE|coauthors=Sawyer, MJ & Wallace, DB|year=2006|title=Reinventing Jesus|publisher=Kregel Publications|pages=195f|isbn=978-0825429828}}</ref> In ''Jesus Outside the New Testament'' (2000), [[Robert E. Van Voorst]] a Professor of New Testament Studies at [[Western Theological Seminary]] wrote, "The theory of Jesus' nonexistence is now effectively dead as a scholarly question....Biblical scholars and classical historians now regard it as effectively refuted."<ref>{{cite book |author=Robert E. Van Voorst |year=2000 |title=Jesus Outside the New Testament: An Introduction to the Ancient Evidence |publisher=Eerdmans |location=Grand Rapids, MI |isbn=0-8028-4368-9 |pages=quotation pp. 9-16}}</ref></blockquote> Author [[Michael Grant (author)|Michael Grant]] stated that standard historical criteria prevent one from rejecting Jesus' existence.<ref>"…if we apply to the New Testament, as we should, the same sort of criteria as we should apply to other ancient writings containing historical material, we can no more reject Jesus' existence than we can reject the existence of a mass of pagan personages whose reality as historical figures is never questioned. ... To sum up, modern critical methods fail to support the Christ myth theory. It has 'again and again been answered and annihilated by first rank scholars.' In recent years, 'no serious scholar has ventured to postulate the non historicity of Jesus' or at any rate very few, and they have not succeeded in disposing of the much stronger, indeed very abundant, evidence to the contrary." M. Grant, ''Jesus: An Historian's Review'', pp. 199-200. 1977</ref>

== Religious perspectives ==
{{Christianity}}
{{main|Religious perspectives on Jesus}}

=== Christian views ===
{{main|Christian views of Jesus|Christology}}
Though [[Christianity|Christian]] views of Jesus vary, it is possible to describe a general majority Christian view by examining the similarities between specific Western Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, and many Protestant doctrines found in their [[catechism|catechetical]] or [[Confessionalism (religion)|confessional]] texts.<ref>This section draws on a number of sources to determine the doctrines of these groups, especially the early Creeds, the Catechism of the Catholic Church, certain theological works, and various Confessions drafted during the Reformation including the Thirty Nine Articles of the Church of England, works contained in the Book of Concord, and others.</ref> This view, given below, does not encompass all groups which describe themselves as Christian, with alternative views immediately following.

==== Savior and Redeemer ====
Christians profess that Jesus is the Messiah (Greek: ''Christos''; English: Christ) prophesied in the [[Old Testament]],<ref>''Catechism of the Catholic Church'' §436–40; ''Thirty Nine Articles of the Church of England'', article 2; Irenaeus ''[[On the Detection and Overthrow of the So-Called Gnosis|Adversus Haereses]]'' in ''[[Patrologia Graeca]]'' ed. [[J. P. Migne]] (Paris, 1857–1866) 7/1, 93; {{niv|Luke|2:1|Luke 2:11}}; {{niv|Matthew|16:16|Matthew 16:16}}</ref> who, through his life, death, and resurrection, restored humanity's communion with God in the blood of the [[New Covenant (theology)|New Covenant]]. His death on a cross is understood as the redemptive sacrifice: the source of humanity's salvation and the atonement for [[sin]]<ref>''Catechism of the Catholic Church'' §606–618; Council of Trent (1547) in Denzinger-Schönmetzer, ''Enchiridion Symbolorum, definitionum et declarationum de rebus fidei et morum'' (1965) §1529;{{niv|John|14:2–3|John 14:2–3}}</ref> which had [[The Fall of Man|entered human history]] through the [[Original sin|sin of Adam]].<ref>''Thirty Nine Articles of the Church of England'', article 9; ''Augsburg Confession'', article 2; ''Second Helvetic Confession'', chapter 8; {{niv|Romans|5:12–21|Rom 5:12–21}}; {{niv|1_Corthians|15:21–22|1 Cor 15:21–22}}.</ref>

The [[Atonement (satisfaction view)|satisfaction view]] of [[substitutionary atonement|atonement]] for sin, first articulated by [[Anselm of Canterbury]], is that humanity owes God a debt of honor. This debt creates essentially an imbalance in the moral universe; it could not be satisfied by God's simply ignoring it. In this view, the only possible way of repaying the debt was for a being of infinite greatness, acting as a man on behalf of men, to repay the debt of honor owed to God. Therefore, when Jesus died, he paid a debt to God, his father. [[Thomas Aquinas]] consider atonement and articulated that rather than seeing the debt as one of honor, he sees the debt as a moral injustice to be righted. Aquinas concludes that punishment is a morally good response to sin, "Christ bore a satisfactory punishment, not for His, but for our sins," and substitution for another's sin is entirely possible.<ref>[[Thomas Aquinas]], ''[[Summa Theologica]]'', First Part of the Second Part, Question 87, Article 7, Reply to Objection 3, available [http://www.newadvent.org/summa/2087.htm here]</ref>

Christians also profess that Jesus suffered death by [[crucifixion]],<ref>[[Apostles' Creed]]; [[Nicene Creed]];[[Luther's Small Catechism]] commentary on [[Apostles' Creed]]; ''Second Helvetic Confession'', chapter 9</ref> and rose bodily from the dead in the definitive miracle that foreshadows the [[Resurrection of the dead|resurrection]] of humanity at the end of time,<ref>''Catechism of the Catholic Church'' §638–655; Byzantine Liturgy, ''Troparion'' of Easter; ''Thirty Nine Articles of the Church of England'', article 4 and 17; ''Augsburg Confession'', article 3; ''Second Helvetic Confession'', chapter 9.</ref> when Christ will come again to [[Last judgment|judge the living and the dead]],<ref>[[Apostles' Creed]]; [[Nicene Creed]]; [[Catechism of the Catholic Church]] §668–675, 678–679; [[Luther's Small Catechism]] commentary on [[Apostles' Creed]]; {{niv|Matthew|25:32–46|Mt 25:32–46}}</ref> resulting in either entrance into heaven or damnation.<ref>[http://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG0015/__P2L.HTM Catechism of the Catholic Church §1021-1022]</ref> The [[Death and resurrection of Jesus|resurrection]] is perhaps the most controversial aspect of the life of Jesus. Christianity hinges on this point of Christology, both as a response to a particular history and as a confessional response.<ref>[[Reginald H. Fuller#The Foundations of New Testament Christology (1965)|Fuller 1965, p. 15]]</ref> Christians believe that Jesus' resurrection brings reconciliation with God (II Corinthians 5:18), the destruction of death (I Corinthians 15:26), and [[Atonement|forgiveness of sins]] for followers of Jesus.

==== Fully man and fully God ====
{{main|Trinity}}
Christians profess Jesus to be the only [[Son of God]], the Lord,<ref>[[Apostles' Creed]]; [[Nicene Creed]]; [[Catechism of the Catholic Church]] §441–451; ''Augsburg Confession'', article 3; [[Luther's Small Catechism]], commentary on [[Apostles' Creed]]; {{niv|Matthew|16:16–17|Matthew 16:16–17}}; {{niv|1_Corinthians|2:8|1 Corinthians 2:8}}</ref> and the eternal [[Logos#Use in Christianity|Word]] (which is a translation of the [[Greek language|Greek]] ''Logos''),<ref>''Augsburg Confession'', article 3; {{niv|John|1:1|John 1:1}}</ref> who became man in the [[Incarnation (Christianity)|incarnation]],<ref>[[Apostles' Creed]]; [[Nicene Creed]]; [[Catechism of the Catholic Church]] §461–463;''Thirty Nine Articles of the Church of England'', article 2; [[Luther's Small Catechism]] commentary on [[Apostles' Creed]]; {{niv|John|1:14–16|John 1:14, 16}}; {{niv|Hebrews|10:5–7|Hebrews 10:5–7}}</ref> so that those who believe in him might have eternal life.<ref>''Catechism of the Catholic Church'' §456–460; Gregory of Nyssa, Orat. catech. 15 in ''Patrologia Graeca'' ed. J. P. Migne (Paris, 1857–1866) 45, 48B; St. Irenaeus, ''Adversus Haereses'' 3.19.1 in ibid. 7/1, 939; St. Athanasius, ''De inc.'', 54.3 in ibid. 25, 192B. St. Thomas Aquinas, ''Opusc.'' in ibid. 57: 1–4; {{niv|Galatians|4:4–5|Galatians 4:4–5}}</ref> They further hold that he was born of the [[Blessed Virgin Mary|Virgin Mary]] by the power of the Holy Spirit in an event described as the miraculous [[Virgin Birth|virgin birth]] or Incarnation.<ref>[[Apostles' Creed]]; [[Nicene Creed]]; [[Catechism of the Catholic Church]] §484–489, 494–507; [[Luther's Small Catechism]] commentary on [[Apostles' Creed]]</ref>

The Gospels of Matthew and Luke suggest the [[Virgin Birth of Jesus|virgin birth]] of Jesus. Barth speaks of the virgin birth as the divine sign "which accompanies and indicates the mystery of the incarnation of the Son."<ref>Barth 1956, p. 207</ref> Donald MacLeod<ref>MacLeod 1998, p. 37-41</ref> gives several Christological implications of a virgin birth: it highlights salvation as a [[supernatural]] act of God rather than an act of human initiative, avoids [[adoptionism]] (which is virtually required if a normal birth), and reinforces the sinlessness of Christ, especially as it relates to Christ being outside the sin of Adam ([[original sin]]).

[[Image:Christology.gif|left|thumb|350px|Comparison of Christological positions]]

Between 325 and 681, Christians theologically articulated and refined their view of the nature of Jesus by a series of seven [[ecumenical council]]s (see [[Christology]]). These councils described Jesus as one of the three divine [[Hypostasis (religion)|hypostases]] or persons of the [[Trinity|Holy Trinity]]: the Son is defined as constituting, together with God the Father and the Holy Spirit, the single [[Ousia|substance]] of the One God (see ''[[Communicatio idiomatum]]'').<ref>''Nicene Creed''; ''Thirty Nine Articles of the Church of England'', article 1; ''Augsburg Confession'', article 1; ''Second Helvetic Confession'', chapter 3; Council of Nicaea I (325) in Denzinger-Schönmetzer, ''{{lang|la|Enchiridion Symbolorum, definitionum et declarationum de rebus fidei et morum}}'' (1965) §126; Council of Constantinople II (553) in ibid. §424 and 424; Council of Ephesus in ibid. §255; {{niv|John|1:1|John 1:1}}; {{niv|John|8:58|8:58}}; {{niv|John|10:30|10:30}}</ref> Furthermore, Jesus is defined to be one person with a fully human and a fully divine [[Physis|nature]], a doctrine known as the [[Hypostatic union]].<ref>''Catechism of the Catholic Church'' §464–469; ''Thirty Nine Articles of the Church of England'', article 2 and 3 ''Second Helvetic Confession'', chapter 9; Council of Ephesus (431) in Denzinger-Schönmetzer, ''{{lang|la|Enchiridion Symbolorum, definitionum et declarationum de rebus fidei et morum}}'' (1965) §250; Council of Ephesus in ibid. §251; Council of Chalcedon (451) in ibid. §301 and 302; {{niv|Hebrews|4:15|Hebrews 4:15}}.</ref>

====Ministry====
In his life Jesus proclaimed the "good news" (Middle English: [[gospel]]; Greek: ''euangelion'') that the coming [[Kingdom of God|Kingdom of Heaven]] was at hand,<ref>''Catechism of the Catholic Church'' §541–546</ref> and established the [[Christian Church]], which is the seed of the kingdom, into which Jesus calls the poor in spirit.<ref>[[Apostles' Creed]]; [[Catechism of the Catholic Church]] §551–553; ''Augsburg Confession'', article 8; [[Luther's Small Catechism]] commentary on [[Apostles' Creed]]; ''Second Helvetic Confession'', chapter 9; Leo the Great, ''Sermo'' 4.3 in ''Patrologia Latina'' ed. J. P. Migne (Paris, 1841–1855); {{niv|Matthew|16:18|Matthew 16:18}}</ref> Jesus' actions at the [[Last Supper]], where he instituted the [[Eucharist]], are understood as central to communion with God and remembrance of Jesus' sacrifice.<ref>''Catechism of the Catholic Church"§1322–1419; [[Martin Luther]], ''Augsburg Confession'', article 10; [[Luther's Small Catechism]]: ''the Sacrament of the Altar''</ref>

==== Prophet, priest, and king====
Jesus Christ, the Mediator of humankind, fulfills the [[Threefold Office|three offices of Prophet, Priest, and King]]. [[Eusebius]] of the early church worked out this threefold classification, which [[John Calvin]] developed<ref>John Calvin, Calvins Calvinism BOOK II Chapter 15 Centers for Reformed Theology and Apologetics [resource online] (1996-2002, accessed June 03, 2006); available [http://www.reformed.org/books/institutes/books/book2/bk2ch15.html#one.htm here]</ref> and [[John Wesley]] discussed.<ref>H. Orton Wiley, Christian Theology Chapter 22 [resource online] (Nampa, Idah: 1993-2005, accessed June 03, 2006); available [http://wesley.nnu.edu/holiness_tradition/wiley/wiley-2-22.htm here]</ref>

==== Nontrinitarian views ====
{{seealso|Nontrinitarianism}}
Current religious groups that do not accept the doctrine of the Trinity include the [[The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints|The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (Mormons)]], [[Jehovah's Witnesses]] and the [[Christadelphians]].

[[Image:Oakland Temple statue of Jesus in the visitors center.jpg|thumb|left|175px|A statue of Jesus at a Latter-day Saint [[Temple (Latter Day Saints)|temple]] visitor center]]

[[The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints|Latter-day Saints]] theology maintains that ''Heavenly Father'', ''Jesus Christ'', and the ''Holy Ghost'' are three separate and distinct beings, though all eternal and equally divine, who together constitute the [[Godhead (Christianity)|Godhead]]. Though described as "one God"<ref>{{cite web|url=http://scriptures.lds.org/en/dc/20/28#28|title=Doctrine and Covenants 20}}</ref> and "one in purpose,"<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.lds.org/ldsorg/v/index.jsp?hideNav=1&locale=0&sourceId=88eea41f6cc20110VgnVCM100000176f620a____&vgnextoid=ba805f74db46c010VgnVCM1000004d82620aRCRD|title=Aaronic Priesthood Manual: The Godhead}}</ref> each plays a distinct role: the Holy Ghost is a spirit without a physical body, the Father and Son possess distinct and perfected bodies of flesh and bone<ref>{{cite web|url=http://scriptures.lds.org/en/dc/130/22#22|title=Doctrine and Covenants 130}}</ref>. The [[Book of Mormon]] records that the resurrected Jesus visited and taught some of the inhabitants of the early Americas after he had appeared to his apostles in Jerusalem.<ref>{{sourcetext|source=Book of Mormon|book=3 Nephi|chapter=11|verse=8}}</ref> Mormons also believe that an [[Great Apostasy#The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints|apostasy]] occurred after the deaths of Christ's apostles. They believe that Christ and Heavenly Father appeared to [[Joseph Smith, Jr.|Joseph Smith]] in 1820 as part of a series of heavenly visits to restore the fullness of the gospel of Jesus Christ. They believe Jesus (not the Father) is the same as [[Jehovah]] or [[Yahweh]] of the [[Old Testament]], acting under the direction of the Father. ''See [[Religious perspectives on Jesus#Jesus in the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints|Jesus in The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]].'' Based on a claimed divine revelation of Smith, they state that Jesus was born on April 06.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://scriptures.lds.org/en/dc/20|title=Doctrine and Covenants 20}}</ref>

[[Jehovah's Witnesses]] believe Jesus to be God's (or Jehovah's) son, rather than being God himself. Jehovah's Witnesses believe he was the same divine created being as [[Archangel Michael|Michael the Archangel]],<ref> "Revelation—Its Grand Climax at Hand!" –1988 | chap. 27 pp. 180-181 par. 15 "God's Kingdom Is Born!" | . © Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania | "But who is Michael? The name "Michael" means "Who Is Like God?" So Michael must be interested in vindicating Jehovah's sovereignty by proving that no one is to be compared to Him. In Jude verse 9, he is called "Michael the archangel." Interestingly, the title "archangel" is used elsewhere in the Bible with reference to only one person: Jesus Christ. Paul says of him: "The Lord himself will descend from heaven with a commanding call, with an archangel's voice"</ref><ref> "Insight On The Scriptures 2" –1988 | p. 393 "Michael" | . © Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania | "Scriptural evidence indicates that the name Michael applied to God's Son before he left heaven to become Jesus Christ and also after his return. Michael is the only one said to be "the archangel," meaning "chief angel," or "principal angel." The term occurs in the Bible only in the singular. This seems to imply that there is but one whom God has designated chief, or head, of the angelic host. At 1 Thessalonians 4:16 the voice of the resurrected Lord Jesus Christ is described as being that of an archangel, suggesting that he is, in fact, himself the archangel"</ref> and that God made him a perfect human by transferring his life to the womb of Mary.<ref>"Jesus The Ruler Whose Origin Is From Early Times," ''The Watchtower'' (June 15, 1998) p. 22. | "Some centuries later came Jesus' greatest assignment up to that time. Jehovah transferred the life force of his beloved Son from heaven into the womb of Mary. Nine months later she gave birth to a baby boy, Jesus. (Luke 2:1-7, 21)"</ref> During the time Jesus was on earth he was simply a man, not a god-man.<ref> "Reasoning From The Scriptures" –1985 © Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania | p. 257 par. 1 Mary (Jesus' Mother) "Heb. 2:14, 17, JB: "Since all the children share the same blood and flesh, he [[Jesus]] too shared equally in it . . . It was essential that he should in this way become completely like his brothers." (But would he have been "completely like his brothers" if he had been a God-man?)"</ref> They also believe that he is "the word" of John 1:1. This is understood to mean that he is God's spokesman, likely the one speaking in God's name to Adam, and to the Israelites in the wilderness.<ref> "Insight On The Scriptures" –1988 | p. 53 "Jesus Christ" | . © Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania | "Doubtless on many occasions during his prehuman existence as the Word, Jesus acted as Jehovah's Spokesman to persons on earth. While certain texts refer to Jehovah as though directly speaking to humans, other texts make clear that he did so through an angelic representative. (Compare Ex 3:2-4 with Ac 7:30, 35; also Ge 16:7-11, 13; 22:1, 11, 12, 15-18.) Reasonably, in the majority of such cases God spoke through the Word. He likely did so in Eden, for on two of the three occasions where mention is made of God's speaking there, the record specifically shows someone was with Him, undoubtedly his Son. (Ge 1:26-30; 2:16, 17; 3:8-19, 22) The angel who guided Israel through the wilderness and whose voice the Israelites were strictly to obey because 'Jehovah's name was within him,' may therefore have been God's Son, the Word.—Ex 23:20-23; compare Jos 5:13-15."</ref> In line with this, they point out that the Bible presents him as the only way humans can approach God. They include words like 'in Jesus name' in every prayer.<ref> Watchtower 9/1/06 1 p. 28 par. 5 "Let Your Petitions Be Made Known to God" © Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania | "5 Jehovah does not lay down a lot of rigid rules on how to pray. Nevertheless, we need to learn the proper approach to God, which is explained in the Bible. For instance, Jesus taught his followers: "If you ask the Father for anything he will give it to you in my name." (John 16:23) Hence, we are required to pray in Jesus' name, recognizing Jesus as the sole channel through which God's blessings are extended to all mankind."</ref> They view the term "Son of God" as an indication of Jesus' importance to the creator and his status as God's "only-begotten (unique) Son,"<ref>{{niv|John|3:16|John 3:16}}</ref> the "firstborn of all creation,"<ref>{{niv|Colossians|1:15|Col 1:15}}</ref> the one "of whom, and through whom, and to whom, are all things."<ref>{{niv|romans|11:36|Rom 11:36}}</ref> They believe that Jesus died on a single-piece torture stake, not a cross.<ref>[http://www.watchtower.org/library/jt/article_03.htm "What Do They Believe?"], Watchtower Bible and Tract Society c.f., Retrieved April 14, 2007</ref> They believe that he is currently ruling in heaven as king of God's heavenly Kingdom, and will soon extend his rule to earth for a reign of peace.<ref>"[http://www.watchtower.org/e/20050915/article_02.htm Who is Jesus Christ?]," ''The Watchtower'', September 15, 2005, Retrieved December 3, 2007.</ref> They also believe he is now immortal<ref> "Insight On The Scriptures" –1988 © Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania | it-1 p. 1197 Incorruption "Raised to Immortality and Incorruption. Christ Jesus entered into immortality upon his resurrection from the dead, thereafter possessing "an indestructible life." (1Ti 6:15, 16; Heb 7:15-17)"</ref> and can never die again.<ref> The Watchtower © Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania | 10/1/06 p. 5 You Can Live Forever |"the apostle Paul explains: "Christ, now that he has been raised up from the dead, dies no more; death is master over him no more." (Romans 6:9)" |</ref>

The [[Unity Church]] considers Jesus the master teacher and "way show-er," citing Jesus' frequent calls to emulate him rather than worship him, and the ability of others to be like him, such as in John 10:34 and John 14:12. Jesus is not worshiped as God, but regarded as someone who had achieved a complete connection with God the Father.

[[Christadelphians]] believe that Jesus is literally God's son, hence the Biblical title ''son of God'',<ref>{{cite book | last = Flint | first = James | authorlink = | coauthors = Deb Flint | title = One God or a Trinity? | publisher = Printland Publishers | date = | location = Hyderabad | pages = p. 3 | url = http://www.christadelphia.org/pamphlet/p_onegod.htm#3 | doi = | id = | isbn = 81-87409-61-4 }}</ref> not ''God the Son''. They believe that Jesus was in God's plan right from the beginning of creation,<ref>{{cite book | last = Flint | first = James | authorlink = | coauthors = Deb Flint | title = One God or a Trinity? | publisher = Printland Publishers | date = | location = Hyderabad | pages = p. 10 | url = http://www.christadelphia.org/pamphlet/p_onegod.htm#10 | doi = | id = | isbn = 81-87409-61-4 }}</ref> but that he came into existence at his birth.<ref>{{cite book | last = Pearce | first = Fred | authorlink = | coauthors = | title = Jesus: God the Son or Son of God? Does the Bible Teach the Trinity? | publisher = The Christadelphian Magazine and Publishing Association Ltd (UK) | date = | location = Birmingham, UK | pages = p. 7 | url = http://www.christadelphia.org/pamphlet/jesus.htm#7 | doi = | id = | isbn = }}</ref> Quoting Biblical passages such as {{niv|Hebrews|2:10-14,17-18|Hebrews 2:10-14 and 17-18}}, they maintain that Jesus was fully human, and that Jesus' total humanity was vital in saving people from their sins. This, Christadelphians believe, would not have been possible had Jesus actually been God.<ref>{{cite book | last = Pearce | first = Fred | authorlink = | coauthors = | title = Jesus: God the Son or Son of God? Does the Bible Teach the Trinity? | publisher = The Christadelphian Magazine and Publishing Association Ltd (UK) | date = | location = Birmingham, UK | pages = p. 8 | url = http://www.christadelphia.org/pamphlet/jesus.htm#8 | doi = | id = | isbn = }}</ref> They believe that Jesus is now in heaven, at God's right hand, waiting to return to the Earth to establish God's kingdom here forever.<ref>{{cite book | last = Morgan | first = Tecwyn | authorlink = | coauthors = | title = Christ is Coming! Bible Teaching About His Return | publisher = The Christadelphian Magazine and Publishing Association Ltd (UK) | date = | location = Birmingham, UK | pages = p. 1 | url = http://www.christadelphia.org/pamphlet/coming.htm#1 | doi = | id = | isbn = }}</ref>

Others believe that the one God, who revealed himself in the Old Testament as Jehovah, came to earth, taking on the human form of Jesus Christ. They believe Jesus is Jehovah, is the Holy Spirit, and is the one Person who is God. Examples of such churches today are [[Oneness Pentecostals]] and the [[New Church]].

==== Other early views ====

[[Image:Christ Carrying the Cross 1580.jpg|thumb|right|''Jesus Carrying the Cross'', [[El Greco]], 1580]]
Various [[early Christian]] groups and theologians held differing views of Jesus.
The [[Ebionites]], an early [[Jewish Christian]] community, believed that Jesus was the last of the [[Prophet#Prophets in the Tanakh (Hebrew Bible)|prophets]] and the [[Messiah]]. They believed that Jesus was the natural-born son of Mary and Joseph, and thus they rejected the Virgin Birth. The Ebionites were [[Adoptionism|adoptionists]], believing that Jesus was not divine, but became the [[son of God]] at his baptism. They rejected the [[Epistles of Paul]], believing that Jesus kept the [[Mosaic Law]] perfectly and wanted his followers to do the same. However, they felt that Jesus' crucifixion was the ultimate sacrifice, and thus [[animal sacrifice]]s were no longer necessary. Therefore, some Ebionites were [[vegetarian]] and considered both Jesus and [[John the Baptist]] to have been vegetarians.<ref>Ehrman, Bart D. ''Lost Christianities'', Oxford, 2003, p. 102.</ref>

The Apologists of the 2nd century, such as [[Justin Martyr]], saw Jesus as the Logos or Word of God united with a human being. They viewed the Logos, in line with Middle Platonism, as the source of order and rationality, but distinct from God.<ref>"Christology." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005</ref>

In [[Gnosticism]], Jesus is said to have brought the secret knowledge ([[gnosis]]) of the spiritual world necessary for salvation.<ref>McManners, John, ed., ''The Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity,'' Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1990, pp. 26–31.</ref> Their secret teachings were paths to gnosis, and not gnosis itself. While some Gnostics were [[docetism|docetics]], other Gnostics believed that Jesus was a human who became possessed by the spirit of Christ during his baptism.<ref>Ehrman, Bart D. ''Lost Christianities'', Oxford, 2003, p. 124–125.</ref> Many Gnostics believed that Christ was an [[Aeons#In Gnosticism|Aeon]] sent by [[Monad (Gnosticism)|a higher deity]] than the evil [[Demiurge#Gnosticism|demiurge]] who created the material world. Some Gnostics believed that Christ had a [[Syzygy#Gnosticism|syzygy]] named [[Sophia (wisdom)|Sophia]]. The Gnostics tended to [[Gnosticism and the New Testament|interpret the books that were included in the New Testament]] as [[allegory]], and some Gnostics interpreted Jesus himself as an allegory. The Gnostics also used a number of [[Gnostic texts|other texts]] that did not become part of the New Testament canon.

[[Marcionites]] were 2nd century [[Gentile]] followers of the Christian theologian [[Marcion of Sinope]]. They believed that Jesus rejected the [[Tanakh|Jewish Scriptures]], or at least the parts that were incompatible with his teachings.<ref>[[Henry Wace|Wace, Henry]], [http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/info/marcion-wace.html "Commentary on Marcion"], Retrieved April 16, 2007.</ref> Seeing a stark contrast between the vengeful God of the [[Old Testament]] and the loving God of Jesus, Marcionites, like some Gnostics, came to the conclusion that the Jewish God was the evil creator of the world and Jesus was the savior from the material world. They also believed Jesus was not human, but instead a completely divine spiritual being whose material body, and thus his crucifixion and death, were [[docetism|divine illusions]].<ref>Ehrman, Bart D. ''Lost Christianities'', Oxford, 2003, p. 103, p. 104–105, p.108</ref> Marcionism was declared a [[Heresy#Christianity|heresy]] by proto-orthodox Christianity.

[[Sabellius]] in the 3rd century taught that the Trinity represented not three persons but a single person in three "modes." Jerome reported that the [[Montanists]] of his day shared this view.

=== Islamic views ===

==== Majority view ====
{{main|Jesus in Islam}}
[[Image:Jesus-masih-islam.jpg|thumb|left|[[Sermon on the Mount]] in Islamic art]]
[[Islam]] holds Jesus ({{lang-ar|عيسى}} '''''`Īsā''''') to have been a messenger of God and the messiah who had been sent to guide the [[Children of Israel]] (''banī isrā'īl'') with a new scripture, the ''[[Injil|Injīl]]'' (gospel).<ref> [[The Oxford Dictionary of Islam]], p.158</ref> According to the [[Qur'an]], believed by Muslims to be God's final revelation, Jesus was born to Mary (Arabic: Maryam) as the result of [[Virgin birth of Jesus|virginal conception]], a miraculous event which occurred by the decree of [[God]] (Arabic: [[Allah]]). To aid him in his quest, Jesus was given the ability to perform [[miracle]]s. These included speaking from the cradle, curing the blind and the [[leper]]s, as well as raising the dead; all by the permission of God. Furthermore, Jesus was helped by a band of disciples (the ''ḥawāriyūn''). Islam states that Jesus was not killed nor [[Crucifixion|crucified]], but that he had been raised alive up to [[jannah|heaven]]. Islamic traditions narrate that he will return to earth near the [[day of judgement]] to restore justice and defeat ''[[Dajjal|al-Masīḥ ad-Dajjāl]]'' (''lit''. "the false messiah," also known as the [[Antichrist]]) and the enemies of Islam. As a just ruler, Jesus will then die.<ref name="EoI-Isa">"Isa," Encyclopedia of Islam</ref>

Like all [[prophets in Islam]], Jesus is considered to have been a [[Muslim]], as he preached for people to adopt the straight path in submission to God's will. Islam denies that Jesus was God or the [[son of God]], stating that he was an ordinary man who, like other prophets, had been divinely chosen to spread God's message. Islamic texts forbid the association of partners with God (''[[shirk]]''), emphasizing the notion of God's [[tawhid|divine oneness]] (''tawhīd''). As such, Jesus is referred to in the Qur'an frequently as the "son of Mary" ("''Ibn Maryam''").<ref name="EoI-Isa"/><ref>Fasching, deChant (2001) p. 241</ref> Numerous titles are given to Jesus in the Qur'an, such as ''mubārak'' (blessed) and ''`abd-Allāh'' (servant of God). Another title is ''al-Masīḥ'' ("the [[messiah]]; the anointed one" i.e. by means of blessings), although it does not correspond with the meaning accrued in Christian belief. Jesus is seen in Islam as a precursor to [[Muhammad]], and is believed by Muslims to have foretold the latter's coming.<ref name="EoI-Isa"/>

==== Ahmadiyya views ====
{{main|Jesus in Ahmadiyya Islam}}
According to the early 20th century teachings of the [[Ahmadiyya|Ahmadi Muslims]] of Kashmir and Punjab, Jesus did not die on the cross, but after his apparent death and resurrection he journeyed east to [[Jammu and Kashmir|Kashmir]] to further teach the gospel until his natural death<ref>{{citation|last=Rice|first=Edward|title=Eastern Definitions: A Short Encyclopedia of Religions of the Orient|year=1978|publisher=New York|isbn=0-385-08563-X|pages=7}}.</ref> (The general notion of Jesus in Kashmir is older than the Ahmadi tradition,<ref name="ShaeferCohen">{{citation|last=Schäfer|first=Peter|last2=Cohen|first2=Mark R.|title=Toward the Millennium: Messianic Expectations from the Bible to Waco|year=1998|location=Leiden/Princeton|publisher=Brill/Princeton UP|isbn=90-04-11037-2|pages=306}}.</ref> and is discussed at length by Grönbold<ref>Günter Grönbold, Jesus In Indien, München: Kösel 1985, ISBN 3466202701.</ref> and Klatt<ref>Norbert Klatt, ''Lebte Jesus in Indien?'', Göttingen: Wallstein 1988.</ref>).

Following Jesus' death of natural causes (so the Ahmadi tradition) "at a ripe old age of roughly 120 years,"<ref name="Faruqi_1983_98">{{citation|last=Faruqi|first=Nisar Ahmed|chapter=The Promised Messiah|title=Ahmadiyyat in the Service of Islam|year=1983|publisher=Ahmadiyya Anjuman Ishaat|location=Lahore|isbn=0-913321-00-1|at=chap. 3|chapter-url=http://www.aaiil.org/text/books/others/naseerahmadfaruqui/ahmadiyyatserviceislam/promisedmessiah_pf.shtml|pages=98}}.</ref> [[Jesus in Ahmadiyya Islam|Jesus according to Ahmadi doctrine]] was then laid to rest in [[Srinagar]], and that the tomb of a sage known locally as [[Roza Bal|Yuz Asaf]] (which in [[Kashmiri language|Kashmiri]] means "Son of Yuz," i.e. Joseph) is really the tomb of Jesus of Nazareth.<ref>{{citation|last=Houtsma|first=M. Th.|chapter=Ahmedia|title=Encyclopedia of Islam|volume=1|editor-last=Houtsma|editor-first=M. Th.|editor2-last=Arnold|editor2-first=T. W.|editor3-last=Basset|editor3-first=R.|year=1913|location=Leiden|publisher=Brill|pages=260}}.</ref>

Further, according to this movement, the second coming predicted in the Muslim tradition is not actually that of Jesus, but that of a person "similar to Jesus" (''mathīl-i ʿIsā''), i.e. [[Mirza Ghulam Ahmad|the founder of the movement]] himself.<ref name="ShaeferCohen" />

According to the [[Encyclopedia of Islam]], Ahmadi Christological beliefs are one of the three primary characteristics that distinguish Ahmadi teachings from general Islamic ones, and that it had provoked a ''[[fatwa]]'' against the founder of the sect, "purporting that this doctrine disagreed with the [[Koran]] and therefore had to be looked upon as a heresy."<ref name="EI">{{harvnb|Houtsma|1913|p=260}}.</ref>

=== Judaism's view ===
{{main|Judaism's view of Jesus}}
[[Judaism]] holds the idea of Jesus being God, or part of a Trinity, or a mediator to God, to be heresy.<ref>''[[Emunoth ve-Deoth]]'', II:5</ref> Judaism also holds that Jesus is not the [[Jewish messianism|Messiah]], arguing that he had not fulfilled the [[Messianic prophecies]] in the [[Tanakh]] nor embodied the personal qualifications of the Messiah. According to Jewish tradition, there were no more prophets after [[Malachi]], who lived centuries before Jesus and delivered his prophesies about 420 BC/BCE. Judaism states that Jesus did not fulfill the requirements set by the [[Torah]] to prove that he was a prophet. Even if Jesus had produced such a sign that Judaism recognized, Judaism states that no prophet or dreamer can contradict the laws already stated in the Torah, which Jesus did.<ref>[[Shraga Simmons|Simmons, Shraga]], [http://www.aish.com/jewishissues/jewishsociety/Why_Jews_Dont_Believe_In_Jesus.asp "Why Jews Do not Believe in Jesus"], Retrieved April 15, 2007; [http://ohr.edu/ask_db/ask_main.php/2637/Q1/ "Why Jews Do not Believe in Jesus"], [[Ohr Somayach, Jerusalem|Ohr Samayach]] — ''Ask the Rabbi'', Retrieved April 15, 2007; [http://www.askmoses.com/qa_detail.html?h=120&o=350 "Why do not Jews believe that Jesus was the messiah?"], [[AskMoses.com]], Retrieved April 15, 2007</ref>

The ''[[Mishneh Torah]]'' (an authoritative work of [[halakha|Jewish law]]) states in ''Hilkhot Melakhim'' 11:10–12 that Jesus is a "stumbling block" who makes "the majority of the world err to serve a divinity besides God."<ref>"Even Jesus the Nazarene who imagined that he would be [[Jewish Messiah|Messiah]] and was killed by the court, was already prophesied by [[Daniel]]. So that it was said, "And the members of the outlaws of your nation would be carried to make a (prophetic) vision stand. And they stumbled." (Daniel 11.14) Because, is there a greater stumbling-block than this one? So that all of the [[prophet]]s spoke that the Messiah redeems Israel, and saves them, and gathers their banished ones, and strengthens their commandments. And this one caused (nations) to destroy Israel by sword, and to scatter their remnant, and to humiliate them, and to exchange the Torah, and to make the majority of the world err to serve a divinity besides God. However, the thoughts of the Creator of the world — there is no force in a human to attain them because our ways are not God's ways, and our thoughts not God's thoughts. And all these things of Jesus the Nazarene, and of ([[Muhammad]]) the [[Ishmael]]ite who stood after him — there is no (purpose) but to straighten out the way for the King Messiah, and to restore all the world to serve God together. So that it is said, "Because then I will turn toward the nations (giving them) a clear lip, to call all of them in the name of God and to serve God (shoulder to shoulder as) one shoulder."(Zephaniah 3.9) Look how all the world already becomes full of the things of the Messiah, and the things of the [[Torah]], and the things of the commandments! And these things spread among the far islands and among the many nations uncircumcised of heart. [http://www.mechon-mamre.org/i/e511.htm "Hilchot Malachim (laws concerning kings) (Hebrew)"], [[Torah database#Mechon Mamre.28digital freeware.29|MechonMamre.org]], Retrieved April 15, 2007</ref> According to [[Conservative Judaism]], Jews who believe Jesus is the Messiah have "crossed the line out of the Jewish community."<ref>{{cite web
| url = http://www.uscj.org/Messianic_Jews_Not_J5480.html
| title = Messianic Jews Are Not Jews
| accessdate = 2008-01-15
| last = Waxman
| first = Jonathan
| year = 2006
| publisher = [[United Synagogue of Conservative Judaism]]
| quote=Judaism has held that the Mashiach will come and usher in a new era; not that he will proclaim his arrival, die and wait centuries to finish his task. To continue to assert that Jesus was the Mashiach goes against the belief that the Mashiach will transform the world when he does come, not merely hint at a future transformation at some undefined time to come... Judaism rejects the claim that a new covenant was created with Jesus and asserts instead that the chain of Tradition reaching back to Moshe continues to make valid claims on our lives, and serve as more than mere window dressing.
}}</ref> [[Reform Judaism]], the modern progressive movement, states "For us in the Jewish community anyone who claims that Jesus is their savior is no longer a Jew and is an [[apostate]]."<ref> Contemporary American Reform Responsa, #68, [http://www.faqs.org/faqs/judaism/FAQ/10-Reform/section-15.html "Question 18.3.4: Reform's Position On...What is unacceptable practice?"], faqs.org. Retrieved April 15, 2007.</ref>

=== Bahá'í views ===

The [[Bahá'í Faith]], founded in 19th-century Persia, considers Jesus, along with [[Muhammad]], the [[Gautama Buddha|Buddha]], [[Krishna]], and [[Zoroaster]], and other messengers of the great religions of the world to be [[Manifestation of God|Manifestations of God]] (or [[prophet]]s), with both human and divine stations.<ref name="stockman">{{cite journal | title = Jesus Christ in the Baha'i Writings | first = Robert | last = Stockman | journal = Bahá'í Studies Review | volume = | issue = 1 | year = 1992 | url = http://bahai-library.com/index.php5?file=stockman_jesus_bahai_writings}}</ref>

=== Hindu views ===

The [[Hindu]] beliefs about Jesus vary. The International Society for Krishna Consciousness (ISKCON) considers Jesus to be the beloved son of Krishna who came down to Earth to preach God Consciousness. [[Contemporary Sant Mat movement]]s regard Jesus as a [[Satguru]]. [[Ramakrishna]] believed that Jesus was an [[Avatar|Incarnation]] of God.<ref name="Ramakrishna">[http://www.ramakrishnavivekananda.info/gospel/introduction/Christianity.htm The Gospel of Sri Ramakrishna], Introduction by [[Swami Nikhilananda]], p. 34.</ref> [[Swami Vivekananda]] has praised Jesus and cited him as a source of strength and the epitome of perfection.<ref name="vivekananda">{{cite web|url=http://www.ramakrishnavivekananda.info/vivekananda/volume_4/lectures_and_discourses/christ_the_messenger.htm|title=Christ the Messenger|accessmonthday=April 15|accessyear=2007}}</ref> [[Paramahansa Yogananda]] taught that Jesus was the reincarnation of [[Elisha]] and a student of [[John the Baptist]], the reincarnation of [[Elijah]].<ref>Paramahansa Yogananda, ''Autobiography of a Yogi,'' 2nd ed., Crystal Clarity Publishers, 2005. ISBN 1–56589–212–7.</ref> [[Mahatma Gandhi]] considered Jesus one of his main teachers and inspirations for [[nonviolent resistance]].{{Fact|date=September 2008}}

=== Buddhist views ===
{{see|Buddhism and Christianity}}
Buddhists' views of Jesus differ. Some [[Buddhists]], including [[Tenzin Gyatso, 14th Dalai Lama|Tenzin Gyatso, the 14th Dalai Lama]]<ref>Beverley, James A., [http://www.christianitytoday.com/ct/2001/june11/15.64.html Hollywood's Idol], Christianity Today, "Jesus Christ also lived previous lives," he said. "So, you see, he reached a high state, either as a Bodhisattva, or an enlightened person, through Buddhist practice or something like that," Retrieved April 20, 2007</ref> regard Jesus as a [[bodhisattva]] who dedicated his life to the welfare of human beings. The 14th century Zen master [[Gasan Jōseki]] indicated that the Gospels were written by an enlightened being.<ref>[[101 Zen Stories]]; #16</ref>

=== Other views ===

[[Mandaeanism]], a very small Mideastern, Gnostic sect that reveres [[John the Baptist]] as God's greatest prophet, regards Jesus as a false prophet of the false Jewish god of the Old Testament, [[Names of God in Judaism|Adonai]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gnosis.org/library/haran.htm|title=Mandaean Scriptures and Fragments: ''The Haran Gawaitha''|accessmonthday=April 20|accessyear=2007}}</ref> and likewise rejects [[Abraham]], [[Moses]], and [[Muhammad]]. [[Manichaeism]] accepted Jesus as a prophet, along with [[Gautama Buddha]] and [[Zoroaster]].<ref>Bevan, A. A. (1930). "Manichaeism." ''[[Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics]], Volume VIII'' Ed. [[James Hastings]]. London</ref>

The [[New Age]] movement entertains a wide variety of views on Jesus. The creators of [[A Course In Miracles]] claim to trance-[[channeling (mediumistic)|channel]] his spirit. However, the New Age movement generally teaches that [[Initiation (Theosophy)|Christhood]] is something that all may attain. [[Theosophy|Theosophists]], from whom many New Age teachings originated (a Theosophist named [[Alice A. Bailey]] invented the term ''New Age''), refer to Jesus of Nazareth as the [[Master Jesus]] and believe he had previous [[reincarnation|incarnations]].

Many writers emphasize Jesus' moral teachings. [[Garry Wills]] argues that Jesus' ethics are distinct from those usually taught by Christianity.<ref> Wills, Garry, ''What Jesus Meant'' (2006) ISBN 0–670–03496–7</ref> The [[Jesus Seminar]] portrays Jesus as an itinerant preacher who taught peace and love, rights for women and respect for children, and who spoke out against the hypocrisy of religious leaders and the rich.<ref>[[John Dominic Crossan|Crossan, John Dominic]], ''The Historical Jesus: The Life of a Mediterranean Jewish Peasant'', HarperSanFrancisco (1993), ISBN 0–06–061629–6; [[Robert Funk]], ''The Five Gospels: What Did Jesus Really Say? The Search for the AUTHENTIC Words of Jesus'', Harper San Francisco (1997), ISBN 0–06–063040-X; [[Robert Funk]], ''The Acts of Jesus: What Did Jesus Really Do?'', The Jesus Seminar, Harper San Francisco (1998), ISBN 0–06–062978–9; The [[Jesus Seminar]], ''The Gospel of Jesus: According to the Jesus Seminar'', Robert Walter Funk (Editor), Polebridge Press (1999), ISBN 0–944344–74–7</ref> [[Thomas Jefferson]], one of the [[Founding Fathers of the United States]] and a [[deism|deist]], created the [[Jefferson Bible]] entitled "The Life and Morals of Jesus of Nazareth" that included only Jesus' ethical teachings because he did not believe in Jesus' divinity or any of the other supernatural aspects of the [[Bible]].

== Legacy ==
{{Further|[[Images of Jesus]], [[Cultural depictions of Jesus]], and [[Anno Domini]]}}
[[Image:Michelangelo's Pieta 5450 cropncleaned.jpg|thumb|right|''[[Pietà (Michelangelo)|Pietà]]'', [[Michelangelo]], 16th c.: Jesus' mother Mary holds the body of her dead son]]
According to most Christian interpretations of the [[Bible]], the theme of Jesus' teachings was that of [[repentance]], [[agape|unconditional love]],<ref>{{niv|John|13:34–35|John 13:34–35}}</ref> [[forgiveness]] of [[sin]], [[Divine grace|grace]], and the coming of the [[Kingdom of God]].<ref>Sniegocki, John. "[http://catholicbooksreview.org/2005/grassi.htm Review of Joseph GRASSI, ''Peace on Earth: Roots and Practices from Luke's Gospel'',]" Collegeville, Minnesota: Liturgical Press, 2004 (repentance, forgiveness);
Bock, Darrell L. [http://www.bible.org/page.php?page_id=2210 "Major Themes of Jesus' life,"] (coming of the Kingdom of God);
Brussat, Frederic and Mary Ann. "[http://www.spiritualityandpractice.com/books/books.php?id=9695 Review of ''If Grace Is So Amazing, Why Do not We Like It?,'']" (grace);
Hughes, F. A. [http://www.stempublishing.com/authors/hughes/GRACTRTH.html "Grace and Truth,"] STEM publishing 1972 (grace)</ref> Starting as a small Jewish sect,<ref name="isbn0-7591-0015-2">{{cite book |author=Duhaime, Jean; Blasi, Anthony J.; Turcotte, Paul-André |title=Handbook of early Christianity: social science approaches |publisher=AltaMira Press |location=Walnut Creek, Calif |year=2002 |pages=p.434 |isbn=0-7591-0015-2 |oclc= |doi=}}</ref> it developed into a religion clearly distinct from [[Judaism]] several decades after Jesus death. Christianity spread throughout the [[Roman Empire]] under a version known as [[Nicene Christianity]] and became the [[state religion]] under [[Theodosius I]]. Over the centuries, it spread to most of [[Europe]], and around the world.

Jesus has been [[Images of Jesus|drawn, painted, sculpted]] and [[Dramatic portrayals of Jesus|portrayed on stage and in films]] in many different ways, both serious and [[Jesus in Pop culture|humorous]]. The figure of Jesus features prominently in art and literature. A number of popular novels, such as ''[[The Da Vinci Code]]'', have also portrayed various ideas about Jesus, and a number of films, such as ''[[The Passion of the Christ]]'', have portrayed his life, death, and resurrection. Many of the sayings attributed to Jesus have become part of the culture of [[Western world|Western civilization]]. There are many items purported to be [[relics of Jesus]], of which the most famous are the [[Shroud of Turin]] and the [[Sudarium of Oviedo]].

Other legacies include a view of God as more lovingly parental, merciful, and more forgiving, and the growth of a belief in a blissful [[afterlife]] and in the [[resurrection of the dead]]. His teaching promoted the value of those who had commonly been regarded as inferior: women, the poor, ethnic outsiders, children, prostitutes, the sick, prisoners, etc. For over a thousand years, countless hospitals, orphanages, and schools have been founded explicitly in Jesus' name. Jesus and his message have been interpreted, explained and understood by many people. Jesus has been explained notably by [[Paul of Tarsus]], the [[Church Fathers]], including [[Augustine of Hippo]], [[Martin Luther]], and more recently by [[C. S. Lewis]] and [[Pope John Paul II]]. [[Thomas Jefferson]] considered Jesus' teaching to be "the most sublime and benevolent code of morals which has ever been offered to man."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.angelfire.com/co/JeffersonBible/jeffintr.html|title=The Jefferson Bible|accessmonthday=April 20|accessyear=2007}}</ref>

For some Jews, the legacy of Jesus has been a history of [[Christianity and antisemitism|Christian antisemitism]],<ref> "Christian Antisemitism: A History of Hate" by William Nicholls, 1993. Published by Jason Aronson Inc., 1995; "Mature Christianity: The Recognition and Repudiation of the Anti-Jewish Polemic in the New Testament" Norman A. Beck, Susquehanna Univ. Press, 1985; "The Satanizing of the Jews: Origin and development of mystical anti-Semitism" Joel Carmichael, Fromm, 1993; "The Origins of Anti-Semitism: Attitudes Toward Judaism in Pagan and Christian Antiquity" [[John Gager|John G. Gager]], Oxford Univ. Press, 1983; "What Did They Think of the Jews?" Edited by Allan Gould, Jason Aronson Inc., 1991; "The New Testament's Anti-Jewish Slander and Conventions of Ancient Polemic," Luke Johnson, Journal of Biblical Literature, Volume 3, 1989; "Three Popes and the Jews" Pinchas E. Lapide, Hawthorne Books, 1967; "National Socialism and the Roman Catholic Church" Nathaniel Micklem, Oxford Univ. Press, 1939; Theological Anti-Semitism in the New Testament," Rosemary Radford Ruether, Christian Century, Feb. 1968, Vol. 85; "John Chrysostom and the Jews" Robert L. Wilken, Univ. of California Press, Berkeley, 1983</ref> although in the wake of [[the Holocaust]] many Christian groups have gone to considerable lengths to reconcile with Jews and to promote interfaith dialog and mutual respect. For others, Christianity has often been linked to European [[colonialism]].<ref>''Of Revelation and Revolution, Volume 1: Christianity, Colonialism, and Consciousness in South Africa'' by Jean Comaroff, John L. Comaroff 1991 University of Chicago Press; ''A Violent Evangelism: The Political and Religious Conquest of the Americas'' by Luis Rivera Pagan 1992 Westminster Press; ''The Americas in the Spanish World Order: The Justification for Conquest in the 17th century'' by James Muldoon 1994 University of Pennsylvania Press; ''An Empire Divided: Religion, Republicanism, and the Making of French Colonialism, 1880–1914 by J.P. Daughton 2006 Oxford University Press; ''Contracting Colonialism: Translations and Christian Conversion in Tagalog Society Under Early Spanish Rule'' by Vicente L. Rafael 1988 Cornell University Press; ''Christians and Missionaries in India: Cross-Cultural Communication Since 1500; With Special Reference to Caste, Conversion, and Colonialism (Studies in the History of Christian Missions)'' edited by Robert Eric Frykenberg and Alaine Low 2003 Wm. B. Eerdmans</ref> Conversely, some have argued that through [[Bartolomé de las Casas]]' defense of the indigenous inhabitants of Spain's New World empire, one of the legacies of Jesus has been the notion of universal [[human rights]].

== See also ==
{{col-begin}}
{{col-2}}

* '''General topics'''
** The [[Bible]]
** [[INRI]] (stands for "Jesus the [[Nazarene]], the [[King of the Jews]]")
** [[Nazarene]]
** [[Prophets in Islam]]
** [[Qur'an]]
* '''Jesus and history'''
** [[Apostolic Succession|Apostolic Succession of Jesus]]
** [[Christian apologetics]]
** [[Genealogy of Jesus]]
** [[Gospel Harmony]]
** [[Historicity of Jesus]]
** [[Jesus and comparative mythology]]
** [[Name of Jesus in the Old Testament]]
** [[New Testament view on Jesus' life]]

{{col-2}}

* '''New Testament Jesus'''
** [[Biblical Jesus]]
** [[Crucifixion of Jesus|Death]] and [[Resurrection of Jesus]]
** [[Christian views about women|Jesus and women]]
** [[Miracles of Jesus]]
** [[Race of Jesus]]
** [[Sermon on the Mount]]
* '''Views on Jesus'''
** [[Apocrypha]]
** [[Pauline Christianity]]
** [[Religious perspectives on Jesus]]
* '''Related topics'''
** [[List of founders of major religions]]
** [[List of messiah claimants]]
** [[List of people who have been considered deities]]
** [[List of people who have claimed to be Jesus]]
** [[List of books about Jesus]]
** [[Life-death-rebirth deity|List of life death rebirth gods]]

{{col-end}}

== Notes ==


<div style="padding: 3px; reflist4">
{{reflist|2}}
</div>

== References ==

* [[Dale Allison|Allison, Dale]]. ''Jesus of Nazareth: Millenarian Prophet.'' Minneapolis: Augsburg Fortress, 1999. ISBN 0–8006–3144–7
* [[Raymond E. Brown|Brown, Raymond E.]]. ''An Introduction to the New Testament.'' New York: Doubleday, 1997. ISBN 0–385–24767–2
* Cohen, Shaye J.D. ''From the Maccabees to the Mishnah.'' Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press, 1988. ISBN 0–664–25017–3
* Cohen, Shaye J.D. ''The Beginnings of Jewishness: Boundaries, Varieties, Uncertainties.'' Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001. ISBN 0–520–22693–3
* [[John Dominic Crossan|Crossan, John Dominic]].
** ''The Historical Jesus: The Life of a Mediterranean Jewish Peasant.'' New York: HarperSanFrancisco, 1993. ISBN 0–06–061629–6
** ''Who Killed Jesus?," 1995. ISBN 0–06–061480–3
* [[Guy Davenport]] and [[Benjamin Urrutia]]. ''The Logia of Yeshua; The Sayings of Jesus''. Washington, DC: 1996. ISBN 1–887178–70–8
* De La Potterie, Ignace. "The Hour of Jesus." New York: Alba House, 1989.
* Durant, Will. ''Caesar and Christ.'' New York: Simon and Schuster, 1944. ISBN 0–671–11500–6
* [[Bart D. Ehrman|Ehrman, Bart]]. ''The Lost Christianities: The Battles for Scripture and the Faiths We Never Knew.'' New York: Oxford University Press, 2003. ISBN 0–19–514183–0
* [[Bart D. Ehrman|Ehrman, Bart]]. ''The New Testament: A Historical Introduction to the Early Christian Writings.'' New York: Oxford University Press, 2003. ISBN 0–19–515462–2
* [[Paula Fredriksen|Fredriksen, Paula]]. ''Jesus of Nazareth, King of the Jews: A Jewish Life and the Emergence of Christianity.'' New York: Vintage, 2000. ISBN 0–679–76746–0
* [[Paula Fredriksen|Fredriksen, Paula]]. ''From Jesus to Christ.'' New Haven: Yale University Press, 2000. ISBN 0–300–04864–5
* Finegan, Jack. ''Handbook of Biblical Chronology'', revised ed. Peabody, MA: Hendrickson Publishers, 1998. ISBN 1–56563–143–9.
* Fuller, Reginald H., [[Reginald H. Fuller#The Foundations of New Testament Christology (1965)|''The Foundations of New Testament Christology'']]. New York: Scribners, 1965. ISBN 022717075X
* Meier, John P., [[John P. Meier#A Marginal Jew: Rethinking the Historical Jesus|''A Marginal Jew: Rethinking the Historical Jesus'']], New York: [[Anchor Bible Series|Anchor Doubleday]],
: v. 1, ''The Roots of the Problem and the Person'', 1991. ISBN 0–385–26425–9
: v. 2, ''Mentor, Message, and Miracles'', 1994. ISBN 0–385–46992–6
: v. 3, ''Companions and Competitors'', 2001. ISBN 0–385–46993–4
* O'Collins, Gerald. ''Interpreting Jesus.'' Mahwah, NJ: Paulist Press, 1983.
* [[Jaroslav Pelikan|Pelikan, Jaroslav]]. ''Jesus Through the Centuries: His Place in the History of Culture.'' New Haven: Yale University Press, 1999. ISBN 0–300–07987–7
* Robinson, John A. T. ''Redating the New Testament.'' Eugene, OR: Wipf & Stock, 2001 (original 1977). ISBN 1–57910–527–0.
* [[E.P. Sanders|Sanders, E.P.]] ''The Historical Figure of Jesus.'' New York: Penguin, 1996. ISBN 0–14–014499–4
* Sanders, E.P. ''Jesus and Judaism.'' Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1987. ISBN 0–8006–2061–5
* [[Geza Vermes|Vermes, Geza]]. ''Jesus the Jew: A Historian's Reading of the Gospels.'' Minneapolis: Augsburg Fortress, 1981. ISBN 0–8006–1443–7
* [[Paula Fredriksen|Fredriksen, Paula]]. ''From Jesus to Christ.'' New Haven: Yale University Press, 2000.
* [[Geza Vermes|Vermes, Geza]]. ''The Religion of Jesus the Jew.'' Minneapolis: Augsburg Fortress, 1993. ISBN 0–8006–2797–0
* [[Geza Vermes|Vermes, Geza]]. ''Jesus in his Jewish Context.'' Minneapolis: Augsburg Fortress, 2003. ISBN 0–8006–3623–6
* [[A.N. Wilson|Wilson, A.N.]] ''Jesus.'' London: Pimlico, 2003. ISBN 0–7126–0697–1
* [[Tom Wright (theologian)|Wright, N.T.]] ''Jesus and the Victory of God.'' Minneapolis: Augsburg Fortress, 1997. ISBN 0–8006–2682–6
* [[Tom Wright (theologian)|Wright, N.T.]] ''The Resurrection of the Son of God: Christian Origins and the Question of God.'' Minneapolis: Augsburg Fortress, 2003. ISBN 0–8006–2679–6

== External links ==
{{sisterlinks|Jesus}}

; Religious views
* [http://www.latinvulgate.com/christverse.aspx Complete Sayings of Jesus Christ] ''In Parallel Latin & English — The Complete Christ Sayings''

; Historical and skeptical views
* [http://www.religionfacts.com/Christianity/history/jesus.htm Overview of the Life of Jesus] A summary of New Testament accounts.
* [http://www.religiousstudies.uncc.edu/JDTABOR/indexb.html The Jewish Roman World of Jesus]
* [http://www.jesuspuzzle.com/ The Jesus Puzzle] — [[Earl Doherty]]'s website.

{{Christianityfooter}}
{{New Testament people}}
{{Prophets in the Qur'an}}

{{Persondata
| NAME=Jesus
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES=Jesus Christ (honorific); Jesus of Nazareth (traditional); יֵשׁ֣וּעַ (Hebrew); Yeshua (transliteration); Isa (Islam)
| SHORT DESCRIPTION=Religious figure, founded Christianity
| DATE OF BIRTH=c. 4 BC/BCE
| PLACE OF BIRTH=[[Bethlehem]], [[Iudaea Province]] (traditionally)
| DATE OF DEATH=c. 30
| PLACE OF DEATH=[[Jerusalem]], [[Iudaea Province]]
}}
{{lifetime|0s BC|1st century|Jesus}}
{{Christmas}}

[[Category:Jesus|*]]
[[Category:Creator gods]]
[[Category:Jewish Messiah claimants]]
[[Category:Life-death-rebirth deities]]
[[Category:Manifestations of God in the Bahá'í Faith]]
[[Category:People executed by crucifixion]]
[[Category:People in Messianic Judaism]]
[[Category:Prophets in Islam]]
[[Category:Roman era Jews]]
[[Category:People from Nazareth]]
[[Category:People executed by the Roman Empire]]
[[Category:Jesus and history]]
[[Category:Carpenters]]
[[Category:Founders of religions]]

[[Category:Christian religious leaders]]
[[Category:God in Christianity]]
[[Category:Messianism]]
[[Category:New Testament people]]
[[Category:Prophets in Christianity]]
[[Category:Savior gods]]
[[Category:New Testament]]

{{Link FA|de}}
{{Link FA|es}}
{{Link FA|hr}}
{{Link FA|ar}}

[[af:Jesus van Nasaret]]
[[am:ኢየሱስ]]
[[ang:Iesus]]
[[ar:يسوع]]
[[an:Chesús de Nazaret]]
[[arc:ܝܫܘܥ]]
[[ast:Xesús]]
[[az:İsa peyğəmbər]]
[[bm:Yesu Krista]]
[[bn:যিশু]]
[[zh-min-nan:Iâ-so͘]]
[[ba:Ғайса]]
[[be:Ісус Хрыстос]]
[[be-x-old:Ісус Хрыстос]]
[[bi:Jisas Kraes]]
[[bs:Isus]]
[[br:Jezuz Nazaret]]
[[bg:Исус Христос]]
[[bxr:Иисус Христос]]
[[ca:Jesús de Natzaret]]
[[cv:Иисус Христос]]
[[ceb:Jesus]]
[[cs:Ježíš Kristus]]
[[ny:Yesu Kristu]]
[[cy:Iesu]]
[[da:Jesus fra Nazaret]]
[[pdc:Yeesus Grischdus]]
[[de:Jesus von Nazaret]]
[[dv:އީސާ މަސީހު]]
[[et:Jeesus]]
[[el:Ιησούς Χριστός]]
[[es:Jesús de Nazaret]]
[[eo:Jesuo Kristo]]
[[eu:Jesus Nazaretekoa]]
[[ee:Yesu Kristo]]
[[fa:عیسی]]
[[fo:Jesus]]
[[fr:Jésus de Nazareth]]
[[fy:Jezus Kristus]]
[[fur:Jesus]]
[[ga:Íosa Críost]]
[[gan:耶穌]]
[[gd:Iosa Chrìosd]]
[[gl:Xesús de Nazareth]]
[[got:𐌹𐌴𐍃𐌿𐍃 𐍇𐍂𐌹𐍃𐍄𐌿𐍃]]
[[hak:Yâ-sû]]
[[ko:예수]]
[[ha:Yesu Kristi]]
[[hy:Հիսուս Քրիստոս]]
[[hi:ईसा मसीह]]
[[hr:Isus]]
[[ig:Jisọs Kraịst]]
[[ilo:Jesus]]
[[id:Yesus]]
[[ia:Jesus Christo]]
[[xh:UYesu Kristu]]
[[zu:UJesu Krestu]]
[[is:Jesús]]
[[it:Gesù]]
[[he:ישו]]
[[jv:Yesus Kristus]]
[[kl:Jesus Kristus]]
[[kn:ಯೇಸು ಕ್ರಿಸ್ತ]]
[[ka:იესო ქრისტე]]
[[kk:Иса Мәсіх]]
[[kw:Yesu Krist]]
[[rw:Yesu Kristo]]
[[rn:Yezu Kirisitu]]
[[sw:Yesu]]
[[kv:Исус Христос]]
[[kg:Yesu]]
[[ht:Jezi]]
[[ku:Îsa]]
[[lad:Yesukristo]]
[[lo:ພະເຍຊູ]]
[[la:Iesus]]
[[lv:Jēzus Kristus]]
[[lb:Jesus vun Nazaret]]
[[lt:Jėzus Kristus]]
[[lij:Gesû Cristo]]
[[li:Zjezus Christus]]
[[lg:Jesu Kristo]]
[[hu:Jézus]]
[[mk:Исус Христос]]
[[mg:Jesoa]]
[[ml:യേശു]]
[[mt:Ġesù Kristu]]
[[mi:Ihu Karaiti]]
[[ms:Yesus Kristus]]
[[cdo:Ià-sŭ]]
[[mn:Есүс Христ]]
[[nah:Yeshua Christós]]
[[na:Jesu Kristo]]
[[fj:Jisu Karisito]]
[[nl:Christus (Jezus)]]
[[nds-nl:Jezus Christus]]
[[ne:येशु क्राइस्ट]]
[[ja:イエス・キリスト]]
[[pih:Jesus]]
[[no:Jesus Kristus]]
[[nn:Jesus]]
[[nrm:Jésus-Chrît]]
[[oc:Jèsus]]
[[om:Yesus Kristos]]
[[ug:ئەيسا پەيغەمبەر]]
[[uz:Iso Masih]]
[[pa:ਈਸਾ ਮਸੀਹ]]
[[ps:عيسى عليه السلام]]
[[pms:Gesù ëd Nàsaret]]
[[nds:Jesus Christus]]
[[pl:Jezus Chrystus]]
[[pt:Jesus]]
[[ty:Iesu Mesia]]
[[ksh:Jesus Christus]]
[[ro:Iisus din Nazaret]]
[[rm:Gesu da Nazaret]]
[[qu:Jesus]]
[[ru:Иисус Христос]]
[[sm:Iesu Keriso]]
[[sg:Jésus Christ]]
[[sco:Jesus Christ]]
[[st:Jesu Kreste]]
[[sq:Jezusi]]
[[scn:Gesù Cristu]]
[[simple:Jesus]]
[[sk:Ježiš Kristus]]
[[sl:Jezus Kristus]]
[[szl:Jezus Chrystus]]
[[so:Ciise]]
[[sr:Исус Христос]]
[[sh:Isus]]
[[fi:Jeesus]]
[[sv:Jesus]]
[[tl:Hesus]]
[[ta:இயேசு கிறிஸ்து]]
[[kab:Ɛisa]]
[[tt:Ğaysa]]
[[te:యేసు]]
[[th:พระเยซู]]
[[vi:Giê-su]]
[[tg:Исо]]
[[tpi:Jisas]]
[[to:Sīsū Kalaisi]]
[[tr:İsa]]
[[tk:Isa Pygamber]]
[[tw:Yesu Kristo]]
[[uk:Ісус Христос]]
[[ur:عیسیٰ علیہ السلام]]
[[vec:Gesù]]
[[vls:Jezus van Nazareth]]
[[wo:Yéesu-kristaa]]
[[wuu:耶稣]]
[[yi:יוזל]]
[[yo:Jesu Kristi]]
[[zh-yue:耶穌]]
[[cbk-zam:Jesus]]
[[bat-smg:Jiezos Krėstos]]
[[zh:耶稣]]

Roberta McCain

2008-11-09T12:35:30Z

AnthonyToddler: trying to remove too-obvious bias (some bias is ok, but I think too much just damages CP)

{{nofootnotes|date=November 2008}}
{{Infobox Person
| name = Roberta Wright McCain
| image = Roberta McCain at the 1992 launching of USS John S. McCain (DDG-56).jpg
| imagesize = 150px
| caption = Roberta McCain at the 1992 launching of [[USS John S. McCain (DDG-56)]]
| birth_name =
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|mf=yes|1912|2|7}}
| birth_place = [[Muskogee, Oklahoma|Muskogee]], [[Oklahoma]]
| death_date =
| death_place =
| other_names =
| known_for = Widow of [[Admiral]] [[John S. McCain, Jr.]] Mother of U.S. Senator and Presidential Candidate [[John McCain]]
| occupation =
| nationality = [[United States|American]]
| spouse = [[John S. McCain, Jr.]] from 1933 to 1981
| alma_mater =
| party =
| religion =
| website =
}}

'''Roberta Wright McCain''' (born [[February 7]], [[1912]]) is the widow of [[Admiral]] [[John S. McCain, Jr.]] (married from 1933 to 1981) and mother of [[Arizona]] [[Senator]] and former Republican [[presidential candidate]] [[John McCain|John S. McCain III]].

==Background==
Roberta Wright and her twin sister, Rowena, were born in [[Muskogee, Oklahoma|Muskogee]], [[Oklahoma]] on February 7, 1912. Her parents, [[Archibald Wright]], a [[Los Angeles]] [[oil]] [[wildcatter]], and Myrtle Fletcher, were married in [[Cleburne, Texas]], on June 18, 1901.

==Family==
On January 21, 1933, she married Admiral John S. McCain, Jr. in Caesar's Bar, [[Tijuana]], [[Mexico]].

Roberta McCain had three children. [[Sandy McCain Morgan]], John S. McCain III, and [[Joe McCain]], a [[dinner theatre]] actor.{{fact|date=April 2008}}

Her son, John, was held as a prisoner of war in North Vietnam for five and a half years. When notified upon his release on March 15, 1973, that he had shouted expletives at his captors, Mrs. McCain's response was, "Johnny, I'm going to come over there and wash your mouth out with soap."

John McCain has said of his mother: "My mother was raised to be a strong, determined woman who thoroughly enjoyed life, and always tried to make the most of her opportunities. She was encouraged to accept, graciously and with good humor, the responsibilities and sacrifices her choices have required of her. I am grateful to her for the strengths she taught me by example." [http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=5039481]

Roberta McCain is still active at age 96. She has campaigned during her son's [[John McCain presidential campaign, 2008|2008 presidential campaign]].

==References==

*[http://www.cnn.com/ALLPOLITICS/time/2000/02/21/mccain.mother.html McCain's Mother], [[CNN]], February 28, 2000.
*[http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=5039481 Shaping Character and Destinies: John McCain], [[National Public Radio]], by Terry Gross, December 6, 2005.
*[http://www.cnn.com/POLITICS/blogs/politicalticker/2007/05/mccain-highlights-mothers-age-on.html McCain highlights mother's age on Mother's Day] May 14, 2007.
*[http://abcnews.go.com/Politics/wireStory?id=3846522 Play of the Day: McCain's Mom on Mormons], November 9, 2007
*[http://www.wargs.com/political/mccain.html Ancestry of Sen. John McCain]
*[http://www.style.com/vogue/feature/080108VFEA/ "The Firecracker"], Style.com (condensed version of article for [[Vogue (magazine)|Vogue]]). August 2008.

{{John McCain}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:McCain, Roberta}}
[[Category:1912 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:McCain family]]
[[Category:People from Muskogee, Oklahoma]]
[[Category:Twin people]]

[[nl:Roberta Wright McCain]]

Mother's Day

2008-11-09T12:33:40Z

AnthonyToddler: trying to remove too-obvious bias (some bias is ok, but I think too much just damages CP)

{{about|several worldwide days celebrating motherhood}}
{{Infobox Holiday |
|holiday_name=Mother's Day
|observedby=Many countries
|date=Varies regionally
|type=Historical
|relatedto=[[Father's Day]]
}}
'''Mother's Day''' is a day honoring [[mother]]s, celebrated on various days in many places around the world. It complements [[Father's Day]], the celebration honoring [[father]]s.
==History==
Different countries celebrate Mother's Day on various days of the year because the day has a number of different origins.

One school of thought claims this day emerged from a custom of mother worship in [[ancient Greece]], which kept a festival to [[Cybele]], a great mother of Greek gods. This festival was held around the [[Vernal Equinox]] around Asia Minor and eventually in Rome itself from the [[Ides of March]] ([[15 March]]) to [[18 March]].

The [[ancient Romans]] also had another holiday, [[Matronalia]], that was dedicated to [[Juno (mythology)|Juno]], though mothers were usually given gifts on this day.

In addition to Mother's Day, [[International Women's Day]] is celebrated in many countries, most often on [[March 8th]].

==Spelling==

In 1912, Anna Jarvis trademarked the phrases "second Sunday in May" and "Mother's Day". <ref name="vancouversun" />

{{quote|1="She was specific about the location of the apostrophe; it was to be a singular possessive, for each family to honour their mother, not a plural possessive commemorating all mothers in the world." <ref name="vancouversun" />}}

This is also the spelling used by U.S. President Woodrow Wilson on the law making official the holiday on the U.S., by U.S. Congress on bills, <ref name="vote274">[http://www.govtrack.us/congress/vote.xpd?vote=h2008-274 House Vote #274 (May 7, 2008)] H. Res. 1113: Celebrating the role of mothers in the United States and supporting the goals and ideals of Mother's Day (Vote On Passage)</ref><ref name="vote275">[http://www.govtrack.us/congress/vote.xpd?vote=h2008-275 House Vote #275 (May 7, 2008)] Table Motion to Reconsider: H RES 1113 Celebrating the role of mothers in the United States and supporting the goals and ideals of Mother’s Day</ref> and by other U.S. President on their declarations. <ref>Presidential proclamations from The American Presidency Project:
* [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=14859 71 - Mother's Day Proclamation], [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]], May 3 1934.
* [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=24097 Proclamation 3535 Mother's Day, 1963] [[John F. Kennedy]], 26 April 1963.
* [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=75197 Proclamation 3583 - Mother's Day, 1964] [[Lyndon B. Johnson]], 23 April 1964
* [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=834 Proclamation 4437 - Mother's Day, 1976], [[Gerald Ford]], May 5 1976.
* [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=1845 Proclamation 6133 - Mother's Day, 1990], [[George H. W. Bush|George Bush]], May 10 1990
* [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=62428 Proclamation 6559 - Mother's Day, 1993], [[Bill J. Clinton]], May 7 1993.
* [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=77285 Proclamation 8253 - Mother's Day, 2008], [[George W. Bush]], May 8 2008.</ref>

Common usage in English language also dictates that the ostensibly singular possessive "Mother's Day" is the preferred spelling.

== Dates around the world ==
Mother's Day is celebrated on different days throughout the world. Examining the [[Google Trends|trends in Google searches]] for the term "mother's day" shows two primary results, the smaller one on the fourth Sunday in [[Lent]] (it is also called ladies day and women's day), and the larger one on the second Sunday in May.<ref>{{cite web
| url = http://www.google.com/trends?q=mothers+day&ctab=0&date=all&geo=all
| title = mothers day (sic)
| work = Google Trends
| publisher = [[Google]]
| accessdaymonth = 28 May
| accessyear = 2006
}}</ref>

The extent of the celebrations varies greatly. In some countries, it is potentially offensive to one's mother not to mark Mother's Day. In others, it is a little-known festival celebrated mainly by immigrants, or covered by the media as a taste of foreign culture (compare the celebrations of [[Diwali]] in the [[UK]] and the [[United States]]).

''Note: Countries that celebrate [[International Women's Day]] are marked with a cross '†'.
 
{| class="wikitable"
! width="100px" | Occurrence
! width="100px"| Dates
! colspan="6" | Country
|--
| valign="top" |
Second Sunday of February
|valign="top" width="150px"|
February 10 2008 
February 8 2009 
February 14 2010 
| colspan="6" valign="top" |
{{flagicon| Norway}} [[Norway]] 
|--
| valign="top" |
[[February 2]]
|
| colspan="6" valign="top" |
{{flagicon| Greece}} [[Greece]] 
|--
| valign="top" |
[[Shevat]] 30 
(Falls anywhere between [[January 30]] and [[March 1]])
|
|colspan="6" valign="top" |
{{flagicon| Israel}} [[Israel]]
|--
| valign="top" |
[[March 3]]
|
| colspan="6" valign="top" |
{{flagicon| Georgia}} [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]]
|--
| valign="top" |
[[March 8]]
|
| width="150px" valign="top"|
{{flagicon| Afghanistan}} [[Afghanistan]] 
{{flagicon| Albania}}[[Albania]]† 
{{flagicon| Armenia}} [[Armenia]] 
| width="150px" valign="top"|
{{flagicon| Azerbaijan}} [[Azerbaijan]] 
{{flagicon| Belarus}} [[Belarus]]† 
{{flagicon| Bosnia and Herzegovina}} [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]] 
| width="150px" valign="top"|
{{flagicon| Bulgaria}} [[Bulgaria]]† 
{{flagicon| Laos}} [[Laos]] 
{{flagicon| Macedonia}} [[Republic of Macedonia|Macedonia]]† 
| width="150px" valign="top"|
{{flagicon| Moldova}} [[Moldova]] 
{{flagicon| Montenegro}} [[Montenegro]] 
{{flagicon| Romania}} [[Romania]] 
| width="150px" valign="top"|
{{flagicon| Russia}} [[Russia]]† 
{{flagicon| Serbia}} [[Serbia]] 
| width="150px" valign="top" colspan="6"|
|--
|valign="top" |
Fourth Sunday in [[Lent]]
| valign="top" |
[[March 2]] 2008 
March 22 2009 
March 14 2010 
| valign="top" |
{{flagicon| Ireland}} [[Republic of Ireland|Ireland]] 
{{flagicon| Nigeria}} [[Nigeria]] 
| colspan="6" valign="top" |
{{flagicon| United Kingdom}} [[United Kingdom]] 
|--
| valign="top" |
[[March 21]] 
([[Equinox|vernal equinox)]]
|
| valign="top"|
{{flagicon| Bahrain}} [[Bahrain]] 
{{flagicon| Egypt}} [[Egypt]] 
{{flagicon| Iraq}} [[Iraq]] 
| valign="top"|
{{flagicon| Jordan}} [[Jordan]] 
{{flagicon| Kuwait}} [[Kuwait]] 
{{flagicon| Oman}} [[Oman]] 
| valign="top"|
{{flagicon| Lebanon}} [[Lebanon]] 
{{flagicon| Palestine}} [[Palestine]] 
{{flagicon| Qatar}} [[Qatar]] 
|valign="top"|
{{flagicon| Saudi Arabia}} [[Saudi Arabia]] 
{{flagicon| Sudan}} [[Sudan]] 
{{flagicon| Syria}} [[Syria]] 
|valign="top" colspan="6"|
{{flagicon| United Arab Emirates}} [[United Arab Emirates]] 
{{flagicon| Yemen}} [[Yemen]] (All {{flagicon| Arab League}} [[Arab countries]] in general) 
|--
| valign="top"|
[[March 25]]
|
| valign="top" colspan="6"|
{{flagicon| Slovenia}} [[Slovenia]] 
|--
|valign="top"|
[[April 7]]
|
| valign="top" colspan="6"|
{{flagicon| Armenia}} [[Armenia]] 
|--
|valign="top"|
[[April 2]] 
(Chinese calendar)
|
| valign="top" colspan="6"|
{{flagicon| China}} [[China]]† 
|--
|valign="top"|
[[Baisakh]] [[Amavasya]] (Mata Tirtha Aunsi)
|
| valign="top" colspan="6"|
{{flagicon| Nepal}} [[Nepal]] 
|--
|valign="top"|
First Sunday of May
|valign="top"|
May 4 2008 
May 3 2009 
May 2 2010 
|valign="top"|
{{flagicon| Hungary}} [[Hungary]] 
{{flagicon| Lithuania}} [[Lithuania]]* 
|valign="top" colspan="6"|
{{flagicon| Portugal}} [[Portugal]] 
{{flagicon| Spain}} [[Spain]] 
|--
| valign="top"|
[[May 8]]
|
|valign="top" colspan="6" width="150px"|
{{flagicon| Albania}} [[Albania]] ([[Parents' Day]]) 
{{flagicon| South Korea}} [[South Korea]] ([[Parents' Day]]) 
|--
| valign="top"|
[[May 10]]
|
| valign="top"|
{{flagicon| El Salvador}} [[El Salvador]] 
{{flagicon| Guatemala}} [[Guatemala]] 
| valign="top" colspan="6"|
{{flagicon| Mexico}} [[Mexico]] 
|--
| valign="top"|
Second Sunday of May
|valign="top"|
[[May 11]] 2008 
May 10 2009 
May 9 2010 
|valign="top" width="150px"|
{{flagicon| Anguilla}} [[Anguilla]] 
{{flagicon| Aruba}} [[Aruba]] 
{{flagicon| Australia}} [[Australia]] 
{{flagicon| Austria}} [[Austria]] 
{{flagicon| Bahamas}} [[Bahamas]] 
{{flagicon| Bangladesh}} [[Bangladesh]] 
{{flagicon| Barbados}} [[Barbados]] 
{{flagicon| Belgium}} [[Belgium]] 
{{flagicon| Belize}} [[Belize]] 
{{flagicon| Bermuda}} [[Bermuda]] 
{{flagicon| Bonaire}} [[Bonaire]] 
{{flagicon| Brazil}} [[Brazil]] 
|valign="top" width="150px"|
{{flagicon| Brunei}} [[Brunei]] 
{{flagicon| Bulgaria}} [[Bulgaria]] 
{{flagicon| Canada}} [[Canada]] 
{{flagicon| Chile}} [[Chile]] 
{{flagicon| China}} [[Mainland China]]† 
{{flagicon| Taiwan}} [[Republic of China]] (Taiwan) 
{{flagicon| Colombia}} [[Colombia]] 
{{flagicon| Croatia}} [[Croatia]] 
{{flagicon| Cuba}} [[Cuba]] <ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.enlace.cu/efemeride/mayo.htm | title = Principales efemérides. Mes Mayo | publisher = [[Unión de Periodistas de Cuba]] | accessdate = 2008-06-07 }}</ref> 
{{flagicon| Curaçao}} [[Curaçao]] 
{{flagicon| Cyprus}} [[Cyprus]] 
{{flagicon| Czech Republic}} [[Czech Republic]] 
|valign="top" width="150px"|
{{flagicon| Denmark}} [[Denmark]] 
{{flagicon| Ecuador}} [[Ecuador]] 
{{flagicon| Estonia}} [[Estonia]] 
{{flagicon| Finland}} [[Finland]] 
{{flagicon| Germany}} [[Germany]] 
{{flagicon| Ghana}} [[Ghana]] 
{{flagicon| Greece}} [[Greece]] 
{{flagicon| Grenada}} [[Grenada]] 
{{flagicon| Honduras}} [[Honduras]] 
{{flagicon| Hong Kong}} [[Hong Kong]] 
{{flagicon| Iceland}} [[Iceland]] 
{{flagicon| India}} [[India]] 
{{flagicon| Italy}} [[Italy]]† 
|valign="top" width="150px"|
{{flagicon| Jamaica}} [[Jamaica]] 
{{flagicon| Japan}} [[Japan]] 
{{flagicon| Latvia}} [[Latvia]]* 
{{flagicon| Malta}} [[Malta]] 
{{flagicon| Malaysia}} [[Malaysia]] 
{{flagicon| Myanmar}} [[Myanmar]] 
{{flagicon| Netherlands}} [[Netherlands|The Netherlands]] 
{{flagicon| New Zealand}} [[New Zealand]] 
{{flagicon| Pakistan}} [[Pakistan]] 
{{flagicon| Peru}} [[Peru]] <ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.drelm.gob.pe/index.php?p=art&menu=49 | title = Calendario Cívico Escolar | publisher = Dirección Regional de Educación de Lima Metropolitana | accessdate = 2008-06-07 }}</ref> 
{{flagicon| Philippines}} [[Philippines]] 
{{flagicon| Puerto Rico}} [[Puerto Rico]] 
|valign="top" width="150px"|
{{flagicon| Slovakia}} [[Slovakia]] 
{{flagicon| South Africa}} [[South Africa]] 
{{flagicon| Saint Lucia}} [[St. Lucia]] 
{{flagicon| Saint Vincent and the Grenadines}} [[Saint Vincent and the Grenadines]] 
{{flagicon| Sint Maarten}} [[Sint Maarten]] 
{{flagicon| Singapore}} [[Singapore]] 
{{flagicon| Suriname}} [[Suriname]] 
{{flagicon| Switzerland}} [[Switzerland]] 
{{flagicon| Trinidad and Tobago}} [[Trinidad and Tobago]] 
{{flagicon| Turkey}} [[Turkey]] 
{{flagicon| Ukraine}} [[Ukraine]] 
{{flagicon| United States}} [[United States]] 
{{flagicon| Uruguay}} [[Uruguay]] 
|valign="top" width="150px"|
{{flagicon| Venezuela}} [[Venezuela]] 
{{flagicon| Zimbabwe}} [[Zimbabwe]] 
|--
| valign="top"|
[[May 15]]
|
| valign="top" colspan="6"|
{{flagicon| Paraguay}} [[Paraguay]] 
|--
| valign="top"|
[[May 26]]
|
| valign="top" colspan="6"|
{{flagicon| Poland}} [[Poland]] 
|--
| valign="top"|
[[May 27]]
|
| valign="top" colspan="6"|
{{flagicon| Bolivia}} [[Bolivia]]
|--
| valign="top"|
Last Sunday of May
|valign="top"|
May 25 2008 
May 31 2009 
May 30 2010 
| valign="top"|
{{flagicon| Algeria}} [[Algeria]] 
{{flagicon| Dominican Republic}} [[Dominican Republic]] 
| valign="top"|
{{flagicon| France}} [[France]] (First Sunday of June if [[Pentecost]] occurs on this day) 
{{flagicon| France}} [[French Antilles]] (First Sunday of June if [[Pentecost]] occurs on this day) 
{{flagicon| Haiti}} [[Haiti]] <ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.discoverhaiti.com/history_holidays.htm | publisher = discoverhaiti.com | title = Haiti: Main Holidays | accessdate = 2008-07-08 }} * {{cite web | url = http://www.haiti-reference.com/histoire/calendrier-fetes.html | title = 6310.- Fêtes et Jours Fériés en Haiti | language = french | accessdate = 2008-07-08 }} {{fr icon}}</ref> 
|valign="top"|
{{flagicon| Mauritius}} [[Mauritius]] 
{{flagicon| Morocco}} [[Morocco]] 
| valign="top" colspan="6"|
{{flagicon| Sweden}} [[Sweden]] 
{{flagicon| Tunisia}} [[Tunisia]] 
|--
| valign="top"|
[[May 30]]
|
| valign="top" colspan="6"|
{{flagicon| Nicaragua}} [[Nicaragua]] 
|--
| valign="top"|
[[June 1]]
|
| valign="top" colspan="6"|
{{flagicon| Mongolia}} [[Mongolia]]† (The Mothers and Children's Day.) 
|--
| valign="top"|
Second Sunday of June
| valign="top"|
June 8 2008 
June 14 2009 
June 13 2010 
| valign="top" colspan="6"|
{{flagicon| Luxembourg}} [[Luxembourg]] 
|--
| valign="top"|
Last Sunday of June
|valign="top"|
June 29 2008 
June 28 2009 
June 27 2009 
| valign="top" colspan="6"|
{{flagicon| Kenya}} [[Kenya]] 
|--
| valign="top"|
[[August 12]]
|
|valign="top" colspan="6"|
{{flagicon| Thailand}} [[Thailand]] (the birthday of Queen [[Sirikit Kitiyakara]])
|--
| valign="top"|
[[August 15]] ([[Assumption Day|Assumption Day]])
|
| valign="top" colspan="6"|
{{flagicon| Antwerp}} [[Antwerp]] ([[Belgium]]) 
{{flagicon| Costa Rica}} [[Costa Rica]] 
|--
| valign="top"|
Second Monday of October
| valign="top"|
October 13 2008 
October 12 2009 
October 11 2010 
| valign="top" colspan="6"|
{{flagicon| Malawi}} [[Malawi]] 
|--
| valign="top"|
[[October 14]]
|
| valign="top" colspan="6"|
{{flagicon| Belarus}} [[Belarus]] 
|--
| valign="top"|
Third Sunday of October
| valign="top"|
October 19 2008 
October 18 2009 
October 17 2010 
| valign="top" colspan="6"|
{{flagicon| Argentina}} [[Argentina]] (''Día de la Madre'') 
|--
| valign="top"|
Last Sunday of November
| valign="top"|
November 30 2008 
November 29 2009 
November 28 2010 
| valign="top" colspan="6"|
{{flagicon| Russia}} [[Russia]] 
|--
| valign="top"|
[[December 8]]
|
| valign="top" colspan="6"|
{{flagicon| Panama}} [[Panama]] 
|--
| valign="top"|
20 [[Jumada al-thani]]
|[[June 23]] [[2008]]
| valign="top" colspan="6"|
{{flagicon| Iran}} [[Iran]] <ref name="iranpresident">{{cite web | url = http://www.president.ir/en/print.php?ArtID=10405 | title = Ahmadinejad highlights women's significant role in society | date = 2008-06-24 | publisher = Presidency of The Islamic Republic of Iran News Service | accessdate = 2008-07-19 | quote = (...) the occasion of the Mother's Day marking the birthday anniversary of [[Fatimah|Hazrat Fatemeh Zahra]] (SA), the beloved daughter of Prophet [[Mohammad]] (Peace Be Upon Him). The day fell on June 23 [2008]. }}</ref>
|--
| valign="top"|
[[December 22]]
|
| valign="top" colspan="6"|
{{flagicon| Indonesia}} [[Indonesia]] 
|}

==International history and traditions==

In most countries, Mother's Day is a recent observance derived from the holiday as it has evolved in North America and Europe. Many African countries adopted the idea of one Mother's Day from the British tradition, although there are many festivals and events celebrating mothers within the many diverse cultures on the African continent that long pre-date colonization.

=== Japan ===
Mother's Day in Japan was initially commemorated during the [[Shōwa period]] as the birthday of [[Empress Kōjun]] (mother of [[Emperor Akihito]]). Nowadays - as in the United States - the holiday is a heavily marketed concept, and people typically give flowers such as carnations and roses as gifts.

=== China ===

In China, in recent years some people began to advocate for the official adoption of Mother's Day in memory of Meng Mu, the mother of [[Mencius|Mèng Zǐ]]. It remains an unofficial festival, except in a small number of cities. {{Fact|date=June 2008}}

=== Greece ===

Mother's Day in Greece corresponds to the [[Eastern Orthodox]] feast day of the [[Presentation of Jesus at the Temple]]. Since the [[Theotokos]] (The Mother of God) appears prominently in this feast as the one who brought Christ to the Temple at Jerusalem, this feast is associated with mothers. {{Fact|date=June 2008}}

=== Iran ===

Celebrated on 20 [[Jumada al-thani]], the birthday anniversary of [[Fatimah|Hazrat Fatemeh Zahra]] (SA), the beloved daughter of Prophet [[Mohammad]]. <ref name="iranpresident" /> It was changed after the [[Iranian revolution]], the reason having been theorized as trying to undercut feminist movements and promoting role models for the traditional model of family. <ref>{{cite book | url = http://www.dhushara.com/book/zulu/islamp/wiff/wif.htm | title = Women in Fundamentalism | author = Shahin Gerami | year = 1996 | isbn = 0-8153-0663-6 | publisher = Garland Publishing | location = New York | quote = To this end, to counteract the Mother's Day of the previous regime, the state first moved it to December 16 [that was the date for that year?], to coincide with Fatemeh's birthday. Then it was expanded to a week with festivities, celebrations, speeches, gifts, prizes, and honors for achieving women. }} [http://books.google.com/books?id=FoF5jCEepGkC&pg=PA197&dq=%22mother%27s+day%22+iran+fatimah&lr=&client=opera&hl=es&sig=ACfU3U3yD--Xrd6MwGwScS_OHNvSf5a2Kg online version]</ref><ref>{{cite book | url = http://www.owu.edu/~aamahdi/globalization-final.doc | title = Iran Encountering Globalization: Problems and Prospects | chapter = Iranian Women: Between Islamization and Globalization | author = Ali Akbar Mahdi | publisher = Ali Mohammadi. London and New York: Routledge/Curzon | year = 2003 | isbn = 0415308275 | quote = Other role models for women often cited by the officials and ideologues of the IRI are Khadijah, the prophet Mohammad's wife, and Zaynab, daughter of the first Shi'i Imam Ali. In fact, the IRI replaced the universal Mother's Day with Fatima Zahar's birthday. |format=DOC}}</ref> It was previously 25 [[Azar]] on Iranian calendar during the [[shah]] era {{fact|date=July 2008}}

=== United Kingdom and Ireland ===
{{main|Mothering Sunday}}
In the [[United Kingdom]] and [[Ireland]], Mothering Sunday, also called "Mother's Day", falls on the fourth Sunday of [[Lent]] (exactly three weeks before [[Easter Sunday]]). It is believed to have originated from the 16th century [[Christian]] practice of visiting one's mother church annually, which meant that most mothers would be reunited with their children on this day. Most historians believe that young apprentices and young women in servitude were released by their masters that weekend in order to visit their families.<ref>{{cite news
|url = http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/christianity/holydays/motheringsunday_1.shtml
|title = Mothering Sunday |work = Religion & Ethics |publisher = [[bbc.co.uk]] |accessdate = 2006-05-28
}}</ref>
As a result of secularisation, it is now principally used to show appreciation to one's mother, although it is still recognised in the historical sense by some churches, with attention paid to Mary the mother of Jesus Christ as well as the traditional concept '[[Mother Church]]'.

Mothering Sunday can fall at the earliest on [[1 March]] (in years when Easter Day falls on [[22 March]]) and at the latest on [[4 April]] (when Easter Day falls on [[25 April]]).

=== United States ===
{{main|Mother's Day (United States)}}
[[Image:Mother's day gifts.jpg|right|thumb|250px|A selection of handmade Mother's Day gifts.]]
North America celebrates Mother's Day on the second Sunday in May. In the [[United States]], Mother's Day was inspired by the British day and was imported by social activist [[Julia Ward Howe]] after the [[American Civil War]]. However, it was intended as a call to unite women against war. In 1870, she wrote the [[Mother's Day Proclamation]] as a call for peace and disarmament. Howe failed in her attempt to get formal recognition of a Mother's Day for Peace.

Her idea was influenced by [[Ann Jarvis]], a young Appalachian homemaker who, starting in 1858, had attempted to improve sanitation through what she called Mother's Work Days. She organized women throughout the Civil War to work for better sanitary conditions for both sides, and in 1868 she began work to reconcile Union and Confederate neighbors.

[[Frank E. Hering]], President of the [[Fraternal Order of Eagles]], made the first known public plea for "a national day to honor our mothers" in 1904. <ref name="annie">{{cite web | url = http://www.annieshomepage.com/mothershistory.html | title = Annie's "Mother's Day" History Page | accessdate = 2008-06-26 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.foe.com/about-us/mothers-day.aspx |title=Fraternal Order of Eagles: The History of Mother's Day|accessdate=2008-01-26}}</ref>

When Jarvis died in 1905, her daughter, named [[Anna Jarvis]], started the crusade to found a memorial day for women. In 1907, she passed out 500 white carnations at her mother’s church, St. Andrew’s Methodist Episcopal Church in [[Grafton, West Virginia]]—one for each mother in the congregation. The first Mother's Day service was celebrated on [[10 May]] [[1908]], in the same church where the elder Ann Jarvis had taught Sunday School. Anna chose Sunday to be Mother's Day because she intended the day to be commemorated and treated as a Holy Day.

Originally the Andrew's Methodist Episcopal Church, the site of the original Mother's Day commemoration, where Anna handed out carnations, this building is now the International Mother's Day Shrine (a [[National Historic Landmark]]). From there, the custom caught on—spreading eventually to 46 states. The holiday was declared officially by some states beginning in 1912, beginning with West Virginia. In 8 May 1914, the U.S. Congress passed a law designating the second Sunday in May as Mother's Day and requesting a proclamation. <ref name="rice" /> In May 9, 1914, President [[Woodrow Wilson]] made that proclamation, declaring the first national Mother's Day, <ref name="9may">[http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/today/may09.html Today in History: May 9] Library of Congress</ref><ref name="rice" /> as a day for American citizens to show the flag in honor of those mothers whose sons had died in war. <ref name="rice">Rice, Susan Tracey and Robert Haven Schauffler (1915), ''Mother's Day: Its History, Origin, Celebration, Spirit, and Significance as Related in Prose and Verse.'' New York: Moffat, Yard and Company. Anna Jarvis and Philadelphia, [http://books.google.com/books?id=pkAOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA6 p. 6]; Mother's Day bill in Congress, [http://books.google.com/books?id=pkAOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA4 pp. 4-5] {{quote|in 1914 Congress passed a law, which Wilson signed on May 8, 1914, "designating the second Sunday in May as Mother's Day," and authorizing and requesting that Wilson issue a proclamation "calling upon the government officials to display the United States flag on all buildings, and the people of the United States to display the flag at their homes or other suitable places on the second Sunday in May as a public expression of our love and reverence for the mothers of our country."}}</ref>

[[Dianthus caryophyllus|Carnation]]s have come to represent Mother's Day, since they were delivered at one of its first celebrations by its founder. <ref name="9may" /> This also started the custom of wearing a carnation on Mother's Day. <ref name="annie" /> A colored flower, usually red, indicates the person's mother is living, and a white flower that she is not. <ref name="annie" /> The founder, Anna Jarvis, gave a different meaning to the colors. She only delivered a single white carnation to every person, a symbol of the purity of a mother's love. <ref name="vancouversun" /><ref name="msnbc">{{cite news | url = http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/24556903/ | title = Mother's Day reaches 100th anniversary, The woman who lobbied for this day would berate you for buying a card | author = AP | work = MSNBC | date = 2008-05-11 | accessdate = 2008-07-07 }}</ref>

In May 2008, the [[US House of Representatives]] voted twice on a resolution commemorating Mother's Day, <ref name="vote274" /><ref name="vote275" />, the first one being unanimous so that all congressmen would be on record showing support for Mother's Day.{{Fact|date=June 2008}}

====Commercialization====

Nine years after the first official Mother's Day, commercialization of the U.S. holiday became so rampant that Anna Jarvis herself became a major opponent of what the holiday had become and spent all her inheritance and the rest of her life fighting what she saw as an abuse of the celebration.<ref name="vancouversun" />

Later commercial and other exploitations of the use of Mother's Day infuriated Anna and she made her criticisms explicitly known throughout her time.<ref name="msnbc" /><ref name="vancouversun">{{cite news | url = http://www.canada.com/vancouversun/news/story.html?id=c942370c-cdbb-43b2-af59-71ad4b546854 | title = Mother's Day creator likely 'spinning in her grave' | author = Louisa Taylor, Canwest News Service | work = [[Vancouver Sun]] | date = 2008-05-11 | accessdate = 2008-07-07 }}</ref> She criticized the practice of purchasing greeting cards, which she saw as a sign of being too lazy to write a personal letter. She was arrested in 1948 for disturbing the peace while protesting against the comercialization of Mother's Day, and she finally said that she "wished she would have never started the day because it became so out of control ...".<ref name="msnbc" />

Mother's Day continues to this day to be one of the most commercially successful U.S. occasions. According to the [[National Restaurant Association]], Mother's Day is now the most popular day of the year to dine out at a restaurant in the United States.

For example, according to [[IBISWorld]], a publisher of business research, Americans will spend approximately $2.6 billion on flowers, $1.53 billion on pampering gifts—like spa treatments—and another $68 million on greeting cards.<ref>[http://www.phillyburbs.com/pb-dyn/news/147-05082008-1530894.html Recession or not: Mom comes 1st (phillyBurbs.com) | Local Business]</ref>

Mother's Day will generate about 7.8% of the U.S. jewelry industry's annual revenue in 2008. Americans are expected to spend close to $3.51 billion in 2008 on dining out for Mother's Day, with brunch and dinner being the most popular dining out options.<ref>[http://www.avpress.com/n/08/0508_s25.hts AV Press article]</ref>

==See also==
{{portalpar|Holidays}}
* [[Father's Day]]
* [[Mothering Sunday]]
* [[May crowning]]
* [[International Women's Day]]
* [[Hallmark holiday]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
* [http://www.mothersdayshrine.com International Mother's Day Shrine]
* [http://womenshistory.about.com/od/mothersday/a/early.htm Mother's Day History]
{{US Holidays}}

[[Category:Holidays in the Soviet Union]]
[[Category:1908 establishments]]
[[Category:Secular holidays]]
[[Category:Motherhood]]

[[ar:عيد الأم]]
[[bg:Ден на майката]]
[[cs:Den matek]]
[[da:Mors dag]]
[[de:Muttertag]]
[[et:Emadepäev]]
[[es:Día de la Madre]]
[[eo:Tago de patrinoj]]
[[eu:Amaren Eguna]]
[[fa:روز مادر]]
[[fr:Fête des Mères]]
[[gl:Día da nai]]
[[ko:어머니날]]
[[io:Dio di matro]]
[[id:Hari Ibu]]
[[it:Festa della mamma]]
[[he:יום המשפחה]]
[[lt:Motinos diena]]
[[hu:Anyák napja]]
[[ms:Hari Ibu]]
[[nl:Moederdag]]
[[ja:母の日]]
[[no:Morsdag]]
[[nn:Morsdag]]
[[pl:Dzień Matki]]
[[pt:Dia das Mães]]
[[ru:День матери]]
[[sl:Materinski dan]]
[[fi:Äitienpäivä]]
[[sv:Mors dag]]
[[th:วันแม่แห่งชาติ]]
[[tr:Anneler Günü]]
[[uk:День матері]]
[[wa:Fiesse des mames]]
[[zh-yue:母親節]]
[[zh:母亲节]]

Creation vs. evolution debate

2008-11-09T12:33:21Z

AnthonyToddler: trying to remove too-obvious bias (some bias is ok, but I think too much just damages CP)

{{creationism2}} {{evolution3}}
The '''creation-evolution controversy''' (also termed the '''creation vs. evolution debate''' or the '''origins debate''') is a recurring [[politics|political dispute]] about the origins of [[Age of the Earth|the Earth]], [[human evolution|humanity]], [[origin of life|life]], and [[Big Bang|the universe]],<ref>See {{harvnb|Hovind|2006}}, for example.</ref> between those who espouse the validity and superiority of a particular religiously-based [[creation myth]] and the [[scientific consensus]], particularly in the field of [[evolutionary biology]], but also in the fields of [[geology]], [[palaeontology]], [[thermodynamics]], [[nuclear physics]] and [[cosmology]].<ref>[http://www.talkorigins.org/indexcc/index.html ''An Index to Creationist Claims''] , Mark Isaak, [[Talkorigins Archive]],Copyright © 2006.</ref>

This debate is most prevalent in generally conservative regions of the [[United States]]. There is little serious debate on the subject inside the scientific community and outside of the United States. It is often portrayed as part of the [[culture war]]s.<ref>{{harvnb|Larson|2004|p=247-263}} Chapter titled ''Modern Culture Wars''. See also {{harvnb|Ruse|1999|p=26}}, who writes "One thing that historians delighted in showing is that, contrary to the usually held tale of [[conflict thesis|science and religion being always opposed]]...religion and theologically inclined philosophy have frequently been very significant factors in the forward movement of science."</ref> While the controversy has a long history,<ref>{{harvnb|Numbers|1992|p=3-240}}</ref> today it is mainly over what constitutes good [[science]],<ref>''See: '' 
*{{harvnb|Peters & Hewlett|2005|Ref=CITEREFPetersHewlett2005|p=1}};
*[[s:Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District/2:Context|Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District, page 20]]</ref> with the [[politics of creationism]] primarily focusing on the teaching of [[creation and evolution in public education]].<ref>''See: ''
*[http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A32444-2005Mar13.html ''Battle on Teaching Evolution Sharpens''], Peter Slevin, [[Washington Post]], Monday, 14 March 2005, Page A01;
*[http://cstl-cla.semo.edu/Renka/Renka_papers/intell_design.htm ''The Political Design of Intelligent Design''], Russell D. Renka, 16 November 2005;
*[http://pewforum.org/news/display.php?NewsID=5262 ''Politicized Scholars Put Evolution on the Defensive''], Jody Wilgoren, [[The New York Times]], 21 April 2005
*[http://www.evcforum.net/RefLib/NaturalHistory_200204_Forrest.html ''The Newest Evolution of Creationism''], [[Barbara Forrest]], [[Natural History (magazine)|Natural History]], April, 2002, page 80;
*Kitzmiller vs. Dover Area School District, pages 7-9, also pages 64-90</ref>

The debate also focuses on issues such as the definition of science (and of what constitutes scientific research and evidence), science education (and whether the teaching of the scientific consensus view should be 'balanced' by also teaching fringe theories), [[free speech]], [[separation of Church and State]], and theology (particularly how different Christian denominations interpret the [[Book of Genesis]]).

Within the [[scientific community]] and [[academia]] the [[level of support for evolution]] is essentially universal,<ref>{{harvnb|Myers|2006}}; {{harvnb|NSTA|2007}}; {{harvnb|IAP|2006}}; {{harvnb|AAAS|2006}}; and {{harvnb|Pinholster|2006}}; [[Wikisource:Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District/4:Whether ID Is Science#Page 83 of 139|Ruling, Kitzmiller v. Dover page 83]]</ref> while support for [[biblical literalism|biblically-literal]] accounts or other creationist alternatives is very small among scientists, and virtually nonexistent among those in the relevant fields.<ref>{{harvnb|Larson|2004|p=258}} "Virtually no secular scientists accepted the doctrines of [[creation science]]; but that did not deter creation scientists from advancing scientific arguments for their position." See also {{Harvnb|Martz & McDaniel|1987|Ref=CITEREFMartzMcDaniel1987|p=23}}, a Newsweek article which states "By one count there are some 700 scientists (out of a total of 480,000 U.S. earth and life scientists) who give credence to creation-science, the general theory that complex life forms did not evolve but appeared 'abruptly'."</ref>

The debate is sometimes portrayed as being between science and religion. However, as the [[United States National Academy of Sciences|National Academy of Sciences]] states:
{{cquote|Today, many religious denominations accept that biological evolution has produced the diversity of living things over billions of years of Earth’s history. Many have issued statements observing that evolution and the tenets of their faiths are compatible. Scientists and theologians have written eloquently about their awe and wonder at the history of the universe and of life on this planet, explaining that they see no conflict between their faith in God and the evidence for evolution. Religious denominations that do not accept the occurrence of evolution tend to be those that believe in strictly literal interpretations of religious texts.|20px|20px|''Science, Evolution, and Creationism''|National Academy of Sciences<ref>{{cite book
| last = Committee on Revising Science and Creationism
| first = A View from the National Academy of Sciences, National Academy of Sciences and Institute of Medicine of the National Academies
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| title = Science, Evolution, and Creationism
| publisher = [[United States National Academy of Sciences|National Academy of Sciences]]
| date = 2008
| location =
| pages = p 12
| url = http://www.nap.edu/catalog.php?record_id=11876
| doi =
| id =
| isbn = 0-309-10586-2}}</ref>}}

== History of the controversy ==
{{main|History of the creation-evolution controversy}}
{{seealso|History of evolutionary thought|}}

=== Ancient controversies ===

[[Lactantius]] (c.250 - c.330) in his Divine Institutes refutes rudimentary evolutionary thought by discrediting [[abiogenesis]], specifically in regards to the origin of [[Man]]. "... Men were not born from the ground throughout the world...but one man ([[Adam (Bible)|Adam]]) was formed by God and from that one man all the earth was filled with the human race, as again took place after the Deluge ([[Noah's Flood]])."<ref>''The Divine Institutes'' 6.10-11, trans. W. Fletcher, in ''The Ante-Nicene Fathers 7''.</ref>

=== Controversies in the age of Darwin ===
{{seealso|Reaction to Darwin's theory}}
[[Image:Darwin ape.jpg|right|thumb|A satirical image of [[Charles Darwin]] as an ape from 1871 reflects part of the social controversy over whether humans and apes share a [[human evolution|common lineage]].]]

The creation-evolution controversy originated in Europe and North America in the late eighteenth century when discoveries in [[geology]] led to various theories of an ancient earth, and [[fossil]]s showing past extinctions prompted [[History of evolutionary thought|early ideas of evolution]], notably [[Lamarckism]]. In England these ideas of continuing change were seen as a threat to the fixed social order, and were harshly repressed.<ref>{{Harvnb|Desmond & Moore|1991|Ref=CITEREFDesmondMoore1991|p= 34-35}}</ref> Conditions eased, and in 1844 the controversial ''[[Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation|Vestiges]]'' popularised [[transmutation of species]]. The scientific establishment dismissed it scornfully and the [[Church of England]] reacted with fury, but many [[Unitarianism|Unitarians]], [[Quaker]]s and [[Baptist]]s opposed to the privileges of the [[Established church]] favoured its ideas of God acting through laws. Publication of [[Charles Darwin]]'s ''[[the Origin of Species|On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection]]'' in 1859 brought scientific credibility to [[evolution]], and made it more respectable.<ref>''See": 
*{{Harvnb|van Wyhe|2006}};
*{{Harvnb|Desmond & Moore|1991|Ref=CITEREFDesmondMoore1991|p=321-323, 503-505}}.</ref>

There was intense interest in the religious implications of Darwin's book, but the Church of England's attention was largely diverted by theological controversy over ''[[higher criticism]]'' set out in ''[[Essays and Reviews]]'' by [[Liberal Christianity|liberal Christian]] authors, some of whom expressed support for Darwin, as did many [[nonconformist]]s. The Reverend [[Charles Kingsley]] openly supported the idea of God working through evolution. However, many Christians were opposed to the idea and even some of Darwin's close friends and supporters including [[Charles Lyell]] and [[Asa Gray]] could not accept some of his ideas.<ref name="aaas">[http://www.aaas.org/spp/dser/images_Doser/Publications/evol_dialogue_study_guide.pdf AAAS Evolution Dialogues: Science, Ethics and Religion] study guide (pdf)</ref> [[Thomas Huxley]], who strongly promoted Darwin's ideas while campaigning to end the dominance of science by the [[clergy]], coined the term ''[[agnosticism|agnostic]]'' to describe his position that God’s existence is unknowable, and Darwin also took this position,<ref name="aaas" /> but evolution was also taken up by prominent [[atheism|atheists]] including [[Edward Aveling]] and [[Ludwig Büchner]] and criticised, in the words of one reviewer, as "tantamount to atheism."<ref>''See: 
*{{Harvnb|Hodge|1874|p=177}};
*{{harvnb|Numbers|1992|p=14}};
*{{Harvnb|Burns, Ralph, Lerner, & Standish|1982|Ref=CITEREFBurnsRalphLernerStandish1982|p=965}};
*{{Harvnb|Huxley|1902}}
</ref> By the end of the 19th century [[Roman Catholics]] guided by [[Pope Leo XIII]] accepted human evolution from animal ancestors while affirming that the human soul was directly created by God.<ref name="aaas" />

Creationists during this period were largely [[Premillennialism|premillennialists]], whose belief in [[Jesus Christ|Christ's]] return depended on a quasi-literal reading of the Bible.<ref>{{harvnb|Numbers|1992|p=14}}</ref> However, they were not as concerned about geology, freely granting scientists any time they needed before the [[Garden of Eden]] to account for scientific observations, such as fossils and geological findings.<ref>{{harvnb|Numbers|1992|p=14-15}}</ref> In the immediate post-Darwinian era, few scientists or [[cleric]]s rejected the antiquity of the earth or the progressive nature of the [[fossil|fossil record]].<ref name="Numbers_1992_p17">{{harvnb|Numbers|1992|p=17}}</ref> Likewise, few attached geological significance to the Biblical flood, unlike subsequent creationists.<ref name="Numbers_1992_p17" /> Evolutionary skeptics, creationist leaders and skeptical scientists were usually willing either to adopt a figurative reading of the first chapter of Genesis, or to allow that the six days of creation were not necessarily 24-hour days.<ref>{{harvnb|Numbers|1992|p=18}}, noting that this applies to published or public skeptics. Many or most Christians may have held on to a literal six days of creation, but these views were rarely expressed in books and journals. Exceptions are also noted, such as literal interpretations published by Eleazar Lord (1788-1871) and David Nevins Lord (1792-1880). However, the observation that evolutionary critics had a relaxed interpretation of Genesis is supported by specifically enumerating: [[Louis Agassiz]] (1807-1873); [[Arnold Henry Guyot]] (1807-1884); [[John William Dawson]] (1820-1899); Enoch Fitch Burr (1818-1907); George D. Armstrong (1813-1899); [[Charles Hodge]], theologian (1797-1878); [[James Dwight Dana]] (1813-1895); [[Edward Hitchcock]], clergyman and respected Amherst College geologist, (1793-1864); Reverend [[Herbert W. Morris]] (1818-1897); H. L. Hastings (1833?-1899); Luther T. Townsend (1838-1922; [[Alexander Patterson]], Presbyterian evangelist who published ''The Other Side of Evolution Its Effects and Fallacy''</ref>

=== Creationism===
{{main|History of creationism}}
{{seealso|Creation and evolution in public education}}

In the [[United States of America]] Creationism was widely accepted and was even considered a foundational truth, but there was no official resistance to evolution by mainline denominations.<ref name="aaas" /> Around the start of the 20th century some [[evangelicalism|evangelical]] scholars had ideas accommodating evolution, such as [[Benjamin Breckinridge Warfield|B. B. Warfield]] who saw it as a natural law expressing God’s will. However, development of the [[eugenics]] movement led many Catholics to reject evolution.<ref name="aaas" /> In this enterprise they received little aid from conservative Christians in Britain and Europe. In Britain this has been attributed to their minority status leading to a more tolerant, less militant theological tradition. The main British Creationist movement in this period was the [[Evolution Protest Movement]], formed in the 1930s.<ref>Numbers(2006) p161</ref>

====The Butler Act and the Scopes monkey trial====
{{main|Scopes trial}}
[[Image:Scopes trial.jpg|left|thumb|200px|[[Clarence Darrow]] and [[William Jennings Bryan]] chat in court during the [[Scopes trial]].]]

In the aftermath of [[World War I]], the [[Fundamentalist-Modernist Controversy]] brought a surge of opposition to the idea of evolution, and following the campaigning of [[William Jennings Bryan]] several [[U.S. state|state]]s introduced legislation prohibiting the teaching of evolution. By 1925, such legislation was being considered in 15 states, and passed in some states, such as Tennessee. The [[American Civil Liberties Union]] offered to defend anyone who wanted to bring a test case against one of these laws. [[John T. Scopes]] accepted, and he confessed to teaching his [[Tennessee]] class evolution in defiance of the [[Butler Act]]. The textbook in question was ''Hunter's Civic Biology'' (1914). The trial was widely publicized by [[H. L. Mencken]] among others, and is commonly referred to as the [[Scopes Monkey Trial]]. Scopes was convicted; however, the widespread publicity galvanized proponents of evolution. When the case was appealed to the Tennessee Supreme Court, the Court overturned the decision on a technicality (the judge had assessed the fine when the jury had been required to). Although it overturned the conviction, the Court decided that the law was not in violation of the First Amendment. The Court held,

<blockquote>
"We are not able to see how the prohibition of teaching the theory that man has descended from a lower order of animals gives preference to any religious establishment or mode of worship. So far as we know, there is no religious establishment or organized body that has in its creed or confession of faith any article denying or affirming such a theory." Scopes v. State 289 S.W. 363, 367 (Tenn. 1927).
</blockquote>

The interpretation of the [[Establishment clause]] up to that time was that Congress could not establish a particular religion as the ''State'' religion. Consequently, the Court held that the ban on the teaching of evolution did not violate the Establishment clause, because it did not establish one religion as the "State religion." As a result of the holding, the teaching of evolution remained illegal in Tennessee, and continued campaigning succeeded in removing evolution from school textbooks throughout the United States.<ref>''See: 
*[[s:Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District/2:Context#Page 19 of 139]];
*[http://www.centerforinquiry.net/uploads/attachments/Forrest_Paper.pdf Understanding the Intelligent Design Creationist Movement: Its True Nature and Goals.] (pdf) A Position Paper from the Center for Inquiry, Office of Public Policy Barbara Forrest. May, 2007;
*[http://www.talkorigins.org/origins/postmonth/mar06.html TalkOrigins Archive: Post of the Month: March 2006], The History of Creationism by Lenny Flank.</ref>

==== Daniel v. Waters ====
{{main|Daniel v. Waters}}

Daniel v. Waters was a 1975 legal case in which the [[United States Court of Appeals for the Sixth Circuit]] struck down [[Tennessee]]'s law regarding the teaching of "equal time" of [[evolution]] and [[creationism]] in [[public school]] [[science]] classes because it violated the [[Establishment clause]] of the [[US Constitution]]. Following this ruling, creationism was stripped of overt biblical references and renamed [[creation science]], and several states passed legislative acts requiring that this be given equal time with teaching of evolution.

=== Creation Science ===
{{main|Creation Science}}

As biologists grew more and more confident in evolution as the central defining principle of biology,<ref>{{Harvnb|Larson|2004|p=248,250}}, see also {{harvnb|Dobzhansky|1973}}</ref> American membership in churches favoring increasingly literal interpretations of scripture rose, with the [[Southern Baptist Convention]] and [[Lutheran Church - Missouri Synod]] outpacing all other denominations.<ref>{{Harvnb|Larson|2004|p=251}}</ref> With growth, these churches became better equipped to promulgate a creationist message, with their own colleges, schools, publishing houses, and broadcast media.<ref>{{Harvnb|Larson|2004|p=252}}</ref>

In 1961, the first major modern creationist book was published: [[Henry M. Morris]] and [[John C. Whitcomb|John C. Whitcomb Jr.'s]] ''[[The Genesis Flood]].'' Morris and Whitcomb argued that creation was literally 6 days long, that humans lived concurrently with dinosaurs, and that God created each 'kind' of life individually.<ref>{{Harvnb|Larson|2004|p=255}},{{Harvnb|Numbers|1992|p=xi,200-208}}</ref> On the strength of this, Morris became a popular speaker, spreading anti-evolutionary ideas at fundamentalist churches, colleges, and conferences.<ref>{{Harvnb|Larson|2004|p=255}}</ref> Morris' Creation Science Research Center (CSRC) rushed publication of biology text books that promoted creationism, and also published other books such as Kelly Segrave's sensational ''Sons of God Return'' that dealt with [[UFOlogy]], [[flood geology]], and [[demonology]] against Morris' objections.<ref>{{Harvnb|Numbers|1992|p=284-285}}</ref> Ultimately, the CSRC broke up
over a divide between sensationalism and a more intellectual approach, and Morris founded the [[Institute for Creation Research]], which was promised to be controlled and operated by scientists.<ref>{{Harvnb|Numbers|1992|p=284-6}}</ref> During this time, Morris and others who supported flood geology adopted the scientific-sounding terms ''scientific creationism'' and ''creation science''.<ref>Quoting {{harvnb|Larson|2004|p=255-256}}: "Fundamentalists no longer merely denounced Darwinism as false; they offered a scientific-sounding alternative of their own, which they called either 'scientific creationism (as distinct from religious creationism) or 'creation science' (as opposed to evolution science."</ref> The flood geologists effectively co-opted "the generic creationist label for their hyperliteralist views".<ref>{{Harvnb|Larson|2004|p=254-255}}, {{Harvnb|Numbers|1998|p=5-6}}</ref>

==== Court cases ====
===== Epperson v. Arkansas =====
{{main|Epperson v. Arkansas}}

In 1928, [[Arkansas]] adopted a law which prohibited any public school or university from teaching "the theory or doctrine that mankind ascended or descended from a lower order of animals" and from using any textbook which taught the same, prohibiting the teaching of [[evolution]] in the public schools. During the forty years the Arkansas law was in effect, no one was ever prosecuted for violating it. In the mid-1960s the secretary of the Arkansas Education Association sought to challenge the law as a violation of the [[Establishment Clause]] of the [[United States Constitution]]. In 1968 the [[Supreme Court of the United States|United States Supreme Court]] invalidated the statute, ruling it unconstitutional because it violated the [[Establishment Clause of the First Amendment]]. Mandates that [[creation science]] be taught were not ruled unconstitutional by the Court until the 1987 case ''[[Edwards v. Aguillard]]''.

===== McLean v. Arkansas =====
{{main|McLean v. Arkansas}}

In 1982 another case in [[Arkansas]] ruled that the Arkansas "Balanced Treatment for Creation-Science and Evolution-Science Act" was unconstitutional because it violated the [[Establishment Clause of the First Amendment|establishment clause]] of the [[Constitution of the United States|U.S. Constitution]]. Much of the transcript of the case was lost, including [[evidence (law)|evidence]] from [[Francisco J. Ayala|Francisco Ayala]].

===== Edwards v. Aguillard =====
{{main|Edwards v. Aguillard}}

In the early 1980s, the [[Louisiana]] legislature passed a law titled the "Balanced Treatment for Creation-Science and Evolution-Science in Public School Instruction Act". The act did not require teaching either [[creationism]] or [[evolution]], but did require that when evolutionary science was taught, the "creation science" had to be taught as well. Creationists had lobbied aggressively for the law, arguing that the act was about academic freedom for teachers, an argument adopted by the state in support of the act. Lower courts ruled that the State's actual purpose was to promote the religious doctrine of "[[creation science]]," but the State appealed to the Supreme Court. The similar case in McLean v. Arkansas had also decided against creationism. Mclean v. Arkansas however was not appealed to the federal level, creationists instead thinking that they had better chances with Edwards v. Aguillard. In 1987 the [[Supreme Court of the United States]] ruled that the act was unconstitutional, because the law was specifically intended to advance a particular religion. At the same time, however, it held that "teaching a variety of scientific theories about the origins of humankind to school children might be validly done with the clear secular intent of enhancing the effectiveness of science instruction" leaving open the door for a handful of proponents of creation science to evolve their arguments into the iteration of creationism that came to be known as [[intelligent design]].<ref>[[s:Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District/1:Introduction#C. Federal Jurisprudential Legal Landscape|Ruling]], [[Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District]] pp 7-9.</ref>

=== Intelligent Design ===
[[Image:The Creation of Adam.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Discovery Institute]]'s Center for the Renewal of Science and Culture used banners based on "[[The Creation of Adam]]" from the [[Sistine Chapel ceiling|Sistine Chapel]]. Later it used a less religious image, then was renamed the [[Center for Science and Culture]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ncseweb.org/resources/articles/8325_evolving_banners_at_the_discov_8_29_2002.asp |title=NCSE Resource |accessdate=2007-10-07 |date=2002-08-29 |work=Evolving Banners at the Discovery Institute }}</ref>]]

{{main|Intelligent design}}
{{seealso|Neo-creationism|Intelligent design movement|Teach the Controversy|Critical Analysis of Evolution|}}

In response to [[Edwards v. Aguillard]], the [[Neo-creationism|Neo-Creationist]] [[intelligent design movement]] was formed around the [[Discovery Institute]]'s [[Center for Science and Culture]]. Its goal is to restate creationism in terms more likely to be well received by the public, policy makers, educators, and the scientific community, and makes the claim that "certain features of the universe and of living things are best explained by an intelligent cause, not an undirected process such as [[natural selection]]."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.discovery.org/csc/topQuestions.php#questionsAboutIntelligentDesign|title=Top Questions-1.What is the theory of intelligent design?|publisher=[[Discovery Institute]]|accessdate=2007-05-13}}.</ref> It has been viewed as a "scientific" approach to creationism by creationists, but is widely rejected as unscientific by the science community (see for example, [[list of scientific societies rejecting intelligent design]]).

==== Controversy in recent times ====
{{see also|Politics of creationism|Intelligent design in politics}}

The controversy continues to this day, with the [[mainstream]] [[scientific consensus]] on the origins and evolution of life challenged by creationist organizations and religious groups who desire to uphold some form of creationism (usually [[young earth creationism]], [[creation science]], [[old earth creationism]] or [[intelligent design]]) as an alternative. Most of these groups are explicitly Christian, and more than one sees the debate as part of the Christian mandate to [[evangelism|evangelize]].<ref>{{harvnb|Verderame|2007}},{{harvnb|Simon|2006}}</ref> Some see science and religion as being diametrically opposed views which cannot be reconciled. More accommodating viewpoints, held by many mainstream churches and many scientists, consider science and religion to be separate categories of thought, which ask fundamentally different questions about reality and posit different avenues for investigating it.<ref>{{Harvnb|Dewey|1994|p=31}}, and {{Harvnb|Wiker|2003}}, summarizing Gould.</ref> Public opinion in regards to the concepts of evolution, creationism, and intelligent design is fluctuating.

More recently, the [[Intelligent Design movement]] has taken an anti-evolution position which avoids any direct appeal to religion. Scientists argue that [[Intelligent design]] does not represent any research program within the mainstream scientific community, and is essentially creationism.<ref>{{harvnb|Larson|2004|p=258}} "Virtually no secular scientists accepted the doctrines of creation science; but that did not deter creation scientists from advancing scientific arguments for their position." See also {{Harvnb|Martz & McDaniel|1987|Ref=CITEREFMartzMcDaniel1987|p=23}}, a Newsweek article which states "By one count there are some 700 scientists (out of a total of 480,000 U.S. earth and life scientists) who give credence to creation-science, the general theory that complex life forms did not evolve but appeared 'abruptly'."</ref> Its leading proponent, the [[Discovery Institute]], made widely publicised claims that it was a new science, though the only paper arguing for it published in a scientific journal was accepted in questionable circumstances and quickly disavowed in the [[Sternberg peer review controversy]], with the Biological Society of Washington stating that it did not meet the journal's scientific standards, was a "significant departure" from the journal's normal subject area and was published at the former editor's sole discretion, "contrary to typical editorial practices".<ref>[http://www.biolsocwash.org/id_statement.html ''Statement from the Council of the Biological Society of Washington'']</ref> [[George W. Bush|President Bush]] commented endorsing the teaching of Intelligent design alongside evolution "I felt like both sides ought to be properly taught ... so people can understand what the debate is about."<ref>{{harvnb|Bumiller|2005}}, {{harvnb|Peters & Hewlett|2005|Ref=CITEREFPetersHewlett2005|p=3}}</ref>

==== Kansas evolution hearings ====
{{main|Kansas evolution hearings}}
In the push by intelligent design advocates to introduce intelligent design in public school science classrooms, the hub of the [[intelligent design movement]], the [[Discovery Institute]], arranged to conduct hearings to review the evidence for evolution in the light of its [[Critical Analysis of Evolution]] lesson plans. The Kansas Evolution Hearings were a series of hearings held in [[Topeka, Kansas|Topeka]], [[Kansas]] 5 May to 12 May 2005. The Kansas State Board of Education eventually adopted the institute's Critical Analysis of Evolution lesson plans over objections of the State Board Science Hearing Committee, and electioneering on behalf of conservative Republican candidates for the Board.<ref>[http://www.6newslawrence.com/news/2006/jul/07/many_question_groups_move_elections_nearing/ Some question group's move with elections nearing] 6News Lawrence, Lawrence Journal-World. 7 July 2006.</ref> On 1 August 2006, 4 of the 6 conservative Republicans who approved the [[Critical Analysis of Evolution]] classroom standards lost their seats in a primary election. The moderate Republican and Democrats gaining seats vowed to overturn the 2005 school science standards and adopt those recommended by a State Board Science Hearing Committee that were rejected by the previous board,<ref>[http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/14137751/ Evolution’s foes lose ground in Kansas] MSNBC, 2 August 2006.</ref> and on 13 February 2007, the Board voted 6 to 4 to reject the amended science standards enacted in 2005. The definition of [[science]] was once again limited to "the search for natural explanations for what is observed in the universe."<ref>[http://www.iht.com/articles/ap/2007/02/13/america/NA-GEN-US-Kansas-Evolution-History.php Evolution of Kansas science standards continues as Darwin's theories regain prominence] The Associated Press, via the International Herald Tribune, 13 February 2007.</ref>

==== The Dover Trial ====
{{main|Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District}}

Following the [[Edwards v. Aguillard]] trial in the [[Supreme Court of the United States]] in which the Court ruled that a [[Louisiana]] law requiring that [[creation science]] be taught in public schools whenever [[evolution]] was taught was unconstitutional, because the law was specifically intended to advance a particular religion, creationists renewed their efforts to introduce creationism into public school science classes. This effort resulted in [[intelligent design]], which sought to avoid legal prohibitions by leaving the source of creation an unnamed and undefined [[intelligent designer]], as opposed to [[God]].<ref>[http://www.pfaw.org/pfaw/general/default.aspx?oid=20418&print=yes&units=all The "Evolution" of Creationism] Timeline: how creationism has "evolved". [[People for the American Way]].</ref> This ultimately resulted in the "Dover Trial," Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District, which went to trial on 26 September 2005 and was decided on 20 December 2005 in favor of the plaintiffs, who charged that a mandate that intelligent design be taught in public school science classrooms was an unconstitutional establishment of religion. The 139 page [[:s:Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District|opinion of ''Kitzmiller v. Dover'']] was hailed as a landmark decision, firmly establishing that creationism and intelligent design were religious teachings and not areas of legitimate scientific research.

== Viewpoints ==
=== Young Earth creationism ===
{{main|Young Earth creationism}}
{{seealso|Creation science|Flood geology}}

Young Earth creationism is the belief that the Earth was created by [[God]] within the last 10,000 years, literally as described in [[Creation according to Genesis|Genesis]], within the approximate timeframe of biblical genealogies (detailed for example in the [[Ussher chronology]]). Young Earth creationists often believe that the [[Universe]] has a similar age as the Earth. [[Creationist cosmologies]] are attempts by some creationist thinkers to give the universe an age consistent with the Ussher chronology and other Young-Earth timeframes. This belief generally has a basis in a [[Biblical literalism|literal]] and [[Biblical inerrancy|inerrant]] interpretation of the Bible.

=== Old Earth creationism ===
{{main|Old Earth creationism}}

{{seealso|Gap creationism|Day-Age Creationism|Progressive creationism}}

Old Earth creationism holds that the [[universe|physical universe]] was created by God, but that the creation event of Genesis is not to be taken strictly literally. This group generally believes that the [[age of the Universe]] and the [[age of the Earth]] are as described by [[astronomers]] and [[geologists]], but that details of the [[evolutionary theory]] are questionable. Old Earth creationists interpret the [[Creation according to Genesis|creation accounts of Genesis]] in a number of ways, that each differ from the six, consecutive, 24-hour day creation of the [[Biblical literalism|literalist]] Young Earth Creationist view.

=== Neo-Creationism ===
{{main|Neo-Creationism}}
{{seealso|Intelligent design}}

Neo-Creationists intentionally distance themselves from other forms of creationism, preferring to be known as wholly separate from creationism as a philosophy. Their goal is to restate creationism in terms more likely to be well received by the public, education policy makers and the [[scientific community]]. It aims to re-frame the debate over the [[origin of life|origins of life]] in non-religious terms and without appeals to scripture, and to bring the debate before the public. Neo-creationists may be either Young Earth or Old Earth Creationists, and hold a range of underlying theological viewpoints (e.g. on the interpretation of the Bible). Neo-Creationism currently exists in the form of the [[intelligent design movement]], which has a [[intelligent design movement#The 'big tent' strategy|'big tent' strategy]] making it inclusive of many Young Earth Creationists (such as [[Paul Nelson (creationist)|Paul Nelson]] and [[Percival Davis]]).

=== Theistic evolution ===
{{main|Theistic evolution}}
{{seealso|Naturalism (philosophy)|Evolution and the Roman Catholic Church|Clergy Letter Project}}

Theistic evolution, also known as "evolutionary creationism," is the general view that, instead of faith being in opposition to biological evolution, some or all classical religious teachings about [[God]] and [[creation myth|creation]] are compatible with some or all of modern [[scientific theory]], including specifically [[evolution]]. It generally views evolution as a tool used by God, who is both the [[first cause]] and [[Immanence|immanent]] sustainer/upholder of the universe; it is therefore well accepted by people of strong [[theism|theistic]] (as opposed to [[deism|deistic]]) convictions. Theistic evolution can synthesize with the [[day-age creationism|day-age]] interpretation of the [[creation according to Genesis|Genesis creation account]]; however most adherents consider that the first chapters of Genesis should not be interpreted as a "literal" description, but rather as a [[framework view|literary framework]] or [[allegory]].

This position does not generally exclude the viewpoint of [[Naturalism (philosophy)|methodological naturalism]], a long standing convention of the [[scientific method]] in [[science]].

Theistic evolutionists have frequently been prominent in opposing creationism (including intelligent design). Notable examples have been biologist [[Kenneth R. Miller]] and theologian [[John Haught]] (both [[Catholics]]), who testified for the plaintiffs in [[Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District]]. Another example is the [[Clergy Letter Project]], an organization that has created and maintains a statement signed by American Christian clergy of different denominations rejecting creationism, with specific reference to points raised by intelligent design proponents. Theistic evolutionists have also been active in Citizens Alliances for Science that oppose the introduction of creationism into public school science classes (one example being evangelical Christian geologist [[Keith B. Miller]], who is a prominent board member of [[Kansas Citizens for Science]]).

=== Naturalistic evolution ===
{{seealso|Metaphysical naturalism}}

Naturalistic evolution is the position of acceptance of biological evolution and of [[metaphysical naturalism]] (and thus rejection of [[theism]] and [[theistic evolution]]).

{{Expand-section|date=June 2008}}

== Arguments relating to the definition and limits of science ==

Critiques such as those based on the distinction between theory and fact are often leveled against unifying concepts within scientific disciplines. Principles such as [[uniformitarianism (science)|uniformitarianism]], [[Occam's Razor]] or [[parsimony]], and the [[Copernican principle]] are claimed to be the result of a [[bias]] within science toward [[philosophical naturalism]], which is equated by many [[creationists]] with [[atheism]].<ref>{{harvnb|Johnson|1998}}, {{harvnb|Hodge|1874|p=177}}, {{harvnb|Wiker|2003}}, {{harvnb|Peters & Hewlett|2005|Ref=CITEREFPetersHewlett2005|p=5}}--Peters and Hewlett argue that the atheism of many evolutionary supporters must be removed from the debate</ref> In countering this claim, [[Philosophy of science|philosophers of science]] use the term [[Naturalism (philosophy)|methodological naturalism]] to refer to the long standing convention in science of the [[scientific method]]. The [[methodology|methodological]] assumption is that [[observation|observable]] events in [[nature]] are explained only by natural causes, without assuming the existence or non-existence of the [[supernatural]], and therefore supernatural explanations for such events are outside the realm of science.<ref>{{harvnb|Lenski|2000|p=Conclusions}}</ref> Creationists claim that supernatural explanations should not be excluded and that scientific work is paradigmatically close-minded.<ref>{{harvnb|Johnson|1998}}</ref>

Because modern science tries to rely on the minimization of [[A priori and a posteriori (philosophy)|a priori]] assumptions, error, and [[subjectivity]], as well as on avoidance of [[Francis Bacon|Baconian idols]], it remains neutral on subjective subjects such as [[religion]] or [[morality]].<ref>{{harvnb|Einstein|1930|p=1-4}}</ref> Mainstream proponents accuse the creationists of conflating the two in a form of [[pseudoscience]].<ref>{{harvnb|Dawkins|1997}}</ref>

=== Definitions ===

{{quotation|'''Fact:''' In science, an observation that has been repeatedly confirmed and for all practical purposes is accepted as "true." Truth in science, however, is never final, and what is accepted as a fact today may be modified or even discarded tomorrow.

'''Hypothesis:''' A tentative statement about the natural world leading to deductions that can be tested. If the deductions are verified, it becomes more probable that the hypothesis is correct. If the deductions are incorrect,
the original hypothesis can be abandoned or modified. Hypotheses can be used to build more complex inferences and explanations.

'''Law:''' A descriptive generalization about how some aspect of the natural world behaves under stated
circumstances.

'''Theory:''' In science, a well-substantiated explanation of some aspect of the natural world that can
incorporate facts, laws, inferences, and tested hypotheses.|National Academy of Sciences|Science and Creationism<ref name="FES">[http://www.nap.edu/execsumm_pdf/6024.pdf ''Free Executive Summary''], ''Science and Creationism: A View from the National Academy of Sciences'', Second Edition, Steering Committee on Science and Creationism, [[United States National Academy of Sciences|National Academy of Sciences]], 1999,
ISBN 978-0-309-06406-4.</ref>}}

=== Limitations of the scientific endeavor ===

{{quotation|In science, explanations are limited to those based
on observations and experiments that can be substantiated by other scientists. Explanations that cannot be based
on empirical evidence are not a part of science.|National Academy of Sciences|Science and Creationism<ref name="FES" />}}

{{Expand-section|date=June 2008}}

=== Theory vs. fact ===

{{main|Evolution as theory and fact}}

The argument that evolution is a [[theory]], not a fact, has often been made against the exclusive teaching of [[evolution]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Johnson|1993|p=63}}, {{Harvnb|Tolson|2005}}, {{harvnb|Moran|1993}} ; [http://www.aclu.org/FilesPDFs/cobb%20county%20decision.pdf ''Selman v. Cobb County School District]''. US District Court for the Northern District of Georgia (2005); Talk. Origins; Bill Moyers ''et al'', 2004. "[http://www.pbs.org/now/transcript/transcript349_full.html#dawkins ''Now'' with Bill Moyers]." PBS. Accessed 2006-01-29. Interview with Richard Dawkins</ref> The argument is related to a common misconception about the technical meaning of "theory" that is used by scientists. In common usage, "theory" often refers to conjectures, hypotheses, and unproven assumptions. However, in science, "theory" usually means "a plausible or scientifically acceptable general principle or body of principles offered to explain phenomena."<ref>Merriam-Webster online dictionary. www.m-w.com</ref>

Exploring this issue, [[Paleontology|paleontologist]] [[Stephen Jay Gould]] wrote:<ref>{{harvnb|Gould|1981}}</ref>

: ''[[Evolution]] is a theory. It is also a fact. And [[fact]]s and [[theories]] are different things, not rungs in a hierarchy of increasing certainty. Facts are the world's data. [[Theories]] are structures of ideas that explain and interpret facts. Facts do not go away when scientists debate rival theories to explain them. Einstein's theory of [[gravitation]] replaced Newton's, but apples did not suspend themselves in mid-air, pending the outcome. And humans evolved from ape-like ancestors whether they did so by [[Charles Darwin|Darwin]]'s proposed mechanism or by some other yet to be discovered.''

=== Falsifiability ===

[[Philosophy of science|Philosopher of science]] [[Karl Popper|Karl R. Popper]] set out the concept of [[falsifiability]] as a way to distinguish science and pseudoscience: Testable theories are scientific, but those that are untestable are not.<ref>''See: 
*{{harvnb|Number|1992|p=247}};
*Wilkins, John S, [http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/evolphil/falsify.html Evolution and Philosophy: Is Evolution Science, and What Does 'Science' Mean?], TalkOrigins Archive
</ref> However, in ''Unended Quest'', Popper declared "I have come to the conclusion that Darwinism is not a testable scientific theory but a ''[[Metaphysics|metaphysical]] [[research]] [[Program (management)|programme]]'', a possible framework for testable scientific theories," while pointing out it had "scientific character".<ref>{{harvnb|Popper|1976|p=168 and 172}} quoted in {{harvnb|Kofahl|1981}}</ref>

In what one sociologist derisively called "Popper-chopping,"<ref>Unknown sociologist quoted in {{harvnb|Numbers|1992|p=247}}</ref> opponents of evolution seized upon Popper's definition to claim [[evolution]] was not a science, and claimed creationism was an equally valid metaphysical research program.<ref>{{harvnb|Kofahl|1989}} as quoted by {{harvnb|Numbers|1992|p=247}}</ref> For example, [[Duane Gish]], a leading Creationist proponent, wrote in a letter to Discover magazine (July 1981): "[[Stephen Jay Gould]] states that creationists claim creation is a scientific theory. While many Creationists claim creation is a scientific theory other Creationists have stated that neither creation nor evolution is a scientific theory (and each is equally religious)."<ref>{{harvnb|Lewin|1982}}</ref>{{Fact|date=September 2008}}

Popper responded to news that his conclusions were being used by anti-evolutionary forces by affirming that evolutionary theories regarding the origins of life on earth were [[science|scientific]] because "their hypotheses can in many cases be tested."<ref>Numbers(2006) p274</ref> However, creationists claimed that a key evolutionary concept, that all life on Earth is descended from a single common ancestor, was not mentioned as testable by Popper, and claimed it never would be.<ref>{{harvnb|Kofahl|1981|p=873}}</ref>

In fact, Popper wrote admiringly of the value of Darwin's theory.<ref>[http://www.talkorigins.org/indexcc/CA/CA211_1.html Talkorigins summary of Karl Popper attitudes towards evolution]</ref> Only a few years later, Popper changed his mind, and later wrote, "''I still believe that natural selection works in this way as a research programme. Nevertheless, I have changed my mind about the testability and logical status of the theory of natural selection; and I am glad to have an opportunity to make a recantation''".<ref>''See: 
*''Natural selection and the emergence of mind'', Karl Popper, Dialectica 32(3/4): 339—355, 1978
*[http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m2843/is_5_28/ai_n6194235/pg_1 ''Did Popper refute evolution?''], Massimo Pigliucci, [[Skeptical Inquirer]], Sept-Oct 2004
</ref>

Debate among some scientists and philosophers of science on the applicability of falsifiability in science continues.<ref>{{harvnb|Ruse|1999|p=13-37}}, which discusses conflicting ideas about science among [[Karl Popper]], [[Thomas Samuel Kuhn]], and their disciples.</ref> However, simple falsifiability tests for [[common descent]] have been offered by some scientists: For instance, [[biologist]] and prominent critic of creationism [[Richard Dawkins]] and [[J.B.S. Haldane]] both pointed out that if [[fossil]] [[rabbit]]s were found in the [[Precambrian]] [[era (geology)|era]], a time before most similarly complex lifeforms had evolved, "that would completely blow [[evolution]] out of the water."<ref>As quoted by {{harvnb|Wallis|2005|p=32}}. Also see {{harvnb|Dawkins|1986}} and {{harvnb|Dawkins|1995}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Wallis|2005|p=6}} [[Richard Dawkins|Dawkins]] quoting [[J.B.S. Haldane|Haldane]]</ref>

Falsifiability has also caused problems for creationists: In his 1982 decision [[McLean v. Arkansas|McLean v. Arkansas Board of Education]], Judge [[William Overton (judge)|William R. Overton]] used falsifiability as one basis for his ruling against the teaching of creation science in the public schools, ultimately declaring it "simply not science."<ref>{{harvnb|Dorman|1996}}</ref>

=== Conflation of science and religion ===

Many of the most vocal creationists blur the boundaries between criticisms of [[modern science]], [[philosophy]], and [[culture]]. They often conjoin their arguments focused on the science of evolution with [[doctrine|doctrinal]] statements or [[Evangelism|evangelistic]] attempts. This can be a central focus of [[apologetics]]. For example, in explanation for his "struggle" against evolution, prominent creationist [[Ken Ham]] has declared "the [[Lord]] has not just called us to knock down evolution, but to help in restoring the foundation of the [[gospel]] in our society. We believe that if the [[Church body|church]]es took up the tool of [[Approaches to evangelism#Creation evangelism|Creation Evangelism]] in society, not only would we see a stemming of the tide of [[humanism|humanistic philosophy]], but we would also see the seeds of revival sown in a culture which is becoming increasingly more [[paganism|pagan]] each day."<ref>[http://www.answersingenesis.org/creation/v6/i2/creationII.asp Ham, Ken. Creation Evangelism] (Part II of Relevance of Creation). ''Creation Magazine <nowiki>'6'</nowiki>''(2):17, November 1983. </ref> Ham teaches that a rejection of the [[Creation according to Genesis|biblical]] creation history undermines the relevancy of the Christian [[gospel]]s and derivatively weakens the [[morality|moral]] foundations of society.

== Disputes relating to science ==

Many [[creationists]] vehemently oppose certain [[scientific theories]] in a number of ways, including opposition to specific applications of scientific processes, accusations of [[bias]] within the [[scientific community]],<ref>{{Harvnb|Johnson|1993|p=69}} where Johnson cites three pages spent in Issac Asimov's ''New Guide to Science'' that take creationists to task, while only spending one half page on evidence of [[evolution]].</ref> and claims that discussions within the scientific community reveal or imply a crisis. In response to perceived crises in [[modern science]], creationists claim to have an alternative, typically based on [[faith]], [[creation science]], and/or [[intelligent design]]. The scientific community has responded by pointing out that their conversations are frequently misrepresented (e.g. by [[quote mining]]) in order to create the impression of a deeper controversy or crisis, and that the creationists' alternatives are generally [[pseudoscience|pseudoscientific]].

=== Biology ===
[[Image:Phylogenetic tree.svg|thumb|340px|A [[phylogenetic tree]] based on rRNA genes.]]

Disputes relating to [[evolutionary biology]] are central to the controversy between Creationists and the [[scientific community]]. The aspects of evolutionary biology disputed include [[common descent]] (and particularly [[human evolution]] from common ancestors with other members of the [[Hominidae|Great Apes]]), [[macroevolution]], and the existence of [[transitional fossil]]s.

==== Common descent ====
{{main|Common descent}}
{{seealso|Evidence of common descent|Tree of life (science)}}

{{rquote|center|[The] Discovery [Institute] presents common descent as controversial exclusively within the animal kingdom, as it focuses on embryology, anatomy, and the fossil record to raise questions about them. In the real world of science, common descent of animals is completely noncontroversial; any controversy resides in the microbial world. There, researchers argued over a variety of topics, starting with the very beginning, namely the relationship among the three main branches of life.|John Timmer|''Evolution: what's the real controversy?''<ref name=timmer>[http://arstechnica.com/journals/science.ars/2008/05/07/evolution-whats-the-real-controversy Evolution: what's the real controversy?], John Timmer, Nobel Intent, 7 May 2008</ref>}}
A group of [[organisms]] is said to have common descent if they have a common [[ancestor]]. A theory of universal common descent based on [[evolution]]ary principles was proposed by [[Charles Darwin]] and is now generally accepted by biologists. The [[last universal common ancestor]], that is, the [[most recent common ancestor]] of all currently living organisms, is believed to have appeared about [[Timeline of evolution|3.9 billion years ago]].

With a few exceptions (e.g. [[Michael Behe]]), the vast majority of Creationists reject this theory {{Fact|date=September 2008}}. 

[[Evidence of common descent]] includes evidence from [[fossil record]]s, [[comparative anatomy]], [[biogeography|geographical distribution of species]], [[comparative physiology]] and [[comparative biochemistry]].

===== Human evolution =====
{{Wikibooks|Introduction to Paleoanthropology}}
{{main|Human evolution}}
{{seealso|Paleoanthropology|Adam and Eve}}

[[Human evolution]] is the part of biological evolution concerning the emergence of humans as a distinct [[species]].

Molecular evidence indicates that the lineage of [[gibbon]]s (family [[Hylobatidae]]) became distinct between 18 and 12 [[Megaannum|Ma]], and that of [[orangutan]]s (subfamily Ponginae) at about 12 Ma; we have no fossils that clearly document the ancestry of gibbons, which may have originated in a so far unknown South East Asian hominid population, but fossil proto-orangutans may be represented by ''[[Ramapithecus]]'' from India and ''Griphopithecus'' from Turkey, dated to around 10 Ma. Molecular evidence further suggests that between 8 and 4 [[Mya_(unit)|mya]], first the [[gorilla]]s, and then the [[chimpanzee]] (genus ''Pan'') split off from the line leading to the humans; human DNA is 98.4<ref name="98.4">[http://www.newscientist.com/article/dn3744-chimps-are-human-gene-study-implies.html Chimps are human, gene study implies] New Scientist, website, 19 May 2003</ref> percent identical to the DNA of chimpanzees. We have no fossil record, however, of either group of African great apes, possibly because bones do not fossilize in [[rain forest]] environments.

Thereafter, [[paleoanthropology]] traces human evolution, via [[fossil]] [[hominid]] evidence through [[Homo (genus)|genus Homo]] to [[Homo sapiens sapiens|modern Humans]].

Creationists have argued that these fossils are either of apes (e.g. that [[Java man]] was a [[gibbon]]<ref>[http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/homs/gibbon.html ''Was Java Man a gibbon?''], Jim Foley, [[TalkOrigins]] website, 30 April 2003.</ref>) or humans, with no intermediates between the two. However Creationists frequently disagree on where this gap lies.<ref>[http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/homs/compare.html ''Comparison of all skulls''], Jim Foley, [[TalkOrigins]] website, 8 August 2005.</ref> [[Creation myth]]s (such as the [[Book of Genesis]]) frequently posit a [[First man or woman|first man]] ([[Adam (Bible)|Adam]], in the case of Genesis) as an alternative viewpoint to the scientific account.

==== Macroevolution ====
{{main|Macroevolution}}
{{seealso|Speciation}}

Creationists have long argued against the possibility of Macroevolution. Macroevolution is defined by the scientific community to be [[evolution]] that occurs at or above the level of [[species]]. Under this definition, Macroevolution can be considered to be a fact, as evidenced by observed instances of [[speciation]]. Creationists however tend to apply a more restrictive, if vaguer, definition of Macroevolution, often relating to the emergence of new body forms or [[Organ (anatomy)|organs]]. The scientific community considers that there is strong evidence for even such more restrictive definitions, but the evidence for this is more complex.

Recent arguments against (such restrictive definitions of) macroevolution include the [[Intelligent design]] arguments of [[Irreducible complexity]] and [[Specified complexity]]. However, neither argument has been accepted for publication in a peer-reviewed scientific journal, and both arguments have been rejected by the scientific community as [[pseudoscience]].

{{Expand-section|date=June 2008}}

==== Transitional fossils ====
{{main|Transitional fossil}}
{{seealso|List of transitional fossils|Bird evolution|Evolution of the horse}}

It is commonly stated by critics of evolution that there are no known transitional fossils.<ref>''Scientific Creationism'', [[Henry M. Morris]], 1985, pp. 78-90</ref><ref>''Life--How Did It Get Here?'', [[Watchtower Bible and Tract Society]], 1985, pp. 57-59</ref> This position is based on a misunderstanding of the nature of what represents a transitional feature. A common creationist argument is that no fossils are found with partially functional features. It is plausible, however, that a complex feature with one function can adapt a wholly different function through evolution. The precursor to, for example, a wing, might originally have only been meant for gliding, trapping flying prey, and/or mating display. Nowadays, wings can still have all of these functions, but they are also used in active flight.

[[Image:Ambulocetus BW.jpg|thumb|right|220px|Reconstruction of ''[[Ambulocetus]] natans'']]

As another example, Alan Haywood stated in ''Creation and Evolution'' that "Darwinists rarely mention the whale because it presents them with one of their most insoluble problems. They believe that somehow a whale must have evolved from an ordinary land-dwelling animal, which took to the sea and lost its legs ... A land mammal that was in the process of becoming a whale would fall between two stools—it would not be fitted for life on land or at sea, and would have no hope for survival."<ref>Haywood, Alan (1985) ''Creation and Evolution''.Triangle Books, London. Quoted in ''[http://www.stephenjaygould.org/library/gould_leviathan.html Hooking Leviathan by Its Past]'', [[Stephen Jay Gould]]</ref> The [[evolution of whales]] has however been documented in considerable detail, with ''[[Ambulocetus]]'', described as looking like a three-metre long mammalian [[crocodile]], as one of the transitional fossils.

Although transitional fossils elucidate the evolutionary transition of one life-form to another, they only exemplify snapshots of this process. Due to the special circumstances required for preservation of living beings, only a very small percentage of all life-forms that ever have existed can be expected to be discovered. Thus, the transition itself can only be illustrated and corroborated by transitional fossils, but it will never be known in detail. However, progressing research and discovery managed to fill in several gaps and continues to do so. Critics of evolution often cite this argument as being a convenient way to explain off the lack of 'snapshot' fossils that show crucial steps between species.

The theory of [[punctuated equilibrium]] developed by [[Stephen Jay Gould]] and [[Niles Eldredge]] is often mistakenly drawn into the discussion of transitional fossils. This theory, however, pertains only to well-documented transitions within taxa or between closely related taxa over a geologically short period of time. These transitions, usually traceable in the same geological outcrop, often show small jumps in morphology between periods of morphological stability. To explain these jumps, Gould and Eldredge envisaged comparatively long periods of genetic stability separated by periods of rapid evolution. For example the change from a creature the size of a mouse, to one the size of an elephant, could be accomplished over 60,000 years, with a rate of change too small to be noticed over any human lifetime. 60,000 years is too small a gap to be identified or identifiable in the fossil record.{{Fact|date=April 2008}}

=== Geology ===
{{main|Flood Geology}}
{{seealso|Creation geophysics|Geochronology|Age of the Earth}}

Many believers in [[Young Earth Creationism]] – a position held by the majority of proponents of [[Flood Geology]] – accept biblical ''chronogenealogies'' (such as the [[Ussher chronology]] which in turn is based on the [[Masoretic]] version of the [[Genealogies of Genesis]]).<ref name="AiG">[http://www.answersingenesis.org/tj/v17/i3/chronogenealogies.asp Biblical chronogenealogies]</ref><ref>[http://www.grisda.org/origins/07053.htm The Meaning of the Chronogenealogies of Genesis 5 and 11]</ref> They believe that God created the universe approximately 6000 years ago, in the space of six days. Much of creation geology is devoted to debunking the dating methods used in [[anthropology]], [[geology]], and [[planetary science]] that give ages in conflict with the young Earth hypotheses. In particular, creationists dispute the reliability of [[radiometric dating]] and [[Isochron dating|isochron]] analysis, both of which are central to mainstream geological theories of the age of the Earth. They usually dispute these methods based on uncertainties concerning initial concentrations of individually considered species and the associated measurement uncertainties caused by [[diffusion]] of the parent and daughter isotopes. However, a full critique of the entire parameter-fitting analysis, which relies on dozens of radionuclei parent and daughter pairs, has not been done by creationists hoping to cast doubt on the technique.

The consensus of professional scientific organisations worldwide is that no scientific evidence contradicts the age of approximately 4.5 billion years.<ref>[http://www.interacademies.net/Object.File/Master/6/150/Evolution%20statement.pdf ''IAP Statement on the Teaching of Evolution''], Interacademy Panel on Global Issues, 21 June 2006.</ref> Young Earth creationists reject these ages on the grounds of what they regard as being tenuous and untestable assumptions in the methodology. Apparently inconsistent radiometric dates are often quoted to cast doubt on the utility and accuracy of the method. Mainstream proponents who get involved in this debate point out that dating methods only rely on the assumptions that the [[physical laws]] governing [[radioactive decay]] have not been violated since the sample was formed (harking back to Lyell's doctrine of [[uniformitarianism (science)|uniformitarianism]]). They also point out that the "problems" that creationists publicly mentioned can be shown to either not be problems at all, are issues with known contamination, or simply the result of incorrectly evaluating legitimate data.

=== Other sciences ===
==== Cosmology ====
{{seealso|Age of the universe}}

Whilst [[Young Earth Creationism|Young Earth Creationists]] believe that the [[Universe]] was created approximately 6000 years ago, the current scientific consensus is that it is about 13.7 billion years old. The recent science of [[nucleocosmochronology]] is extending the approaches used for [[Carbon-14]] dating to the dating of astronomical features. For example based upon this emerging science, the Galactic thin disk of the Milky Way galaxy is estimated to have been formed between 8.3 ± 1.8 billion years ago.<ref name=Del2005>{{cite journal | author = Del Peloso, E.F. | coauthors = Da Silva, L.; De Mello, G.F.P.; Arany-prado, L.I. | year = 2005 | title = The age of the Galactic thin disk from Th/Eu nucleocosmochronology | journal = A&A | volume = 434 | pages = 301–308 | doi = 10.1051/0004-6361:20047060}}</ref>

Many other creationists, including Old Earth Creationists, do not necessarily dispute these figures.

==== Nuclear physics ====
{{seealso|radiometric dating}}

Creationists point to experiments they have performed, which they claim demonstrate that 1.5 billion years of nuclear decay took place over a short period of time, from which they infer that "billion-fold speed-ups of nuclear decay" have occurred, a massive violation of the principle that [[Radioactive decay|radioisotope decay]] rates are constant, a core principle underlying [[nuclear physics]] generally, and [[radiometric dating]] in particular.<ref>[http://www.icr.org/index.php?module=articles&action=view&ID=302 ''Nuclear Decay: Evidence For A Young World''], [[Russell Humphreys|D. Russell Humphreys]], Impact, Number 352, October 2002.</ref>

The scientific community points to numerous flaws in these experiments, to the fact that their results have not been accepted for publication by any peer-reviewed scientific journal, and to the fact that the creationist scientists conducting them were untrained in experimental [[geochronology]].<ref>[http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/helium/zircons.html ''Young-Earth Creationist Helium Diffusion "Dates" Fallacies Based on Bad Assumptions and Questionable Data''], Kevin R. Henke, [[TalkOrigins]] website, Original version: 17 March 2005, Revision: 24 November 2005.</ref><ref>[http://gondwanaresearch.com/rate.htm ''R.A.T.E: More Faulty Creation Science from The Institute for Creation Research''], J. G. Meert, Gondwana Research, The Official Journal of the International Association for Gondwana, 13 November 2000 (updated 6 February 2003).</ref>

In refutation of young-Earth claims of inconstant decay rates affecting the reliability of radiometric dating, Roger C. Wiens, a physicist specialising in isotope dating states:
{{quotation|There are only three quite technical instances where a half-life changes, and these do not affect the dating methods [under discussion]<ref>Dating methods discussed were [[potassium-argon dating]], [[argon-argon dating]], [[rubidium-strontium dating]], [[samarium-neodymium dating]], lutetium-hafnium, [[rhenium-osmium dating]], and [[uranium-lead dating]].</ref>":
#Only one technical exception occurs under terrestrial conditions, and this is not for an isotope used for dating. ... The artificially-produced isotope, beryllium-7 has been shown to change by up to 1.5%, depending on its chemical environment. ... [H]eavier atoms are even less subject to these minute changes, so the dates of rocks made by electron-capture decays would only be off by at most a few hundredths of a percent.
# ... Another case is material inside of stars, which is in a plasma state where electrons are not bound to atoms. In the extremely hot stellar environment, a completely different kind of decay can occur. 'Bound-state beta decay' occurs when the nucleus emits an electron into a bound electronic state close to the nucleus. ... All normal matter, such as everything on Earth, the Moon, meteorites, etc. has electrons in normal positions, so these instances never apply to rocks, or anything colder than several hundred thousand degrees. ...
#The last case also involves very fast-moving matter. It has been demonstrated by atomic clocks in very fast spacecraft. These atomic clocks slow down very slightly (only a second or so per year) as predicted by Einstein's theory of relativity. No rocks in our solar system are going fast enough to make a noticeable change in their dates. ...|Roger C. Wiens|Radiometric Dating, A Christian Perspective<ref>[http://www.asa3.org/ASA/resources/Wiens.html#page%2020 Radiometric Dating, A Christian Perspective], Roger C. Wiens, [[American Scientific Affiliation]], p20-21</ref>}}

=== Misrepresentations of science ===
==== Quote mining ====
{{main|Quote mining}}

As a means to criticise mainstream science, creationists have been known to quote, at length, scientists who ostensibly support the mainstream theories, but appear to acknowledge criticisms similar to those of creationists.<ref>{{harvnb|Dobzhansky|1973}}</ref> However, almost universally these have been shown to be [[quote mining|quote mines]] that do not accurately reflect the evidence for evolution or the mainstream scientific community's opinion of it, or highly out-of-date.<ref name="talk_origins_quote_mine"> {{harvnb|Pieret|2006}}</ref><ref>
*{{cite web | url = http://www.talkorigins.org/indexcc/CA/CA113.html | title = Index to Creationist Claims: Claim CA113 | publisher = Talk.origins |accessdate = 2007-12-27 | last = Isaak | first = Mark | year = 2004}}
*{{cite web | url = http://www.pandasthumb.org/archives/quote_mines/ | title = A new (mis)take on an old paper (and other posts) | publisher = [[The Panda's Thumb (blog)|]] | accessdate = 2007-12-26 | last = Dunford | first = Mike | date = 2007-07-02 }}
* {{cite web | url = http://pharyngula.org/index/weblog/comments/im_shocked_shocked_to_find_that_quote_mining_is_going_on_in_there | first = PZ | last = Myers | date = 2004-09-11 | accessdate = 2007-12-27 | title = I'm shocked, shocked to find that quote mining is going on in there! | authorlink = PZ Myers | publisher = [[Pharyngula (blog)]] }}</ref> Many of the same quotes used by creationists have appeared so frequently in Internet discussions due to the availability of [[cut and paste]] functions, that the [[TalkOrigins Archive]] has created "[http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/quotes/mine/project.html The Quote Mine Project]" for quick reference to the original context of these quotations.<ref name="talk_origins_quote_mine" />

== Public policy issues ==
=== Science education ===
{{main|Creation and evolution in public education}}
{{seealso|Teach the Controversy}}

Creationists promote that [[evolution]] is a theory in crisis<ref name="AAAS"> "Some bills seek to discredit evolution by emphasizing so-called "flaws" in the theory of evolution or "disagreements" within the scientific community. Others insist that teachers have absolute freedom within their classrooms and cannot be disciplined for teaching non-scientific "alternatives" to evolution. A number of bills require that students be taught to "critically analyze" evolution or to understand "the controversy." But there is no significant controversy within the scientific community about the validity of the theory of evolution. The current controversy surrounding the teaching of evolution is not a scientific one."
[http://www.aaas.org/news/releases/2006/pdf/0219boardstatement.pdf AAAS Statement on the Teaching of Evolution] [[American Association for the Advancement of Science]]. 16 February 2006 (PDF file)</ref><ref>[[Wikisource:Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District/4:Whether ID Is Science#Page 89 of 139|Ruling, Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District, page 89]]</ref> with scientists criticizing evolution<ref>"That this controversy is one largely manufactured by the proponents of creationism and intelligent design may not matter, and as long as the controversy is taught in classes on current affairs, politics, or religion, and not in science classes, neither scientists nor citizens should be concerned." [http://content.nejm.org/cgi/content/full/354/21/2277 Intelligent Judging — Evolution in the Classroom and the Courtroom] George J. Annas, [[New England Journal of Medicine]], Volume 354:2277-2281 25 May 2006</ref> and claim that fairness and equal time requires educating students about the alleged scientific controversy.

Opponents, being the overwhelming majority of the scientific community and science education organizations,<ref>See: 1) [[List of scientific societies rejecting intelligent design]] 2) [[Wikisource:Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District/4:Whether ID Is Science#Page 83 of 139|Kitzmiller v. Dover page 83]]. The Discovery Institute's [http://www.dissentfromdarwin.org/ Dissent From Darwin Petition] has been signed by about 500 scientists. The AAAS, the largest association of scientists in the U.S., has 120,000 members, and [http://www.aaas.org/news/releases/2002/1106id2.shtml firmly rejects intelligent design and denies that there is a legitimate scientific controversy]. More than 70,000 Australian scientists and educators [http://www.science.unsw.edu.au/news/2005/intelligent.html condemn teaching of intelligent design in school science classes]. [http://www.ncseweb.org/resources/articles/8408_statements_from_scientific_and_12_19_2002.asp List of statements from scientific professional organizations] on the status intelligent design and other forms of creationism. </ref> reply that there is in fact no scientific controversy and that the controversy exists solely in terms of religion and politics.<ref name="AAAS"> "Some bills seek to discredit evolution by emphasizing so-called "flaws" in the theory of evolution or "disagreements" within the scientific community. Others insist that teachers have absolute freedom within their classrooms and cannot be disciplined for teaching non-scientific "alternatives" to evolution. A number of bills require that students be taught to "critically analyze" evolution or to understand "the controversy." But there is no significant controversy within the scientific community about the validity of the theory of evolution. The current controversy surrounding the teaching of evolution is not a scientific one." [http://www.aaas.org/news/releases/2006/pdf/0219boardstatement.pdf AAAS Statement on the Teaching of Evolution] [[American Association for the Advancement of Science]]. 16 February 2006 </ref><ref>"That this controversy is one largely manufactured by the proponents of creationism and intelligent design may not matter, and as long as the controversy is taught in classes on current affairs, politics, or religion, and not in science classes, neither scientists nor citizens should be concerned." [http://content.nejm.org/cgi/content/full/354/21/2277 Intelligent Judging — Evolution in the Classroom and the Courtroom] George J. Annas, [[New England Journal of Medicine]], Volume 354:2277-2281 25 May 2006</ref> The [[American Association for the Advancement of Science]] and other science and education professional organizations say that Teach the Controversy proponents seek to undermine the teaching of [[evolution]]<ref name="AAAS"> "Some bills seek to discredit evolution by emphasizing so-called "flaws" in the theory of evolution or "disagreements" within the scientific community. Others insist that teachers have absolute freedom within their classrooms and cannot be disciplined for teaching non-scientific "alternatives" to evolution. A number of bills require that students be taught to "critically analyze" evolution or to understand "the controversy." But there is no significant controversy within the scientific community about the validity of the theory of evolution. The current controversy surrounding the teaching of evolution is not a scientific one."
[http://www.aaas.org/news/releases/2006/pdf/0219boardstatement.pdf AAAS Statement on the Teaching of Evolution] [[American Association for the Advancement of Science]]. 16 February 2006 (PDF file)</ref><ref>"In summary, the disclaimer singles out the theory of evolution for special treatment, misrepresents its status in the scientific community, causes students to doubt its validity without scientific justification, presents students with a religious alternative masquerading as a scientific theory, directs them to consult a creationist text as though it were a science resource, and instructs students to forgo scientific inquiry in the public school classroom and instead to seek out religious instruction elsewhere." [[wikisource:Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District/3:Disclaimer#Page 49 of 139|Ruling - disclaimer, pg. 49]] [[Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District]].</ref> while promoting intelligent design,<ref>"ID's home base is the Center for Science and Culture at Seattle's conservative Discovery Institute. Meyer directs the center; former Reagan adviser Bruce Chapman heads the larger institute, with input from the Christian supply-sider and former American Spectator owner [[George Gilder]] (also a Discovery senior fellow). From this perch, the ID crowd has pushed a "teach the controversy" approach to evolution that closely influenced the Ohio State Board of Education's recently proposed science standards, which would require students to learn how scientists "continue to investigate and critically analyze" aspects of Darwin's theory." Chris Mooney. The American Prospect. 2 December 2002 [http://www.prospect.org/print/V13/22/mooney-c.html Survival of the Slickest: How anti-evolutionists are mutating their message]</ref><ref>[http://www.arn.org/docs/dembski/wd_teachingid0201.htm Teaching Intelligent Design: What Happened When?] by [[William A. Dembski]]"The clarion call of the intelligent design movement is to "teach the controversy." There is a very real controversy centering on how properly to account for biological complexity (cf. the ongoing events in Kansas), and it is a scientific controversy."</ref><ref>Nick Matzke's analysis shows how teaching the controversy using the ''Critical Analysis of Evolution'' model lesson plan is a means of teaching all the intelligent design arguments without using the intelligent design label.[http://www.pandasthumb.org/archives/2006/07/no_one_here_but.html No one here but us Critical Analysis-ists...] Nick Matzke. The Panda's Thumb, 11 July 2006</ref> and to advance an education policy for US [[Public education|public schools]] that introduces [[creationism|creationist]] explanations for the origin of life to public-school science curricula.<ref>"has the effect of implicitly bolstering alternative religious theories of origin by suggesting that evolution is a problematic theory even in the field of science." . . . The effect of Defendants’ actions in adopting the curriculum change was to impose a religious view of biological origins into the biology course, in violation of the Establishment Clause. [[Wikisource:Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District/6:Curriculum, Conclusion#Page 134 of 139|Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District, Conclusion, page 134]]
</ref><ref name="doverulingpg89">"ID's backers have sought to avoid the scientific scrutiny which we have now determined that it cannot withstand by advocating that the ''controversy'', but not ID itself, should be taught in science class. This tactic is at best disingenuous, and at worst a canard. The goal of the IDM is not to encourage critical thought, but to foment a revolution which would supplant evolutionary theory with ID."[[wikisource:Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District/4:Whether ID Is Science#Page 89 of 139|Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District, whether ID is science, page 89]]</ref> This viewpoint was supported by the December 2005 ruling in the [[Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District]] trial.<ref name="doverulingpg89" />

[[George Mason University]] Biology Department introduced a course on the creation/evolution controversy, and apparently as students learn more about biology, they find objections to evolution less convincing, suggesting that “teaching the controversy” rightly as a separate elective course on philosophy or history of science, or "politics of science and religion," would undermine creationists’ criticisms, and that the scientific community’s resistance to this approach was bad public relations.<ref>[http://www.aaas.org/spp/dser/02_Events/Lectures/2006/02_Lecture_2006_0420.shtml AAAS Dialogue on Science, Ethics, and Religion], 20 April 2006, Emmett Holman, Associate Professor of Philosophy from [[George Mason University]], retrieved [[2007-04-29]]</ref>

=== Freedom of speech ===

Creationists have claimed that preventing them from teaching [[Creationism]] violates their right of [[Freedom of speech]]. However court cases (such as [[Webster v. New Lenox School District]] and [[Bishop v. Aronov]]) have upheld school districts' and universities' right to restrict teaching to a specified curriculum.

== Issues relating to religion ==
{{seealso|Relationship between religion and science|Evolution and the Roman Catholic Church}}

=== Theological arguments ===
{{seealso|Allegorical interpretations of Genesis|Evolutionary argument against naturalism}}

{{Expand-section|date=June 2008}}

=== Religion and historical scientists ===

Creationists often argue that Christianity and literal belief in the Bible are either foundationally significant or directly responsible for scientific progress.<ref>{{harvnb|Woods|2005|p=67-114}}, Chapter Five: The Church and Science</ref> To that end, Institute for Creation Research founder [[Henry M. Morris]] has enumerated scientists such as [[Galileo Galilei|astronomer and philosopher Galileo]], mathematician and theoretical physicist [[James Clerk Maxwell]], mathematician and philosopher [[Blaise Pascal]], geneticist monk [[Gregor Mendel]], and [[Isaac Newton]] as believers in a biblical creation narrative.<ref>{{harvnb|Morris|1982}}</ref>

This argument usually involves scientists either who were no longer alive when evolution was proposed or whose field of study didn't include evolution. The argument is generally rejected as specious by those who oppose creationism.<ref>[http://talkorigins.org/indexcc/CA/CA114.html Index to Creationist Claims - Claim CA114] edited by Mark Isaak. 2005</ref>

Many of the scientists in question did some early work on the mechanisms of evolution, e.g., the [[Modern evolutionary synthesis]] combines [[Charles Darwin|Darwin's]] [[theory of evolution|Evolution]] with [[Gregor Mendel|Mendel's]] theories of inheritance and genetics. Though biological evolution of some sort had become the primary mode of discussing speciation within science by the late-19th century, it was not until the mid-20th century that evolutionary theories stabilized into the [[Modern evolutionary synthesis|modern synthesis]]. Some of the historical scientists marshalled by creationists were dealing with quite different issues than any are engaged with today: [[Louis Pasteur]], for example, opposed the theory of [[spontaneous generation]] with [[biogenesis]], an advocacy some creationists describe as a critique on [[chemical evolution]] and [[abiogenesis]]. Pasteur accepted that some form of evolution had occurred and that the Earth was millions of years old.<ref>[http://talkorigins.org/indexcc/CA/CA114_22.html Index to Creationist Claims - Claim CA114.22] edited by Mark Isaak. 2005</ref>

[[Religion and science|The relationship between science and religion]] was not portrayed in antagonistic terms until the late-19th century, and even then there have been many examples of the two being reconcilable for evolutionary scientists.<ref>[http://www.religioustolerance.org/sci_rel.htm] Science and religion:
Conflicts & occasional agreements</ref> Many historical scientists wrote books explaining how pursuit of science was seen by them as fulfillment of spiritual duty in line with their religious beliefs. Even so, such professions of faith were not insurance against dogmatic opposition by certain religious people.

Some extensions to this creationist argument have included the incorrect suggestions that [[Albert Einstein|Einstein]]'s [[deism]] was a tacit endorsement of creationism or that [[Charles Darwin]] [[Elizabeth Hope|converted on his deathbed and recanted evolutionary theory]].

== Forums for the controversy ==
=== Debates ===

Many creationists and scientists engage in frequent public debates regarding the origin of human life, hosted by a variety of institutions. However, some scientists disagree with this tactic, arguing that by openly debating supporters of supernatural origin explanations (creationism and intelligent design), scientists are lending credibility and unwarranted publicity to creationists, which could foster an inaccurate public perception and obscure the factual merits of the debate.<ref>[http://richarddawkins.net/article,119,Why-I-Wont-Debate-Creationists,Richard-Dawkins ''Why I Won't Debate Creationists''], [[Richard Dawkins]], Reason : In the News, richarddawkins.net, the official Richard Dawkins website, Monday, 15 May 2006.</ref> For example, in May 2004 Dr. [[Michael Shermer]] debated creationist [[Kent Hovind]] in front of a predominately [[creationist]] audience. In Shermer's online reflection while he was explaining that he won the debate with intellectual and scientific evidence he felt it was "not an intellectual exercise," but rather it was "an [[emotional]] drama."{{Clarifyme|date=March 2008}}<ref name="Hovind">{{cite news | url=http://www.skeptic.com/eskeptic/04-05-10.html#miracle | title=Then a Miracle Occurs: An Obstreperous Evening with the Insouciant Kent Hovind, Young Earth Creationist and Defender of the Faith | publisher=[[Skeptic (U.S. magazine)|eSkeptic Online]] | date=2004-05-10 | first=Michael | last=Shermer | accessdate = 2007-02-11}}</ref> While receiving positive responses from creationist observers, Shermer concluded "Unless there is a subject that is truly debatable (evolution v. creation is not), with a format that is fair, in a forum that is balanced, it only serves to belittle both the [[Non-overlapping magisteria|magisterium]] of [[science]] and the magisterium of [[religion]]."<ref name="Hovind" /> (see: [[scientific method]]). Others, like evolutionary biologist [[Massimo Pigliucci]], have debated Hovind, and have expressed surprise to hear Hovind try "to convince the audience that evolutionists believe humans came from rocks" and at Hovind's assertion that biologists believe humans "evolved from bananas."<ref>[[Massimo Pigliucci]]. ''[[Denying Evolution: Creationism, Scientism, and the Nature of Science]].'' (Sinauer, 2002): ISBN 0878936599 page 102.</ref> {{Clarifyme|date=March 2008}}

[[Eugenie Scott]] of the [[National Center for Science Education]], a non-profit organization dedicated to defending the teaching of evolution in the public schools, claimed debates are not the sort of arena to promote science to creationists.<ref name="Hovind" /> Scott says that "Evolution is not on trial in the world of science," and "the topic of the discussion should not be the scientific legitimacy of evolution" but rather should be on the lack of evidence in creationism. Similarly, [[Stephen Jay Gould]] took a public stance against appearing to give legitimacy to creationism by debating its proponents. He noted during a [[Caltech]] lecture in 1985:<ref>Shermer, Michael. 'Why People Believe Weird Things', Owl Books, 2002. Paperback ed, p. 153. </ref>

{{cquote|Debate is an art form. It is about the winning of arguments. It is not about the discovery of truth. There are certain rules and procedures to debate that really have nothing to do with establishing fact — which creationists have mastered. Some of those rules are: never say anything positive about your own position because it can be attacked, but chip away at what appear to be the weaknesses in your opponent's position. They are good at that. I don't think I could beat the creationists at debate. I can tie them. But in courtrooms they are terrible, because in courtrooms you cannot give speeches. In a courtroom you have to answer direct questions about the positive status of your belief. We destroyed them in Arkansas. On the second day of the two-week trial we had our victory party!}}

=== Political lobbying ===
{{seealso|Politics of creationism|Kansas evolution hearings|Santorum Amendment|List of scientific societies rejecting intelligent design}}

A wide range of organisations, on both sides of the controversy, are involved in lobbying in an attempt to influence political decisions relating to the teaching of evolution, at a number of levels. These include the [[Discovery Institute]], the [[National Center for Science Education]], the [[National Science Teachers Association]], state [[:Category:Citizens Alliances for Science|Citizens Alliances for Science]], and numerous national science associations and state Academies of Science.<ref>[http://www.ncseweb.org/resources/articles/8408_statements_from_scientific_and_12_19_2002.asp Statements from Scientific and Scholarly Organizations], [[National Center for Science Education|NCSE]]</ref>

{{Expand-section|date=June 2008}}

=== In the media ===

The controversy has been discussed in numerous newspaper articles, reports, [[Editorial|op-eds]] and letters to the editor, as well as a number of radio and television programmes (including the PBS series, [[Evolution (TV series)|''Evolution'']] and Coral Ridge Ministries' [[D. James Kennedy#Criticism and controversy|''Darwin's Deadly Legacy'']]). This has led some commentators to express a concern at what they see as a highly inaccurate and biased understanding of evolution among the general public. [[Pulitzer Prize]]-winning journalist and writer [[Edward Humes]] states:<ref>[http://www.pittsburghlive.com/x/pittsburghtrib/opinion/columnists/guests/s_493631.html Unintelligent designs on Darwin], [[Edward Humes]], [[Pittsburgh Tribune-Review]]</ref>

{{cquote|There are really two theories of evolution. There is the genuine scientific theory and there is the talk-radio pretend version, designed not to enlighten but to deceive and enrage.

The talk-radio version had a packed town hall up in arms at the "Why Evolution Is Stupid" lecture. In this version of the theory, scientists supposedly believe that all life is accidental, a random crash of molecules that magically produced flowers, horses and humans -- a scenario as unlikely as a tornado in a junkyard assembling a 747. Humans come from monkeys in this theory, just popping into existence one day. The evidence against Darwin is overwhelming, the purveyors of talk-radio evolution rail, yet scientists embrace his ideas because they want to promote atheism.}}

== Outside the United States ==

[[Image:Views on Evolution.svg|thumb|right|440px|Views on human evolution in other countries]]
While the controversy has been prominent in the United States, it has also flared up in other countries as well.<ref name=Discover>{{cite journal |last=Pitock |first=Todd |year=2007 |month=06 |title=Science and Islam |journal=Discover |volume= |issue= |pages=36–45}} </ref><ref name=TBO> {{cite news |author=Gregory Katz |title= Clash Over Creationism Is Evolving In Europe's Schools|url=http://www2.tbo.com/content/2008/feb/16/na-clash-over-creationism-is-evolving-in-europes-s |publisher=Associated Press |date= 2008-02-16|accessdate=2008-02-17}}/</ref><ref name="NCSE Edis">{{cite web |url=http://www.ncseweb.org/resources/rncse_content/vol19/8371_cloning_creationism_in_turkey_12_30_1899.asp |title= Cloning Creationism in Turkey |accessdate=2008-02-17 |author=Taner Edis |work=RNCSE 19 (6): 30-35 |publisher=National Center for Science Education}}</ref>

===Islamic countries===

In recent times, the controversy has become more prominent in Islamic countries.<ref>{{cite web | last = | first = | authorlink = | coauthors = | title = Evolution and religion: In the beginning | work = | publisher = The Economist | date = 2007-04-19 | url = http://www.economist.com/world/displaystory.cfm?story_id=9036706 | format = | doi = | accessdate = 2007-04-25 }}This article gives a worldwide overview of recent developments on the subject of the controversy.</ref> Currently, in [[Egypt]] evolution is taught in schools but [[Saudi Arabia]] and [[Sudan]] have both banned the teaching of evolution in schools.<ref name=Discover/> Creation science has also been heavily promoted in [[Turkey]] and in immigrant communities in Western Europe, primarily by [[Harun Yahya]].<ref name="NCSE Edis"/>

===Europe===

Europeans have often regarded the creation-evolution controversy as an American matter.<ref name=TBO/> However, in recent years the conflict has become an issue in a variety of countries including [[Germany]], [[The United Kingdom]], [[Italy]], [[the Netherlands]], [[Poland]] and [[Serbia]].<ref name=TBO/><ref name="NCSE Edis"/><ref>{{cite news |title=Serbia reverses Darwin suspension |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/3642460.stm|publisher=BBC |date=2004-09-09 |accessdate=2008-02-17 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |author= Roger Highfield |title=Creationists rewrite natural history |url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/earth/main.jhtml?view=DETAILS&grid=&xml=/earth/2007/10/02/scihist102.xml |publisher=The Telegraph |date=2007-02-10 |accessdate=2008-02-17 }}</ref>

On 17 September 2007 the Committee on Culture, Science and Education of the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe issued a report on the attempt by American inspired creationists to promote creationism in European schools. It concludes "If we are not careful, creationism could become a threat to human rights which are a key concern of the Council of Europe.... The war on the theory of evolution and on its proponents most often originates in forms of religious extremism which are closely allied to extreme right-wing political movements... some advocates of creationism are out to replace democracy by theocracy."<ref>New Scientist 10 November 2007, p. 72</ref>

===Australia===
With declining church attendance, there has been some growth in fundamentalist and pentecostal Christian denominations.<ref>[http://www.abc.net.au/religion/stories/s820631.htm Christianity – Pentecostalism] [[Australian Broadcasting Corporation]]</ref> Under the former [[Queensland]] state government of [[Joh Bjelke-Petersen]], in 1980 lobbying was so successful that Queensland allowed the teaching of creationism as science to school children. Public lectures have been given in rented rooms at Universities, by visiting American speakers, and speakers with doctorates purchased by mail from Florida sites.<ref>Plimer, Ian "Telling lies for God- Reason versus Creationism", (Random House)</ref> One of the most acrimonious aspects of the Australian debate was featured on the science television program ''[[Quantum (TV series)|Quantum]]'', about a long-running and ultimately unsuccessful court case by [[Ian Plimer]], Professor of Geology at [[Melbourne University]], against an ordained minister, Dr. Allen Roberts, who had claimed that there were remnants of [[Noah's Ark]] in eastern [[Turkey]]. Although the court found that Dr Roberts had made false and misleading claims, they were not made in the course of trade or commerce, so the case failed.<ref name="QUANTUM">[http://www.abc.net.au/quantum/info/97lies.htm "Telling Lies for God"? - One Man's Crusade], accessed 2008-02-05, [[Quantum (TV series)|Quantum]]. See transcript link for detail.</ref>

== See also ==
<div style="-moz-column-count:3; column-count:3;">
* [[Articles related to the creation-evolution controversy]]
* [[Allegorical interpretations of Genesis]]
* [[Anti-intellectualism]]
* [[Clergy Letter Project]]
* [[Creation science]]
* [[Creationism]]
* [[Evidence of common descent]]
* [[Evidence of evolution]]
* [[Evolution and the Roman Catholic Church]]
* [[Evolution Sunday]]
* [[Evolutionary origin of religions]]
* [[Hindu views on evolution]]
* [[History of the creation-evolution controversy]]
* [[Intelligent design]]
* [[Jainism and non-creationism]]
* [[Jewish views on evolution]]
* [[Level of support for evolution]]
* [[List of participants in the creation-evolution controversy]]
* [[Mormonism and evolution]]
* [[Natural theology]]
* [[Objections to evolution]]
* [[Politics of creationism]]
* [[Project Steve]]
* [[Relationship between religion and science]]
* [[Teach the Controversy]]

</div>

==Footnotes==
{{reflist|2}}

== References ==

* {{Harvard reference
| Surname = AAAS
| Given = American Association for the Advancement of Science
| Authorlink = American Association for the Advancement of Science
| Year = 2006
| Date = 2006-02-16
| Title = Statement on the Teaching of Evolution
| Publisher = aaas.org
| URL = http://www.aaas.org/news/releases/2006/pdf/0219boardstatement.pdf
| format = pdf
| accessdate = [[2007-01-14]]}}

* {{Harvard reference
| last=Bumiller
| first=Elisabeth
| year=2005
| title=Bush Remarks Roil Debate on Teaching of Evolution
| periodical=[[The New York Times]]
| issue=2005-08-03
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| accessdate = [[2007-02-03]]}}

* {{Harvard reference
| Surname1 = Burns
| Given1 = Edward M.
| Surname2 = Ralph
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| Surname3 = Lerner
| Given3 = Robert E.
| Surname4 = Standish
| Given4 = Meacham
| Year = 1982
| Title = World Civilizations Their History and Their Culture
| Edition = Sixth
| Publisher = W.W. Norton & Company
| isbn = 0-393-95077-8
}}

* {{Harvard reference
| Surname = Dawkins
| Given = Richard
| Authorlink = Richard Dawkins
| Year = 1986
| Title = [[The Blind Watchmaker]]
| Publisher = W. W. Norton & Company, Inc.
| isbn = 0-393-31570-3
}}

* {{Harvard reference
| Surname = Dawkins
| Given = Richard
| Authorlink = Richard Dawkins
| Year = 1995
| Title = [[River Out of Eden]]
| Publisher = Basic Books
| isbn = 0-465-06990-8
}}

* {{Harvard reference
| Surname = Dawkins
| Given = Richard
| Authorlink = Richard Dawkins
| Title = Is Science a Religion?
| Journal = Humanist
| Year = 1997
| Date = January/February 1997
| url = http://www.thehumanist.org/humanist/articles/dawkins.html
| accessdate = [[2007-01-30]]}}

* {{Harvard reference
| Surname1 = Desmond
| Given1 = Adrian
| Surname2 = Moore
| Given2 = James
| Authorlink2 = James Moore (biographer)
| Year = 1991
| Title = Darwin
| Publisher = London: Michael Joseph, Penguin Group
| isbn = 0-7181-3430-3}}

* {{Harvard reference
| Surname = Dewey
| Given = John
| Authorlink = John Dewey
| Editor = Martin Gardner
| Year = 1994
| Title = Great Essays in Science
| Chapter = The Influence of Darwinism on Philosophy
| Publisher = Prometheus Books
| isbn = 0-87975-853-8
}}

* {{Harvard reference
| Surname = Dobzhansky
| Given = Theodosius
| Authorlink = Theodosius Dobzhansky
| Year = 1973
| Date = March, 1973
| Title = Nothing in Biology Makes Sense Except in the Light of Evolution
| Journal = American Biology Teacher
| Volume = 35
| Pages = 125-129
| Publisher = National Association of Biology Teachers
| url = http://www.2think.org/dobzhansky.shtml
| accessdate = [[2007-01-14]]}}

* {{Harvard reference
| Surname = Dorman
| Given = Clark
| Year = 1996
| Date = [[1996-01-30]]
| Title = Transcription of McLean v. Arkansas Board of Education Decision by U.S. District Court Judge William R. Overton
| Publisher = TalkOrigins Archive Foundation
| url = http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/mclean-v-arkansas.html
| accessdate = [[2007-01-31]]}}

* {{Harvard reference
| Surname = Einstein
| Given = Albert
| Authorlink = Albert Einstein
| Title = Religion and Science
| Journal = New York Times Magazine
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| Date = [[1930-11-09]]
| Pages = 1-4
| url = http://www.sacred-texts.com/aor/einstein/einsci.htm
| accessdate = [[2007-01-30]]}}

* {{Harvard reference
| Surname = Gould
| Given = Stephen Jay
| Authorlink = Stephen Jay Gould
| Year = 1981
| Title = Evolution as Fact and Theory
| Publisher = The Unofficial Stephen Jay Gould Archive
| URL = http://www.stephenjaygould.org/library/gould_fact-and-theory.html
| accessdate = [[2007-01-17]]}}

* {{Harvard reference
| Surname = Hodge
| Given = Charles
| Authorlink = Charles Hodge
| Title = What is Darwinism?
| Year = 1874
| Publisher = Scribner, Armstrong, and Company
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| accessdate = [[2007-01-14]]}}

* {{Harvard reference
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| Year = 2006
| Title = Dr. Hovind's $250,000 Offer
| Publisher = Creation Science Evangelism
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| accessdate = [[2007-01-17]]}}

* {{Harvard reference
| Surname = Huxley
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| Authorlink = Thomas Huxley
| Year = 1902
| Title = An Episcopal Trilogy 1887
| Journal = Collected Essays Science and Christian Tradition
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| URL = http://www.gutenberg.org/files/15905/15905-8.txt
| Publisher = Kessinger Publishing
| isbn = 978-1417973729 | accessdate = [[2007-01-14]]}}

* {{Harvard reference
| Surname = IAP
| Given = Interacademy Panel
| Year = 2006
| Date = 2006-06-21
| Title = IAP Statement on the Teaching of Evolution
| publisher = interacademies.net
| url = http://www.interacademies.net/Object.File/Master/6/150/Evolution%20statement.pdf
| accessdate = [[2007-01-14]]}}

* {{Harvard reference
| Surname = Johnson
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| Authorlink = Phillip E. Johnson
| Year = 1998
| Title = Reason in the Balance: The Case Against Naturalism in Science, Law & Education
| Publisher = IntervaVsity Press
| isbn = 0-8308-1929-0
}}

* {{Harvard reference
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| Given = Phillip E.
| Authorlink = Phillip E. Johnson
| Year = 1993
| Title = Darwin on Trial
| Edition = 2nd
| Publisher = InterVarsity Press
| isbn = 0-8308-1324-1
}}

* {{Harvard reference
| Surname = Kofahl
| Given = Robert E.
| Year = 1981
| date = 22 May 1981
| Title = Popper on Darwinism
| Journal = Science (New Series)
| Volume = 212
| Number = 4497
}}

* {{Harvard reference
| Surname = Kofahl
| Given = Robert E.
| Year = 1989
| Date = June, 1989
| Title = The Hierarchy of Conceptual Levels For Scientific Thought And Research
| Journal = CRS Quarterly
| Volume = 26
| Number = 1
| Publisher = The Creation Research Society
| url = http://creationresearch.org/crsq/abstracts/sum26_1.html
| accessdate = [[2007-01-29]]}}

* {{Harvard reference
| Surname = Larson
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| Authorlink = Edward J. Larson
| Year = 2004
| Title = Evolution
| Publisher = Modern Library
| isbn = 0-679-64288-9
}}

* {{Harvard reference
| Surname = Lenski
| Given = Richard E.
| Year = 2000
| Title = Evolution: Fact and Theory
| Publisher = AcitionBioscience.org
| URL = http://www.actionbioscience.org/evolution/lenski.html
| accessdate = [[2007-01-23]]}}

* {{Harvard reference
| Surname1 = Martz
| Given1 = Larry
| Surname2 = McDaniel
| Given2 = Ann
| Year = 1987
| Date = [[1987-06-29]]
| Title = Keeping God out of the Classroom (Washington and bureau reports)
| Journal = Newsweek
| Pages = 23-24
| Volume = CIX
| Number = 26
| Publisher = Newsweek Inc.
| isbn = 0028-9604
}}

* {{Harvard reference
| Surname1 = Moore
| Given1 = James
| Authorlink1 = James Moore (biographer)
| Year = 2006
| Chapter = Evolution and Wonder - Understanding Charles Darwin
| url = http://speakingoffaith.publicradio.org/programs/darwin/transcript.shtml
| Title = Speaking of Faith (Radio Program)
| Publisher = American Public Media
| accessdate = [[2007-01-24]]}}

* {{Harvard reference
| Surname = Moran
| Given = Laurence
| Year = 1993
| Title = Evolution is a Fact and a Theory
| Publisher = TalkOrigins Archive Foundation
| url = http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/cre-error.html
| accessdate = [[2007-01-23]]}}

* {{Harvard reference
| Surname = Morris
| Given = Henry M.
| Authorlink = Henry M. Morris
| Year = 1982
| Date = [[1982-01-01]]
| Title = Bible-Believing Scientists of the Past
| Journal = Impact
| Volume = 103
| Publisher = Institute for Creation Research
| url = http://www.icr.org/index.php?module=articles&action=view&ID=185
| accessdate = [[2007-01-20]]}}

* {{Harvard reference
| Surname = Myers
| Given = P.Z.
| Authorlink = PZ Myers
| Year = 2006
| Date = [[2006-06-18]]
| Title = Ann Coulter: No Evidence for Evolution?
| Journal = [[Pharyngula]]
| Publisher = [[ScienceBlogs]]
| url = http://scienceblogs.com/pharyngula/2006/06/ann_coulter_no_evidence_for_ev.php
| accessdate = [[2007-09-12]]}}

* {{Citation
| surname = NSTA
| given = National Science Teachers Association
| author-link = National Science Teachers Association
| year = 2007
| title = An NSTA Evolution Q&A
| url = http://www.nsta.org/publications/evolution.aspx
| accessdate = [[2008-02-01]]}}[http://web.archive.org/web/20070804211846/http://www.nsta.org/publications/evolution.aspx Archive link]

* {{Citation
| last = Numbers
| first = Ronald L.
| author-link = Ronald L. Numbers
| year = 1992
| title = Creationists: The Evolution of Scientific Creationism
| publisher = Alfred A. Knopf, Inc.
| pages = 224
| isbn = 0-679-40104-0
}}

*{{cite book
| last = Numbers
| first = Ronald
| authorlink = Ronald Numbers
| coauthors =
| title = [[The Creationists]]: From Scientific Creationism to Intelligent Design, Expanded Edition
| publisher = Harvard University Press
|date=2006-11-30
| location =
| pages = 624 pages
| url =
| doi =
| id =
| isbn = 0674023390}}

* {{Harvard reference
| Surname = Numbers
| Given = Ronald L.
| Authorlink = Ronald L. Numbers
| Year = 1998
| Date = [[1998-11-15]]
| Title = Darwinism Comes to America
| Publisher = Harvard University Press
| Pages = 224
| isbn = 0674193121
}}

* {{Harvard reference
| Surname1 = Peters
| Given1 = Ted
| Authorlink1 = Ted Peters
| Surname2 = Hewlett
| Given2 = Martinez
| Authorlink2 = Martinez Hewlett
| Authorlink = American Association for the Advancement of Science
| Year = 2005
| Date = 2005-12-22
| Title = The Evolution Controversy: Who's Fighting with Whom about What?
| Publisher = Pacific Luthern Theological Seminary
| url = http://www.plts.edu/docs/EvolutionBrief2.pdf
| format = pdf
| accessdate = [[2007-01-28]]}}

* {{Harvard reference
| Surname = Pieret
| Given = John
| Year = 2006
| Title = The Quote Mine Project Or, Lies, Damned Lies and Quote Mines
| Publisher = TalkOrigins Archive Foundation
| url = http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/quotes/mine/project.html
| accessdate = [[2007-01-23]]}}

* {{Harvard reference
| Surname = Pinholster
| Given = Ginger
| Year = 2006
| Date = 2006-02-19
| Title = AAAS Denounces Anti-Evolution Laws as Hundreds of K-12 Teachers Convene for 'Front Line' Event
| publisher = aaas.org
| url = http://www.aaas.org/news/releases/2006/0219boardstatement.shtml
| accessdate = [[2007-01-14]]}}

* {{Harvard reference
| Surname = Popper
| Given = Karl
| Authorlink = Karl Popper
| Year = 1976
| Title = Unended Quest: An Intellecutal Autobiography
| Publisher = Open Court Publishing Co.
| isbn = 0-87548-366-6
}}

* {{Harvard reference
| Surname = Popper
| Given = Karl
| Authorlink = Karl Popper
| Year = 1980
| Title = Letter to the Editor
| Journal = New Scientist
| Volume = 87
}}

* {{Harvard reference
| Surname = Ruse
| Given = Michael
| Authorlink = Michael Ruse
| Year = 1999
| Date = [[1999-04-30]]
| Title = Mystery of Mysteries: Is Evolution a Social Construction
| Publisher = Harvard University Press
| Pages = 320
| isbn = 0-674-46706-X
}}

* {{Harvard reference
| Surname = Simon
| Given = Stephanie
| Year = 2006
| Title = Their Own Version of a Big Bang: Those who believe in creationism -- children and adults -- are being taught to challenge evolution's tenets in an in-your-face way.
| Periodical = [[Los Angeles Times]]
| Issue = [[2006-02-11]]
| url = http://philosophy.tamucc.edu/article.pl?sid=06/02/12/1727208&mode=thread
| accessdate = [[2007-02-03]]}}

* {{Harvard reference
| Surname = Tolson
| Given = Jay
| Year = 2005
| Date = 2005-09-05
| Title = Religion in America: Intelligent Design on Trial
| Journal = U.S. News & World Report
| chapter = Religion in America
| url = http://www.usnews.com/usnews/culture/articles/050928/28religion.htm
| accessdate = [[2007-01-6]]}}

* {{Harvard reference
| Surname1 = van Wyhe
| Given1 = John
| Year = 2006
| Title = Charles Darwin: gentleman naturalist: A biographical sketch
| url = http://darwin-online.org.uk/darwin.html
| accessdate = [[2007-01-24]]}}

* {{Harvard reference
| Surname = Verderame
| Given = John
| Year = 2007
| Title = Creation evangelism: cutting through the excess
| Publisher = answersingenesis.org
| url = http://www.answersingenesis.org/docs2001/0510news.asp
| accessdate = [[2007-02-07]]}}

* {{Harvard reference
| Surname = Wallis
| Given = Claudia
| Title = The Evolution Wars
| Journal = Time Magazine
| Year = 2005
| Date = [[2005-08-07]]
| url = http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1090909-1,00.html
}} Retrieved on [[2007-01-31]]

* {{Harvard reference
| Surname = Wiker
| Given = Benjamin D.
| Year = 2003
| Date = July/August 2003
| Title = Does Science Point to God? Part II: The Christian Critics
| Journal = Crisis Politics, Culture, and the Church
| Publisher = CRISIS Magazine
| url = http://www.crisismagazine.com/julaug2003/feature1.htm
| accessdate = [[2007-01-21]]}}

* {{Harvard reference
| Surname = Woods
| Given = Thomas E., Jr.
| Authorlink = Thomas Woods
| Year = 2005
| Title = How the Catholic Church Built Western Civilization
| Publisher = Regnery Publishing, Inc.
| isbn = 0-89526-038-7
}}

=== Published books and other resources ===

* Burian, RM: 1994. ''Dobzhansky on Evolutionary Dynamics: Some Questions about His Russian Background''; in {{cite book |author=Adams, Mark A. |title=The Evolution of Theodosius Dobzhansky: essays on his life and thought in Russia and America |publisher=Princeton University Press |location=Princeton, N.J |year=1994 |pages= |isbn=0-691-03479-6 |oclc= |doi=}}
* {{cite book |author=Butler, Samuel |title=Evolution, Old And New: Or The Theories Of Buffon, Dr. Erasmus Darwin And Lamarck, As Compared With That Of Charles Darwin (1911) |publisher=Kessinger Publishing, LLC |location= |year=2007 |pages= |isbn=0548641323 |oclc= |doi=}}
* {{cite book |author=Beer, Gillian; Darwin, Charles |title=The origin of species |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford [Oxfordshire] |year=1996 |pages= |isbn=019283438X |oclc= |doi=}}
* {{cite book |author=Gould, Stephen Jay; Dobzhansky, Theodosius Grigorievich |title=Genetics and the origin of species |publisher=Columbia University Press |location=New York |year=1982 |pages= |isbn=0231054750 |oclc= |doi=}}
* {{cite book |author=Henig, Robin Marantz |title=The monk in the garden: the lost and found genius of Gregor Mendel, the father of genetics |publisher=Houghton Mifflin |location=Boston |year=2000 |pages= |isbn=0395977657 |oclc= |doi=}}
* {{cite journal |author=Kutschera U, Niklas KJ |title=The modern theory of biological evolution: an expanded synthesis |journal=Naturwissenschaften |volume=91 |issue=6 |pages=255–76 |year=2004 |pmid=15241603 |doi=10.1007/s00114-004-0515-y}}
* {{cite book |author=Mayr, Ernst |title=The Growth of Biological Thought: Diversity, Evolution, and Inheritance |publisher=Belknap Press |location=Cambridge, Mass |year=1985 |pages= |isbn=0674364465 |oclc= |doi=}}
* {{cite book |author=Miller, James H. |title=An evolving dialogue: theological and scientific perspectives on evolution |publisher=Trinity Press International |location=Valley Forge, Pa |year=2001 |pages= |isbn=1-56338-349-7 |oclc= |doi=}}
* {{cite book | last = Morris | first = HR | year = 1963 | title = The Twilight of Evolution | publisher = Baker Pub Group | location = Grand Rapids, MI | isbn = 0801058627 }}
* {{cite book |author=Numbers, Ronald L. |title=The creationists |publisher=University of California Press |location=Berkeley |year=1993 |pages= |isbn=0520083938 |oclc= |doi=}}
* {{cite journal |author=Pennock RT |title=Creationism and intelligent design |journal=Annu Rev Genomics Hum Genet |volume=4 |issue= |pages=143–63 |year=2003 |pmid=14527300 |doi=10.1146/annurev.genom.4.070802.110400}}
* {{cite book |author=Sagan, Carl |title=The demon-haunted world: science as a candle in the dark |publisher=Ballantine Books |location=[New York |year=1997 |pages= |isbn=0345409469 |oclc= |doi=}}
* {{cite journal | author = Scott, E.C. | year = 1997 | title = Antievolution And Creationism In The United States | journal = Annual Review of Anthropology | volume = 26 | issue = 1 | pages = 263–289 | doi = 10.1146/annurev.anthro.26.1.263}}
* Maynard Smith, "The status of neo-darwinism," in "Towards a Theoretical Biology" (C.H. Waddington, ed., University Press, Edinburgh, 1969.
* {{cite journal | author = Hull, D.L. | year = 1999 | title = The Use and Abuse of Sir Karl Popper | journal = Biology and Philosophy | volume = 14 | issue = 4 | pages = 481–504 | url = http://www.springerlink.com/index/T4220X33T0284444.pdf | accessdate = 2008-04-11 | doi = 10.1023/A:1006554919188}}
* {{cite book |author=Strobel, Lee |title=The case for a Creator: a journalist investigates scientific evidence that points toward God |publisher=Zondervan/Willow Creek Resources |location=Grand Rapids, Mich |year=2004 |pages= |isbn=0310240506 |oclc= |doi=}}

== External links ==
* [http://www.galluppoll.com/content/default.aspx?ci=21814 Gallup public opinion poll in regards to the concepts of Evolution, Creationism, and Intelligent Design as of May 2007]
* [http://www.data360.org/graph_group.aspx?Graph_Group_Id=286 Data by country regarding the percentage of the population that believes in evolution]

=== Creationism as social policy ===
* [http://www.stephenjaygould.org/ctrl/azimov_creationism.html Isaac Asimov, The "Threat" of Creationism.]

===Creationist beliefs===
* [http://www.answersingenesis.org Answers in Genesis], [[Young Earth Creationism]]
* [http://reasons.org/ Reasons to Believe], [[Old Earth Creationism]]

====Scientific rebuttals====
* [http://www.talkorigins.org/indexcc/ Talk.origins ''Index to Creationist Claims'']

=== Evolution versus creationism debates ===
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Location and link
! Year
! Pro-evolution
! Pro-creationism
|-
| [http://webcast.ucsd.edu:8080/ramgen/UCSD_TV/6287DarSciorPhi.rm Stanford University]
| 1994
| [[Will Provine]]
| [[Phillip E. Johnson]]
|-
| [http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/odyssey/debate/ Nova on-line]
| 1996
| [[Kenneth R. Miller]]
| [[Phillip E. Johnson]]
|-
| [http://www.bringyou.to/apologetics/p45.htm Firing Line]
| 1997
| [[Kenneth R. Miller]], [[Michael Ruse]], [[Eugenie Scott]] & [[Barry W. Lynn|Barry Lynn]]
| [[Phillip E. Johnson]], [[Michael Behe]], [[David Berlinski]] & [[William F. Buckley]]
|-
| [http://www.pc.rhul.ac.uk/sites/debate/debate_audio.html University of London] ([http://bcseweb.org.uk/index.php/Main/RoyalHollowayCollegeDebate transcript])
| 2007
| [[Lewis Wolpert]]
| [[Steve Fuller (social epistemologist)|Steve Fuller]]
|}

[[Category:Evolution]]
[[Category:Creationism]]
[[Category:Religion and science]]
[[Category:Religious controversies]]

[[bg:Спорът "Сътворение или еволюция?"]]
[[ca:Controvèrsia creació-evolució]]
[[cs:Vznik života]]
[[pt:Controvérsia da criação vs. evolução]]
[[ro:Controversa creaţie-evoluţie]]

Supply-side economics

2008-11-09T12:32:34Z

AnthonyToddler: trying to remove too-obvious bias (some bias is ok, but I think too much just damages CP)

{{capitalism}}
{{POV|date=February 2008}}
'''Supply-side economics''' is a school of [[macroeconomic]] thought that argues that economic growth can be most effectively created using incentives for people to produce (supply) goods and services, such as adjusting [[income tax]] and [[capital gains tax]] rates. Supply-side economics is often conflated with [[trickle-down economics]], now a term given to right-leaning economists' views.<ref>{{cite news |first=Douglas |last=Martin |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=Jude Wanniski, 69, Journalist Who Coined the Term 'Supply-Side Economics,' Dies |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2005/08/31/business/31wanniski.html |work=[[New York Times]] |publisher= |date=2005-08-31 |accessdate= }}</ref> The term ''supply-side economics'' was coined by journalist [[Jude Wanniski]] in 1975, and popularized the ideas of economists [[Robert Mundell]] and [[Arthur Laffer]].

The typical policy recommendation of supply-side economics is to achieve the proper level of marginal tax rates, which, by virtue of the high rate of taxes in general, equates with cutting of taxes.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Way the World Works: How Economies Fail—and Succeed |last=Wanniski |first=Jude |authorlink= |coauthors= |year=1978 |publisher=Basic Books |location=New York |isbn=0465090958 |pages= |url= }}</ref> Maximum benefits are achieved by optimizing the marginal tax rates of those with high-incomes and capital who are deemed as most likely to increase supply and thus spur growth.<ref name="Brownlee">{{cite book |chapter=Fiscal policy in the Reagan administration |title=The macroeconomics of fiscal policy |last=Brownlee |first=E. |authorlink= |editor=Kopcke, E.; Tootell, G. M. B.; Triest, R. K. |year=2006 |publisher=MIT Press |location=Cambridge, MA |isbn=0262112957 |pages=117–204 |url= }}</ref> Keynesian macroeconomics, by contrast, contends that tax cuts should be used to increase demand, not supply, and thus should be targeted at cash-strapped, lower-income households, who are more likely to spend additional income.<ref name="Blinder">{{cite book |chapter=Can fiscal policy improve macro-stabilization |title=The macroeconomics of fiscal policy |last=Blinder |first=A. S. |authorlink= |editor=Kopcke, E.; Tootell, G. M. B.; Triest, R. K. |year=2006 |publisher=MIT Press |location=Cambridge, MA |isbn=0262112957 |pages=23–62 |url= }}</ref><ref name="Blanchard">{{cite book |chapter=Comments of Blinder's "The case against the case against discretionary fiscal policy |title=The macroeconomics of fiscal policy |last=Blanchard |first=O. J. |authorlink= |editor=Kopcke, E.; Tootell, G. M. B.; Triest, R. K. |year=2006 |publisher=MIT Press |location=Cambridge, MA |isbn=0262112957 |pages=63–74 |url= }}</ref>

Many early proponents argued that the size of the economic growth would be significant enough that the increased government revenue from a faster growing economy would be sufficient to completely compensate for the short-term costs of a tax cut, and that tax cuts could, in fact, cause overall revenue to increase.<ref>{{cite news |first=Bruce |last=Bartlett |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=How Supply-Side Economics Trickled Down |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2007/04/06/opinion/06bartlett.html |work=New York Times |publisher= |date=2007-04-06 |accessdate= }}</ref> Some assert this was borne out during the 1980s, when many supply-siders claim tax cuts ultimately led to an overall increase in governmental revenue due to stronger economic growth, although many economists doubt this claim.<ref name="Orzsag">{{cite web |url=http://www.brookings.edu/views/op-ed/gale/20030509.htm |author=Gale, W. G. & Orszag, P. R. |title=Bush’s Tax Plan Slashes Growth |date=2003-05-09 |publisher=The Brookings Institution |accessdate=2007-10-23 }}</ref><ref name="Chait">{{cite book |title=The Big Con: How Washington Got Hoodwinked and Hijacked by Crackpot Economics |last=Chait |first=J. |authorlink= |coauthors= |year=2007 |publisher=Houghton Mifflin |location=Boston |isbn=0618685405 |pages= |url= }}</ref> To date many economists do not see supply-side economics as a respectable school of thought, with [[Alan Blinder]] calling it an "ill-fated" and perhaps "silly" school on the pages of a 2006 textbook;<ref name="Blinder" /> Bush advisor [[Greg Mankiw]] offered similarly sharp criticism of the school in the early editions of his introductory economics textbook.<ref name="Bartels">Quote from Mankiw with source in {{cite book |title=Unequal democracy: The political-economy of the new gilded age |last=Bartels |first=L. M. |authorlink= |coauthors= |year=2008 |publisher=Princeton University Press |location=Princeton, NJ |isbn=9780691136639 |pages= |url= }}</ref> In a 1992 article for the [[Harvard International Review]] James Tobin wrote, "[The] idea that tax cuts would actually increase revenues turned out to deserve the ridicule…"<ref name="Tobin">{{cite journal |last=Tobin |first=J. |authorlink= |coauthors= |year=1992 |month= |title=Voodoo curse |journal=Harvard International Review |volume=14 |issue=4 |pages=10 |id= |url= |accessdate= |quote= }}</ref> But while few modern economists claim that tax cuts will completely pay for themselves, some empirical and theoretical research suggests that tax cuts do help to pay for themselves through increased economic growth, though the end result, even conservative economists contend, will be a significant reduction in revenues.<ref name="Brownlee" /> The Reagan administration was the first to implement supply-side policies and call them that. Some maintain that they failed to deliver the promised benefits.<ref name="Case & Fair">{{cite book |title=Principles of Economics |last=Case |first=K. E. |authorlink= |coauthors=Fair, R. C. |year=2007 |edition=8th edition |publisher=Prentice Hall |location=Upper Saddle Rive, NJ |isbn=0132289148 |pages= |url= }}</ref>

{{cquote|The extreme promises of supply-side economics did not materialize. President Reagan argued that because of the effect depicted in the [[Laffer curve]], the government could maintain expenditures, cut tax rates, ''and'' balance the budget. This was not the case. Government revenues fell sharply from levels that would have been realized without the tax cuts. - Karl Case & Ray Fair, ''Principles of Economics'' (2007), p. 695.<ref name="Case & Fair"/>|}}

Supply side proponents Trabandt and Uhlig argue that "static scoring overestimates the revenue loss for labor and capital tax cuts",<ref name="autogenerated2">[http://sfb649.wiwi.hu-berlin.de/papers/pdf/SFB649DP2006-023.pdf Microsoft Word - SFB DP Frontpage.doc]</ref> and that instead "[[dynamic scoring]]" is a better predictor for the effects of tax cuts.

== Historical origins ==
Supply-side economics developed during the 1970s in response to the [[Keynesian]] dominance of economic policy, and in particular the failure of [[demand management]] to [[stabilization policy|stabilize]] Western economies during the [[stagflation]] of the 1970s, in the wake of the [[1973 oil crisis|oil crisis in 1973]].<ref name="case_780">Case, Karl E. & Fair, Ray C. (1999). ''Principles of Economics'' (5th ed.), p. 780. Prentice-Hall. ISBN 0-13-961905-4.</ref> It drew on a range of non-Keynesian economic thought, particularly [[Austrian economics|Austrian school]] thinking on entrepreneurship and [[New classical macroeconomics]].

As in [[classical economics]], supply-side economics proposed that [[Economic production|production]] or [[supply]] is the key to economic prosperity and that [[Consumption (economics)|consumption]] or [[demand]] is merely a secondary consequence. Early on this idea had been summarized in [[Say's Law]] of economics, which states: "A product is no sooner created, than it, from that instant, affords a market for other products to the full extent of its own value." [[John Maynard Keynes]], the founder of [[Keynesian economics|Keynesianism]], summarized Say's Law as "supply creates its own demand." He turned Say's Law on its head in the 1930s by declaring that demand creates its own supply. <ref>Malabre, Jr., Alfred L. (1994).''Lost Prophets: An Insider's History of the Modern Economists'', p. 182. Harvard Business School Press. ISBN 0-87584-441-3.</ref> However, Say's Law does not state that production creates a demand for the product itself, but rather a demand for "''other products to the full extent of its own value''." A better formulation of the law is that the supply of one good constitutes demand for one or more other goods.<ref>W. H. HUTT. A Rehabilitation of Say's Law OHIO UNIVERSITY PRESS: ATHENS. 1974</ref>

In 1978 Jude Wanniski published ''The Way the World Works'' in which he laid out the central thesis of supply-side economics and detailed the failure of high tax-rate progressive income tax systems and U.S. monetary policy under Nixon in the 1970s. Wanniski advocated lower tax rates and a return to some kind of gold standard, similar to the 1944-1971 [[Bretton Woods System]] that Nixon abandoned.

In 1983, economist Victor Canto, a disciple of [[Arthur Laffer]], published ''The Foundations of Supply-Side Economics''. This theory focuses on the effects of [[marginal tax rate]]s on the incentive to work and [[saving|save]], which affect the [[economic growth|growth]] of the "supply side" or what [[Keynesian]]s call [[potential output]]. While the latter focus on changes in the rate of supply-side growth in the long run, the "new" supply-siders often promised short-term results.

The supply-siders were influenced strongly by the idea of the [[Laffer curve]], which states that tax ''rates'' and tax ''revenues'' were distinct -- that tax rates too high or too low will not maximize tax revenues. Supply-siders felt that in a high tax rate environment, lowering taxes to the right level can raise revenue by causing faster [[economic growth]]. They pointed to the tax cuts of the Kennedy administration and the high rates of the Hoover and Nixon administrations in justification.{{Fact|date=January 2008}}

This led the supply-siders to advocate large reductions in marginal income and capital gains tax rates to encourage allocation of assets to investment, which would produce more supply. [[Jude Wanniski]] and many others advocate a zero capital gains rate.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.asx.com.au/about/pdf/cgt.pdf|title=Capital gains tax: Analysis of reform options for Australia|publisher=[[Hudson Institute]]|author=Alan Reynolds|year=1999|month=July}}</ref>{{Failed verification|date=February 2008}} The increased aggregate supply would result in increased aggregate demand, hence the term "Supply-Side Economics".

Furthermore, in response to inflation, supply-siders called for indexed marginal income tax rates, as monetary inflation had pushed wage earners into higher marginal income tax brackets that remained static; that is, as wages increased to maintain purchasing power with prices, income tax brackets were not adjusted accordingly and thus wage earners were pushed into higher income tax brackets than tax policy had intended. <ref name="case_780"/>

Supply-side economics has been criticized as essentially politically conservative. Supply-side advocates claim that they are not following an ideology, but are reinstating classical economics. Yet, supply-siders such as Jude Wanniski have argued for lower tax rates to increase tax revenues, and that redistribution of income through taxation was essential to the health of the polity -- a fact which is anathema to traditional conservatives.

Some economists see similarities between supply-side proposals and Keynesian economics. If the result of changes to the tax structure is a [[fiscal deficit]] then the 'supply-side' policy is effectively stimulating demand through the Keynesian [[multiplier]] effect. Supply-side proponents would point out, in response, that the level of taxation and spending is important for economic incentives, not just the size of the deficit.

The [[Reagan administration]] justified such changes in socioeconomic terms with the argument that "a rising tide lifts all boats".

===Marx and Smith===
Both supply-siders and their opponents have been keen to claim the mantles of thinkers as diverse as [[Karl Marx]] and [[Adam Smith]]. Jude Wanniski has claimed both as supply-side thinkers due to their advocacy of a gold monetary standard and more specifically their focus on the agents of production in an economy. [[Barton Biggs]], chief investment strategist of [[Morgan Stanley]], described Wanniski's book about supply-side economics, ''The Way the World Works'', as the "most important" economic book published since Marx's writings. <ref>Malabre, Jr., p. 193.</ref>

===Supply-side vs. Monetarism ===
{{Unreferencedsection|date=May 2008}}
Supply-side supporters disagreed with [[Chicago school (economics)|Chicago school]] [[monetarist]] [[Milton Friedman]] by arguing that cutting tax rates alone would be sufficient to grow [[Gross domestic product|GDP]], lift tax revenues and balance the budget.

Friedman, however, retained a more conventional monetarist view, believing that while tax cuts were on the whole desirable, [[money supply]] was the crucial variable.

== Fiscal policy theory ==
Supply-side economics holds that increased taxation steadily reduces economic trade between economic participants within a nation and that it discourages investment. Taxes act as a type of trade barrier or [[tariff]] that causes economic participants to revert to less efficient means of satisfying their needs. As such higher taxation lead to lower levels of specialization and lower economic efficiency. The idea is said to be illustrated by the [[Laffer curve]]. (Case & Fair, 1999: 780, 781).

Crucial to the operation of supply-side theory is the expansion of [[free trade]] and free movement of capital. It is argued that free capital movement, in addition to the classical reasoning of [[comparative advantage]], frequently allows an economic expansion. Lowering tax barriers to trade provides to the domestic economy all the advantages that the international economy gets from lower tariff barriers.

Supply-side economists have less to say on the effects of deficits, and sometimes cite [[Robert Barro]]’s work that states that rational economic actors will buy bonds in sufficient quantities to reduce long term interest rates.[http://www.treas.gov/offices/economic-policy/round_table_documents/2004/reynolds.pdf] Critics argue that standard exchange rate theory would predict, instead, a devaluation of the currency of the nation running the high budget deficit, and eventual "[[crowding out (economics)|crowding out]]" of private investment.

According to Mundell "Fiscal discipline is a learned behavior." To put it another way, eventually the unfavourable effects of running persistent budget deficits will force governments to reduce spending in line with their levels of revenue. This view is also promoted by Victor Canto.

The central issue at stake is the point of diminishing returns on liquidity in the investment sector: Is there a point where additional money is "pushing on a string"? To the supply-side economist, reallocation away from consumption to private investment, and most especially from public investment to private investment, will always yield superior economic results. In standard monetarist and Keynesian theory, however, there will be a point where increases in asset prices will produce no new supply, that is where investment demand will outrun potential investment supply, and produce instead, [[assets inflation]], or in common terms a [[Bubble (economics)|bubble]]. The existence of this point, and where it is should it exist, is the essential question of the efficacy of supply-side economics.

== Monetary policy theory ==
{{Unreferencedsection|date=May 2008}}
Some supply-siders advocate that monetary policy should be based on a price rule. The aim of monetary policy should be to target a specific value of [[money]] irrespective of the quantity of money that must be created or withdrawn by the [[central bank]] to achieve this target. This contrasts with monetarism's focus on the quantity of money, and Keynesian theory's emphasis on real aggregate demand. The important difference is that to a monetarist the quantity of money, specifically represented by the [[money supply]] is the crucial determining variable for the relationship between the supply and demand for money, while to a Keynesian adequate demand to support the available money supply is important. Keynes famously remarked that "money doesn't matter".

This is an area where supply-side theory has been particularly influential. Under macroeconomic theory, the general level of price was based on the strict increase in price of a basket of goods. Under supply-side theory, the rate of inflation should be based on the substitutions that individuals make in the market place, and should take into account the improved quality of goods. In the late 1980s and through the 1990s, under Presidents of both American political parties, shifts were made in the calculation of the broadly followed measure of inflation the "Consumer Price Index for Urban Consumers", or [[Consumer price index|CPI-W]], which reflected supply-side ideas on substitution. The argument for factoring in goods quality was not accepted, which has led supply-side economists to claim that the real [[Consumer price index|CPI]] is actually between 0.5% and 1% lower than the stated rate.

This area represents one of the points of contention between conservative economic theorists who argue for a quantity of money theory of inflation, including [[Austrian School|Austrian economics]], many strict gold standard economists and traditional monetarists, and supply-side theorists. According to the increases in money supply during the 1990s, the real rate of inflation must be higher than is currently stated. These economists argue that the cost of housing is understated in the CPI-W, and that the inflation rate should be between 0.5% and 1% higher. It is for this reason that many central bankers, investment analysts and economists follow the [[GDP deflator]] which measures the total output of the society and the prices paid for all goods, not merely consumer goods.

Some supply-siders view [[gold]] as the best [[unit of account]] with which to measure the price of [[fiat money]], which is defined as a money supply not directly limited by specie or hard assets. Hence the purest supply-siders are in general advocates of a [[gold standard]]. However the reverse is not true; many gold standard advocates are harsh critics of supply-side economics.

Supply-side economists assert that the value of money is purely dictated by the supply and demand for money. In fiat money system the government has a legislated [[monopoly]] on the supply of base money. Hence it has complete control over the value of money. Any decline in the value of money (or appreciation) is hence viewed as the result of errant [[central bank]] policy.

== U.S. monetary and fiscal experience ==
{{POV-section|date=December 2007}}
Supply-side economists seek a cause and effect relationship between lowering marginal rates on capital formation and economic expansion. The supply-side history of economics since the 1960s hinges on the following key turning points:

===The 1960s===

===The 1970s===
{{Unreferencedsection|date=May 2008}}

In 1971, [[Richard Nixon]] ended the convertibility of the US dollar into gold, which meant the end of the [[Bretton Woods system]]. [[Commodity]] prices, including oil and gold particularly, which had been rising steadily in response to the dollar glut, spiked upwards. The supply-side explanation for this event is that taxation on investment had depleted the incentive to capital investment either in new sources of materials or in substitute goods, which when combined with eroding confidence in the [[United States Dollar|U.S. dollar]] cause it to be rapidly devalued. Many supply siders agree with gold investors in saying that the value of commodities remained constant and that it was the dollar that [[Devaluation|devalued]].

At the same time the [[Mundell-Fleming model]] of currency flows gained greater credence when it was codified into a single set of equations, and became increasingly influential in [[neo-liberal]] economics. The argument for a floating currency regime had first been adopted by Friedman, but supply-side economists such as Wanniski typically argued that exchange rates should be fixed relative to gold. Mundell was the author of the influential view that it was [[Lyndon B. Johnson|Johnson]]'s budget deficits that were the cause of inflationary pressure. However, as [[Lester Thurow]] pointed out, the standard model of inflationary pressure shows that Johnson's peak year of deficits would have created only a small upward pressure, that instead it was persistent American trade deficits through the 1960s which had a greater effect on the imbalance between the value of the U.S. dollar and the [[gold]] to which it was, in theory, convertible.

===Stagflation===
{{Unreferencedsection|date=May 2008}}
{{clear}}
[[Image:NYSE opening bell.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The stock market lost half of its value between [[1972]] and [[1982]].]]
Robert Mundell believes Nixon's failure to cut taxes in the early 1970s to be the cause of [[stagflation]], his argument being that the incentive for individuals to invest was reduced to below zero. Measuring the [[S&P 500]] in inflation-adjusted terms, the [[stock market]] lost half of its value between the market peak of 1972 and its bottom in 1982, with money seeking better returns in [[real estate]] and commodities instead. The argument from the supply-side point of view then goes on to state that the cuts in capital gains tax rates that were part of the 1981 tax package returned incentives to invest. The Keynesian point of view is that after a long bear market, money had fled from stocks and was set to return, once the expectation of inflation had been reduced. Neither of these two arguments fully accounts for the rise of equities over the course of the "long Bull Market" of 1982-2000.

The importance of this argument needs to be seen in light of the effects of the inflation of the late 1970s, where credit became constricted, as interest rates rose rapidly, and the number of borrowers who could qualify for even standard mortgages fell. Inflation acted as a tax on wage increases, because the highly progressive income tax system of the time meant that more and more households suffered from "bracket creep" - in which a wage increase would be reduced in value by the increased taxes collected. The effects of inflation produced, in 1980, a strong political consensus for a change in basic policy.

===Reaganomics===
{{main|Reaganomics}}
[[Ronald Reagan]] made supply-side economics a household phrase, and promised an across the board reduction in income tax rates and an even larger reduction in capital gains tax rates. (Case & Fair, 1999: 781, 782). When vying for the [[United States Republican Party|Republican party]] presidential nomination for the [[U.S. presidential election, 1980|1980 election]], [[George H.W. Bush]] derided Reagan's supply-side policies as "[[voodoo economics]]". However, later he seemed to give lip service to these policies to secure the Republican nomination in 1988, and is speculated by some to have lost in his re-election bid in 1992 by allowing tax increases. (See: "[[Read my lips: No new taxes]].")

The centerpiece of the supply-side argument is the economic rebound from the 1980-1982 double dip [[recession]], combined with the continued \fall in commodity prices. The "across the board" tax cuts of 1981 are seen as the great motivator for the "Seven Fat Years". Critics of this view point out that the "rebound" from the recession of 1981-1982 is exactly in accordance with the "disinflation" scenario predicted by [[IS/LM model]]s of the late 1970s: essentially that the increases in fed funds rates squeezed out inflation, and that federal budget deficits acted to "prime the pump". This model had been the basis of Volcker's federal reserve policy.

In 1981, [[Robert Mundell]] told [[Ronald Reagan]] that by cutting upper bracket taxation rates and lowering tax rates on capital gains, national output would increase so much that tax revenues would also increase. Mundell claimed that the economic expansion would also mop up excess liquidity and bring inflation back under control. After the tax cuts were implemented, nominal revenues quickly returned to - and ultimately surpassed - previous levels. While revenues dropped as a share of GDP, supply-siders note they intended for this fall to happen, since cutting tax rates would preclude a rise in taxes collected relative to national income.

The question of whether the tax cuts proved Mundell's predictions correct has sparked much debate between supply-siders and mainstream economists. While nominal revenues rebounded after the tax cuts, mainstream economists note that comparing nominal tax collections over time fails to take into account inflation. By converting tax revenues from nominal to real terms, these economists have shown that tax revenues did not surpass their 1981 levels until 1987.

Defenders of supply-side economics also complain that the focus of the debate on government revenue tends to ignore the societal benefits of economic growth, primarily lower levels of unemployment, higher wages for workers and lower prices for consumers. This is a rhetorical argument derisively known as [[trickle-down economics]], and should be viewed as distinct from the economic theory of supply-side economics.

In the [[United States]], commentators frequently equate supply-side economics with [[Reaganomics]]. The fiscal policies of [[Ronald Reagan]] were largely based on supply-side economics. During Reagan's 1980 presidential campaign, the key economic concern was double digit [[inflation]], which Reagan described as "Too many dollars chasing too few goods", but rather than the usual dose of tight money, recession and layoffs, with their consequent loss of production and wealth, he promised a gradual and painless way to fight inflation by "producing our way out of it". <ref>Case & Fair, p. 781, 782.</ref> Switching from an earlier [[monetarist]] policy, [[Federal Reserve]] chair [[Paul Volcker]] began a policy of tighter monetary policies such as lower money supply growth to break the inflationary psychology and squeeze inflationary expectations out of the [[economic system]]. <ref>Malabre, Jr., pp. 170–171.</ref> Therefore, supply-side supporters argue, "Reaganomics" was only partially based on supply-side economics. However, under Reagan, Congress passed a plan that would slash taxes by $749 billion over five years. As a result, Jason Hymowitz cited Reagan — along with [[Jack Kemp]] — as a great advocate for supply-side economics in politics and repeatedly praised his leadership. <ref>Malabre, Jr., p. 188.</ref>

Critics of "Reaganomics" claim it failed to produce much of the exaggerated gains some supply-siders had promised. Krugman later summarized the situation: "When Ronald Reagan was elected, the supply-siders got a chance to try out their ideas. Unfortunately, they failed." Although he credited supply-side economics for being more successful than [[monetarism]] which he claimed "left the economy in ruins", he stated that supply-side economics produced results which fell "so far short of what it promised," describing the supply-side theory as "free lunches". <ref>Malabre, Jr., p. 195.</ref> Krugman and other critics point to increased budget deficits during the Reagan administration as proof that the Laffer Curve is wrong. Supply-side advocates claim that revenues increased, but that spending increased faster. However, they typically point to total revenues<ref>[http://www.cbo.gov/budget/data/historical.pdf Table 1, Historical budget data] - [[Congressional Budget Office]]</ref> even though it was only income taxes rates that were cut. <ref>[http://www.taxpolicycenter.org/newsevents/cite_simplification_simplified.cfm Tax simplification simplified] - [[Tax Policy Center]]</ref> That table also does not account for inflation. For example, of the increase from $600.6 billion in 1983 to $666.5 billion in 1984, $26 billion is due to inflation, $18.3 billion to corporate taxes and $21.4 billion to social insurance revenues (mostly [[Federal Insurance Contributions Act|FICA]] taxes). <ref> [http://www2.census.gov/prod2/statcomp/documents/1990-04.pdf Federal Government Finances and Employment 1990] - [[US Census Bureau]] </ref> Income tax revenues in [[constant dollars]] decreased by $2.77 billion in that year. Supply-siders cannot legitimately take credit for increased FICA tax revenue, because in 1983 FICA tax rates were increased from 6.7% to 7% and the ceiling was raised by $2,100. For the self employed, the FICA tax rate went from 9.35% to 14%. <ref> [http://www.ssa.gov/history/pdf/t2a3.pdf Annual maximum taxable earnings and contribution rates] - [[Social Security Administration]]</ref> The FICA tax rate increased throughout Reagan's term, jumping to 7.51% in 1988 and the ceiling was raised by 61% through Reagan's two terms. Those tax hikes on wage earners, along with inflation, are the source of the revenue gains of the early 1980s. But, despite much debate on if tax rate cuts increased revenues, the Reagan policies of the 1980s succeeded in a dramatic raise in economic growth in following the tax cuts, reversing the economic decline of the 1970s.<ref>[http://www.house.gov/jec/fiscal/tx-grwth/reagtxct/reagtxct.htm The Reagan Tax Cuts: Lessons for Tax Reform] - [[Joint Economic Committee]]</ref>

It has been contended by some supply-side critics that the argument to lower taxes to increase revenues was a smokescreen for "starving" the government of revenues and who hoped that the tax cuts would lead to a commensurate drop in government spending. However, this did not turn out to be the case on the spending side; [[Paul Samuelson]] called this notion "the tape worm theory — the idea that the way to get rid of a tape worm is [to] stab your patient in the stomach". <ref>Malabre, Jr., pp. 197–198.</ref> Supply-side advocates like Wanniski counter that social and fiscal conservatives who supported the supply-side prescription on tax policy for this reason were misguided and did not understand the Laffer Curve.<ref>[http://www.jonathanrauch.com/jrauch_articles/2006/05/stoking_the_bea.html Stoking the Beast] - [[Jonathan Rauch]]</ref>

There is frequent confusion on the meaning of the term 'supply-side economics', between the related ideas of the existence of the Laffer Curve and the belief that decreasing tax rates can increase tax revenues. But many supply-side economists doubt the latter claim, while still supporting the general policy of tax cuts. Economist [[Gregory Mankiw]] used the term ''"fad economics"'' to describe the notion of tax rate cuts increasing revenue in the third edition of his '''Principles of Macroeconomics''' textbook in a section entitled "Charlatans and Cranks":

{{cquote|An example of fad economics occurred in 1980, when a small group of economists advised Presidential candidate, Ronald Reagan, that an across-the-board cut in income tax rates would raise tax revenue. They argued that if people could keep a higher fraction of their income, people would work harder to earn more income. Even though tax rates would be lower, income would rise by so much, they claimed, that tax revenues would rise. Almost all professional economists, including most of those who supported Reagan's proposal to cut taxes, viewed this outcome as far too optimistic. Lower tax rates might encourage people to work harder and this extra effort would offset the direct effects of lower tax rates to some extent, but there was no credible evidence that work effort would rise by enough to cause tax revenues to rise in the face of lower tax rates. … People on fad diets put their health at risk but rarely achieve the permanent weight loss they desire. Similarly, when politicians rely on the advice of charlatans and cranks, they rarely get the desirable results they anticipate. After Reagan's election, Congress passed the cut in tax rates that Reagan advocated, but the tax cut did not cause tax revenues to rise.<ref>{{cite news |first=Noam |last=Scheiber |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=Can Greg Mankiw Survice Politics? |url=http://ksghome.harvard.edu/~jfrankel/TNR%20Online%20%20Mankiw%20Out%20of%20Depth.htm |work=The New Republic |publisher= |date=2004-04-08 |accessdate= }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |first=Stephen |last=Moore |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=Think Twice About Gregory Mankiw |url=http://www.nationalreview.com/moore/moore022803b.asp |work=National Review |publisher= |date=2003-02-28 |accessdate= }}</ref>}}

===Criticism===
[[Image:Laffer-Curve.svg|thumb|right|200px|The [[Laffer curve]], with "Tax Rate (%)" on the x-axis, and "Government Revenue" on the y-axis.]]
Critics of supply-side economics point to the lack of academic economics credentials by movement leaders such as [[Jude Wanniski]] and [[Robert Bartley]] to imply that the theories were bankrupt.<ref name="Chait" /> Mundell in his [[Nobel Prize]] lecture (awarded for unrelated work in [[optimum currency area]]) countered that the success of price stability was proof that the supply-side revolution had worked. The continuing debate over supply-side policies tends to focus on the massive federal and current account deficits, increased income inequality and its failure to promote growth.<ref name="Orzsag" />

Many critics of supply-side economics are actually critics of politicians and pundits who misunderstand the Laffer curve, typically claiming that every tax cut will increase revenues. For example, in 2006 Sebastian Mallaby of [[The Washington Post]] quoted [[George W. Bush]], [[Dick Cheney]], [[Bill Frist]], [[Chuck Grassley]], and [[Rick Santorum]] misstating the effect of the Bush Administration's tax cuts.<ref>{{cite news |first=Sebastian |last=Mallaby |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=The Return Of Voodoo Economics |url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/05/14/AR2006051400806.html |work=[[Washington Post]] |publisher= |date=2006-05-15 |accessdate= }}</ref> On January 3, 2007, George W. Bush wrote an article claiming "It is also a fact that our tax cuts have fueled robust economic growth and record revenues."<ref>{{cite news |first=George W. |last=Bush |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=What the Congress Can Do for America |url=http://www.opinionjournal.com/editorial/feature.html?id=110009473 |work=Wall Street Journal |publisher= |date=2007-01-03 |accessdate= }}</ref> [[Andrew Samwick]], who was Chief Economist on Bush's Council of Economic Advisers from 2003-2004 responded to the claim:

<blockquote>You are smart people. You know that the tax cuts have not fueled record revenues. You know what it takes to establish causality. You know that the first order effect of cutting taxes is to lower tax revenues. We all agree that the ultimate reduction in tax revenues can be less than this first order effect, because lower tax rates encourage greater economic activity and thus expand the tax base. No thoughtful person believes that this possible offset more than compensated for the first effect for these tax cuts. Not a single one.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://voxbaby.blogspot.com/2007/01/new-years-plea.html |title=Vox Baby: A New Year's Plea |accessdate= |work= |publisher= |date= }}</ref></blockquote>

The [[Congressional Budget Office]] (CBO) has estimated that extending the Bush tax cuts of 2001-2003 beyond their 2010 expiration would increase deficits by $1.8 trillion dollars over the following decade.<ref>[http://www.cbo.gov/ftpdocs/78xx/doc7878/03-21-PresidentsBudget.pdf Analysis of President's Budget Table 1-3 Page 6]</ref> The CBO also completed a study in 2005 analyzing a hypothetical 10% income tax cut and concluded that under various scenarios there would be minimal offsets to the loss of revenue. In other words, deficits would increase by nearly the same amount as the tax cut in the first five years, with limited feedback revenue thereafter.<ref>[http://www.cbo.gov/ftpdocs/69xx/doc6908/12-01-10PercentTaxCut.pdf CBO Study Grey Box Page 1]</ref>

Some politicians and supply-side advocates may misunderstand the Laffer curve{{Fact|date=August 2007}}. They claim that every tax cut will increase revenues, when the curve clearly shows that only cutting tax rates to the right of the peak rate will increase revenues. Cutting tax rates to the left of the peak rate will decrease revenues. Since Reagan's income tax cuts in the 1980s did not increase receipts, the Laffer curve would suggest that further tax cuts will not increase revenues either, since the economy is apparently to the left of the peak. The Bush administration has been reporting record revenues, however those are, once again, coming from FICA taxes, not the income taxes which were cut.{{Fact|date=November 2007}} Between 2000 and 2004, income tax revenues fell from $1,004.5 billion to $809 billion, while FICA tax revenues increased from $652.9 billion to $733.4. Since 1997, the US Treasury has been reporting the combination of income tax and FICA tax revenues, so decreases in income tax revenues are hidden by increases in FICA tax revenues.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://fms.treas.gov/fr/backissues.html |title=Back Reports: Financial Report of the United States: Publication & Guidance: Financial Management Service |accessdate= |work= |publisher= |date= }}</ref> Depending on the model and values of variables that are used, some have estimated the peak rate to be between 60-80% for labor tax and 50-60% for capital tax.<ref name="autogenerated2" />

The paradigm of a tax system which rewards investment over consumption was accepted across the political spectrum, and no plan not rooted in supply-side economic theories has been advanced in the United States since 1982 (with the exception of the Clinton tax increases of 1993){{Dubious|date=March 2008}} which had any serious chance of passage into law. In 1986, a tax overhaul, described by [[Robert Mundell|Mundell]] as "the completion of the supply-side revolution" was drafted. It included increases in payroll taxes, decreases in top marginal rates, and increases in capital gains taxes. Combined with the mortgage interest deduction and the regressive effects of state taxation, it produces closer to a [[Flat tax|flat-tax]] effect. Proponents, such as [[Robert Mundell|Mundell]] and [[Arthur Laffer|Laffer]], point to the dramatic rise in the stock market as a sign that the tax overhaul was effective, although they note that the hike in [[capital gains]] may be more trouble than it was worth.

Cutting marginal tax rates can also be perceived as primarily beneficial to the wealthy, which commentators such as [[Paul Krugman]] see as politically rather than economically motivated.<ref>{{cite news |first=Paul |last=Krugman |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=The Tax Cut Zombies |url=http://select.nytimes.com/2005/12/23/opinion/23krugman.html |work=New York Times |publisher= |date=2005-12-23 |accessdate= }}</ref>

The economist [[John Kenneth Galbraith]] noted that supply side economics was not a new theory. He wrote, "Mr. [[David Stockman]] has said that supply-side economics was merely a cover for the trickle-down approach to economic policy—what an older and less elegant generation called the horse-and-sparrow theory: If you feed the horse enough oats, some will pass through to the road for the sparrows."<ref>{{cite news |first=John Kenneth |last=Galbraith |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=Recession Economics |url=http://www.nybooks.com/articles/6735 |work=[[New York Review of Books]] |publisher= |date=1982-02-04 |accessdate= }}</ref> Galbraith claimed that the horse and sparrow theory was partly to blame for the [[Panic of 1896]].

===The 1990s===
{{Unreferencedsection|date=May 2008}}
Supply-siders blame the 1991 recession on the [[Federal Reserve]], and argue that [[Bill Clinton|Clinton]]'s tax increases, since they did not change marginal capital gains tax rates, left the supply-side nature of the 1986 tax bill in place. Similarly, supply-side economists have argued that since the early phases of the massive tax breaks of [[George W. Bush]]'s first two years were based on credits and not cuts in marginal rates, they did not act to stimulate the economy, although the effect on individual income remains the same.

More generally, traditional economists point to the "overhang" of deficits from the Reagan era, the [[Savings and Loan crisis|S&L bailout]], the effects of a ballooning federal budget deficit, the defense budget cuts which began in earnest in 1989, and the expectation of a lack of continued fiscal discipline as the source of the recession. These arguments blame the legacy of [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic]] Deficits forced upon Reagan, rather than deficits created by Reagan's own administration. Critics of supply-side economics often argue the inflated government deficits that accompanied the arrival of supply-side economics are of greater concern than the economic and stock market success of supply-side theory.

===A Trojan Horse===
Other critiques of supply-side economics dismiss the entire project as a Trojan horse for reducing marginal tax rates on upper income brackets and ultimately a failure. These critiques are found in [[Samuel Bowles (economist)|Samuel Bowles]]' work, which argues that real productivity fell under supply-side taxation regimes on a unit-worker basis. Nobel laureate economist [[Paul Krugman]] of [[Princeton University|Princeton]] called supply-side economics "Peddling Prosperity" and dismissed it as being unworthy of serious economists in a 1994 book written for the general audience.[http://www.pkarchive.org/others/krugman3.html]

[[David Stockman]], [[Ronald Reagan|Ronald Reagan's]] budget director, admitted that the [[Economic Recovery Tax Act of 1981|1981 tax cut]] was a Trojan horse:

{{cquote|The hard part of the supply-side tax cut is dropping the top rate from 70 to 50 percent—the rest of it is a secondary matter. The original argument was that the top bracket was too high, and that's having the most devastating effect on the economy. Then, the general argument was that, in order to make this palatable as a political matter, you had to bring down all the brackets. But, I mean, Kemp-Roth was always a Trojan horse to bring down the top rate.<ref>[http://www.theatlantic.com/doc/198112/david-stockman/5 The Education of David Stockman]</ref>}}

=== Research since 2000 ===
In 2003, the Wall Street Journal declared the debate over supply-side economics to have ended "with a whimper" after extensive modeling performed by the [[Congressional Budget Office]] failed to support the most extreme claims of supply-side policies. <ref>`Dynamic' Scoring Finally Ends Debate On Taxes, Revenue. By Alan Murray. Wall Street Journal. (Eastern edition). New York, N.Y.: Apr 1, 2003. pg. A.4 </ref> It was also suggested that [[Dan Crippen]] may have lost his chance at reappointment as head of the CBO for failing to support supply-side inspired [[dynamic scoring]]. This research undermines the claim that tax cuts can completely compensate for the initial loss of revenue due to the cut, but does acknowledge that resulting growth from the tax cut does replace some of the lost revenue, and the CBO has come under fire for using low estimates.

Before President Bush signed the 2003 tax cuts, the Economic Policy Institute (EPI) released a statement signed by ten Nobel prize laureates entitled "Economists' Statement Opposing the Bush Tax Cuts," which states that:

{{cquote|
Passing these tax cuts will worsen the long-term budget outlook, adding to the nation’s projected chronic deficits. This fiscal deterioration will reduce the capacity of the government to finance Social Security and Medicare benefits as well as investments in schools, health, infrastructure, and basic research. Moreover, the proposed tax cuts will generate further inequalities in after-tax income.<ref name="Economists Statement">[http://www.epi.org/content.cfm/econ_stmt_2003 Economists' statement opposing the Bush tax cuts (2003)]</ref>}}

Nobel laureate economist [[Milton Friedman]] agreed the tax cuts would reduce tax revenues and result in intolerable deficits, though he supported them as means to restrain federal spending. <ref>http://opinionjournal.com/editorial/feature.html?id=110002933 "What Every American Wants" by Milton Friedman</ref> Friedman characterized the reduced government tax revenue as "cutting their allowance".

Supporters of the Bush tax plan point out that the predictions of the EPI article differ from recent short-term trends. Specifically, the budget deficit shrank significantly during 2005, 2006, and 2007<ref>[http://www.nysun.com/article/58341 Incredible Shrinking Deficit - July 12, 2007 - The New York Sun]</ref> and the length of time before Social Security becomes insolvent has improved slightly, rather than worsening as EPI predicted.<ref>[http://meganmcardle.theatlantic.com/archives/2007/10/no_problem_here.php Megan McArdle (October 01, 2007) - No problem here (Fiscal Policy)]</ref>

Later analysis of the Bush tax cuts by the [[Economic Policy Institute]] claims that the Bush tax cuts have failed to promote growth, as all macroeconomic growth indicators, save the housing market, were well below average for the 2001 to 2005 business cycle. These critics argue that the Bush tax cuts have done little more than deprive government of revenue, increase deficit and after-tax income inequality. <ref>[http://www.epinet.org/content.cfm/bp168 The boom that wasn't]</ref> In the two years since that report, though, growth has remained strong, and newer numbers dispute the conclusions of the EPI report. The Bush administration points to the long period of sustained growth, both in GDP and in overall job numbers, as well as increases in personal income and decreases in the government deficit. <ref>[http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2007/11/20071102.html Fact Sheet: October 2007 Marks Record 50th Consecutive Month of Job Growth]</ref>

The results of the tax cuts in the U.S. in 2001 and 2003 are mixed. While results show a temporary decline in tax receipts, they later recovered due to economic growth. In this analysis, it is difficult to discern the reason for the decreases in tax revenue because 2001 was the same year that the [[dot-com bubble]] burst. Total Federal Revenues in FY2000 were $2,025 billion (in inflation adjusted dollars). <ref name=histbudget> http://www.whitehouse.gov/omb/budget/fy2008/pdf/hist.pdf Historical Budget Tables, Budget of the United States Government, Fiscal Year 2008(page 26)</ref> In 2001, President George W. Bush signed the [[Economic Growth and Tax Relief Reconciliation Act of 2001]]. Rather than wait for the start of the new fiscal year, income tax rate reductions started on July 1, 2001. In addition, rebate checks were sent to everyone that filed a 2000 income tax return (before Oct 1, the start of the new federal fiscal year). <ref>[http://www.fairmark.com/news/egtrra/overview.htm Overview of the Tax Cut]</ref> Federal revenues in FY2001 were $1,946 billion, $79 billion lower than in FY2000. More of the 2001 tax cut took effect at the start of FY2002, including cuts in the estate tax, retirement and educational savings. <ref>http://www.fairmark.com/news/egtrra/index.htm The 2001 Tax Cut</ref> Federal revenues in FY2002 were $1,777 billion, $247 billion lower than in FY2000.

In 2003, President Bush signed the [[Jobs and Growth Tax Relief Reconciliation Act of 2003]]. Income tax rates were immediately reduced and rebate checks issued (without waiting for the new fiscal year). <ref>http://usgovinfo.about.com/cs/taxes/a/bushtaxcuts.htm Details of the Bush 2003 Tax Cut Plan</ref> Federal revenues in FY2003 were $1,665 billion, $360 billion lower than in FY2000. Federal revenues in FY2004 were 1,707 billion, $318 billion lower than in FY2000. Federal revenues in FY2005 were $1,888, $137 billion lower than in FY2000, but by 2006 revenue had completely recovered (in inflation adjusted dollars), with receipts at $2,037 Billion, $12 billion higher than 2000. The cumulative total of federal revenues less than in FY2000 for the fiscal years 2001-2005 was $1.142 trillion, with that amount expected to be recovered by 2011, with 2012 expected to produce an additional $400 billion in excess revenue over 2000.

Federal revenues include revenue from different taxes that were cut, stayed the same, or were raised. For example, the [[Social Security (United States)|Social Security FICA]] tax rate stayed the same while the maximum income subject to the tax was increased each year, resulting in a tax increase for those earning more than the previous limit.<ref>[http://www.ssa.gov/OACT/COLA/cbb.html Contribution and Benefit Base]</ref> Social Security tax revenues increased each and every year. Including increasing tax revenues from taxes that stayed the same or were increased hides the magnitude of the revenue decrease in taxes that were cut. Income tax rates were cut and income tax revenues were lower than the FY2000 level each and every fiscal year from 2001-2005, a cumulative revenue decrease of $640 billion (measured in nominal dollars). But, by 2006 revenues exceeded the 2000 level. Likewise Corporate income tax rates were cut and revenues were lower than the FY2000 level each and every fiscal year from 2001-2004. But, by 2005 the inflation adjusted take exceeded that of 2000 by over 20%, and by 2006 nearly 50% higher.

In 2006, the CBO released a study titled "A Dynamic Analysis of Permanent Extension of the President's Tax Relief." <ref>[http://www.ustreas.gov/press/releases/reports/treasurydynamicanalysisreporjjuly252006.pdf Microsoft Word - treasury dyn anal report jul 24 10am II FINAL.doc]</ref> This study found that under the best possible scenario, making tax cuts permanent would increase the economy "over the long run" by 0.7%. Since the "long run" is not defined, some commentators<ref name="autogenerated1">[http://www.cbpp.org/7-27-06tax.htm Treasury Dynamic Scoring Analysis Refutes Claims by Supporters of the Tax Cuts, revised 8/24/06]</ref> have suggested that 20 years should be used, making the annual best case GDP growth equal to 0.04%. When compared with the cost of the tax cuts, the best case growth scenario is still not sufficient to pay for the tax cuts. Previous official CBO estimates had identified the tax cuts as costing the equivalent of 1.4% of the GDP in revenue. According to the study, if the best case growth scenario is applied, the tax cuts would still cost the equivalent of 1.27% of the GDP.<ref name="autogenerated1" />

This study was criticized by many economists, including Harvard Economics Professor Greg Mankiw, who pointed out that the CBO used a very low value for the earnings-weighted compensated labor supply elasticity of 0.14.<ref>[http://gregmankiw.blogspot.com/2007/04/cbo-on-supply-side-economics.html Greg Mankiw's Blog: CBO on Supply-side Economics]</ref> In a paper published in the Journal of Public Economics, Mankiw and Matthew Weinzierl noted that the current economics research would place an appropriate value for labor supply elasticity at around 0.5<ref>[http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6V76-4J8K5VF-1&_user=10&_handle=V-WA-A-W-WY-MsSAYVW-UUA-U-AACUWDBCVW-AAVDYCVBVW-YZECAWVWD-WY-U&_fmt=summary&_coverDate=02%2F15%2F2006&_rdoc=13&_orig=browse&_srch=%23toc%235834%239999%23999999999%2399999!&_cdi=5834&amp;view=c&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=8391d808449a05b05f1090799867f334]</ref>,
although Dr. Mankiw notes, "unfortunately, the academic literature on this topic is far from conclusive."

A recent working paper sponsored by the [[International Monetary Fund|IMF]] showed "that the Laffer curve can arise even with very small changes in labor supply effects" but that "labor supply changes do not cause the Laffer effect."<ref name = "PappTakats">{{cite journal|author=Papp, TK and Takáts, E|title=Tax rate cuts and tax compliance — the Laffer curve revisited|url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/wp/2008/wp0807.pdf|publisher=IMF Working Paper}}</ref> This is contrary to the supply-side explanation of the Laffer curve, in which the increases in tax revenue are held to be the result of an increase in labor supply.<ref>See p. 5: "Contradicting the traditional labor supply based explanation of the Laffer effect, measures of labor supply remained mostly unchanged."</ref> Instead their proposed mechanism for the Laffer effect was that "tax rate cuts can increase revenues by improving tax compliance." The study examined in particular the case of Russia which has comparatively high rates of tax evasion. In that case, their tax compliance model did yield significant revenue increases:
{{cquote|To illustrate the potential effects of tax rate cuts on tax revenues consider the example of Russia. Russia introduced a flat 13 percent personal income tax rate, replacing the three tiered, 12, 20 and 30 percent previous rates (as detailed in Ivanova, Keen and Klemm, 2005). The tax exempt income was also increased, further decreasing the tax burden. Considering social tax reforms enacted at the same time, tax rates were cut substantially for most taxpayers. However, personal income tax (PIT) revenues have increased significantly: 46 percent in nominal and 26 percent real terms during the next year. Even more interesting PIT revenues have increased from 2.4 percent to 2.9 percent of GDP—a more than 20 percent increase relative to GDP. PIT revenues continued to increase to 3.3 percent during the next year, representing a further 14 percent gain relative to GDP.<ref name = "PappTakats"/>}}

== Supply-side economics in popular culture ==
Supply-side economics have been discussed and critiqued in books, songs and films. The social activist and cartoonist [[Dan Perkins]] (who writes under the pen name [[Tom Tomorrow]]) has repeatedly criticized the theory in his weekly cartoon, [[This Modern World]].

The band [[Radiohead]] have alluded to their opposition to such policies in the song "[[Electioneering (song)|Electioneering]]". http://www.greenplastic.com/lyrics/electioneering.php

It was also mentioned by [[Ben Stein]] in the popular 1986 movie ''[[Ferris Bueller's Day Off]]''.

Comedian and author [[Al Franken]] lampoons Supply Side Economics in his 2004 book "''[[Lies and the Lying Liars Who Tell Them|Lies and the Lying Liars Who Tell Them - A Fair and Balanced Look at the Right]]''," in a comic book style chapter illustrated by [[Don Simpson (cartoonist)|Don Simpson]] entitled ''The Gospel of Supply Side Jesus''.

== See also ==
* [[Gold standard]]
* [[Mellonomics]]
* [[Monetarism]]
* [[Progressive tax]]
* [[Regressive tax]]
* [[Reaganomics]]
* [[List of supply-side economists]]

==Notes and references==
{{citation-style}}
{{reflist|2}}

==Further reading==
*{{cite book |title=The Truth About Supply Side Economics |last=Evans |first=Michael K. |authorlink= |coauthors= |year=1983 |publisher=Basic Books |location=New York |isbn=0465087787 |pages= |url= }}
*{{cite book |title=Wealth and Poverty |last=Gilder |first=George |authorlink=George Gilder |coauthors= |year=1993 |publisher=ICS Press |location=San Francisco |isbn=1558152407 |pages= |url= }}
*{{cite book |title=Peddling Prosperity: Economic Sense and Nonsense in the Age of Diminished Expectations |last=Krugman |first=Paul |authorlink=Paul Krugman |coauthors= |year=1995 |publisher=W. W. Norton |location=New York |isbn=0393312925 |pages= |url= }}
*{{cite book |title=The Economics of Demand-Led Growth: Challenging the Supply-Side Vision of the Long Run |last=Setterfield |first=Mark |authorlink= |coauthors= |year=2002 |publisher=E. Elgar |location=Northampton, MA |isbn=1840641770 |pages= |url= }}
*{{cite book |title=The Way the World Works: How Economies Fail—and Succeed |last=Wanniski |first=Jude |authorlink= |coauthors= |year=1978 |publisher=Basic Books |location=New York |isbn=0465090958 |pages= |url= }}

==External links==
*[http://www.globalpolitician.com/articleshow.asp?ID=700&cid=1&sid=45 American Economic Policy from 1920's to 1990's - From "Everyone is a Keynesian" to "Everyone is a Supply Sider"]
* {{cite web | last = Bartlett | first = Bruce | authorlink = Bruce Bartlett | title = How Supply-Side Economics Trickled Down | work = The New York Times | date = April 6, 2007 | url = http://www.nytimes.com/2007/04/06/opinion/06bartlett.html | accessdate = 2008-02-26}}
* {{cite web | last = Gwartney | first = James D. | title = Supply-Side Economics | work = The Concise Encyclopedia of Economics | publisher = The Liberty Fund | date = 2002 | url = http://www.econlib.org/library/Enc/SupplySideEconomics.html | accessdate = 2008-02-26}}

=== Supply Side Proponents ===
* [http://logicizer.townhall.com/g/c5ecb3cf-2712-4f5a-ad89-7ae03da99280 The Logic of the Laffer Curve]
*http://www.robertmundell.net/NobelLecture/nobel5.asp Portion of Mundell's Nobel Prize Lecture (awarded for unrelated work in [[optimum currency area]]) claiming that Supply Side Economics was responsible for growth, price stability and the collapse of the Soviet Union.
*[http://yorktownuniversity.com/grad_libraries_supply_side.cfm]Supply Side Library. A collection of essays and studies by Robert Mundell, Paul Craig Roberts, Stephen Entin and [[Alan Reynolds]].
*[http://www.wanniski.com/showarticle.asp?articleid=2803 SSU Summer Session Lesson #8 A Supply-Side History from wanniski.com]
*http://www.washtimes.com/commentary/20031108-111533-9600r.htm
*http://www.polyconomics.com/searchbase/12-15-00.html
*http://www.ashbrook.org/events/lecture/2002/reynolds.html

=== Supply Side Critiques ===
* [http://logicizer.townhall.com/g/f48d2bf3-1c51-4592-aa46-191f089d752f Have the Bush Tax Cuts Generated Higher Revenues? Views of Economists]
*http://www.csub.edu/ssric-trd/modules/macr/macrch4.htm
*http://www.gold-eagle.com/gold_digest_02/shostak062802.html
*http://www.huppi.com/kangaroo/1THE_REAGAN_YEARs.htm#reaganpage
*[http://www.kuro5hin.org/story/2004/1/22/164856/449 Supply-side Economics Explained for k5ers]
* {{cite web | last = Goolsbee | first = Austan | authorlink = Austan Goolsbee | title = Is the New Supply Side Better Than the Old? | work = The New York Times | date = January 20, 2008 | url = http://www.nytimes.com/2008/01/20/business/20view.html?ex=1358485200&en=44cac96fd9342557&ei=5090&partner=rssuserland&emc=rss&pagewanted=all | accessdate = 2008-02-26}}
*{{cite web | title = Take a Walk on the Supply Side: Tax Cuts on Profits, Savings, and the Wealthy Fail to Spur Economic Growth. | publisher = The Center for American Progress | date = September 2008 | url = http://www.americanprogress.org/issues/2008/09/supply_side.html}}

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Feminism

2008-11-09T12:32:00Z

AnthonyToddler: trying to remove too-obvious bias (some bias is ok, but I think too much just damages CP)

{{redirect|Feminists|a list of feminists|List of feminists}}
[[Image:8marchrallydhaka (55).JPG|thumb|300px|[[International Women's Day]] rally in Dhaka, Bangladesh, organized by the National Women Workers Trade Union Centre on March 8, 2005.]]
{{Feminism sidebar |expanded=all}}

'''Feminism''' is defined as the belief of the political, social, and economic equality of women. It is a discourse that involves various movements, [[Theory|theories]], and [[philosophies]] which are concerned with the issue of [[gender difference]], advocate equality for women, and campaign for [[women's rights]] and interests.<ref name=Cornell/><ref name=Humm2>{{cite book |author=Humm, Maggie |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=Modern feminisms: Political, Literary, Cultural |year=1992 |publisher=Columbia University Press |location=New York |isbn=0-231-08072-7 |pages=}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author= |title=Collins Dictionary and Thesaurus |year=2006 |publisher=Collins |location=London |isbn=0-00-722405-2 }}</ref><ref name=Humm/><ref>{{cite book |author=Agnes, Michael |title=Webster's New World College Dictionary |year=2007 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |location= |isbn=0-7645-7125-7 }}</ref> According to some, the history of feminism can be divided into three waves.<ref name=Humm> {{cite book |author=Humm, Maggie |title=The dictionary of feminist theory |year=1990 |publisher=Ohio State University Press |location=Columbus |isbn=0-8142-0506-2 |pages=278}}</ref><ref name=Walker1992> {{citation |last=Walker |first=Rebecca |title=Becoming the Third Wave |journal=Ms |issue=January/February, 1992 |pages=39–41 |year=1992}}</ref> The first wave was in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, the second was in the 1960s and 1970s and the third extends from the 1990s to the present.<ref name="Suffragettes to Grrls"/> [[Feminist theory]] emerged from these feminist movements.<ref name=Chodorow1989/><ref name=gilligan1977/> It is manifest in a variety of disciplines such as [[feminist geography]], [[feminist history]] and [[feminist literary criticism]].

Feminism has altered predominant perspectives in a wide range of areas within Western society, ranging from culture to law. Feminist activists have campaigned for women's legal rights (rights of contract, property rights, voting rights); for women's right to bodily integrity and autonomy, for abortion rights, and for reproductive rights (including access to contraception and quality prenatal care); for protection from domestic violence, sexual harassment and rape;<ref name=Echols>{{cite book |author=Echols, Alice |authorlink=Alice Echols |title=Daring to be bad: radical feminism in America, 1967-1975 |year=1989 |publisher=University of Minnesota Press |location=Minneapolis |isbn=0-8166-1787-2 |pages=416}}</ref><ref name=Cornell>{{cite book |author=Cornell, Drucilla |authorlink=Drucilla Cornell|title=At the heart of freedom: feminism, sex, and equality |year=1998 |publisher=Princeton University Press |location=Princeton, N.J. |isbn=978-0-691-02896-5 }}
</ref> for workplace rights, including [[maternity leave]] and equal pay; and against other forms of discrimination.<ref name=shildrick>{{cite book |author=Price, Janet |coauthors=Shildrick, Margrit |title=Feminist theory and the body: a reader |year=1999 |publisher=Routledge |location=New York |isbn=0-415-92566-5 |pages=487}}</ref><ref name=Butler2/><ref name=Messer-Davidow/>

During much of its history, most feminist movements and theories had leaders who were predominantly middle-class white women from Western Europe and North America.<ref name=Walker/><ref name=BFT/><ref name=Narayan/> However, at least since [[Sojourner Truth|Sojourner Truth's]] 1851 speech to American feminists, [[multiracial feminism|women of other races]] have proposed alternative feminisms.<ref name=BFT/> This trend accelerated in the 1960s with the Civil Rights movement in the United States and the collapse of European colonialism in Africa, the Caribbean, parts of Latin America and Southeast Asia. Since that time, women in former European colonies and the [[Third World]] have proposed "Post-colonial" and "Third World" feminisms.<ref name=Narayan/> Some [[postcolonial feminism|Postcolonial feminists]], such as [[Chandra Talpade Mohanty]], are critical of Western feminism for being [[ethnocentric]].<ref name=Mohanty/> [[Black feminism|Black feminists]], such as [[Angela Davis]] and [[Alice Walker]], share this view.<ref name=Walker/>''

Since the 1980s [[Standpoint feminism|Standpoint feminists]] argued that feminism should examine how women's experience of inequality relates to that of [[racism]], [[homophobia]], [[classism]] and [[colonization]].<ref name=BFT>Hill Collins, P. (2000): ''Black Feminist Thought: Knowledge, consciousness, and the politics of empowerment'' (New York: Routledge)</ref><ref name=Harding2003>{{cite book |author=Harding, Sandra |title=The feminist standpoint theory reader: intellectual and political controversies |year=2004 |publisher=Routledge |location=New York |isbn=978-0-415-94501-1}}</ref> In the late 1980s and 1990s postmodern feminists argued that [[gender roles]] are [[social construction|socially constructed]],<ref name=debeauvoir1973/><ref name=Butler/><ref name=West&Zimmerman>{{citation |last=West |first=Candace | last2 = Zimmerman | first2 = Don H. |title=Doing Gender |journal=Gender and Society |volume=1 |issue=2 |pages=26 |date=June, 1987 |url=http://gas.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/1/2/125 |doi=10.1177/0891243287001002002}}</ref> and that it is impossible to generalize women's experiences across cultures and histories.<ref name=Benhabib>{{citation |last=Benhabib |first=Seyla |title=From Identity Politics to Social Feminism: A Plea for the Nineties |journal=Philosophy of Education |volume=1 |issue=2 |pages=14 |year=1995}}</ref>

==History==
[[Image:8marta.jpg|thumb|A 1932 Soviet poster for [[International Women's Day]].]]
{{main|History of feminism}}
{{see also|Protofeminist}}

Feminists and scholars have divided the movement's history into three "waves". The [[First-wave feminism|first wave]] refers mainly to [[women's suffrage]] movements of the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries (mainly concerned with women's right to vote). The [[Second-wave feminism|second wave]] refers to the ideas and actions associated with the women's liberation movement beginning in the 1960s (which campaigned for legal and social equality for women). The [[Third-wave feminism|third wave]] refers to a continuation of, and a reaction to, the perceived failures of, second-wave feminism, beginning in the 1990s.<ref name="Suffragettes to Grrls">{{cite book|last=Krolokke|first=Charlotte|coauthors=Anne Scott Sorensen|title=Gender Communication Theories and Analyses:From Silence to Performance|year=2005|publisher=Sage|isbn=0761929185|pages=24|chapter=Three Waves of Feminism: From Suffragettes to Grrls}}</ref>

===First wave===
{{main|First-wave feminism}}
First-wave feminism refers to a period of feminist activity during the nineteenth century and early twentieth century in the [[United Kingdom]] and the [[United States]]. Originally it focused on the promotion of equal contract and property rights for women and the opposition to chattel marriage and ownership of married women (and their children) by their husbands. However, by the end of the nineteenth century, activism focused primarily on gaining political power, particularly the right of women's [[suffrage]]. Yet, feminists such as [[Voltairine de Cleyre]] and [[Margaret Sanger]] were still active in campaigning for women's sexual, [[reproductive rights|reproductive]], and economic rights at this time.<ref name=Freedman>{{cite book |author=Freedman, Estelle B. |title=No Turning Back : The History of Feminism and the Future of Women |year=2003 |publisher=Ballantine Books |location= |isbn=0-345-45053-1 |pages=464}}</ref>

In [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|Britain]] the [[Suffragette]]s campaigned for the women's vote. In 1918 the [[Representation of the People Act 1918]] was passed granting the vote to women over the age of 30 who owned houses. In 1928 this was extended to all women over eighteen.<ref name=Phillips>{{cite book |author=Phillips, Melanie |title=The ascent of woman: a history of the suffragette movement and the ideas behind it |year=2004 |publisher=Abacus |location=London |isbn=978-0-349-11660-0}}</ref> In the [[United States]] leaders of this movement included [[Elizabeth Cady Stanton]] and [[Susan B. Anthony]], who each campaigned for the abolition of slavery prior to championing women's right to vote. Other important leaders include [[Lucy Stone]], [[Olympia Brown]], and [[Helen Pitts]]. American first-wave feminism involved a wide range of women, some belonging to conservative Christian groups (such as [[Frances Willard (suffragist)|Frances Willard]] and the [[Woman's Christian Temperance Union]]), others resembling the diversity and radicalism of much of [[second-wave feminism]] (such as [[Matilda Joslyn Gage]] and the [[National Woman Suffrage Association]]). In the [[United States]] first-wave feminism is considered to have ended with the passage of the [[Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution]] (1919), granting women the right to vote in all states.The term ''first wave'', was coined retrospectively after the term ''[[second-wave feminism]]'' began to be used to describe a newer feminist movement that focused as much on fighting social and cultural inequalities as political inequalities.<ref name=Freedman> {{cite book |author=Freedman, Estelle B. |title=No Turning Back : The History of Feminism and the Future of Women |publisher=Ballantine Books |isbn=0-345-45053-1 |pages=464}}</ref><ref name= DuBois> {{cite book |author=DuBois, Ellen Carol |title=Harriot Stanton Blatch and the winning of woman suffrage |year=1997 |publisher=Yale University Press |location=New Haven, Conn. |isbn=978-0-300-06562-0}}</ref><ref name=Flexner> Flexner, Eleanor, ''Century of Struggle: The Woman's Rights Movement in the United States'' (The Belknap Press, 1996), ISBN 9780674106539</ref><ref name= Wheeler>{{cite book |author=Wheeler, Marjorie W. |title=One woman, one vote: rediscovering the woman suffrage movement |year=1995 |publisher=NewSage Press |location=Troutdale, OR |isbn=978-0-939165-26-0 }}</ref><ref name=Stevens>{{cite book |author=Stevens, Doris |authorlink= |coauthors=O'Hare, Carol |title=Jailed for freedom: American women win the vote |year=1995 |publisher=NewSage Press |location=Troutdale, OR |isbn=978-0-939165-25-2 }}</ref>

The first wave of feminists, in contrast to the second wave, was hostile to abortion. <ref>Elizabeth Cady Stanton (October 16, 1873) in a letter to Julia Ward Howe recorded in Howe's diary at Harvard University Library: “when we consider that women are treated as property, it is degrading to women that we should treat our children as property to be disposed of as we see fit”-.</ref> <ref>"Anthony,Susan B.(August 8, 1869) The Revolution: "All the articles on this subject that I have read have been from men. They denounce women as alone guilty, and never include man in any plans for the remedy. . . Guilty? Yes. No matter what the motive, love of ease, or a desire to save from suffering the unborn innocent, the woman is awfully guilty who commits the deed [abortion]. It will burden her conscience in life, it will burden her soul in death; But oh, thrice guilty is he who drove her to the desperation which impelled her to the crime!"</ref>

===Second wave===
{{main|Second-wave feminism}}
[[Image:Mystique.jpg|thumb|right|Original paperback cover from [[Betty Friedan|Betty Friedan's]] ''[[The Feminine Mystique]]'' (1963)]]
''[[Second-wave feminism]]'' refers to a period of feminist activity beginning in the early 1960s and lasting through the late 1980s. The scholar Imelda Whelehan suggests that the second wave was a continuation of the earlier phase of feminism involving the suffragettes in the UK and USA.<ref name=Whelehan>{{cite book |author=Whelehan, Imelda |title=Modern feminist thought: from the second wave to "post-feminism" |year=1995 |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |location=Edinburgh |isbn=978-0-7486-0621-4}}</ref> Second-wave feminism has continued to exist since that time and coexists with what is termed ''[[third-wave feminism]]''. The scholar Estelle Freedman compares first and second-wave feminism saying that the first wave focused on rights such as suffrage, whereas the second wave was largely concerned with other issues of equality, such as ending discrimination.<ref name=Freedman/>

The feminist activist and author [[Carol Hanisch]] coined the slogan "The Personal is Political" which became synonymous with the second wave.<ref name=Echols/><ref name=Hanisch>{{cite web |url=http://scholar.alexanderstreet.com/pages/viewpage.action?pageId=2259 |title=Hanisch, New Intro to "The Personal is Political" - Second Wave and Beyond |accessdate=2008-06-08 |last=Hanisch |first=Carol |date=2006-01-01 |work=The Personal Is Political}}</ref> Second-wave feminists saw women's cultural and political inequalities as inextricably linked and encouraged women to understand aspects of their personal lives as deeply politicized and as reflecting [[sexism|sexist]] power structures.

====Women's Liberation in the USA====
The phrase "Women’s Liberation" was first used in the United States in 1964 and first appeared in print in 1966.<ref name="sarachild">{{cite book |last=Sarachild |first=Kathie |editor=Sarachild, K. |others=Hanisch, C., Levine, F., Leon, B., Price, C. |title=Feminist Revolution |year=1978 |publisher=Random House |location=New York |isbn=0394408217 |doi= |pages=6 |chapter=Consciousness-Raising: A Radical Weapon}}.</ref><ref name=Mitchell> {{citation |last=Mitchell |first=Juliet |title=Women: The longest revolution |journal=New Left review |issue=Nov-Dec |pages=26 |year=1966}}</ref> By 1968, although the term ''Women’s Liberation Front'' appeared in the magazine ''[[Ramparts (magazine)|Ramparts]]'', it was starting to refer to the whole women’s movement.<ref name=Hinckle>{{citation |last=Hinckle |first=Warren | coauthor=Marianne Hinckle |title=Women Powe |journal=Ramparts |issue=February |pages=8 |year=1968}}</ref> [[History of brassieres#Feminist protests, Miss America and "Bra burning"|Bra-burning]] also became associated with the movement.<ref name=Jo_Freeman>{{cite book |author=Freeman, Jo |title=The politics of women's liberation: a case study of an emerging social movement and its relation to the policy process |year=1975 |publisher=McKay |location=New York |isbn=0-582-28009-5 |pages=268}}</ref> One of the most vocal critics of the women's liberation movement has been the African American feminist and intellectual Gloria Jean Watkins (who uses the pseudonym "[[bell hooks]]") who argues that this movement glossed over race and class and thus failed to address "the issues that divided women". She highlighted the lack of minority voices in the women's movement in her book ''Feminist theory from margin to center'' (1984).<ref name=hooks1984>{{cite book |author=Hooks, Bell |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=Feminist theory: from margin to center |year=2000 |publisher=South End Press |location=Cambridge, MA |isbn=0-89608-614-3 |pages=}}</ref>

====The Feminine Mystique====
{{main|The Feminine Mystique}}
[[Betty Friedan|Betty Friedan's]] ''[[The Feminine Mystique]]'' (1963) criticized the idea that women could only find fulfillment through childrearing and [[homemaker|homemaking]]. According to Friedan's obituary in the ''[[The New York Times]]'', ''The Feminine Mystique'' “ignited the contemporary women's movement in 1963 and as a result permanently transformed the social fabric of the United States and countries around the world” and “is widely regarded as one of the most influential nonfiction books of the 20th century.”<ref name=NYTimes>{{citation |last=Fox |first=Margalit |title=Betty Friedan, Who Ignited Cause in 'Feminine Mystique,' Dies at 85' | newspaper = New York times |date=February 5, 2006}}</ref> In the book Friedan hypothesizes that women are victims of a false belief system that requires them to find identity and meaning in their lives through their husbands and children. Such a system causes women to completely lose their identity in that of their family. Friedan specifically locates this system among post-[[World War II]] [[middle-class]] [[suburban]] communities. At the same time, America's post-war economic boom had led to the development of new technologies that were supposed to make household work less difficult, but that often had the result of making women's work less meaningful and valuable.<ref name=Friedan>{{cite book |author=Friedan, Betty |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=Feminine Mystique |date= |publisher=W W Norton & Co Inc |isbn=978-0-393-08436-1}}
</ref>

===Third wave===
{{main|Third-wave feminism}}
[[Third-wave feminism]] began in the early 1990s, arising as a response to perceived failures of the second wave and also as a response to the backlash against initiatives and movements created by the second wave. Third-wave feminism seeks to challenge or avoid what it deems the second wave's [[Essentialism|essentialist]] definitions of [[femininity]], which (according to them) over-emphasize the experiences of upper middle-class white women.

A [[post-structuralism|post-structuralist]] interpretation of gender and sexuality is central to much of the third wave's ideology. Third-wave feminists often focus on "micro-politics" and challenge the second wave's paradigm as to what is, or is not, good for females.<ref name=Freedman/><ref name=Henry>{{cite book |author=Henry, Astrid |title=Not my mother's sister: generational conflict and third-wave feminism |year=2004 |publisher=Indiana University Press |location=Bloomington |isbn=978-0-253-21713-4}}
</ref><ref name=Gillis>{{cite book |author=Gillis, Stacy |coauthors=Howie, Gillian; Munford, Rebecca |title=Third wave feminism: a critical exploration |year=2007 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |location=Basingstoke |isbn=978-0-230-52174-2}}</ref><ref name=Faludi>{{cite book |author=Faludi, Susan |authorlink=Susan Faludi |title=Backlash: the undeclared war against women |year=1992 |publisher=Vintage |location=London |isbn=978-0-09-922271-2}}</ref> The third wave has its origins in the mid-1980s. Feminist leaders rooted in the second wave like [[Gloria Anzaldua]], [[bell hooks]], Chela Sandoval, [[Cherrie Moraga]], [[Audre Lorde]], [[Maxine Hong Kingston]], and many other black feminists, sought to negotiate a space within feminist thought for consideration of race-related subjectivities.<ref name=Gillis/><ref name=Walker/><ref name=Heywood>{{cite book |author=Leslie, Heywood; Drake, Jennifer |title=Third wave agenda: being feminist, doing feminism |year=1997 |publisher=University of Minnesota Press |location=Minneapolis |isbn=978-0-8166-3005-4}}</ref>

Third-wave feminism also contains internal debates between [[difference feminism|difference feminists]] such as the psychologist [[Carol Gilligan]] (who believes that there are important differences between the sexes) and those who believe that there are no inherent differences between the sexes and contend that gender roles are due to [[social conditioning]].<ref name=Gilligan>{{cite book |author=Gilligan, Carol |authorlink=Carol Gilligan |title=In a different voice: psychological theory and women's development |year=1993 |publisher=Harvard University Press |location=Cambridge, Mass. |isbn=0-674-44544-9 |pages=184}}</ref>

===Post-feminism===
{{details|Third-wave_feminism#Post-feminism}}
''Post-feminism'' describes a range of viewpoints reacting to feminism. The term was first used in the 1980s to describe a backlash against [[second-wave feminism]]. It is now a label for a wide range of theories that take critical approaches to previous feminist discourses and includes challenges to the second wave's ideas.<ref name=Wright2000>{{cite book |author=Wright, Elizabeth |title=Lacan and Postfeminism (Postmodern Encounters) |year=2000 |publisher=Totem Books |location= |isbn=978-1-84046-182-9}}
</ref> Other post-feminists say that feminism is no longer relevant to today's society.<ref>{{cite book |author=Modleski, Tania |title=Feminism without women: culture and criticism in a "postfeminist" age |year=1991 |publisher=Routledge |location=New York |isbn=0-415-90416-1 |pages=188}}</ref> Amelia Jones has written that the post-feminist texts which emerged in the 1980s and 1990s portrayed second-wave feminism as a monolithic entity and criticized it using generalizations.<ref> Jones, Amelia. “Postfeminism, Feminist Pleasures, and Embodied Theories of Art,” in ''New Feminist Criticism: Art, Identity, Action'', ed. by Joana Frueh, Cassandra L. Langer and Arlene Raven. New York: HarperCollins, 1994. 16-41, 20. </ref>

One of the earliest uses of the term was in Susan Bolotin's 1982 article "Voices of the Post-Feminist Generation," published in ''[[New York Times Magazine]]''. This article was based on a number of interviews with women who largely agreed with the goals of feminism, but did not identify as feminists.<ref>{{cite book |author=Rosen, Ruth |title=The world split open: how the modern women's movement changed America |year=2001 |publisher=Penguin |location=New York, N.Y. |isbn=0-14-009719-8 |pages=444}}</ref>

Some contemporary feminists, such as [[Katha Pollitt]] or [[Nadine Strossen]], consider feminism to hold simply that "women are people". Views that separate the sexes rather than unite them are considered by these writers to be ''sexist'' rather than ''feminist''.<ref name=Pollitt>{{cite book |author=Pollitt, Katha |authorlink=Katha Pollitt |title=Reasonable creatures: essays on women and feminism |year=1995 |publisher=Vintage Books |location=New York |isbn=978-0-679-76278-2 }}</ref><ref name=Strossen>{{cite book |author=Strossen, Nadine |authorlink=Nadine Strossen |title=Defending pornography: free speech, sex, and the fight for women's rights |year=1995 |publisher=Scribner |location=New York, N.Y. |isbn=978-0-684-19749-4}}</ref>

In her book ''[[Backlash: The Undeclared War Against American Women]]'', [[Susan Faludi]] argues that a backlash against second wave feminism in the 1980s has successfully re-defined feminism through its terms. She argues that it constructed the women's liberation movement as the source of many of the problems alleged to be plaguing women in the late 1980s. She also argues that many of these problems are illusory, constructed by the media without reliable evidence. According to her, this type of backlash is a historical trend, recurring when it appears that women have made substantial gains in their efforts to obtain equal rights.<ref name=Faludi_Backlash>{{cite book |author=Faludi, Susan |authorlink=Susan Faludi |title=Backlash: the undeclared war against American women |year=1991 |publisher=Crown |location=New York |isbn=0-517-57698-8 |pages=552}}</ref>

Angela McRobbie argues that adding the prefix post to feminism undermines the strides that feminism has made in achieving equality for everyone, including women. Post-feminism gives the impression that equality has been achieved and that feminists can now focus on something else entirely. McRobbie believes that post-feminism is most clearly seen on so-called feminist media products, such as [[Bridget Jones's Diary]], [[Sex and the City]], and [[Ally McBeal]]. Female characters like Bridget Jones and Carrie Bradshaw claim to be liberated and clearly enjoy their sexuality, but what they are constantly searching for is the one man who will make everything worthwhile. <ref>McRobbie, Angela (2004). ''Post-feminism and popular culture.'' Feminist Media Studies,4:3,255 — 264.</ref>

===French feminism===
[[French feminism]] refers to a branch of feminist thinking from a group of [[feminists in France]] from the 1970s to the 1990s. French feminism, compared to Anglophone feminism, is distinguished by an approach which is more philosophical and literary. Its writings tend to be effusive and metaphorical being less concerned with political doctrine and generally focused on theories of "the body".<ref name=Moi> {{cite book |author=Moi, T. |authorlink= |title=French feminist thought: a reader |year=1987 |publisher=Blackwell |isbn=978-0-631-14973-6}}</ref> The term includes writers who are not French, but who have worked substantially in France and the French tradition<ref name=Spivak1981>{{citation
|last=Spivak
|first=Gayatri Chakravorty
|author-link = Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak
|year=1981
|title=French Feminism in an International Frame
|series = Feminist Readings: French Texts/American Contexts
|journal=Yale French Studies
|issue=62
|publisher=[[Yale University Press]]
|pages=154–184
|url=http://www.jstor.org/pss/2929898
|issn = 00440078
|doi=
|accessdate=2008-06-08
}}</ref> such as [[Julia Kristeva]].

The French author and philosopher [[Simone de Beauvoir]] wrote novels; monographs on philosophy, politics, and social issues; essays, biographies, and an autobiography. She is now best known for her metaphysical novels, including ''She Came to Stay'' and ''[[The Mandarins]]'', and for her 1949 treatise ''[[The Second Sex]]'', a detailed analysis of women's oppression and a foundational tract of contemporary feminism. It sets out a [[feminist existentialism]] which prescribes a moral revolution. As an [[existentialist]], she accepted [[Jean-Paul Sartre|Jean-Paul Sartre's]] precept that ''[[existence precedes essence]]''; hence "one is not born a woman, but becomes one". Her analysis focuses on the social construction of Woman as [[Other|the Other]], this de Beauvoir identifies as fundamental to women's oppression.<ref name=debeauvoir1973> {{cite book |author=Beauvoir, Simone de; Parshley, H. M. |title=The second sex |year=1997 |publisher=Vintage |location=London |isbn=978-0-09-974421-4}}</ref> She argues that women have historically been considered deviant and abnormal, and contends that even [[Mary Wollstonecraft]] considered men to be the ideal toward which women should aspire. De Beauvoir argues that for feminism to move forward, this attitude must be set aside.<ref name=debeauvoir1973/>

In the 1970s french feminists approached feminism with the concept of ''[[écriture féminine]]'' (which translates as female, or feminine writing).<ref name=Wright2000/> [[Helene Cixous]] argues that writing and philosophy are ''[[Wikt:phallocentric|phallocentric]]'' and along with other French feminists such as [[Luce Irigaray]] emphasize "writing from the body" as a subversive exercise.<ref name=Wright2000/> The work of the feminist psychoanalyst and philosopher, [[Julia Kristeva]], has influenced feminist theory in general and [[feminist literary criticism]] in particular. However, as the scholar Elizabeth Wright points out, "none of these French feminists align themselves with the feminist movement as it appeared in the [[Anglophone]] world".<ref name=Wright2000/><ref name=Moi1986>{{cite book |author=Kristeva, Julia; Moi, Toril |authorlink=Toril Moi |title=The Kristeva reader |year=1986 |publisher=Columbia University Press |location=New York |isbn=0-231-06325-3 |pages=328}}
</ref>

==Theoretical schools==
{{main|Feminist theory}}

[[Feminist theory]] is an extension of feminism into theoretical or philosophical fields. It encompasses work in a variety of disciplines, including [[feminist anthropology|anthropology]], [[feminist sociology|sociology]], [[feminist economics|economics]], [[women's studies]], [[feminist literary criticism|literary criticism]],<ref name=Zajko>{{cite book |author=Zajko, Vanda |coauthors=Leonard, Miriam |title=Laughing with Medusa: classical myth and feminist thought |year=2006 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |isbn=0-19-927438-X |pages=445}}
</ref><ref name=Howe>{{cite book |author=Howe, Mica; Aguiar, Sarah Appleton |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=He said, she says: an RSVP to the male text |year=2001 |publisher=Fairleigh Dickinson University Press |location=Madison [[N.J.]] |isbn=0-8386-3915-1 |pages=292}}
</ref> [[Art_history#Psychoanalytic_art_history|art history]],<ref>Griselda Pollock, ''Encounters in the Virtual Feminist Museum: Time, Space and the Archive''. Routledge, 2007.</ref> [[Feminist_theory#Feminist_psychoanalysis|psychoanalysis]]<ref name=matrixial_borderspace>{{cite book |author=Ettinger, Bracha |authorlink=Bracha Ettinger |coauthors=Judith Butler, Brian Massumi, Griselda Pollock |title=The matrixial borderspace |year=2006 |publisher=University of Minnesota Press |location=Minneapolis |isbn=0-8166-3587-0 |pages=245}}
</ref> and [[feminist philosophy|philosophy]].<ref>Brabeck, M. and Brown, L. (With Christian, L., Espin, O., Hare-Mustin, R., Kaplan, A., Kaschak, E., Miller, D., Phillips, E., Ferns, T., and Van Ormer, A.). (1997). Feminist theory and psychological practice. In J. Worell and N. Johnson (Eds.) Shaping the future of feminist psychology: Education, research, and practice) (pp.15-35). Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association.</ref><ref name=Florence>{{cite book |author=Florence, Penny |coauthors=Foster, Nicola |title=Differential aesthetics: art practices, philosophy and feminist understandings |year=2001 |publisher=Ashgate |location=Aldershot, Hants, England |isbn=0-7546-1493-X |pages=360}}</ref> Feminist theory aims to understand [[gender inequality]] and focuses on gender politics, power relations, and sexuality. While providing a critique of these social and political relations, much of feminist theory also focuses on the promotion of women's rights and interests. Themes explored in feminist theory include [[discrimination]], [[stereotyping]], [[objectification]] (especially [[sexual objectification]]), [[oppression]], and [[patriarchy]].<ref name=gilligan1977>
{{citation
|last=Gilligan
|first=Carol
|date=1977-00-00
|title='In a Different Voice: Women's Conceptions of Self and Morality'
|journal=Harvard Educational Review
|volume=47
|issue=4
|pages=481–517
|url=http://eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/custom/portlets/recordDetails/detailmini.jsp?_nfpb=true&_&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=EJ174986&ERICExtSearch_SearchType_0=no&accno=EJ174986
|doi=
|oclc =
|accessdate=2008-06-08
}} (1977)</ref><ref name=Chodorow1989>{{cite book |author=Chodorow, Nancy |title=Feminism and psychoanalytic theory |year=1989 |publisher=Yale University Press |location=New Haven, Conn. |isbn=978-0-300-05116-2}}</ref>

The American literary critic and feminist [[Elaine Showalter]] describes the phased development of feminist theory. The first she calls "feminist critique", in which the feminist reader examines the ideologies behind literary phenomena. The second Showalter calls "[[gynocriticism]]", in which the "woman is producer of textual meaning" including "the psychodynamics of female creativity; linguistics and the problem of a female language; the trajectory of the individual or collective female literary career and literary history". The last phase she calls "gender theory", in which the "ideological inscription and the literary effects of the sex/gender system" are explored".<ref name=showalter1979> {{cite book |author=Showalter, Elaine |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=The New feminist criticism: essays on women, literature, and theory |year=1985 |publisher=Pantheon |location=New York |isbn=978-0-394-72647-2 |pages=}}</ref> This model has been criticized by the scholar [[Toril Moi]] who sees it as an [[essentialism|essentialist]] and [[determinism|deterministic]] model for female subjectivity and for failing to account for the situation of women outside the West.<ref name=Moi>{{cite book |author=Moi, Toril |title=Sexual/textual politics: feminist literary theory |year=2002 |publisher=Routledge |location=London |isbn=978-0-415-28012-9}}
</ref>

==Movements and ideologies==
[[Image:Betty Friedan 1960.jpg|thumb|[[Betty Friedan]] in 1960]]
Several submovements of feminist [[ideology]] have developed over the years; some of the major subtypes are listed below. These movements often overlap, and some feminists identify themselves with several types of feminist thought.

===Liberal feminism===
{{main|Liberal feminism}}
[[Liberal feminism]] asserts the equality of men and women through political and legal reform. It is an individualistic form of feminism, which focuses on women’s ability to show and maintain their equality through their own actions and choices. Liberal feminism uses the personal interactions between men and women as the place from which to transform society. According to liberal feminists, all women are capable of asserting their ability to achieve equality, therefore it is possible for change to happen without altering the structure of society. Issues important to liberal feminists include reproductive and abortion rights, sexual harassment, voting, education, "equal pay for equal work", affordable childcare, affordable health care, and bringing to light the frequency of sexual and domestic violence against women.<ref>hooks, bell. "Feminist Theory: From Margin to Center" Cambridge, MA: South End Press 1984</ref>

===Radical feminism===
{{main|Radical feminism}}
{{related|[[Anti-pornography feminism]], [[Cultural feminism]], [[Lesbian feminism]], [[Separatist feminism]], [[Sex-positive feminism]]}}
[[Radical feminism]] considers the [[capitalism|capitalist]] hierarchy, which it describes as sexist, as the defining feature of women’s oppression. Radical feminists believe that women can free themselves only when they have done away with what they consider an inherently oppressive and dominating system. Radical feminists feel that there is a male-based authority and power structure and that it is responsible for oppression and inequality, and that as long as the system and its values are in place, society will not be able to be reformed in any significant way. Some radical feminists see no alternatives other than the total uprooting and reconstruction of society in order to achieve their goals.<ref name=Echols/>

Over time a number of sub-types of Radical feminism have emerged, such as [[Cultural feminism]], [[Separatist feminism]] and [[Anti-pornography feminism]]. Cultural feminism is the ideology of a "female nature" or "female essence" that attempts to revalidate what they consider undervalued female attributes.<ref name=Alcoff_1998>{{cite journal |author=Alcoff, Linda |journal=Signs |volume=13 | number= 3 |date=Spring, 1998 |pages=32 |title=Cultural Feminism Versus Post-Structuralism: the Identity Crisis in Feminist Theory |publisher=The University of Chicago Press |url=http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0097-9740%28198821%2913%3A3%3C405%3ACFVPTI%3E2.0.CO%3B2-V |month=September |year=1988 |issue=3 |doi=10.1086/494426}}</ref> It emphasizes the difference between women and men but considers that difference to be psychological, and to be culturally constructed rather than biologically innate.<ref name=Kramarae>{{cite book |author=Kramarae, Cheris |coauthors=Spender, Dale |title=Routledge international encyclopedia of women: global women's issues and knowledge |year=2000 |publisher=Routledge |location=New York |isbn=:0415920906 |pages=746}}</ref> Its critics assert that because it is based on an [[essentialist]] view of the differences between women and men and advocates independence and institution building, it has led feminists to retreat from politics to “life-style”<ref name=Verta/> Once such critic, [[Alice Echols]] (a feminist historian and cultural theorist), credits [[Redstockings]] member Brooke Williams with introducing the term cultural feminism in 1975 to describe the depoliticisation of [[radical feminism]].<ref name=Verta>{{cite journal |author=Taylor, Verta | co-author=Rupp, Leila J. |journal=Signs |volume=19 | number= 1 |date=Autumn, 1993 |pages=30 |publisher=The University of Chicago Press |url=http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0097-9740%28199323%2919%3A1%3C32%3AWCALFA%3E2.0.CO%3B2-D |title=# Women's Culture and Lesbian Feminist Activism: A Reconsideration of Cultural Feminism |month=November |issue=1 |doi=10.1086/494861}}</ref>

Separatist feminism is a form of radical feminism that does not support [[heterosexual]] relationships. Its proponents argue that the [[sexism|sexual disparities]] between men and women are unresolvable. Separatist feminists generally do not feel that men can make positive contributions to the feminist movement and that even well-intentioned men replicate [[patriarchal]] dynamics.<ref name=Hoagland>{{cite book |author=Hoagland, Sarah |authorlink=Sarah Hoagland |title=Lesbian Ethics |year=1997 |publisher=LE publications |location=Venice, CA}}</ref> Author [[Marilyn Frye]] describes separatist feminism as "separation of various sorts or modes from men and from institutions, relationships, roles and activities that are male-defined, male-dominated, and operating for the benefit of males and the maintenance of male privilege{{ndash}} this separation being initiated or maintained, at will, ''by women''".<ref>{{cite book |editor=Meyers, Diana T. |author=Frye, Marilyn |chapter=Some Reflections on Separatism and Power |title=Feminist social thought: a reader |year=1997 |publisher=Routledge |location=New York |isbn=0-415-91537-6}}</ref>

===Black feminism===
[[Image:Angela-Davis-Mar-28-2006.jpg|thumb|[[Angela Davis]] speaking at the University of Alberta on 28 March 2006]]
{{main|Black feminism|Womanism}}
Black feminism argues that [[sexism]], class oppression, and [[racism]] are inextricably bound together.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.feministezine.com/feminist/modern/Defining-Black-Feminist-Thought.html|title=Defining Black Feminist Thought|accessmonthday=May 31|accessyear=2007}}</ref> Forms of feminism that strive to overcome sexism and [[Social class|class]] oppression but ignore race can discriminate against many people, including women, through racial bias. The [[Combahee River Collective]] argued in 1974 that the liberation of black women entails freedom for all people, since it would require the end of racism, sexism, and class oppression.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.feministezine.com/feminist/modern/Black-Feminist-Statement.html|title=Combahee River Collective: A Black Feminist Statement - 1974|accessmonthday=May 31|accessyear=2007}}</ref> One of the theories that evolved out of this movement was [[Alice Walker|Alice Walker's]] [[Womanism]].
It emerged after the early feminist movements that were led specifically by white women who advocated social changes such as woman’s suffrage. These movements were largely white middle-class movements and had generally ignored oppression based on racism and classism. Alice Walker and other Womanists pointed out that black women experienced a different and more intense kind of oppression from that of white women.<ref name=Walker>{{cite book |author=Walker, Alice |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=In search of our mothers' gardens: womanist prose |year=1983 |publisher=Harcourt Brace Jovanovich |location=San Diego |isbn=0-15-144525-7 |pages=397}}</ref>

[[Angela Davis]] was one of the first people who articulated an argument centered around the intersection of race, gender, and class in her book, ''Women, Race, and Class''.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.feministezine.com/feminist/blackwomen.html|title=List of Books written by Black Feminists|accessmonthday=May 31|accessyear=2007}}</ref> [[Kimberle Crenshaw]], a prominent feminist law theorist, gave the idea the name [[Intersectionality]] while discussing [[identity politics]] in her essay, "Mapping the Margins: Intersectionality, Identity Politics and Violence Against Women of Color".

===Postcolonial feminism and third-world feminism===
{{main|Postcolonial feminism}}
{{related|[[Orientalism]], [[Postcolonialism]], [[Transnational feminism]]}}
[[Postcolonial feminism|Postcolonial feminists]] argue that oppression relating to the [[colonialism|colonial]] experience, particularly racial, class, and ethnic oppression, has marginalized women in postcolonial societies. They challenge the assumption that gender oppression is the primary force of patriarchy. Postcolonial feminists object to portrayals of women of non-Western societies as passive and voiceless victims and the portrayal of Western women as modern, educated and empowered.<ref>{{cite book |editor=Jackson, Stevi |author=Mills, S. |others=Jones, Jackie |title=Contemporary feminist theories |year=1998 |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |location=Edinburgh |isbn=0-7486-0689-0 |chapter=Postcolonial Feminist Theory}}</ref>

Postcolonial feminism emerged from the gendered history of colonialism: colonial powers often imposed [[Western culture|Western]] norms on colonized regions. In the 1940s and 1950s, after the formation of the [[United Nations]], former colonies were monitored by the West for what was considered "social progress". The status of women in the [[developing world]] has been monitored by organizations such as the United Nations and as a result traditional practices and roles taken up by women—sometimes seen as distasteful by Western standards—could be considered a form of rebellion against colonial oppression.<ref name=Mohanty88> {{cite journal |last=Mohanty |first=Chandra Talpade |authorlink=Chandra Talpade Mohanty |title=Under Western Eyes |journal=Feminist Review |issue=Autumn, 1988 |pages=27 | number = 30}}</ref> Postcolonial feminists today struggle to fight gender oppression within their own cultural models of society rather than through those imposed by the Western colonizers.<ref>{{cite book |author=Bulbeck, Chilla |title=Re-orienting western feminisms: women's diversity in a postcolonial world |year=1998 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge [[Cambridgeshire]] |isbn=0-521-58975-4 |pages=282}}</ref>

[[Image:Taslima Nasrin.jpg|thumb|[[Taslima Nasrin]]: author, physician, and feminist human rights activist]]
Postcolonial feminism is critical of Western forms of feminism, notably [[radical feminism]] and [[liberal feminism]] and their universalization of female experience. Postcolonial feminists argue that cultures impacted by colonialism are often vastly different and should be treated as such. Colonial oppression may result in the glorification of pre-colonial culture, which, in cultures with traditions of power stratification along gender lines, could mean the acceptance of, or refusal to deal with, inherent issues of gender inequality.<ref>Greenwald, A: "[http://www.scholars.nus.edu.sg/post/achebe/greenwald3.html Postcolonial Feminism in Anthills of the Savannah]", 2002</ref> Postcolonial feminists can be described as feminists who have reacted against both universalizing tendencies in Western feminist thought and a lack of attention to gender issues in mainstream [[Postcolonialism|postcolonial]] thought.<ref>Mills, S (1998): "Postcolonial Feminist Theory" page 98 in S. Jackson and J. Jones eds., ''Contemporary Feminist Theories'' (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press) pp.98-112</ref>

''[[Third-world feminism]]'' has been described as a group of feminist theories developed by feminists who acquired their views and took part in feminist politics in so-called [[third-world]] countries.<ref name=Narayan>{{cite book |author=Narayan, Uma |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=Dislocating cultures: identities, traditions, and Third-World feminism |year=1997 |publisher=Routledge |location=New York |isbn=0-415-91418-3 |pages=0415914183}}</ref> Although women from the third world have been engaged in the feminist movement, [[Chandra Talpade Mohanty]] and [[Sarojini Sahoo]] criticize Western feminism on the grounds that it is [[ethnocentrism|ethnocentric]] and does not take into account the unique experiences of women from third-world countries or the existence of feminisms [[Indigenous knowledge|indigenous]] to third-world countries. According to [[Chandra Talpade Mohanty]], women in the third world feel that Western feminism bases its understanding of women on "internal racism, classism and homophobia".<ref name=Mohanty> {{cite book |author=Mohanty, Chandra Talpade |editor=Mohanty, Chandra Talpade; Russo, Ann; Torres, Lourdes |chapter=Introduction |title=Third World women and the politics of feminism |year=1991 |publisher=Indiana University Press |location=Bloomington |isbn=0-253-20632-4 |pages=49}}</ref> This discourse is strongly related to African feminism and [[postcolonial feminism]]. Its development is also associated with concepts such as black feminism, womanism,<ref name=Walker/><ref name= Ogunyemi>{{cite journal |last=Ogunyemi |first=C. O. |title=Womanism: The Dynamics of the Black Female Novel in English |journal=Signs |year=1985 |volume=1 | number = 1 |pages=17}}</ref><ref name=Kolawole>{{cite book |author=Kolawole, Mary Ebun Modupe |title=Womanism and African consciousness |year=1997 |publisher=Africa World Press |location=Trenton, N.J. |isbn=0-86543-540-5 |pages=216}}</ref> "Africana womanism",<ref name=Hudson-Weems>{{cite book |author=Hudson-Weems, Clenora |title=Africana womanism: reclaiming ourselves |year=1994 |publisher=Bedford Publishers |location=Troy, Mich. |isbn=0-911557-11-3 |pages=158}}</ref> "motherism",<ref name= Acholonu>{{cite book |author=Obianuju Acholonu, Catherine |title=Motherism: The Afrocentric Alternative to Feminism |year=1995 |publisher=Afa Publ. |isbn=9783199714 |pages=144}}
</ref> "Stiwanism",<ref name=Ogundipe-Leslie>{{cite book |author=Ogundipe-Leslie, Molara |title=Re-creating Ourselves: African Women & Critical Transformations |year=1994 |publisher=Africa World Press |isbn=0865434123 |pages=262}})</ref> "negofeminism",<ref name= Nnaemeka>{{cite journal |last=Nnaemeka |first=O. |title=Feminism, Rebellious Women, and Cultural Boundaries |journal=Research in African Literatures |year=1970}}</ref> [[chicana feminism]], and "femalism".

===Multiracial feminism===
{{main|Chicana feminism}}
Multiracial feminism (also known as “women of color” feminism) offers a standpoint theory and analysis of the lives and experiences of women of color.<ref name=Baca_Zinn/> The theory emerged in the 1990s and was developed by Dr. Maxine Baca Zinn, a Chicana feminist and Dr. Bonnie Thornton Dill, a sociology expert on African American women and family.<ref name=Baca_Zinn>{{cite book
|author=Baca Zinn, Maxine
|coauthor = Bonnie Thornton Dill
|editor=Carole R. McCann & Seung-Kyung Kim
|title=Feminist Theory Reader: Local and Global Perspectives
|year=2002
|chapter=Theorizing Difference from Multiracial Feminism.
|place = New York
|publisher=Routledge
|isbn=0415931525}}</ref><ref name=Baca_Zinn2>{{cite book |author=Zinn, Maxine Baca; |coauthors=Dill, Bonnie Thornton |title=Women of Color in U.S. Society (Women in the Political Economy) |year=1994 |publisher=Temple University Press |isbn=978-1-56639-106-1}}
</ref>

===Socialist and Marxist feminisms===
{{main|Socialist feminism|Marxist Feminism}}
[[Image:Zetkin luxemburg1910.jpg|thumb|[[Clara Zetkin]] and [[Rosa Luxemburg]], 1910]]
[[Socialist feminism]] connects the oppression of women to [[Marxist]] ideas about exploitation, oppression and labor. Socialist feminists see women as being held down as a result of their unequal standing in both the workplace and the domestic sphere.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.feministezine.com/feminist/domesticity.html|title=Monstrous Domesticity by Faith Wilding|accessmonthday=May 31|accessyear=2007}}</ref> Prostitution, domestic work, childcare, and marriage are all seen by socialist feminists as ways in which women are exploited by a patriarchal system which devalues women and the substantial work that they do. Socialist feminists focus their energies on broad change that affects society as a whole, rather than on an individual basis. They see the need to work alongside not just men, but all other groups, as they see the oppression of women as a part of a larger pattern that affects everyone involved in the capitalist system.<ref>Ehrenreich, Barbara. "What is Socialist Feminism" WIN Magazine, 1976</ref>

Marx felt that when class oppression was overcome, gender oppression would vanish as well.<ref name=Marx> Marx, Karl, ''Capital'' translated by B. Fowkes (Penguin Classics, 1990), ISBN 9780140445688</ref> According to some socialist feminists, this view of gender oppression as a sub-class of class oppression is naive and much of the work of socialist feminists has gone towards separating gender phenomena from class phenomena. Some contributors to socialist feminism have criticized these traditional Marxist ideas for being largely silent on gender oppression except to subsume it underneath broader class oppression.<ref name=round-table_discussion>{{cite journal |last=Connolly |first=Clara | number = 23 |coauthors=Lynne Segal, Michele Barrett, Beatrix Campbell, Anne Phillips, Angela Weir, Elizabeth Wilson |title=Feminism and Class Politics: A Round-Table Discussion |journal=Feminist Review |issue=Socialist-Feminism: Out of the Blue |pages=17 |date=Summer 1986 |doi=}}</ref> Other socialist feminists, notably two long-lived American organizations [[Radical Women]] and the [[Freedom Socialist Party]], point to the classic Marxist writings of [[Frederick Engels]]and [[August Bebel]] as a powerful explanation of the link between gender oppression and class exploitation.<ref name=Engels>{{cite book |author=Engels, Friedrich |title=The origin of the family, private property, and the state, in the light of the researches of Lewis H. Morgan |year=1972 |publisher=International Publishers |location=New York |isbn=978-0-85315-260-6}}</ref><ref name = Bebel>{{cite book |author=Bebel, August |title=Woman Under Socialism |publisher=University Press of the Pacific |isbn=978-1-4102-1564-2}}</ref>

In the late nineteenth century and early twentieth century both Clara Zetkin and Eleanor Marx were against the demonization of men and supported a [[proletariate|proletarian]] revolution that would overcome as many male-female inequalities as possible.<ref name=Stokes>{{cite book |author=Stokes, John |title=Eleanor Marx (1855-1898): life, work, contacts |year=2000 |publisher=Ashgate |location=Aldershot |isbn=978-0-7546-0113-5}}</ref>
{{seealso|Gender roles in Eastern Europe after Communism}}

===Libertarian feminism===
According to the [[Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy]], "Classical liberal or libertarian feminism conceives of freedom as freedom from coercive interference. It holds that women, as well as men, have a right to such freedom due to their status as self-owners."<ref>[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/feminism-liberal/#ClasCri Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy]</ref>

There are several categories under the theory of libertarian feminism, or kinds of feminism that are linked to libertarian ideologies. [[Anarcha-feminism]] (also called ''anarchist feminism'' or ''anarcho-feminism'') combines feminist and [[anarchist]] beliefs, embodying classical libertarianism rather than contemporary conservative libertarianism. Anarcha-feminists view patriarchy as a manifestation of hierarchy, believing that the fight against patriarchy is an essential part of the [[class struggle]] and the anarchist struggle against the state.<ref name=farrow>{{cite book |author=Dunbar-Ortiz, Roxanne |title=Quiet Rumours |publisher=AK Press |isbn=978-1-902593-40-1}}</ref> Anarcha-feminists such as Susan Brown see the anarchist struggle as a necessary component of the feminist struggle. In Brown's words, "anarchism is a political philosophy that opposes all relationships of power, it is inherently feminist".<ref name=Brown>{{cite book |editor=Roussopoulos, Dimitrios I. |chapter=Beyond Feminism: Anarchism and Human Freedom |title=The Anarchist papers, 3 |year=1990 |publisher=Black Rose Books |location=Montreal |isbn=0-921689-53-5 |author=Brown, Susan}}</ref> Recently, [[Wendy McElroy]] has defined a position (which she labels "ifeminism" or "individualist feminism") that combines feminism with [[anarcho-capitalism]] or contemporary conservative [[Libertarianism#Libertarian_conservatism|libertarianism]], arguing that a pro-capitalist, anti-state position is compatible with an emphasis on equal rights and empowerment for women.<ref name=McElroy0>{{cite web|url=http://www.wendymcelroy.com/xxx|title=XXX: A Woman's Right to Pornography|accessdate=2008-07-08}}</ref> Individualist anarchist-feminism has grown from the [[United States|US]]-based [[individualist anarchism]] movement.<ref name=Greenway>{{cite book |editor=Kramarae, Cheris |others=Spender, Dale |author=Greenway, Judy |title=Routledge international encyclopedia of women: global women's issues and knowledge |year=2000 |publisher=Routledge |location=New York |isbn=0-415-92088-4 |chapter=Feminism: Anarchist}}</ref>

[[Individualist feminism]] is typically defined as a feminism in opposition to what writers such as Wendy McElroy and [[Christina Hoff Sommers]] term, ''political'' or ''[[gender feminism]]''.<ref name=mcelroy1>{{cite book |author=McElroy, Wendy |title=Liberty for Women: Freedom and Feminism in the 21st century |year=2002 |publisher=Ivan R. Dee, Publisher |isbn=978-1-56663-435-9}}</ref><ref name=Hoff_Sommers>{{cite book |author=Sommers, Christina Hoff |authorlink=Christina Hoff Sommers |title=Who stole feminism?: how women have betrayed women |year=1995 |publisher=Simon & Schuster |location=New York |isbn=0-684-80156-6 |pages=320}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fff.org/freedom/fd0602f.asp|title=Mary Wollstonecraft by Wendy McElroy}}</ref> However, there are some differences within the discussion of individualist feminism. While some individualist feminists like McElroy oppose government interference into the choices women make with their bodies because such interference creates a coercive hierarchy (such as patriarchy),<ref name=wwwifeministsnet>{{cite web |title=ifeminists.net|url=http://www.ifeminists.net/introduction/|accessdate=2007-08-22}}</ref><ref name=mcelroy2>{{cite book |editor=McElroy, Wendy |authorlink=Wendy McElroy |title=Liberty for Women: Freedom and Feminism in the 21st century |year=2002 |publisher=Ivan R. Dee, Publisher |location= |isbn=978-1-56663-435-9}}</ref> other feminists such as Christina Hoff Sommers hold that feminism's political role is simply to ensure that everyone's, including women's, right against coercive interference is respected.<ref>[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/feminism-liberal/#ClasCri Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy]</ref> Sommers is described as a "socially conservative equity feminist" by the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy,<ref>[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/feminism-liberal/#ClasCri Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy]</ref> and she has argued that women should voluntarily commit to traditional gender roles.<ref>Dwight Furrow,
[http://books.google.com/books?id=tGPYH6dnrEMC&pg=PA248&vq=sommers&dq=%22traditional+values%22+%22Christina+hoff+sommers%22&lr=&source=gbs_search_s&sig=ACfU3U36y2jiv3LaemaskAgGF0gbH9bsbA#PPA225,M1 Moral Soundings: Readings on the Crisis of Values in Contemporary Life], Rowman & Littlefield, 2004 ISBN 0742533700, 9780742533707</ref> Critics have called her an [[anti-feminist]]<ref>[http://organizenow.net/cco/right/antifem.html Female Anti-Feminism for Fame and Profit] by Jennifer Pozner</ref><ref>{{cite book
|last=LaFramboise
|first=LaFramboise
|authorlink=
|title=The Princess at the Window: A New Gender Morality
|url=http://adamjones.freeservers.com/donna.htm by Donna LaFramboise
|accessdate=2006-10-19
|year=1996
|publisher=Penguin
|location=Toronto, Canada
|id=ISBN 0-14-025690-3
|quote=Over the past few years, a growing number of women have written books critical of mainstream feminism. Among them [...] Christina Hoff Sommers.}}</ref>

===Post-structural and postmodern feminism===
{{details|Postmodern feminism}}
''Post-structural feminism'', also referred to as ''French feminism'', uses the insights of various [[epistemology|epistemological]] movements, including psychoanalysis, linguistics, political theory (Marxist and [[post-marxism|post-Marxist]] theory), race theory, literary theory, and other intellectual currents for feminist concerns.<ref name=Johnson>{{cite book |author=Barbara Johnson |title=The Feminist Difference: Literature, Psychoanalysis, Race and Gender |year=2002 |publisher=Harvard University Press |pages=224 |isbn=0674001915}}</ref> Many post-structural feminists maintain that difference is one of the most powerful tools that females possess in their struggle with patriarchal domination, and that to equate the feminist movement only with equality is to deny women a plethora of options because equality is still defined from the masculine or patriarchal perspective.<ref name=Johnson/><ref>{{cite book |editor=Price, Janet |others=Shildrick, Margrit |author=Irigaray, Luce |chapter=When Our Lips Speak Together |coauthors= |title=Feminist theory and the body: a reader |year=1999 |publisher=Routledge |location=New York |isbn=0-415-92566-5}}</ref>
[[Image:Judith Butler.jpg|thumb|Judith Butler at a lecture at the [[University of Hamburg]].]]
''[[Postmodern feminism]]'' is an approach to [[feminist theory]] that incorporates [[Postmodern philosophy|postmodern]] and [[post-structuralism|post-structuralist theory]]. The largest departure from other branches of feminism is the argument that gender is [[social construction|constructed]] through [[discourse|language]].<ref name=Butler/> The most notable proponent of this argument is [[Judith Butler]]. In her 1990 book, ''[[Gender Trouble]]'', she draws on and critiques the work of [[Simone de Beauvoir]], [[Michel Foucault]] and [[Jacques Lacan]]. Butler criticizes the distinction drawn by previous feminisms between biological [[sex]] and socially constructed gender. She says that this does not allow for a sufficient criticism of [[essentialism]]. For Butler "woman" is a debatable category, complicated by class, [[ethnicity]], sexuality, and other facets of identity. She suggests that [[gender performativity|gender is performative]]. This argument leads to the conclusion that there is no single cause for women's subordination and no single approach towards dealing with the issue.<ref name=Butler>{{cite book |author=Butler, Judith |title=Gender trouble: feminism and the subversion of identity |year=1999 |publisher=Routledge |location=New York |isbn=9780415924993}}</ref>
[[Image:Donna Haraway and Cayenne.jpg|thumb|Donna Haraway, author of ''A Cyborg Manifesto'', with her dog Cayenne]]

In ''A Cyborg Manifesto'' [[Donna Haraway]] criticizes traditional notions of feminism, particularly its emphasis on identity, rather than affinity. She uses the metaphor of a [[cyborg]] in order to construct a postmodern feminism that moves beyond [[dualisms]] and the limitations of traditional gender, feminism, and politics.<ref name=Harraway>{{cite book |author=Harraway, Donna |title=Simians, Cyborgs and Women: The Reinvention of Nature |chapter=Cyborg Manifesto: Science, Technology, and Socialist-Feminism in the Late Twentieth Century |year=1991 |publisher=Routledge |location=New York |isbn=1853431389 |pages=32 |url=http://www.stanford.edu/dept/HPS/Haraway/CyborgManifesto.html}}</ref> Haraway's cyborg is an attempt to break away from [[Oedipal]] narratives and [[Christian]] origin-myths like [[Genesis]]. She writes:
"The cyborg does not dream of community on the model of the organic family, this time without the oedipal project. The cyborg would not recognize the Garden of Eden; it is not made of mud and cannot dream of returning to dust."<ref name=Harraway/>

A major branch in postmodern feminist thought has emerged from the contemporary psychoanalytic [[French feminism]]. Other postmodern feminist works highlight stereotypical [[gender roles]], only to portray them as parodies of the original beliefs. The history of feminism is not important in these writings—only what is going to be done about it. The history is dismissed and used to depict how ridiculous past beliefs were. Modern feminist theory has been extensively criticized as being predominantly, though not exclusively, associated with Western middle class [[academia]]. Mary Joe Frug, a postmodernist feminist, criticized mainstream feminism as being too narrowly focused and inattentive to related issues of race and class.<ref name=Frug>{{cite journal |last=Frug |first=Mary Joe |title=Postmodern Feminist Legal Manifesto (An Unfinished Draft) |journal=Harvard Law Review |volume=105 |pages=30 |month=March |year=1992 |doi=}}</ref>
{{See also|French feminism|Deconstruction|Poststructuralism|Postmodernism}}

===Ecofeminism===
[[Image:Biehl.jpg|thumb|Janet Biehl is one of the premier authors on social ecology]]
{{main|Ecofeminism}}
[[Ecofeminism]] links [[ecology]] with feminism. Ecofeminists see the domination of women as stemming from the same ideologies that bring about the domination of the environment. Patriarchal systems, where men own and control the land, are seen as responsible for the oppression of women and destruction of the natural environment. Ecofeminists argue that the men in power control the land, and therefore they are able to exploit it for their own profit and success. Ecofeminists argue that in this situation, women are exploited by men in power for their own profit, success, and pleasure. Ecofeminists argue that women and the environment are both exploited as passive pawns in the race to domination. Ecofeminists argue that those people in power are able to take advantage of them distinctly because they are seen as passive and rather helpless. Ecofeminism connects the exploitation and domination of women with that of the environment. As a way of repairing social and ecological injustices, ecofeminists feel that women must work towards creating a healthy environment and ending the destruction of the lands that most women rely on to provide for their families.<ref name=MacGregor>{{cite book |author=MacGregor, Sherilyn |title=Beyond mothering earth: ecological citizenship and the politics of care |year=2006 |publisher=UBC Press |location=Vancouver |isbn=0-7748-1201-X |pages=286}}</ref>

Ecofeminism argues that there is a connection between women and nature that comes from their shared history of oppression by a patriarchal Western society. Vandana Shiva claims that women have a special connection to the environment through their daily interactions with it that has been ignored. She says that "women in subsistence economies, producing and reproducing wealth in partnership with nature, have been experts in their own right of holistic and ecological knowledge of nature’s processes. But these alternative modes of knowing, which are oriented to the social benefits and sustenance needs are not recognized by the [[capitalism|capitalist]] reductionist paradigm, because it fails to perceive the interconnectedness of nature, or the connection of women’s lives, work and knowledge with the creation of wealth.”<ref name=Shiva>{{cite book |author=Shiva, Vandana |title=Staying alive: women, ecology and development |year=1988 |publisher=Zed Books |location=London |isbn=978-0-86232-823-8}}</ref>

However, feminist and [[social ecology|social ecologist]] [[Janet Biehl]] has criticized ecofeminism for focusing too much on a mystical connection between women and nature and not enough on the actual conditions of women.<ref name= Biehl>{{cite book |author=Biehl, Janet |title=Rethinking eco-feminist politics |year=1991 |publisher=South End Press |location=Boston, MA |isbn=978-0-89608-392-9}}</ref>
{{seealso|Environmentalism}}

==Society==
{{details|Feminist movement}}
[[Image:Woman suffrage headquarters Cleveland.jpg|thumb|Woman Suffrage Headquarters, Cleveland, 1912]]

The [[feminist movement]] has effected change in Western society, including [[women's suffrage]]; the right to initiate [[divorce]] proceedings and "no fault" divorce; and the right of women to make individual decisions regarding pregnancy (including access to [[contraceptive]]s and [[abortion]]); and the right to own property.<ref name=Messer-Davidow>{{cite book |author=Messer-Davidow, Ellen |title=Disciplining feminism: from social activism to academic discourse |year=2002 |publisher=Duke University Press |location=Durham [[N.C.]] |isbn=978-0-8223-2843-7}}</ref><ref name=Butler2>{{cite journal |last=Butler |first=Judith |title=Feminism in Any Other Name |journal=differences |volume=6 |pages=30 |month=March |year=1992 | number= 2-3 |doi=}}</ref>

===Civil rights===
{{main|Women's rights}}
From the 1960s on the women's liberation movement campaigned for [[women's rights]], including the same pay as men, equal rights in law, and the freedom to plan their families. Their efforts were met with mixed results.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jofreeman.com/feminism/suffrage.htm|title=FROM SUFFRAGE TO WOMEN'S LIBERATION: FEMINISM IN TWENTIETH CENTURY AMERICA by Jo Freeman}}</ref> Issues commonly associated with notions of women's rights include, though are not limited to: the right to bodily integrity and autonomy; to vote (universal suffrage); to hold public office; to work; to fair wages or equal pay; to own property; to education; to serve in the military; to enter into legal contracts; and to have marital, parental and religious rights.<ref name=quarterly>{{cite book |author=Lockwood, Bert B. |title=Women's Rights: A Human Rights Quarterly Reader |year=2006 |publisher=The Johns Hopkins University Press |isbn=978-0-8018-8374-3}}</ref>

In the UK a public groundswell of opinion in favour of legal equality gained pace{{when}}, partly through the extensive employment of women in men's traditional roles during both world wars. By the 1960s the legislative process was being readied, tracing through MP [[Willie Hamilton]]'s [[Select Committee (Westminster System)|select committee]] report, his Equal Pay For Equal Work Bill, the creation of a Sex Discrimination Board, Lady Sear's draft sex anti-discrimination bill, a government [[Green Paper]] of 1973, until 1975 when the first British Sex Discrimination Act, an Equal Pay Act, and an [[Equal Opportunities Commission]] came into force.<ref>The Guardian, 29 December 1975</ref><ref>The Times, 29 December 29 1975 "Sex discrimination in advertising banned"</ref>
With encouragement from the UK government, the other countries of the [[EEC]] soon followed suit with an agreement to ensure that discrimination laws would be phased out across the European Community.

In the USA, the US [[National Organization for Women]] (NOW) was created in 1966 with the purpose of bringing about equality for all women. NOW was one important group that fought for the [[Equal Rights Amendment]] (ERA). This amendment stated that “equality of rights under the law shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or any state on account of [[gender|sex]].”<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.now.org/history/purpos66.html|title=The National Organization for Women's 1966 Statement of Purpose}}</ref> But there was disagreement on how the proposed amendment would be understood. Supporters believed it would guarantee women equal treatment. But critics feared it might deny women the right be financially supported by their husbands. The amendment died in 1982 because not enough states had ratified it. ERAs have been included in subsequent Congresses, but have still failed to be ratified.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.answers.com/topic/national-organization-for-women?cat=biz-fin&nr=1|title=National Organization for Women: Definition and Much More from Answers.com}}</ref>

In the final three decades of the 20th century, Western women knew a new freedom through [[birth control]], which enabled women to plan their adult lives, often making way for both career and family. The movement had been started in the 1910s by US pioneering social reformer [[Margaret Sanger]] and in the UK and internationally by [[Marie Stopes]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.u-s-history.com/pages/h1676.html|title=Margaret Sanger}}</ref>

The ''United Nations Human Development Report 2004'' estimated that when both paid employment and unpaid household tasks are accounted for, on average women work more than men. In rural areas of selected developing countries women performed an average of 20% more work than men, or an additional 102 minutes per day. In the [[OECD]] countries surveyed, on average women performed 5% more work than men, or 20 minutes per day.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/hdr04_complete.pdf|title=Section 28: Gender, Work Burden, and Time Allocation in ''United Nations Human Development Report 2004'' |pages=233|format=PDF}}</ref> At the UN's Pan Pacific Southeast Asia Women's Association 21st International Conference in 2001 it was stated that "in the world as a whole, women comprise 51% of the population, do 66% of the work, receive 10% of the income and own less than one percent of the property".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ppseawa.org/Bulletin/01May/conference.html|title=PPSEAWA International Bulletin - Pan Pacific Southeast Asia Women's Association 21st International Conference}}</ref>

===Language===
{{details|Gender-neutral language in English}}
Gender-neutral language is a description of [[Word usage|language usages]] which are aimed at minimizing assumptions regarding the biological [[sex]] of human [[reference|referents]]. The advocacy of gender-neutral language reflects, at least, two different agendas: one aims to clarify the ''inclusion'' of both sexes or genders (gender-inclusive language); the other proposes that gender, as a category, is rarely worth marking in language (gender-neutral language). Gender-neutral language is sometimes described as ''non-sexist language'' by advocates and ''politically-correct language'' by opponents.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.usask.ca/policies/2_03.htm|title="Gender Neutral Language." University of Saskatchewan Policies 2001 |accessdate=2007-03-25}}</ref>

===Heterosexual relationships===
The increased entry of women into the workplace beginning in the twentieth century has affected gender roles and the [[division of labor]] within [[household]]s. Sociologist [[Arlie Russell Hochschild]] in ''The Second Shift'' and ''The Time Bind'' presents evidence that in two-career couples, men and women, on average, spend about equal amounts of time working, but women still spend more time on housework.<ref name=Hochschild1>{{cite book |author=Hochschild, Arlie Russell |coauthors=Machung, Anne |title=The second shift |year=2003 |publisher=Penguin Books |location=New York |isbn=978-0-14-200292-6 }}</ref><ref name=Hochschild2>{{cite book |author=Hochschild, Arlie Russell |title=The time bind: when work becomes home and home becomes work |year=2001 |publisher=Henry Holt & Co. |location=New York |isbn=978-0-8050-6643-2}}</ref> Feminist writer [[Cathy Young]] responds to Hochschild's assertions by arguing that in some cases, women may prevent the equal participation of men in housework and parenting.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://dir.salon.com/story/mwt/feature/2000/06/12/gatekeeping/index.html|title=The mama lion at the gate |accessdate=2008-07-08 |publisher=Salon.com |author=Young, Cathy |authorlink=Cathy Young}}</ref>

Feminist criticisms of men's contributions to child care and domestic labor in the Western middle class are typically centered around the idea that it is unfair for women to be expected to perform more than half of a household's domestic work and child care when both members of the relationship also work outside the home. Several studies provide statistical evidence that the financial income of married men does not affect their rate of attending to household duties.<ref>{{cite journal |author=South, Scott J. | coauthor= Spitze, Gelnna |title=Housework in Marital and Nonmarital Households |journal=American Sociological Review |volume=59 |year=1994 | number= 3 |pages=327–348 |doi=10.2307/2095937}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Fenstermaker Berk, Sarah | coauthor= Shih, Anthony |chapter=Contributions to Household Labour: Comparing Wives' and Husbands' Reports |journal=American Sociological Review |title=Women and Household Labour |year=1980 |editor=Fenstermaker Berk, Sarah |isbn=0803912110 }}</ref>

In ''Dubious Conceptions'', [[Kristin Luker]] discusses the effect of feminism on teenage women's choices to bear children, both in and out of wedlock. She says that as childbearing out of wedlock has become more socially acceptable, young women, especially poor young women, while not bearing children at a higher rate than in the 1950s, now see less of a reason to get married before having a child. Her explanation for this is that the economic prospects for poor men are slim, hence poor women have a low chance of finding a husband who will be able to provide reliable financial support.<ref name=Luker>{{cite book |author=Luker, Kristin |title=Dubious conceptions: the politics of teenage pregnancy |year=1996 |publisher=Harvard University Press |location=Cambridge, Mass. |isbn=0-674-21703-9 }}</ref>

Although research suggests that to an extent, both women and men perceive feminism to be in conflict with romance, studies of undergraduates and older adults have shown that feminism has positive impacts on relationship health for women and sexual satisfaction for men, and found no support for negative stereotypes of feminists.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Rudman, Laurie A. | coauthor= Phelan, Julie E. |title=The Interpersonal Power of Feminism: Is Feminism Good for Romantic Relationships? |journal=Sex Roles |volume=57 | number = 11-12 |url=http://www.springerlink.com/content/6163700x51t5r169/ |month=December |year=2007 |accessdate=2008-07-08 |doi=10.1007/s11199-007-9319-9 |pages=787 }}</ref>

===Religion===
{{details|Feminist theology}}
{{see also|God and gender}}
{{related|[[Christian feminism]], [[Difference feminism]], [[New feminism]], [[Islamic feminism]], [[Jewish feminism]] [[Dianic Wicca|Wiccan feminism]]}}
[[Feminist theology]] is a movement that reconsiders the traditions, practices, scriptures, and theologies of religions from a feminist perspective. Some of the goals of feminist theology include increasing the role of women among the clergy and religious authorities, reinterpreting male-dominated imagery and language about God, determining women's place in relation to career and motherhood, and studying images of women in the religion's sacred texts.<ref name=Bundesen>{{cite book |author=Bundesen, Lynne |title=The Feminine Spirit: Recapturing the Heart of Scripture |publisher=Jossey-Bass |isbn=978-0-7879-8495-3}}</ref>

[[Christian feminism]] is a branch of feminist theology which seeks to interpret and understand [[Christianity]] in light of the equality of women and men. Because this equality has been historically ignored, Christian feminists believe their contributions are necessary for a complete understanding of Christianity. While there is no standard set of beliefs among Christian feminists, most agree that God does not discriminate on the basis of biologically-determined characteristics such as sex. Their major issues are the [[ordination of women]], male dominance in Christian marriage, and claims of moral deficiency and inferiority of abilities of women compared to men. They also are concerned with the balance of parenting between mothers and fathers and the overall treatment of women in the church.<ref name=Haddad>{{cite journal |author=Haddad, Mimi |title=Egalitarian Pioneers: Betty Friedan or Catherine Booth? |journal=Priscilla Papers |year=2007 |volume=20 | number = 4 |date=Autumn 2006}}</ref><ref name=andeson>{{cite book |author=Anderson, Pamela Sue |coauthors=Clack, Beverley |title=Feminist philosophy of religion: critical readings |year=2004 |publisher=Routledge |location=London |isbn=0-415-25749-2}}</ref>

[[Islamic feminism]] is concerned with the role of [[Women and Islam|women in Islam]] and aims for the full equality of all [[Muslims]], regardless of gender, in public and private life. Islamic feminists advocate [[women's rights]], [[gender equality]], and social justice grounded in an Islamic framework. Although rooted in Islam, the movement's pioneers have also utilized secular and Western feminist discourses and recognize the role of Islamic feminism as part of an integrated global feminist movement.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.feminismeislamic.org/eng/index.htm|publisher=feminismeislamic.org |author=Catalonian Islamic Board |title=II International Congress on Islamic Feminism|accessdate=2008-07-09 |date=24th-27th October 2008}}</ref> Advocates of the movement seek to highlight the deeply rooted teachings of equality in the [[Quran]] and encourage a questioning of the patriarchal interpretation of Islamic teaching through the Quran, ''[[hadith]]'' (sayings of [[Muhammad]]), and ''[[sharia]]'' (law) towards the creation of a more equal and just society.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/2002/569/cu1.htm|title=Al-Ahram Weekly: Islamic feminism: what's in a name? |author=Badran, Margot |accessdate=2008-07-09 |date=17 - 23 January 2002}}</ref>

[[Jewish feminism]] is a movement that seeks to improve the religious, legal, and social status of women within [[Judaism]] and to open up new opportunities for religious experience and leadership for Jewish women. Feminist movements, with varying approaches and successes, have opened up within all major branches of Judaism. In its modern form, the movement can be traced to the early 1970s in the [[United States]]. According to [[Judith Plaskow]], who has focused on feminism in [[Reform Judaism]], the main issues for early Jewish feminists in these movements were the exclusion from the all-male prayer group or ''[[minyan]]'', the exemption from positive time-bound ''[[Mitzvah|mitzvot]]'', and women's inability to function as witnesses and to initiate [[Jewish view of marriage#Divorce|divorce]].<ref name=Plaskow1997>{{cite book |author=Plaskow, Judith |editor=Frank, Daniel H. |others=Leaman, Oliver |title=History of Jewish philosophy |year=2003 |publisher=Routledge |location=London |isbn=0-415-32469-6 |chapter=Jewish Feminist Thought}}</ref>

The [[Dianic Wicca]] or Wiccan feminism is a female focused, Goddess-centered Wiccan sect; also known as a feminist religion that teaches witchcraft as every woman’s right. It is also one sect of the many practiced in [[Wicca]].<ref>{{cite book |author=Raphael, Melissa |title=Introducing Thealogy: Discourse on the Goddess |year=1999 |publisher=Routledge |chapter=Chapter ^: Feminist Witchcraft|isbn=1850759758}}</ref>

==Culture==
{{seealso|Women's cinema|Women's music}}
===Women's writing===
[[Image:VirginiaWoolf.PNG|thumb|[[Virginia Woolf]]]]
{{details|Women's writing in English|Women's literature written in English}}
Women's writing came to exist as a separate category of scholarly interest relatively recently. In the West, second-wave feminism prompted a general reevaluation of women's historical contributions, and various academic sub-disciplines, such as [[Women's history]] (or [[herstory]]) and women's writing, developed in response to the belief that women's lives and contributions have been underrepresented as areas of scholarly interest.<ref name=Blain>{{cite book |author=Blain, Virginia |coauthors=Clements, Patricia; Grundy, Isobel |title=The feminist companion to literature in English: women writers from the Middle Ages to the present |year=1990 |publisher=Yale University Press |location=New Haven |isbn=0-300-04854-8 |pages=1231}}</ref> Virginia Balisn et al. characterize the growth in interest since 1970 in women's writing as "powerful".<ref name=Blain/> Much of this early period of feminist literary scholarship was given over to the rediscovery and reclamation of texts written by women. Studies such as Dale Spender's ''Mothers of the Novel'' (1986) and Jane Spencer's ''The Rise of the Woman Novelist'' (1986) were ground-breaking in their insistence that women have always been writing. Commensurate with this growth in scholarly interest, various presses began the task of reissuing long-out-of-print texts. Virago Press began to publish its large list of nineteenth and early-twentieth-century novels in 1975 and became one of the first commercial presses to join in the project of reclamation. In the 1980s Pandora Press, responsible for publishing Spender's study, issued a companion line of eighteenth-century novels written by women.<ref>Sandra M. Gilbert, "[http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9A0DE4DD1E3AF937A35756C0A960948260&sec=&spon=&pagewanted=1 Paperbacks: From Our Mothers' Libraries: women who created the novel]." ''New York Times'', May 4, 1986.</ref> More recently, Broadview Press has begun to issue eighteenth- and nineteenth-century works, many hitherto out of print and the University of Kentucky has a series of republications of early women's novels. There has been commensurate growth in the area of [[List of biographical dictionaries of women writers|biographical dictionaries of women writers]] due to a perception, according to one editor, that "[[m]]ost of our women are not represented in the 'standard' reference books in the field".<ref name=Blain/>

Another early pioneer of Feminist writing is [[Charlotte Perkins Gilman]], her most notable work was ''[[The Yellow Wallpaper]].'' <ref>[http://www.scaryforkids.com/yellow-wallpaper/ Full Text of ''The Yellow Wallpaper''], retrieved January 22, 2008.</ref>

====Feminist science fiction====
{{main|Feminist science fiction}}
In the 1960s the genre of science fiction combined its sensationalism with political and technological critiques of society. With the advent of feminism, questioning women’s roles became fair game to this "subversive, mind expanding genre".<ref>{{cite book |author=Clute, John |coauthors=Nicholls, Peter |title=The Encyclopedia of science fiction |year=1995 |publisher=St. Martin's Griffin |location=New York |isbn=0-312-13486-X |pages=1386}}</ref> Two early texts are [[Ursula K. Le Guin|Ursula K. Le Guin's]] ''[[The Left Hand of Darkness]]'' (1969) and [[Joanna Russ]]' ''[[The Female Man]]'' (1970). They serve to highlight the socially constructed nature of gender roles by creating [[utopia]]s that do away with gender.<ref>Elyce Rae Helford, in Westfahl, Gary. The Greenwood Encyclopedia of Science Fiction and Fantasy: Greenwood Press, 2005: 290.</ref> Both authors were also pioneers in feminist criticism of science fiction in the 1960s and 70s, in essays collected in ''The Language of the Night'' (Le Guin, 1979) and ''How To Suppress Women's Writing'' (Russ, 1983). Another major work of feminist science fiction has been<ref>Sturgis, Susanna. Octavia E. Butler: June 22, 1947–February 24, 2006: ''The Women's Review of Books'', 23(3): 19 May 2006.</ref> ''[[Kindred (novel)|Kindred]]'' by [[Octavia Butler]].

===Riot grrrl movement===
[[Image:Khanna.jpg|thumb|150px|[[Kathleen Hanna]] was the lead singer of [[Bikini Kill]], a [[riot grrrl]] music band formed in 1990.]]
{{main|Riot Grrrl}}
[[Riot grrrl]] (or riot grrl) is an underground feminist [[Punk rock|punk]] movement that started in the 1990s and is often associated with [[third-wave feminism]] (it is sometimes seen as its starting point). It was Grounded in the [[DIY ethic|DIY philosophy]] of [[Punk ideologies#Punk ethics|punk values]]. Riot grrls took an [[anti-corporate]] stance of [[self-sufficiency]] and [[self-reliance]].<ref name=Rowe-Finbeiner/> Riot grrrl's emphasis on universal female identity and separatism often appears more closely allied with second-wave feminism than with the third wave.<ref name=Rosenberg_Garofalo>{{cite journal |author=Rosenberg, Jessica | co-author= Gitana Garofalo |title=Riot Grrrl: Revolutions from within |journal=Signs |volume=23 | number = 3 |date=Spring 1998 |issue=Feminisms and Youth Cultures |doi=10.1086/495289 |pages=809}}</ref> Riot grrrl bands often address issues such as rape, domestic abuse, sexuality, and female empowerment. Some bands associated with the movement are: [[Bikini Kill]], [[Bratmobile]], [[Excuse 17]], [[Free Kitten]], Heavens To Betsy, [[Huggy Bear]], [[L7 (band)|L7]], and [[Team Dresch]]. In addition to a music scene, riot grrrl is also a [[subculture]]; [[zines]], the [[DIY]] ethic, art, political action, and activism are part of the movement. Riot grrrls hold meetings, start chapters, and support and organize women in music.<ref name=Schilt>{{cite journal |author=Schilt, Kristen |title="A Little Too Ironic": The Appropriation and Packaging of Riot Grrrl Politics by Mainstream Female Musicians |journal=Popular Music and Society |year=2003 |volume=26 |date=Spring 1998 }}</ref>

The riot grrrl movement sprang out of [[Olympia, Washington]] and [[Washington, D.C.]] in the early 1990s. It sought to give women the power to control their voices and artistic expressions.<ref name=Rowe-Finbeiner/> Riot grrrls took a growling double or triple r, placing it in the word ''girl'' as a way to take back the derogatory use of the term .<ref name=Rowe-Finbeiner>{{cite book |author=Rowe-Finkbeiner, Kristin |coauthors= |title=The F-Word: Feminism In Jeopardy - Women, Politics and the Future |year=2004 |publisher=Seal Press |isbn=1-58005-114-6 }}</ref>

The Riot Grrrl’s links to social and political issues are where the beginnings of third-wave feminism can be seen. The music and zine writings are strong examples of "cultural politics in action, with strong women giving voice to important social issues though an empowered, a female oriented community, many people link the emergence of the third-wave feminism to this time".<ref name=Rowe-Finbeiner/> The movement encouraged and made "adolescent girls’ standpoints central," allowing them to express themselves fully.<ref name=Code>{{cite book |author=Code, Lorraine |title=Encyclopedia of Feminist Theories |year=2004 |publisher=Routledge |place=London |isbn=10415308852 |pages=560 }}</ref>
{{-}}

==Pornography==
{{details|Feminist sex wars}}
The "Feminist Sex Wars" is a term for the acrimonious debates within the feminist movement in the late 1970s through the 1980s around the issues of feminism. sexuality, sexual representation, [[pornography]], [[sadomasochism]], the role of [[transwomen]] in the lesbian community, and other sexual issues. The debate pitted [[Anti-pornography movement|anti-pornography feminism]] against [[sex-positive feminism]], and parts of the feminist movement were deeply divided by these debates.<ref name=Duggan>{{cite book |author=Duggan, Lisa; Hunter, Nan D. |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=Sex wars: sexual dissent and political culture |year=1995 |publisher=Routledge |location=New York |isbn=0-415-91036-6 |pages=}}</ref><ref name=Hansen>{{cite book |author=Hansen, Karen Tranberg; |coauthors=Philipson, Ilene J. |title=Women, class, and the feminist imagination: a socialist-feminist reader |year=1990 |publisher=Temple University Press |location=Philadelphia |isbn=0-87722-630-X |pages=}}</ref><ref name=Gerhard>{{cite book |author=Gerhard, Jane F. |title=Desiring revolution: second-wave feminism and the rewriting of American sexual thought, 1920 to 1982 |year=2001 |publisher=Columbia University Press |location=New York |isbn=0-231-11204-1}}</ref><ref name=Leidholdt>{{cite book |author=Leidholdt, Dorchen; |authorlink=Dorchen Leidholdt |coauthors=Raymond, Janice G |title=The Sexual liberals and the attack on feminism |year=1990 |publisher=Pergamon Press |location=New York |isbn=0-08-037457-3}}</ref><ref name=Vance>{{cite book |author=Vance, Carole S. |title=Pleasure and Danger: Exploring Female Sexuality |publisher=Thorsons Publishers|isbn=0-04-440593-6}}</ref>

====Anti-pornography movement====
{{details|Anti-pornography#Feminist objections}}
[[Anti-pornography movement#Feminist objections|Anti-pornography feminists]], such as [[Catharine MacKinnon]], [[Andrea Dworkin]], [[Robin Morgan]] and [[Dorchen Leidholdt]], put [[pornography]] at the center of a feminist explanation of women's oppression.<ref name=XXX>{{cite book |author=McElroy, Wendy |title=XXX: A Woman's Right to Pornography |year=1995 |publisher=St. Martin's Press |location=New York |isbn=0312136269 |pages=243}}</ref>

Some feminists, such as [[Diana Russell]], [[Andrea Dworkin]], [[Catharine MacKinnon]], [[Susan Brownmiller]], [[Dorchen Leidholdt]], [[Ariel Levy]], and [[Robin Morgan]], argue that pornography is degrading to women, and complicit in violence against women both in its production (where, they charge, abuse and exploitation of women performing in pornography is rampant) and in its consumption (where, they charge, pornography eroticizes the domination, humiliation, and coercion of women, and reinforces sexual and cultural attitudes that are complicit in [[rape]] and [[sexual harassment]]).<ref name= Dworkin>{{cite book |author=Dworkin, Andrea |authorlink=Andrea Dworkin |title=Pornography: men possessing women |year=1989 |publisher=Plume |location=New York |isbn=0-452-26793-5 |pages=300}}</ref>

Beginning in the late 1970s, anti-pornography [[radical feminism|radical feminists]] formed organizations such as [[Women Against Pornography]] that provided educational events, including slide-shows, speeches, and guided tours of the sex industry in [[Times Square]], in order to raise awareness of the content of pornography and the sexual subculture in pornography shops and live sex shows.<ref name= Brownmiller>{{cite book |author=Brownmiller, Susan |title=In our time: memoir of a revolution |year=1999 |publisher=Dial Press |location=New York |isbn=0-385-31486-8 |pages=360}}</ref> Andrea Dworkin and Robin Morgan began articulating a vehemently anti-porn stance based in radical feminism beginning in 1974, and anti-porn feminist groups, such as Women Against Pornography and similar organizations, became highly active in various US cities during the late 1970s.<ref name= Dworkin/>
{{seealso|Women Against Pornography|Women Against Violence in Pornography and Media}}

====Sex-positive movement====
{{main|Sex-positive feminism}}
Sex-positive feminism is a movement that was formed in order to address issues of women's sexual pleasure, freedom of expression, [[sex work]], and inclusive gender identities. [[Ellen Willis]]' 1981 essay, "Lust Horizons: Is the Women's Movement Pro-Sex?" is the origin of the term, "pro-sex feminism"; the more commonly-used variant, "sex positive feminism" arose soon after.<ref>{{citation
|last=Willis
|first=Ellen
|date=1981-06-01
|title=Lust Horizons: Is the Women's Movement Pro-Sex?
|periodical = [[Village Voice]]
|issue=June 1981
|doi=
|oclc =
}}</ref>

Although some sex-positive feminists, such as [[Betty Dodson]], were active in the early 1970s, much of sex-positive feminism largely began in the late 1970s and 1980s as a response to the increasing emphasis in radical feminism on anti-pornography activism, and to the ideas of anti-pornography feminists like [[Robin Morgan]], [[Andrea Dworkin]], and [[Catharine MacKinnon]], who argued that sexual expressions such as [[pornography]], [[sadomasochism]], [[transexualism]], and other "male" modes of sexuality are a central cause of women's oppression.<ref name=Echols/><ref name=McElroy0/>

Sex-positive feminists are also strongly opposed to radical feminist calls for legislation against pornography, a strategy they decried as [[censorship]], and something that could, they argued, be used by social conservatives to censor the sexual expression of women, gay people, and other sexual minorities. The initial period of intense debate and acrimony between sex-positive and anti-pornography feminists during the early 1980s is often referred to as the [[Feminist Sex Wars]]. Other sex-positive feminists became involved not in opposition to other feminists, but in direct response to what they saw as patriarchal control of sexuality.{{Fact|date=June 2008}}
{{seealso|Samois}}

==Relationship to political movements==
===Socialism===
{{main|The left and feminism}}
Since the early twentieth century some feminists have allied with [[socialism]]. In 1907 there was an International Conference of Socialist Women in [[Stuttgart]] where suffrage was described as a tool of class struggle. [[Clara Zetkin]] of the [[Social Democratic Party of Germany]] called for women's suffrage to build a "''socialist order, the only one that allows for a radical solution to the women's question''".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.marxismo.net/idm/idm5/idm5.htm|title=Rossi, Elisabetta. L'emancipazione femminile in Russia prima e dopo la rivoluzione In difesa del marxismo Nr. 5}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.marxist.com/emancipation-women-russia.htm|title=The Emancipation of Women in Russia before and after the Russian Revolution In Defence of Marxism}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Badia, Gilbert |title=Zetkin. Femminista senza frontiere |year=1994 |publisher=University of Michigan. |isbn=8885378536 |pages=320}}</ref><ref name="hww5"/>

In Britain, the women's movement was allied with the [[Labour party (UK)|Labour party]]. In America, [[Betty Friedan]] emerged from a radical background to take command of the organized movement. [[Radical Women]], founded in 1967 in Seattle is the oldest (and still active) socialist feminist organization in the U.S.<ref>{{cite book |author= |coauthors= |title=The Radical Women manifesto: socialist feminist theory, program and organizational structure |year=2001 |publisher=Red Letter Press |location=Seattle, WA. |isbn=0-932323-11-1}}</ref> During the [[Spanish Civil War]], [[Dolores Ibárruri]] (''La Pasionaria'') led the [[Communist Party of Spain]]. Although she supported equal rights for women, she opposed women fighting on the front and clashed with the [[Anarcho-Feminism|anarcho-feminist]] [[Mujeres Libres]].<ref name=Ib>{{cite book |author=Ibárruri, Dolores |title=Speeches & Articles, 1936-1938: 1936-1938 |year=1938 |publisher=University of Michigan. |pages=263}}</ref>

Revolutions in Latin America brought changes in women's status in countries such as Nicaragua where [[Feminist ideology during the Sandinista Revolution]] was largely responsible for improvements in the quality of life for women but fell short of achieving a social and ideological change.<ref name=parpart>{{cite book |author=Parpart, Jane L. |coauthors=Connelly, M. Patricia; Connelly, Patricia; Barriteau, V. Eudine; Barriteau, Eudine |title=Theoretical perspectives on gender and development |date= |publisher=Ottawa, Canada : International Development Research Centre 2000. |isbn=0-88936-910-0 |pages=215}}</ref>
{{seealso|Post-Communism Gender Roles in Eastern Europe|Role of women in Nicaraguan Revolution}}

===Fascism===
Scholars have argued that [[Nazi Germany]] and the other [[fascist]] states of the 1930s and 1940s illustrates the disastrous consequences for society of a state ideology that, in glorifying women, becomes antifeminist.<ref>{{cite book |author=Bridenthal, Renate |coauthors=Grossmann, Atina; Kaplan, Marion A. |title=When biology became destiny: women in Weimar and Nazi Germany |year=1984 |publisher=Monthly Review Press |location=New York |isbn=0-85345-642-9 |pages=364}}</ref> In Germany after the rise of [[Nazism]] in 1933, there was a rapid dissolution of the political rights and economic opportunities that feminists had fought for during the prewar period and to some extent during the 1920s. In Franco's Spain, the right wing Catholic conservatives undid the work of feminists during the Republic. Fascist society was hierarchical with an emphasis and idealization of virility, with women maintaining a largely subordinate position to men.<ref name=hww5>{{cite book |author=Duby, Georges |coauthors=Perrot, Michelle; Pantel, Pauline, Schmitt |title=A history of women in the West |year=1994 |publisher=Belknap Press of Harvard University Press |location=Cambridge, Mass. |isbn=0-674-40369-X |pages=600}}</ref>

==Scientific discourse==
Some feminists are critical of traditional scientific discourse, arguing that the field has historically been biased towards a masculine perspective.<ref name=shildrick/> [[Evelyn Fox Keller]] argues that the [[rhetoric of science]] reflects a masculine perspective, and she questions the idea of [[scientific objectivity]]. [[Primatologist]] [[Sarah Blaffer Hrdy]] notes the prevalence of masculine-coined stereotypes and theories, such as the non-sexual female, despite "the accumulation of abundant openly available evidence contradicting it".<ref name=Hrdy>{{cite book|last=Blaffer Hrdy |first=Sarah |title=Infanticide: Comparative and Evolutionary Perspectives: Mother Nature: A History of Mothers, Infants and Natural Selection |publisher=Pantheon, 1999 }}</ref> Some natural and social scientists have examined feminist ideas using scientific methods.

===Biology of gender===
{{related|[[Biology of gender]]}}
Modern feminist science is based on the view that many differences between the sexes are based on socially constructed gender identities rather than on biological sex differences. For example, [[Anne Fausto-Sterling|Anne Fausto-Sterling's]] book ''Myths of Gender'' explores the assumptions embodied in scientific research that purports to support a biologically [[essentialist]] view of gender.<ref name=Fausto-Sterling>{{cite book |author=Fausto-Sterling, Anne |title=Myths of gender: biological theories about women and men |year=1992 |publisher=BasicBooks |location=New York, NY |isbn=0-465-04792-0}}</ref> Her second book, ''Sexing the Body'' discussed the biological possibility of more than two ''true'' biological sexes. However, in ''The Female Brain'', Louann Brizendine argues that brain differences between the sexes are a biological reality with significant implications for sex-specific functional differences.<ref name=Brizendine>{{cite book |author=Brizendine, Louann |title=The Female Brain |year=2007 |publisher=Bantam Press |isbn=9780593058077}}</ref> Steven Rhoads' book ''Taking Sex Differences Seriously'' illustrates sex-dependent differences across a wide scope.<ref name=Rhoads>{{cite book |author=Rhoads, Steven E. |title=Taking sex differences seriously |year=2004 |publisher=Encounter Books |location=San Francisco, Calif. |isbn=978-1-893554-93-1 }}</ref>

[[Carol Tavris]], in ''The Mismeasure of Woman'', uses psychology and sociology to critique theories that use biological [[reductionism]] to explain differences between men and women. She argues rather than using evidence of innate gender difference there is an over-changing hypothesis to justify inequality and perpetuate stereotypes.<ref name= Tavris>{{cite book
|last=Tavris |first=Carol |title=The Mismeasure of Woman: : Why Women Are Not the Better Sex, inferior or Opposite Sex |publisher=Simon & Schuster, 1992 }}</ref>

===Evolutionary biology===
{{related|[[Evolutionary biology]]}}
Sarah Kember—drawing from numerous areas such as evolutionary biology, [[sociobiology]], [[artificial intelligence]], and [[cybernetics]] in development with a new evolutionism—discusses the biologization of technology. She notes how feminists and sociologists have become suspect of [[evolutionary psychology]], particularly inasmuch as sociobiology is subjected to [[complexity]] in order to strengthen sexual difference as [[wiktionary:immutable|immutable]] through pre-existing cultural value judgments about [[human nature]] and [[natural selection]]. Where feminist theory is criticized for its "false beliefs about human nature," Kember then argues in conclusion that "feminism is in the interesting position of needing to do more biology and evolutionary theory in order not to simply oppose their renewed hegemony, but in order to understand the conditions that make this possible, and to have a say in the construction of new ideas and artefacts."<ref name=Kember>{{cite journal |author=Kember, Sarah |title=Resisting the New Evolutionism |journal=Women: a Cultural Review |year=2001 |volume=12 | number = 1 |date=Spring 1998 |pages=8 |doi=10.1080/09574040110034075}}</ref>

==Men and feminism==
{{main|Men and feminism}}
[[Image:Antisuffragists.jpg|thumb|Anti-suffragists in 1911]]
The relationship between men and feminism has been complex. Men have taken part in significant responses to feminism in each 'wave' of the movement. There have been positive and negative reactions and responses, depending on the individual man and the social context of the time.<ref name=Lingard>{{cite book |author=Lingard, Bob; |coauthors=Douglas, Peter |title=Men engaging feminisms: pro-feminism, backlashes and schooling |year=1999 |publisher=Open University Press |location=Buckingham [[England]] |isbn=978-0-335-19817-7 }}</ref> These responses have varied from [[pro-feminism]] to [[masculism]] to [[anti-feminism]].<ref name=Digby>{{cite book |author=Digby, Tom |title=Men doing feminism |year=1998 |publisher=Routledge |location=New York |isbn=978-0-415-91625-7}}</ref><ref name=Farrell>{{cite book |author=Farrell, Warren|authorlink=Warren Farrell |coauthors=Sterba, James P. |title=Does Feminism Discriminate against Men?: A Debate (Point/Counterpoint) |publisher=Oxford University Press, USA |isbn=978-0-19-531283-6}}</ref><ref name=Porter>{{cite book |author=Porter, David |title=Between men and feminism |year=1992 |publisher=Routledge |location=London |isbn=978-0-415-06988-5}}</ref> In the twenty-first century new reactions to feminist ideologies have emerged including a generation of male scholars involved in gender studies,<ref name=Kimmel/><ref name= Schacht>{{cite book |author=Schacht, Steven P. |coauthors=Ewing, Doris W. |title=Feminism and men: reconstructing gender relations |year=1998 |publisher=New York University Press |location=New York |isbn=978-0-8147-8077-0}}</ref> and also [[men's rights]] activists who promote male equality (including equal treatment in family, divorce and [[anti-discrimination]] law).<ref name=Flood>{{cite book
|last=Flood
|first=Michael
|authorlink=Michael Flood
|title=The battle and backlash rage on: Why feminism cannot be obsolete
|date=7 July 2004
|editor=Stacey Elin Rossi
|publisher=Xlibris Press
|location=Philadelphia, PA

|isbn=1-4134-5934-X
|pages=17
|chapter=Backlash: Angry men's movements}}</ref> Historically a number of men have engaged with feminism. Philosopher [[Jeremy Bentham]] demanded equal rights for women in the eighteenth century. In 1866, philosopher [[John Stuart Mill]] (author of "[[The Subjection of Women]]") presented a women’s petition to the British parliament; and supported an amendment to the 1867 Reform Bill. Others have lobbied and campaigned against feminism. Today, academics like [[Michael Flood]], [[Michael Messner]] and [[Michael Kimmel]] are involved with [[men's studies]] and [[pro-feminism]].<ref name=Kimmel>Michael S. Kimmel, “Who’s Afraid of Men Doing Feminism?,” from Men Doing Feminism, Tom Digby, ed. New York: Routledge, 1993, 57-68</ref><ref>Michael S. Kimmel, “Introduction,” in Against the Tide: Pro-Feminist Men in the U.S., 1776-1990, A Documentary History. Boston: Beacon 1992, 1-51.</ref><ref name=Flood/><ref name=Messner>{{cite book |author=Messner, Michael A. |title=Power at play: sports and the problem of masculinity |year=1992 |publisher=Beacon Press |location=Boston |isbn=978-0-8070-4105-5}}</ref><ref name=Messner2>{{cite book |author=Messner, Michael A. |title=Taking the field: women, men, and sports |year=2002 |publisher=University of Minnesota Press |location=Minneapolis, MN |isbn=978-0-8166-3449-1}}</ref>

A number of feminist writers maintain that identifying as a feminist is the strongest stand men can take in the struggle against sexism. They have argued that men should be allowed, or even be encouraged, to participate in the feminist movement.<ref name="Brod1">Harry Brod, “To Be a Man, or Not to be a Man{{ndash}} That Is the Feminist Question,” in Men Doing Feminism, Tom Digby, ed. (NY: Routledge, 1993), 197-212.</ref><ref name="hooks1984">hooks, bell. ''Men: Comrades in Struggle,'' in Feminist Theory: From Margin to Center (1984).</ref> Other female feminists argue that men cannot be feminists simply because they are not women. They maintain that men are granted inherent privileges that prevent them from identifying with feminist struggles, thus making it impossible for them to identify with feminists.<ref name="Funk1"> Russ Ervin Funk, “The Power of Naming: Why Men Can’t Be Feminists,” in Feminista!: The Journal of Feminist Construction 1, no. 4.</ref> Fidelma Ashe has approached the issue of male feminism by arguing that traditional feminist views of male experience and of "men doing feminism" have been monolithic.<ref name=Ashe1>{{cite book |author=Ashe, Fidelma |title=The new politics of masculinity |year=2004 |publisher=Routledge |location=London |isbn=0-415-30275-7 |pages=178}}</ref><ref name=Ashe2>{{cite journal |author=Ashe, Fidelma |title=Deconstructing the Experiential Bar |journal=Men and Masculinities |year=2004 |volume=7 | number= 2 |date=Spring 1998 |doi=10.1177/1097184X03257524 |pages=187}}</ref> She explores the multiple political discourses and practices of pro-feminist politics, and evaluates each strand through an interrogation based upon its effect on feminist politics.<ref name=Ashe2/><ref name=Ashe1/>

==Pro-feminism==
{{main|Pro-feminism}}
[[Pro-feminism]] is the support of feminism without implying that the supporter is a member of the [[feminist movement]]. The term is most often used in reference to men who are actively supportive of feminism and of efforts to bring about [[gender equality]]. The activities of pro-feminist men's groups include anti-violence work with boys and young men in schools, offering [[sexual harassment]] workshops in workplaces, running community education campaigns, and counseling male perpetrators of violence. Pro-feminist men also are involved in men's health, activism against pornography including anti-pornography legislation, [[men's studies]], and the development of gender equity curricula in schools. This work is sometimes in collaboration with feminists and women's services, such as domestic violence and rape crisis centers. Some activists of both genders will not refer to men as "feminists" at all, and will refer to all pro-feminist men as "pro-feminists".<ref name=Kimmel>{{cite book |author=Kimmel, Michael S. |authorlink=Michael Scott Kimmel |coauthors=Mosmiller, Thomas E. |title=Against the tide: pro-feminist men in the United States, 1776-1990: a documentary history |year=1992 |publisher=Beacon Press |location=Boston |isbn=978-0-8070-6767-3}}</ref><ref name=Lingard>{{cite book |author=Lingard, Bob |coauthors=Douglas, Peter |title=Men engaging feminisms: pro-feminism, backlashes and schooling |year=1999 |publisher=Open University Press |location=Buckingham [[England]] |isbn=0-335-19818-X |pages=192}}</ref>

==Anti-feminism==
{{main|Anti-feminism}}
Antifeminism is opposition to feminism in some or all of its forms.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://dictionary.oed.com/cgi/entry/50009621/50009621se1|title="Anti-feminist." ''The Oxford English Dictionary''. 2nd ed. 1989}}</ref> Feminists such as [[Camille Paglia]], [[Christina Hoff Sommers]], [[Jean Bethke Elshtain]] and [[Elizabeth Fox-Genovese]] have been labeled "anti-feminists" by other feminists.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Stacey, Judith |title=Is Academic Feminism an Oxymoron? |journal=Signs |year=2007 |volume=25 | number = 4 |date=Summer 2000 |issue=Feminisms at a Millennium |pages=5}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Kamarck Minnich, Elizabeth |title=Review: 'Feminist Attacks on Feminisms: Patriarchy's Prodigal Daughters' |journal=Feminist Studies |year=2007 |volume=24 | number = 1 |date=Spring 1998 |pages=26}}</ref> [[Daphne Patai]] and Noretta Koertge argue that in this way the term "anti-feminist" is used to silence academic debate about feminism.<ref name=Patai_Koertge>{{cite book |last=Patai |first=Daphne |coauthors=Noretta Koertge |title=Professing Feminism: Education and Indoctrination in Women's Studies |isbn=0739104551 }}</ref> [[Nathanson and Young|Paul Nathanson and Katherine K. Young's]] books ''Spreading Misandry'' and ''Legalizing Misandry'' explore what they argue is feminist-inspired [[misandry]].<ref name="Legalizing Misandry">{{cite book |author=Nathanson, Paul; Young, Katherine K. |title=Legalizing misandry: from public shame to systematic discrimination against men |year=2006 |publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press |location=Montreal |isbn=0-7735-2862-8}}</ref> [[Christina Hoff-Sommers]] argues feminist misandry leads directly to [[misogyny]] by what she calls "establishment feminists" against (the majority of) women who love men in ''Who Stole Feminism: How Women Have Betrayed Women''.<ref name=Hoff_Sommers/> "Marriage rights" advocates criticize feminists like Sheila Cronan who take the view that marriage constitutes slavery for women, and that freedom for women cannot be won without the abolition of marriage.<ref>{{cite journal
|title=The Married Professional Woman: A Study in the Tolerance of Domestication
|author=Poloma M. M., Garland T. N.
|journal=Journal of Marriage and the Family
|year=1971
|volume=33
|issue=3
|pages=531–540
|url=http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0022-2445%28197108%2933%3A3%3C531%3ATMPWAS%3E2.0.CO%3B2-%23
|doi=10.2307/349850
}}</ref>
Many men still believe feminism is a good thing.

==See also==
*[[Equal pay for women]]
*[[Equal Rights Amendment]]
*[[Feminist therapy]]
*[[Human trafficking]]
*[[Lactivism]]
*[[Lesbian feminism]]
*[[List of feminist literature]]
*[[Masculism]]
*[[Misogyny]]
*[[Separatist feminism]]
*[[Sex/gender distinction]]
*[[Social criticism]]
*[[Women's Environment & Development Organization]]

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
{{wiktionary}}
{{wikiversity|Women's Studies}}
{{commons|Feminism}}
*[http://web.archive.org/web/20070702114236/http://www.feministinitiative.ca/index.html FemINist INitiative] Canadian effort at building a political party, archived at the [[Internet Archive]]
*[http://now.org National Organization for Women] United States
*[http://www.sanctuaryforfamilies.org Sanctuary for Families]
*[http://www.roks.se/ ROKS] Swedish women's organization
*[http://www.womensforumaustralia.org/ Women's Forum Australia]
*[http://www.cirac.org/prototype/women-uk.htm International Women's Day] is a slide show ''in English'' of the Brazilian [http://www.cirac.org/prototype/vmm-pt.htm Vinna Mara Fonseca]

{{Template group
|list =
{{Feminism}}
{{Discrimination}}
{{Political ideologies}}
}}

[[Category:Feminism| ]]
[[Category:Civil rights and liberties]]
[[Category:Sociological paradigms]]
[[Category:Sociological theories]]
[[Category:Women's rights]]

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[[wuu:女权主义]]
[[zh:女權主義]]

Michael Moore

2008-11-09T12:29:19Z

AnthonyToddler: trying to remove too-obvious bias (some bias is ok, but I think too much just damages CP)

{{Otherpersons}}
{{pp-semi-vandalism|small=yes}}
{{Infobox actor
| image = Michael_moore.jpg
| caption = Michael Moore in 2004
| birthname = Michael Francis Moore
| birthdate = {{birth date and age|1954|4|23}}
| birthplace = [[Davison, Michigan]]<ref name=Davison/><ref>[http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_701693990/moore_michael.html Michael Moore - MSN Encarta]</ref>
| yearsactive = 1989 - present
| occupation = director, screenwriter, producer, actor
| spouse = Kathleen Glynn (1991-)
| homepage = http://michaelmoore.com/
| academyawards = '''[[Academy Award for Documentary Feature|Best Documentary Feature]]''' 2002 ''[[Bowling for Columbine]]''
| emmyawards = '''Outstanding Informational Series''' 1995 ''[[TV Nation]]''
| cesarawards = '''[[César Award for Best Foreign Film|Best Foreign Film]]''' 2002 ''[[Bowling for Columbine]]''
| awards = '''[[Palme d'Or|Golden Palm (Palme d'Or)]]''' 2004 ''[[Fahrenheit 9/11]]''
}}
'''Michael Francis Moore''' (born April 23, 1954) is an [[Academy Award]]-winning [[United States|American]] filmmaker, author, and [[Modern liberalism in the United States|liberal]] [[political commentator]]. He is the director and producer of ''[[Bowling for Columbine]]'', ''[[Fahrenheit 9/11]]'', and ''[[Sicko]]'', three of the top five highest-grossing [[Documentary film|documentaries]] of all time.<ref>{{cite web | author=Allmovie | title=Michael Moore filmography | url=http://wc03.allmovie.com/cg/avg.dll?p=avg&sql=2:103383 | publisher=[[Allmovie]] | year=2007 | accessdate=2007-07-19 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Documentary Movies |url=http://www.boxofficemojo.com/genres/chart/?id=documentary.htm |publisher=[[Box Office Mojo]] |year=2007 |accessdate=2007-11-12 }}</ref> In September 2008, he released his first free movie on the Internet, ''[[Slacker Uprising]]'', documenting his personal crusade to encourage more Americans to vote in presidential elections. <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.meeja.com.au/index.php?display_article_id=258 |title=Michael Moore releases Slacker Uprising for free on Net
|publisher=www.meeja.com.au |date=2008-09-24 |accessdate=2008-09-24 }}</ref> He has also written and starred in the TV shows ''[[TV Nation]]'' and ''[[The Awful Truth (TV series)|The Awful Truth]]'', both of which continue his trademark style of presenting serious documentaries in humorous ways.

Moore is a self-described liberal<ref>{{cite web |author=Michael Moore |title=A Liberal's Pledge to Disheartened Conservatives |url=http://www.michaelmoore.com/words/message/index.php?messageDate=2006-11-14 |publisher=Michael Moore.com |date=2006-11-14 |accessdate=2007-07-21 }}</ref> who has explored [[anti-globalization|globalization]], large [[corporation]]s, [[Second Amendment to the United States Constitution|gun ownership]], the [[Iraq War]], [[U.S. President]] [[George W. Bush]] and [[health care in the United States|the American health care system]] in his written and cinematic works. In 2005 ''[[Time magazine]]'' named him one of [[Time 100|the world's 100 most influential people]].<ref>{{cite news | author=Joel Stein | title=Michael Moore: The Angry Filmmaker | url=http://www.time.com/time/subscriber/2005/time100/artists/100moore.html | publisher=Time | year=2005 | accessdate=2007-07-19}}</ref> In 2005, Moore started the annual [[Traverse City Film Festival]] in [[Traverse City, Michigan]]. In 2008, he closed his Manhattan office and moved it to Traverse City, where he is working on his new film.<ref>{{cite web | author=Rick Coates | title=Northern Michigan's film industry from Michael Moore's perspective | url=http://www.northernexpress.com/editorial/features.asp?id=3217 | publisher=Northern Express | year=2008 | accessdate=2008-07-21 }}</ref>

==Biography==
=== Early life ===
Moore was born in [[Davison, Michigan|Davison]]<ref name=Davison>[http://movies.nytimes.com/person/103383/Michael-Moore New York Times profile]</ref> a suburb of [[Flint, Michigan|Flint]], [[Michigan]] to parents Veronica, a secretary, and Frank Moore, an automotive assembly-line worker.<ref>{{cite web|title=Michael Moore Biography (1954-) |url=http://www.filmreference.com/film/47/Michael-Moore.html|publisher=Film Reference|accessdate=2007-07-19}}</ref> At that time, the city of Flint was home to many [[General Motors]] [[factory|factories]], where his parents and grandfather worked. His uncle was one of the founders of the [[United Automobile Workers]] [[trade union|labor union]] and participated in the [[Flint Sit-Down Strike]]. Moore has described his parents as "[[Irish Catholic]] Democrats, basic liberal good people."<ref>{{cite news | author=Ron Sheldon | title=Exclusive Interview with Michael Moore of TV Nation | url=http://www.pww.org/archives95/95-09-23-3.html | work=People's Weekly World | date=23 September 1995 | accessdate=2007-07-19}}</ref>

Moore was brought up [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholic]] and attended St. John's Elementary School for primary school.<ref name="Moorereligion">{{cite news | author=Richard Knight, Jr.| title=To Your Health: A Talk with Sicko's Michael Moore | publisher=Windy City Media Group | date=2007-06-27 | url=http://www.windycitymediagroup.com/gay/lesbian/news/ARTICLE.php?AID=15370 | accessdate=2007-06-27}}</ref><ref>Primeau, François. ''American Dissident'', Lulu Press, 2007.</ref> He then attended Davison High School, where he was active in both drama and debate,<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.usatoday.com/life/movies/news/2004-06-20-moore_x.htm | title=The truth about Michael Moore | author=Gary Strauss | work=USA Today | date=June 20, 2004 | accessdate = 2006–07–09}}</ref> graduating in 1972. At the age of 18, he was elected to the Davison [[school board]].<ref>[http://www.michaelmoore.com/words/message/index.php?messageDate=1999-12-12 MichaelMoore.com: The Day I Was To be Tarred and Feathered]</ref>

=== Post-school career ===
After dropping out of the [[University of Michigan-Flint]] (where he wrote for the student newspaper ''[[The Michigan Times]]'') and working for a day at the [[General Motors]] plant,<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.pww.org/archives95/95-09-23-3.html | title=Exclusive Interview with Michael Moore of TV Nation | author=Ron Sheldon | date=September 23, 1995 | work=People's Weekly World}}</ref> at 22 he founded the alternative weekly magazine ''The Flint Voice'', which soon changed its name to ''The Michigan Voice'' as it expanded to cover the entire state, which Moore later regretted{{Fact|date=June 2008}}. In 1986, when Moore became the editor of [[Mother Jones (magazine)|''Mother Jones'']], a liberal political magazine, he moved to California and ''The Michigan Voice'' was shut down.

After four months at ''Mother Jones'', Moore was fired. Matt Labash claims this was for refusing to print an article by [[Paul Berman]] that was critical of the [[Sandinista National Liberation Front|Sandinista]] human rights record in Nicaragua. According to the story, Moore stated that he would not run the article because [[Ronald Reagan]] "could easily hold it up, saying, 'See, even ''Mother Jones'' agrees with me.'"<ref>Emily Schultz, ''Michael Moore: A Biography'', Ecw Press, 2005. Pg 47-54.</ref> Berman described Moore as a "very ideological guy and not a very well-educated guy" when asked about the incident.<ref>Paul Mulshine. "A Stupid White Man and a Smart One". ''[[Newark Star Ledger]]'', March 3, 2003</ref> Moore claims that ''[[Mother Jones]]'' actually fired him because of the publisher's refusal to allow him to cover a story on the GM plant closings in his hometown of [[Flint, Michigan]]. He responded by putting laid-off GM worker [[Ben Hamper]] (who was also writing for the same magazine at the time) on the magazine's cover, leading to his termination. Moore sued for wrongful dismissal, and settled out of court for $58,000, providing him with seed money for his first film, ''[[Roger & Me]]''.<ref>Matt Labash. "Michael Moore, One-Trick Phony". ''[[The Weekly Standard]]''. June 8, 1998</ref>

=== 2004 ===

Moore was a high-profile guest at both the [[2004 Democratic National Convention]] and the [[2004 Republican National Convention]], chronicling his impressions in ''[[USA Today]]''. He was criticized in a speech by [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]] Senator [[John McCain]] as "a disingenuous film-maker." Moore laughed and waved as Republican attendees jeered, later chanting "four more years." Moore [[Types of gestures#Loser|gestured his thumb and finger]] at the crowd, which translates into "loser."<ref>[http://www.cnn.com/2004/ALLPOLITICS/08/31/mccain.moore/index.html ''Delegates relish McCain jab at filmmaker Moore''] CNN.com. 31 August 2006.</ref>

During September and October 2004, Moore spoke at universities and colleges in [[swing state]]s during his "Slacker Uprising Tour". The tour gave away [[ramen]] and [[underwear]] to young people who promised to vote. This provoked public denunciations from the [[Michigan Republican Party]] and attempts to convince the government that Moore should be arrested for buying votes, but since Moore did not tell the "slackers" involved for ''whom'' to vote, just to vote, district attorneys refused to get involved. Quite possibly the most controversial stop during the tour was [[Utah Valley University|Utah Valley State College]] in [[Orem]], [[Utah]]. A fight for his right to speak ensued and resulted in massive public debates and a media blitz. Death threats, bribes and lawsuits followed. The event was chronicled in the documentary film ''[[This Divided State]]''.<ref>[http://www.thisdividedstate.com ''This Divided State''] official website. Accessed 9 July 2006.</ref>

=== Acting career ===
He has also dabbled in acting, following a 2000 supporting role in ''[[Lucky Numbers]]'' as the cousin of [[Lisa Kudrow]]'s character, who agrees to be part of the scheme concocted by [[John Travolta]]'s character. He also had a cameo in his ''[[Canadian Bacon]]'' as an anti-Canada activist. In 2004, he did a cameo, as a news journalist, in ''[[The Fever (2004 film)|The Fever]]'', starring [[Vanessa Redgrave]] in the lead.

=== Marriage ===
Since 1990, Moore has been married to producer Kathleen Glynn,<ref> [http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0323359 IMDb], Kathleen Glynn</ref> with whom he has a stepdaughter named Natalie. They live in [[New York City]] and spend quite a bit of time in [[Traverse City]], [[Michigan]].

=== Religion ===
Moore describes himself as a [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholic]].<ref name="Moorec1">{{cite news | last=Rahner | first=Mark | title="Sicko," new Michael Moore film, takes on the health-care system | work=The Seattle Times | date=2007-06-26 | url=http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/html/artsentertainment/2003762133_michaelmoore26.html | accessdate=2007-06-30}}</ref><ref name="Moorec2">{{cite news | last=Elliott | first=David | title=Moral outrage, humor make up Michael Moore's one-two punch | publisher=SignOnSanDiego | date=2007-06-29 | url=http://www.signonsandiego.com/news/features/20070629-9999-1c29moore.html | accessdate=2007-06-30}}</ref>

== Directing ==
=== Films and awards ===


[[Image:Sicko at the Cannes FF by tangi bertin on May 19, 2007.jpg|thumb|At the Cannes Film Festival]]

; ''[[Roger & Me]]'': Moore first became famous for his controversial [[1989 in film|1989 film]], ''[[Roger & Me]]'', a documentary about what happened to [[Flint, Michigan]] after [[General Motors Corporation|General Motors]] closed its factories and opened new ones in [[Mexico]], where the workers were paid much less. Since then Moore has been known as a critic of the [[neoliberal]] view of [[globalization]]. "Roger" is [[Roger B. Smith]], former CEO and president of General Motors.

; ''[[Canadian Bacon (film)|Canadian Bacon]]'': In 1995, Moore released a satirical film, ''[[Canadian Bacon (film)|Canadian Bacon]]'', which features a [[List of fictional U.S. Presidents|fictional US president]] (played by [[Alan Alda]]) engineering a fake war with [[Canada]] in order to boost his popularity. It is noted for containing a number of Canadian and American stereotypes, and for being Moore's only non-documentary film. The film is also one of the last featuring Canadian-born actor [[John Candy]], and also features a number of cameos by other Canadian actors. In the film, several potential enemies for America's next great campaign are discussed by the president and his cabinet. (The scene was strongly influenced by the [[Stanley Kubrick]] film ''[[Dr. Strangelove]]''.) The President comments that declaring war on Canada was as ridiculous as declaring war on international terrorism. His military adviser, played by [[Rip Torn]], quickly rebuffs this idea, saying that no one would care about "...a bunch of guys driving around blowing up rent-a-cars".
; ''[[The Big One (film)|The Big One]]'': In 1997, Moore directed ''[[The Big One (film)|The Big One]]'', which documents the tour publicizing his book ''[[Downsize This!|Downsize This! Random Threats from an Unarmed American]]'', in which he criticizes mass layoffs despite record corporate profits. Among others, he targets [[Nike, Inc.|Nike]] for outsourcing shoe production to [[Indonesia]].
; ''[[Bowling for Columbine]]'': Moore's [[2002 in film|2002 film]], ''[[Bowling for Columbine]]'', probes the culture of [[Gun violence in the United States|guns and violence in the United States]], taking as a starting point the [[Columbine High School massacre]] of 1999. ''Bowling for Columbine'' won the Anniversary Prize at the [[Cannes Film Festival]] and France's [[Cesar Award]] as the Best Foreign Film. In the United States, it won the 2002 [[Academy Award for Documentary Feature]]. It also enjoyed great commercial and critical success for a film of its type and became, at the time, the highest-grossing mainstream-released documentary (a record later held by Moore's ''[[Fahrenheit 9/11]]''). It was praised by some for illuminating a subject slighted by the mainstream media, but it was attacked by others who claim it is inaccurate and misleading in its presentations and suggested interpretations of events.
; ''[[Fahrenheit 9/11]]'': ''[[Fahrenheit 9/11]]'' examines America in the aftermath of the [[September 11, 2001 attacks]], particularly the record of the Bush administration and alleged links between the families of [[George W. Bush]] and [[Osama bin Laden]]. ''Fahrenheit'' was awarded the ''[[Palme d'Or]]'', the top honor at the [[Cannes Film Festival]]; it was the first documentary film to win the prize since 1956. Moore later announced that ''Fahrenheit 9/11'' would not be in consideration for the 2005 [[Academy Award for Documentary Feature]], but instead for the [[Academy Award for Best Picture]]. He stated he wanted the movie to be seen by a few million more people, preferably on television, by election day. Since November 2 was less than nine months after the film's release, it would be disqualified for the Documentary Oscar. Moore also said he wanted to be supportive of his "teammates in non-fiction film." However, Fahrenheit received no Oscar nomination for Best Picture. The title of the film alludes to the classic book ''[[Fahrenheit 451]]'' about a future totalitarian state in which books are banned; according to the book, paper begins to burn at 451 degrees Fahrenheit. The pre-release subtitle of the film confirms the allusion: "The temperature at which freedom burns." At the box office, ''Fahrenheit 9/11'' remains the highest-grossing documentary of all time, taking in close to US$200 million worldwide, including [[United States]] box office revenue of US$120 million.
; ''[[Sicko]]'': Moore directed this film about the American health care system, focusing particularly on the managed-care and pharmaceutical industries. At least four major [[pharmaceutical company|pharmaceutical companies]]—[[Pfizer]], [[Eli Lilly and Company|Eli Lilly]], [[AstraZeneca]], and [[GlaxoSmithKline]]—ordered their employees not to grant any interviews to Moore.<ref>[http://www.philly.com/mld/inquirer/9794410.htm?1c The Philadelphia Inquirer:] Inqlings | Michael Moore takes on Glaxo. Michael Klein, 30 September 2005. Archive accessed 9 July 2006.</ref><ref>[http://www.commondreams.org/headlines04/1222-04.htm Common Dreams News Center:] Drug Firms are on the Defense as Filmmaker Michael Moore Plans to Dissect Their Industry. Original Article - Elaine Dutka, L.A. Times, December 22, 2004. Archive accessed August 09, 2006</ref><ref>[http://www.myrtlebeachonline.com/mld/myrtlebeachonline/business/9824781.htm Chicago Tribune:] Michael Moore turns camera onto health care industry. Bruce Japsen, 3 October 2004. Archive accessed 9 July 2006.</ref> According to Moore on a letter at his website, "roads that often surprise us and lead us to new ideas – and challenge us to reconsider the ones we began with have caused some minor delays." The film premiered at the [[Cannes Film Festival]] on 19 May 2007, receiving a lengthy standing ovation, and was released in the U.S. and Canada on 29 June 2007.<ref>[http://www.cbc.ca/arts/film/story/2007/05/26/moore-sicko-fundraiser.html CBC] Sicko to have unofficial premiere at Democratic fundraiser May 26, 2007. URL accessed October 14, 2007.</ref> The film was the subject of some controversy when it became known that Moore went to [[Cuba]] with [[Health effects arising from the September 11, 2001 attacks|chronically ill]] [[Rescue and recovery effort after the September 11, 2001 attacks|September 11th rescue workers]] to shoot parts of the film. The United States is looking into whether this violates the [[United States embargo against Cuba|trade embargo]]. The film is currently ranked the third highest grossing documentary of all time<ref>{{cite web
| title =Documentary Movies
| work =Genres
| publisher =[[Box Office Mojo]]
| year =2007
| url =http://www.boxofficemojo.com/genres/chart/?id=documentary.htm
| accessdate =2008-01-31 }}</ref> and received an [[Academy Award]] nomination for [[Academy Award for Documentary Feature|Best Documentary Feature]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hollywoodreporter.com/hr/content_display/news/e3i587be3b0ca27043557eff60b69803664 | title=Shortlist for docu Oscar unveiled |accessdate=2008-01-31|date=2007-11-20|publisher=The Hollywood Reporter}}</ref>
; ''[[Captain Mike Across America]]'' <ref>{{imdb title|0850669|Captain Mike}}</ref>: Moore takes a look at the politics of college students in what he calls "Bush Administration America" with this film shot during Moore's 60-city college campus tour in the months leading up to the 2004 election.<ref>{{cite web
| url = http://www.tiff07.ca/filmsandschedules/schedules/calendarlist.aspx?date=07
| title = Toronto International Film Festival
| accessdate = 2007–09–07
}}</ref><ref>[http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0850669 Captain Mike Across America (2007)]</ref> The film was later re-edited by Moore into ''[[Slacker Uprising]]''.

=== Television shows ===
{{Unreferencedsection|date=August 2007}}
Between 1994 and 1995, he directed and hosted the [[BBC]] [[television]] series ''[[TV Nation]]'', which followed the format of news magazine shows but covered topics they avoid. The series aired on [[BBC Two|BBC2]] in the UK. The series was also aired in the US on [[NBC]] in 1994 for 9 episodes and again for 8 episodes on [[Fox Broadcasting Company|FOX]] in 1995.

His other major series was ''[[The Awful Truth (TV show)|The Awful Truth]]'', which satirized actions by big corporations and politicians. It aired on [[Channel 4]] in the UK, and the [[Bravo (television network)|Bravo]] network in the US, in 1999 and 2000.

Another 1999 series, ''[[Michael Moore Live]]'', was aired in the UK only on [[Channel 4]], though it was broadcast from New York. This show had a similar format to ''The Awful Truth'', but also incorporated phone-ins and a live stunt each week.

In 1999 Moore won the [[Hugh M. Hefner First Amendment Award]] in Arts and Entertainment, for being the executive producer and host of ''The Awful Truth'', where he was also described as "muckraker, author and documentary filmmaker".

=== Music videos ===

Moore has directed several music videos, including two for [[Rage Against the Machine]] for songs from "[[The Battle of Los Angeles (album)|The Battle of Los Angeles]]": "[[Sleep Now in the Fire]]" and "[[Testify (Rage Against the Machine song)|Testify]]". He was threatened with arrest during the shooting of "Sleep Now in the Fire", which was filmed on [[Wall Street]]; the city of [[New York City|New York]] had denied the band permission to play there, although the band and Moore had secured a federal permit to perform.<ref>[http://www.greenleft.org.au/back/2000/397/397p24c.htm Green Left Weekly:] Rage against Wall Street. Michael Moore, via MichaelMoore.com, date unspecified. URL accessed 9 July 2006.</ref>

He also directed video for "[[R.E.M. (band)|R.E.M.]]" single "[[All the Way to Reno (You're Gonna Be a Star)]]" in 2001. In 2003 Moore directed a video for "[[System of a Down]]" song "[[Boom! (song)|Boom!]]".

=== Appearances in other documentaries ===
* Moore appeared in ''The Drugging of Our Children'',<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0850665/| title=The Drugging of Our Children}} at the [[Internet Movie Database]]</ref> a 2005 documentary about over-prescription of psychiatric medication to children and teenagers, directed by [[Gary Null]] a proponent of [[Alternative Medicine]]. In the film Moore agrees with [[Gary Null]] that Ritalin and other similar drugs are over-prescribed, saying that they are seen as a "pacifier".
* Moore appeared on fellow Flint natives [[Grand Funk Railroad]]'s edition of [[Behind The Music]].
* Moore appeared as an off-camera interviewer in ''[[Blood in the Face (1991 film)|Blood in the Face]]'', a 1991 documentary about [[white supremacy]] groups. The film centers around a [[neo-Nazi]] gathering in Michigan.<ref>{{imdb title|id=0101479|title=Blood in the Face}} Moore details his involvement in the audio commentary on the ''[[Roger & Me]]'' DVD.</ref>
* Moore appeared in ''[[The Yes Men (film)|The Yes Men]]'', a 2003 documentary about two men who pose as the [[World Trade Organization]]. He appears during a segment concerning working conditions in [[Mexico]] and [[Latin America]].
* Moore was interviewed for the 2004 documentary, ''[[The Corporation]].'' One of his highlighted quotes was: "The problem is the profit motive: for corporations, there's no such thing as 'enough'".<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.thecorporation.com/index.cfm?page_id=3 | title=Who's Who | work=The Corporation Film}}</ref>
* Moore appeared briefly in [[Alex Jones (radio)|Alex Jones]]'s 2005 film ''Martial Law 9/11: Rise of the Police State''. Jones asks Moore why he did not mention some of the information regarding the [[September 11, 2001 attacks|September 11 attacks]] in his film ''[[Fahrenheit 9/11]]'', in particular, why he did not explain why [[NORAD]] stood down on that day. Moore replied, "Because it would be Un-American."
* Moore featured prominently in the 2005 documentary ''[[This Divided State]]'', which followed the heated level of controversy surrounding his visit to a conservative city in the United States two weeks before the 2004 election.
* Moore appeared in the 2006 documentary ''[[I'm Going to Tell You a Secret]]'', which chronicles [[Madonna (entertainer)|Madonna]] during her 2004 Re-Invention World Tour. Moore attended her show in [[New York City]] at [[Madison Square Garden]].

== Writings and political views ==
Though Moore rejects the label "political activist,"<ref>{{ cite web | url = http://www.sun-sentinel.com/business/custom/consumer/sfl-sicko-stribnbjul04,0,4636334.story | title = 'I am the balance', says Moore | work = Minneapolis Star Tribune | publisher = South Florida Sun-Sentinel | date = 4 July 2007 | quote = Moore rejects the label "political activist"; as a citizen of a democracy, Moore insists, such a description is redundant. | accessdate = 2007–07–06 }}</ref> he has been active in promoting his political views. According to [[John Flesher]] of the [[Associated Press]], Moore is known for his "fiery [[left-wing]] populism."<ref>{{ cite web | url = http://www.michaelmoore.com/words/latestnews/index.php?id=9903 | publisher = MichaelMoore.com | work = Associated Press | title = Hollywood meets Bellaire as Moore gives sneak peek of "Sicko" | first = John | last = Flesher | date = 16 June 2007 | accessdate = 2007–07–06 | quote = But the filmmaker, known for his fiery left-wing populism and polemical films such as "Fahrenheit 9/11" and Oscar-winning "Bowling for Columbine," told the audience "Sicko" would appeal across the political spectrum.}}</ref>

Moore has authored three best-selling books:

* ''[[Downsize This!]]'' (1996), about [[politics]] and [[corporate crime]] in the [[United States]],
* ''[[Stupid White Men]]'' (2001), ostensibly a critique of American domestic and foreign policy but, by Moore's own admission, "a book of political humor,"<ref>[http://www.opinionjournal.com/forms/printThis.html?id=110003233 Opinion Journal from the Wall Street Journal:] Unmoored from Reality. John Fund's Political Diary, 21 March 2003. URL accessed 29 August 2006.</ref> and
* ''[[Dude, Where's My Country?]]'' (2003), an examination of the [[Bush family|Bush family's]] relationships with [[House of Saud|Saudi royalty]], the [[Bin Laden family]], and the [[:Category:Energy companies of the United States|energy industry]], and a call-to-action for liberals in the [[United States presidential election, 2004|2004 election]].

Despite having supported [[Ralph Nader]] in [[United States presidential election, 2000|2000]], Moore urged Nader not to run in [[United States presidential election, 2004|the 2004 election]] so as not to split the left vote. (Moore joined [[Bill Maher]] on the latter's television show in kneeling before Nader to plead with him to stay out of the race.) In June 2004, Moore claimed he is not a member of the Democratic party. Although Moore endorsed General [[Wesley Clark]] for the [[United States Democratic Party|Democratic]] nomination on January 14, Clark withdrew from the primary race on February 11. Moore drew attention when charging publicly that Bush was [[desertion|AWOL]] during his service in the [[United States National Guard|National Guard]] (see [[George W. Bush military service controversy]]).

With the 2004 election over, Moore continues to collect information on the war in Iraq and the Bush administration in addition to his film projects. On several occasions during 2007, he called for [[Al Gore]] to run for President.

On April 21, 2008, Moore endorsed [[Barack Obama]] for President, claiming that Clinton's recent actions had been "disgusting."<ref>[http://www.michaelmoore.com/words/message/index.php?messageDate=2008-04-21 My Vote's for Obama (if I could vote) ...by Michael Moore] April 21, 2008</ref>

== Controversy ==
{{main|Michael Moore controversies}}

Moore has been at the center of several controversies, mostly as a result of his leftist political views and directing style.

== Published work ==
=== Bibliography ===

* {{cite book | last=Moore | first=Michael | title=[[Downsize This!|Downsize This! Random Threats from an Unarmed American]] | location=New York | publisher=HarperPerennial | year=1996 | isbn=0060977337}}
* {{cite book | last=Moore | first=Michael | coauthors=Glynn, Kathleen | title=[[Adventures In A TV Nation]] | location=New York | publisher=HarperPerennial | year=1998 | isbn=0060988096}}
* {{cite book | last=Moore | first=Michael | title=[[Stupid White Men|Stupid White Men ...and Other Sorry Excuses for the State of the Nation!]] | location=New York | publisher=Regan Books | year=2002 | isbn=0060392452}}
* {{cite book | last=Moore | first=Michael | title=[[Dude, Where's My Country?]] | location=New York | publisher=Warner Books | year=2003 | isbn=0446532231}}
* {{cite book | last=Moore | first=Michael | title=[[Will They Ever Trust Us Again?]] | location=New York | publisher=Simon & Schuster | year=2004 | isbn=0743271521}}
* {{cite book | last=Moore | first=Michael | title=[[The Official Fahrenheit 9/11 Reader]] | location=New York | publisher=Simon & Schuster | year=2004 | isbn=0743272927}}
* {{cite book | last=Moore | first=Michael | title=[[Mike's Election Guide 2008]] | location=New York | publisher=Grand Central Publishing | year=2008 | isbn=0446546275}}

=== Filmography ===

* ''[[Roger & Me]]'' (1989)
* ''[[Pets or Meat: The Return to Flint]]'' (1992) (TV)
* ''[[Canadian Bacon (film)|Canadian Bacon]]'' (1995)
* ''[[The Big One (film)|The Big One]]'' (1997)
* ''And Justice for All'' (1998) (TV)
* ''[[Lucky Numbers]]'' (2000) (as actor)
* ''[[Bowling for Columbine]]'' (2002)
* ''[[Fahrenheit 9/11]]'' (2004) "[[Palme d'Or]]" in [[2004 Cannes Film Festival|Cannes]]
* ''[[Sicko]]'' (2007)
* ''[[Captain Mike Across America]]'' (2007)
* ''[[Slacker Uprising]]'' (2008)

=== Television ===

* ''[[TV Nation]]'' (1994)
* ''[[The Awful Truth (TV show)|The Awful Truth]]'' (1999)
* ''[[Michael Moore Live]]'' (1999)

== References ==
{{reflist|2}}

== External links ==
* [http://www.michaelmoore.com/ Michael Moore] Official website
* {{imdb name|0601619}}
* [http://www.youtube.com/user/mmflint Michael Moore] on [[YouTube]]
*{{worldcat id|id=lccn-n96-98247}}
* A 2007 [http://www.pbs.org/now/shows/326/index.html NOW on PBS interview with Michael Moore] What makes him tick, and why our health care system ticks him off

{{Michael Moore}}

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Ann Coulter

2008-11-09T12:28:59Z

AnthonyToddler: trying to remove too-obvious bias (some bias is ok, but I think too much just damages CP)

{{pp-semi-vandalism|small=yes}}
{{Infobox_Celebrity
| name = Ann Coulter |
| image = Ann Coulter2.jpg |
| caption = Ann Coulter |
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|1961|12|8}} |
| birth_place = [[New York City|New York]], [[New York|NY]] |
| death_date = |
| death_place = |
| occupation = [[author]], [[columnist]], political commentator |
| salary = |
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}}

'''Ann Hart Coulter''' (born December 8, 1961) is an [[United States|American]] [[political commentator]], [[syndicated columnist]], and best-selling [[author]]. She frequently appears on television, radio and as a speaker at public and private events. Known for her controversial and confrontational style, Coulter has described herself as a [[polemicist]] who likes to "stir up the pot" and, unlike "broadcasters," does not "pretend to be impartial or balanced."<ref>[http://www.news.cornell.edu/stories/April06/coulter.pre.dea.html Conservative pundit Ann Coulter '84 to speak May 7]</ref>

==Early life==
Ann Hart Coulter was born to John Vincent Coulter ([[Albany, New York|Albany]], [[New York]], May 5, 1926 - [[New Canaan]], [[Connecticut]], January 4, 2008) and wife (married at [[Stuyvesant, New York|Stuyvesant]], [[New York]], September 30, 1953) Nell Husbands Martin ([[Paducah, Kentucky|Paducah]], [[Kentucky]], February 23, 1928 -).<ref>[http://www.wargs.com/other/coulter.html Ancestry of Ann Coulter]</ref> After her birth in [[New York City]], [[New York]], the family moved to [[New Canaan, Connecticut]], where Coulter and her two older brothers, James and John, were raised.<ref name="coulter_imdb">"[http://www.imdb.com/name/nm1326010/bio Biography for Ann Coulter]." ''[[IMDB]].'' Retrieved on March 4, 2008.</ref>

As an undergraduate at [[Cornell University College of Arts and Sciences|Cornell University]], Coulter helped found ''[[Cornell Review|The Cornell Review]]'',<ref name="horowitz">Horowitz, David. "[http://www.frontpagemag.com/Articles/ReadArticle.asp?ID=1038 Ann Coulter at Cornell]". ''[[FrontPageMag.com]]''. May 21, 2001. Retrieved on July 10, 2006.</ref> and was a member of the [[Delta Gamma]] national [[Sorority|women's fraternity]].<ref name="deltagamma">{{cite news | title = From the pens of Delta Gammas | publisher = Anchora of Delta Gamma | date = Summer 2005 | url = http://www.deltagamma.org/anchora/summer_05_anchora.pdf | format = [[PDF]]|page = 29 (16 in PDF)| accessdate = 2006-07-11 }}</ref> She graduated ''[[cum laude]]'' from Cornell in 1984, and received her [[Juris Doctor|law degree]] from the [[University of Michigan Law School]], where she achieved membership in the [[Order of the Coif]] and was an editor of the ''[[Michigan Law Review]]''.<ref>"[http://premierespeakers.com/2718/index.cfm Ann Coulter: bestselling author and political commentator] (Profile)". ''[http://www.premierespeakers.com/ premierespeakers.com]''. Retrieved on July 10, 2006. See also ''Michigan Law Review'' vol. 86 No. 5 (April 1988), where Ann Coulter "of Connecticut" is listed on the masthead as an articles editor.</ref> At Michigan, Coulter founded a local chapter of the [[Federalist Society]] and was trained at the [[National Journalism Center]].<ref>Hallow, Ralph. "[http://washingtontimes.com/national/20060221-122951-2550r.htm A lifelong voice for conservatives]". ''[[The Washington Times]]''. February 21, 2006. Retrieved on July 10, 2006.</ref>

After law school, Coulter served as a [[law clerk]], in [[Kansas City]], for [[Pasco Bowman II]] of the [[United States Court of Appeals for the Eighth Circuit]].<ref>See {{cite news |title=Liberals, conservatives duke it out on paper |url=http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qn4188/is_20031005/ai_n11424888 |last=Lythgoe |first=Dennis |date=2003-10-05|publisher=[[Deseret Morning News]] |page=E1}}; {{cite news |title=Op-Ed: Congress Goes Fishing |last=Hentoff |first=Nat |date=1998-12-05|publisher=[[Washington Post]] |page=A23}}; Coulter herself says it was Bowman. See [http://www.anncoulter.com/cgi-local/content.cgi?name=bio her online bio]; see also {{cite news |title=ABA's ratings no more |last=Coulter |first=Ann |date=2001-05-03|publisher=[[Washington Times]] |page=A15}}</ref> After a short time working in New York City in private practice, where she specialized in [[corporate law]], Coulter left to work for the United States [[Senate Judiciary Committee]] after the [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican Party]] [[Republican Revolution|took control of Congress]] in 1994. She handled crime and immigration issues for Senator [[Spencer Abraham]] of Michigan and helped craft legislation designed to expedite the [[deportation]] of aliens convicted of [[felony|felonies]].<ref name=Daley1999>Daley, David. [http://nl.newsbank.com/nl-search/we/Archives?p_product=HC&p_theme=hc&p_action=search&p_maxdocs=200&p_text_search-0=ann%20AND%20coulter%20AND%20shining&s_dispstring=ann%20coulter%20shining%20AND%20date(1999)&p_field_date-0=YMD_date&p_params_date-0=date:B,E&p_text_date-0=1999&p_perpage=10&p_sort=YMD_date:D&xcal_useweights=no "Ann Coulter: light's all shining on her"]. ''Hartford Courant''. June 25, 1999. [$2.50 charge required to view article]</ref> She later became a litigator with the [[Center for Individual Rights]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Conservative Coulter sounds off in her latest book; ''Treason'' aims to change views on McCarthy |last=Moore |first=Frazier |date=2003-10-05|publisher=[[Telegraph Herald]] |page=e2}}</ref>

== Personal life ==
Coulter has been engaged several times, but never married.<ref name="pickfights"/> She has dated ''[[Spin (magazine)|Spin]]'' founder and publisher [[Bob Guccione, Jr.]],<ref name = "arm candy"/> and conservative writer [[Dinesh D'Souza]].<ref name = "Coultergeist"/> In October 2007, she began dating [[Andrew Stein]], the former president of the [[New York City Council]], a liberal Democrat. When asked about the relationship, Stein told the paper, "She's attacked a lot of my friends, but what can I say, opposites attract!"<ref>[http://www.nypost.com/seven/10102007/gossip/pagesix/andy_and_ann__.htm ANDY AND ANN?!]</ref> On January 7, 2008, however, Stein told the ''[[New York Post]]'' that the relationship was over, citing irreconcilable differences.<ref name="Post_jan2008">Froelich, Paula; Hoffman, Bill; Steindler, Corynne; Garvey, Marianne. "[http://www.nypost.com/seven/01072008/gossip/pagesix/over_already_676492.htm Over Already]." ''[[New York Post]].'' January 7, 2008. Retrieved on March 4, 2008.</ref>

Coulter owns both a [[condominium]] in [[Manhattan]] and a house, bought in 2005, in [[Palm Beach, Florida]]. Although she says that usually she lives in New York, she votes in Palm Beach and is not [[voter registration|registered]] to do so in New York.<ref>Lisberg, Adam. "[http://www.nydailynews.com/news/2006/06/08/2006-06-08_her_disputed_elex_ballot_sparks_probe_in.html Her disputed elex ballot sparks probe in Florida]". ''[[New York Daily News]]''. June 8, 2006. Retrieved August 21, 2007</ref> She is a fan of the [[Grateful Dead]],<ref>Bowman, David. "[http://dir.salon.com/story/books/int/2003/07/25/bowman/index.html Ann Coulter, woman]". ''[[Salon.com]]''. July 25, 2003. Retrieved on July 11, 2006.</ref><ref>Hill, Taylor. [http://www.jambands.com/Features/content_2006_06_23.06.phtml "'Deadheads Are What Liberals Claim to Be But Aren't': An Interview with Ann Coulter"]. ''[[jambands.com]]''. June 23, 2006. Retrieved on October 7, 2007.</ref> and some of her favorite books include [[The Bible]], ''[[Wuthering Heights]]'', ''[[Anna Karenina]]'', [[True crime (genre)|true crime]] stories about [[serial killer]]s and anything by [[Dave Barry]].<ref>Glazov, Jamie. "[http://www.frontpagemag.com/articles/ReadArticle.asp?ID=11689 Frontpage interview: Ann Coulter]". ''Frontpage Magazine''. January 12, 2004. Retrieved on July 19, 2006.</ref>

== Media career ==

Known for her polemical style,<ref>Schmidt Tracey. "[http://www.time.com/time/nation/article/0,8599,1203281,00.html What Would Ann Coulter Do?]" ''[[Time Magazine]]''.</ref> Coulter has been described by ''[[The Observer]]'' as, "the [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]] [[Michael Moore]]" and "[[Rush Limbaugh]] in a miniskirt."<ref>Wood, Gaby. "[http://observer.guardian.co.uk/review/story/0,,1794552,00.html Lethally blonde]" ''[[The Observer]]''. June 11, 2006. Retrieved on July 11, 2006.</ref>
=== Television and radio===

Coulter made her first national media appearance in 1996 after she was hired by the then-fledgling network [[MSNBC]] as a legal correspondent. [[Time (magazine)|''Time'']] said this about her tenure there:

<blockquote>
The network dismissed her at least twice: first in February 1997, after she insulted the late [[Pamela Harriman]], the U.S. Ambassador to [[France]], even as the network was covering her somber memorial service.... Even so, the network missed Coulter's jousting and quickly rehired her.
</blockquote>

<blockquote>
Eight months later, Coulter's relationship with MSNBC ended permanently after she tangled with a disabled [[Vietnam war|Vietnam]] veteran on the air. [[Bobby Muller|Robert Muller]], co-founder of the [[International Campaign to Ban Landmines]], asserted that "in 90% of the cases that U.S. soldiers got blown up [in Vietnam]—Ann, are you listening—they were our own mines." (Muller was misquoting a 1969 [[The Pentagon|Pentagon]] report that found that 90% of the components used in enemy mines came from U.S. duds and refuse.) Coulter, who found Muller's statement laughable, averted her eyes and responded sarcastically: "No wonder you guys lost." It became an infamous—and oft-misreported—Coulter moment. The ''[[Washington Post]]'' and others turned the line into a more personal attack: "People like you caused us to lose that war."
</blockquote>

<blockquote>
But her troubles with MSNBC only freed her to appear on CNN and Fox News Channel, whose producers were often calling. <ref name="timemag">Cloud, John. "[http://www.time.com/time/archive/preview/0,10987,1050304,00.html Ms. Right]". ''Time Magazine.'' April 25, 2005. Retrieved on July 10, 2006.</ref>
</blockquote>

[[Howard Kurtz]] of the ''Washington Post'' made a point to respond to the ''Time'' article to explain that his widely quoted reporting of Coulter's reply to the veteran in an article he wrote had its origin in Coulter's own later recollection of the incident. Describing his previous story, Kurtz added, "I did note that, according to Coulter, the vet was appearing by [[satellite]], and she didn't know he was disabled."<ref> "Kurtz, Howard. "[http://www.washingtonpost.com/ac2/wp-dyn/A208-2005Apr19?language=printer The conservative pin-up girl]". ''[[Washington Post]]''. April 19, 2005. Retrieved on July 10, 2006. </ref>

Coulter has made frequent guest appearances on many television and radio [[talk show]]s, including ''[[Today (NBC program)|The Today Show]]'', ''[[Hannity and Colmes]]'', ''[[The O'Reilly Factor]]'', ''[[American Morning]]'', ''[[Crossfire (television)|Crossfire]]'', ''[[Real Time with Bill Maher]]'', ''[[Politically Incorrect]]'', ''[[The Fifth Estate]]'', ''[[The Sean Hannity Show]]'', ''[[The Rush Limbaugh Show]]'', and [[Mike Gallagher]].

In 2005, Coulter appeared as one of a three-person judging panel in ''[[The Greatest American]]'', a four-part interactive television program for the [[Discovery Channel]] hosted by [[Matt Lauer]].<ref>"[http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0463820/ Greatest American (2005) (mini)]". ''[[Internet Movie Database]]''. Retrieved on July 10, 2006.</ref> Starting with 100 nominees, each week interactive viewer voting eliminated candidates.

=== Films ===
In 2004, Coulter appeared in three films. The first was ''Feeding the Beast'', a made-for-television documentary on the "24-Hour News Revolution".<ref>"[http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0412709 Feeding the Beast: The 24-Hour News Revolution (2004) (TV)]". ''Internet Movie Database''. Retrieved on July 10, 2006.</ref> The other two films were ''[[FahrenHYPE 9/11]]'', a [[direct to video]] documentary intended to rebut [[Michael Moore]]'s ''[[Fahrenheit 911]]'', and
''Is It True What They Say About Ann?'', a documentary on Coulter containing clips of interviews and speeches.<ref>"[http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0431153/ Is It True What They Say About Ann? (2004)]" ''Internet Movie Database.'' Retrieved on July 10, 2006.</ref>

In 2006, Coulter refused permission to include a scene featuring herself and [[Al Franken]] in a debate in Connecticut in Franken's film, ''[[Al Franken: God Spoke]]''.<ref>Faraci, Devin. [http://www.chud.com/index.php?type=news&id=7505 "Is Ann Coulter sabotaging Al Franken's film?"] CHUD.com. August 29, 2006. Retrieved September 29, 2006.</ref>

=== Books ===
{{see also cat|Books by Ann Coulter}}
[[Image:Ann Coulter AC.jpg|right|thumb|Ann Coulter.]]
Coulter is the author of six books, all of which have appeared on [[New York Times Best Seller list|''New York Times'' Best Seller list]].

Coulter's first book, ''[[High Crimes and Misdemeanors: The Case Against Bill Clinton]]'' (ISBN 0-89526-113-8), was published by [[Regnery Publishing]] in 1998. The book details Coulter's case for the [[Clinton impeachment|impeachment]] of President [[Bill Clinton]].

Coulter's second book, ''[[Slander: Liberal Lies About the American Right]]'' (ISBN 1-4000-4661-0), published by [[Crown Publishing Group|Crown Forum]] in 2002, remained number one on ''The New York Times'' Best Seller list for seven weeks. In ''Slander'', Coulter argues that President [[George W. Bush]] was given unfair negative media coverage.

In Coulter's third book, ''[[Treason: Liberal Treachery from the Cold War to the War on Terrorism]]'' (ISBN 1-4000-5030-8), also published by Crown Forum, Coulter reexamines the 60-year history of the [[Cold War]] — including the career of Senator [[Joseph McCarthy]], the [[Whittaker Chambers]]–[[Alger Hiss]] affair, and [[Ronald Reagan]]’s challenge to [[Mikhail Gorbachev]] to "tear down this wall" — and argues that liberals were wrong in their Cold War political analyses and policy decisions, and that McCarthy was correct about Soviet agents working for the U.S. government. She also argues that the correct identification of [[Annie Lee Moss]], among others, as [[Communist]]s was misreported by that liberal media. ''Treason'' was published in 2003, and spent 13 weeks on the Best Seller list.<ref>Guthmann, Edward. "[http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2003/12/02/DDG4F3DPKR1.DTL An outbreak of partisan warfare on the best-seller list is encouraging authors to stoke the fires of readers hungry for political squabbles -- and the Bay Area is fertile ground for Bush-whackers]". ''[[San Francisco Chronicle]]''. December 2, 2003. Retrieved on July 10, 2006</ref>

Crown Forum published a collection of Coulter's columns in 2004 as her fourth book, ''[[How to Talk to a Liberal (If You Must)|How to Talk to a Liberal (If You Must): The World According to Ann Coulter]]'' (ISBN 1-4000-5418-4).

Coulter's fifth book, published by Crown Forum in 2006, is ''[[Godless: The Church of Liberalism]]'' (ISBN 1-4000-5420-6). Coulter argues, first, that [[liberalism]] rejects the idea of God and reviles people of faith, and second, that it bears all the attributes of a religion itself. ''Godless'' debuted at number one on ''The New York Times'' Best Seller list.<ref>"[http://www.nytimes.com/glogin?URI=http://www.nytimes.com/2006/06/25/books/bestseller/0625besthardnonfiction.html&OQ=_rQ3D1&OP=24069db9Q2F-Q3CuQ7D-akYs0kk,E-EHHj-Hj-Eb-Q7DkkQ20s-Q7Dus,suOOu0-HjEbQ7Dus,Q51R0aIkIFQ5DY,Q5DkIMQ51,dO ''New York Times'' bestseller list: hardcover nonfiction]". ''[[New York Times]]''. June 25, 2006. Retrieved on July 10, 2006. [Registration required to view article]</ref>

Coulter's most recent book, ''[[If Democrats Had Any Brains, They'd Be Republicans]]'', was published in October, 2007.<ref>[http://www.randomhouse.com/catalog/display.pperl?isbn=9780739327388 ''Randomhouse.com'']</ref><ref>[http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/21089969/ Brief excerpt of "If Democrats Had Any Brains, They'd Be Republicans"]</ref>

Ann Coulter is currently working on her next book, which is set to be released on December 30th, 2008.<ref>''[[The Rush Limbaugh Show]]'' October 13, 2008</ref>

=== Columns ===
In the late 1990s, Coulter's weekly (biweekly from 1999-2000) [[Print syndication|syndicated]] column for [[Universal Press Syndicate]] began appearing. Her column is featured on six conservative websites: ''[[Human Events|Human Events Online]]'', [[WorldNetDaily]], [[Townhall.com]], [[FrontPageMag]], ''[[Jewish World Review]]'' and her own website. Her syndicator says, "Ann's client newspapers stick with her because she has a loyal fan base of conservative readers who look forward to reading her columns in their local newspapers."<ref name="astormitchell">Astor, Dave; Mitchell, Greg. "[http://www.editorandpublisher.com/eandp/news/article_display.jsp?vnu_content_id=1002689746# Newspaper clients, and syndicate, stick with Coulter]". ''[[Editor & Publisher]]''. June 16, 2006. Retrieved on July 10, 2006.</ref> Her column on her personal website, anncoulter.com, is also permanently linked to by the [[Drudge Report]] web page.<ref>[[Matt Drudge|Drudge, Matt]]. [http://www.drudgereportarchives.com/data/2001/11/18/20011118_010140.htm "11/18/2001 edition of Drudge Report"] DrudgeReportArchives.com. November 18, 2001. Retrieved on October 25, 2006</ref>

In 1999, Coulter worked as a regular [[columnist]] for ''[[George (magazine)|George]]'' magazine.<ref>Coulter, Ann. "[http://www.uexpress.com/anncoulter/index.html?uc_full_date=19990728 A Republican tribute to John]", www.uexpress.com, July 28, 1999. Retrieved on October 22, 2006.</ref><ref name="arm candy"/> Coulter also wrote exclusive weekly columns between 1998 and 2003 and with occasional columns thereafter for the conservative magazine ''[[Human Events]]''. In her columns for the magazine, she discusses judicial rulings, [[Constitution]]al issues, and legal matters affecting Congress and the [[executive branch]].

Overall, Coulter's columns are highly critical of liberals and Democrats. In one, she wrote:
<blockquote>This year's Democratic plan for the future is another inane sound bite designed to trick American voters into trusting them with [[national security]].
To wit, they're claiming there is no connection between the [[war on terror]] and the [[Iraq War|war in Iraq]], and while they're all for the war against terror — absolutely in favor of that war — they are adamantly opposed to the Iraq war. You know, the war where the U.S. military is killing thousands upon thousands of [[terrorist]]s (described in the media as "Iraqi civilians", even if they are from [[Jordan]], like the now-dead leader of [[al-Qaida in Iraq]], [[Abu Musab al-Zarqawi]]). That war.<ref name= Ann>Ann Coulter, "[http://www.anncoulter.com/cgi-local/article.cgi?article=144 What part of the war on terrorism do they support?]" August 23, 2006. Retrieved on August 31, 2006.</ref></blockquote>

==== Reactions from publishers ====
In 2001, as a contributing editor and syndicated columnist for ''[[National Review Online]]'' (NRO), Coulter was asked by editors to make changes to a piece written after the [[September 11 attacks]]. On the national television show ''[[Politically Incorrect]]'', Coulter accused ''NRO'' of [[censorship]] and said that she was paid $5 per article. NRO dropped her column and terminated her editorship. [[Jonah Goldberg]], editor-at-large of ''NRO'', said, "We did not 'fire' Ann for what she wrote... we ended the relationship because she behaved with a total lack of professionalism, friendship, and loyalty [concerning the editing disagreement]."<ref name="13laffaire">Goldberg, Jonah. "[http://www.nationalreview.com/nr_comment/nr_comment100301.shtml L’affaire Coulter]". ''[[National Review]]''. October 3, 2001. Retrieved on July 10, 2006.</ref>

Coulter contracted with ''[[USA Today]]'' to cover the [[2004 Democratic National Convention]]. She wrote one article that began, "Here at the Spawn of [[Satan]] convention in [[Boston]]..." and referred to some unspecified female attendees as "[[corn-fed]], no make-up, natural fiber, no-bra needing, sandal-wearing, hirsute, somewhat fragrant [[hippie]] chick pie wagons." The newspaper declined to print the article citing an editing dispute over "basic weaknesses in clarity and readability that we found unacceptable." An explanatory article by the paper went on to say "Coulter told the online edition of ''[[Editor & Publisher]]'' magazine that '''USA Today'' doesn't like my "tone", humor, sarcasm, etc., which raises the intriguing question of why they hired me to write for them.'" ''USA Today'' replaced Coulter with Jonah Goldberg, and Coulter published it instead on her website.<ref>Coulter, Ann. "[http://www.worldnetdaily.com/news/article.asp?ARTICLE_ID=39644 Put the speakers in a cage]". ''[[WorldNetDaily]]''. July 26, 2004. Retrieved on July 10, 2006.</ref><ref>Staff Writer. "[http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2004/07/26/politics/main631949.shtml ''USA Today'' drops Ann Coulter]." ''[[CBS News]].'' July 26, 2004. Retrieved on July 10, 2006.</ref><ref>Memmott, Mark. "[http://www.usatoday.com/news/politicselections/nation/2004-07-26-coulter-column_x.htm Coulter column canceled after editing dispute]". ''[[USA Today]]''. July 26, 2006. Retrieved on July 11, 2006.</ref>

In August 2005, the ''[[Arizona Daily Star]]'' dropped Coulter's syndicated column citing reader complaints that "Many readers find her shrill, bombastic and mean-spirited. And those are the words used by readers who identified themselves as conservatives."<ref>Stoeffler, David. "[http://www.dailystar.com/dailystar/opinion/90500.php Opinion pages get a makeover]". ''[[Arizona Daily Star]]''. August 28, 2005. Retrieved on July 10, 2006.</ref>

In July 2006, some newspapers replaced Coulter's column with those of other conservative columnists<ref>E&P Staff. "[http://editorandpublisher.com/eandp/search/article_display.jsp?vnu_content_id=1002912730 Another Newspaper Decides to Drop Ann Coulter's Column]" ''[[Editor & Publisher]]'' July 26, 2006 Retrieved on July 28, 2006</ref> following the publication of her fourth book, ''[[Godless: The Church of Liberalism]].'' After the ''[[Augusta Chronicle]]'' dropped her column, newspaper editor Michael Ryan explained that "it came to the point where she was the issue rather than what she was writing about."<ref name="Augusta Editor">Astor, Dave; Mitchell, Greg. "[http://www.mediainfo.com/eandp/search/article_display.jsp?vnu_content_id=1002878146 Augusta Editor Explains Why He Dropped Coulter Column]" ''[[Editor & Publisher]]'' July 24, 2006 Retrieved July 26, 2006;</ref> Ryan also stated that "Pulling Ann Coulter's column hurts; she's one of the clearest thinkers around."

=== Public appearances ===
Coulter is a frequent public speaker, particularly on [[college]] [[campus]]es, receiving both praise and protest. During an appearance at the [[University of Arizona]], a [[Pieing|pie was thrown at her]].<ref name="pieing">Staff Writer. "[http://www.thesmokinggun.com/archive/1022042coulter1.html 'Al Pieda' targets Ann Coulter]." ''[[The Smoking Gun]].'' October 22, 2004. Retrieved on July 10, 2006.</ref><ref>Wells, Holly. "[http://wc.arizona.edu/papers/98/236/01_4.html Former student enters plea in 2004 Coulter pie assault]." ''[[Arizona Daily Wildcat]].'' January 12, 2006. Retrieved on July 10, 2006.</ref><ref>"[http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,155550,00.html The pie-proof Ann Coulter on hecklers]." ''[[Fox News]].'' May 4, 2005. Retrieved on July 13, 2006.</ref>Coulter has, on occasion, responded with insulting remarks towards hecklers and protestors who attend her speeches.<ref>[http://www.anncoulter.com/cgi-local/article.cgi?article=50 AnnCoulter.com - Archived Article: IT'S ONLY FUNNY UNTIL SOMEONE LOSES A PIE]</ref><ref>Wong, Shelly K. "[http://abcnews.go.com/US/wireStory?id=1384190 Hecklers cause Coulter to cut UConn speech]." ''[[Associated Press]].'', December 7, 2005. Retrieved on July 10, 2006.</ref><ref> Guidi, David. [http://media.www.usforacle.com/media/storage/paper880/news/2006/10/20/News/Controversial.Conservative.Pundit.Elicits.Praise.And.Protest.Thursday-2379854.shtml?sourcedomain=www.usforacle.com&MIIHost=media.collegepublisher.com "Controversial conservative pundit elicits praise and protest Thursday"]. [University of South Florida] ''The Oracle''. October 20, 2006. Retrieved on November 9, 2006.</ref><ref name="pickfights">Staff Writer. "[http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=/news/2002/07/19/wmed19.xml I love to pick fights with liberals]" ''[[The Daily Telegraph]]'' July 7, 2002. Retrieved on July 10, 2006.</ref>

== Religious views ==
Coulter says that she holds [[Christian]] beliefs, but has not declared her membership in any particular [[Christian denomination|denomination]]; she has mentioned that her father was [[Catholic]] while her mother was not.<ref name ="JVC memoriam">[http://www.frontpagemag.com/Articles/Read.aspx?GUID=23790BB2-C77C-4CA1-A4B8-AD9494B75E66 «John Vincent Coulter»] by Ann Coulter, ''[[FrontPage Magazine]]'', January 11, 2008</ref>
At one public lecture she said: "I don't care about anything else: [[Christ]] died for my [[sin]]s and nothing else matters."<ref>Olasky, Marvin. "[http://www.worldmag.com/articles/10919 South Park vs. Ann Coulter]". ''[[World (magazine)|World]]''. August 13, 2005. Retrieved on July 10, 2006.</ref> In a 2004 column,<ref name="passion">[http://www.townhall.com/columnists/AnnCoulter/2004/03/04/the_passion_of_the_liberal The passion of the liberal], ''townhall.com'', March 4, 2004</ref> she summarized her view of Christianity: "Jesus' distinctive message was: People are sinful and need to be redeemed, and this is your lucky day because I'm here to redeem you even though you don't deserve it, and I have to get the crap kicked out of me to do it." She then mocked "the message of Jesus ... according to liberals," summarising it as "...something along the lines of 'be nice to people'," which, in turn, she said "is, in fact, one of the incidental tenets of Christianity".

Confronting some critics' views that her content and style of writing is un-Christian,<ref>Norman, Tony. "[http://www.commondreams.org/views06/0610-23.htm If Ann Coulter's a Christian, I'll be damned]". Commondreams.org. June 10, 2006. Retrieved July 31, 2006.</ref><ref>Thoreau, Jackson. "[http://www.opednews.com/articles/opedne_jackson__060609_liberal_and_proud_3a_l.htm U.S. founders and Christ were liberals: we cannot let right-wingers like Coulter define liberalism]". OpEdNews.com. June 9, 2006. Retrieved July 31, 2006.</ref> Coulter has stated that "I'm a Christian first and a mean-spirited, bigoted conservative second, and don't you ever forget it."<ref name ="E&P">E&P Staff. "Coulter: Press Either 'Incompetent' or Full of 'Left-Wing Bias'". ''Editor and Publisher''. July 31, 2006.[http://www.editorandpublisher.com/eandp/search/search_results_taxo.jsp?startDate=07/31/2006&endDate=07/31/2006&cf=&ct=&cu=&rpp=10&sb=REFERENCE_DATE&so=DESC&ti=2&tp=vnuTaxoPool&numRet=200&src=&showAbs=true&srchMeta=true&shwTotal=true&metaSrchNum=250&numMeta=20&pi=&pubList=Editor%20and%20Publisher&kw=coulter+mean-spirited&au=&mt=&mv=&esindct=false](subscription required)[http://www.allbusiness.com/services/business-services-miscellaneous-business/4699951-1.html](free)</ref> She has also said: "... Christianity fuels everything I write. Being a Christian means that I am called upon to do battle against lies, injustice, cruelty, hypocrisy — you know, all the virtues in the church of liberalism."<ref name="depasquale">De Pasquale, Lisa. [http://www.humanevents.com/article.php?id=15363 Exclusive interview: Coulter says book examines 'mental disorder' of Liberalism]". ''[[Human Events]]''. June 6, 2006. Retrieved on July 10, 2006.</ref> In ''[[Godless: The Church of Liberalism]]'', as well as in personal appearances, Coulter characterized the theory of [[evolution]] as "bogus science",<ref>[http://www.amazon.com/dp/1400054206 Godless: The Church of Liberalism Book Description] on [[Amazon.com]]</ref><ref>[http://www.hebookservice.com/products/BookPage.asp?prod_cd=c6918 Book Review] by [[Human Events]]</ref> and contrasting her beliefs to what she called the left's "obsession with [[Darwinism]] and the Darwinian view of the world, which replaces sanctification of life with sanctification of sex and death."<ref>[http://mediamatters.org/items/200606080002 Media Matters - Coulter continued attacks on liberals, families of 9-11 victims: "[D]o I have to kill my mother so I can be a victim, too?"]</ref>

On October 8, 2007, Coulter ignited yet more controversy when she was quoted as saying that [[Jew]]s should be "perfected" into Christians. She was talking about Republicans with [[Donny Deutsch]], a [[Jewish]] [[CNBC]] talk-show host, and implied that she considered Christianity a virtue. Deutsch asked her, "It would be better if we were all Christian?", to which Coulter replied "Yes". Deutsch asked her, "We should all be Christian?", and got the same response, with an invitation to come to church. Later on, Coulter said, "we just want Jews to be perfected, as they say", saying that this was what Christianity was, and she compared the '[[New Testament]] to [[Federal Express]]. Further, Coulter said that Christians considered themselves to be perfected Jews. Deutsch implied that this was an [[anti-Semitic]] remark, but Coulter said she didn't consider it to be a hateful comment.<ref>E&P Staff. "[http://www.editorandpublisher.com/eandp/news/article_display.jsp?vnu_content_id=1003657196 Ann Coulter on CNBC Show: Jews Need 'Perfecting']". ''Editor and Publisher''. October 11, 2007.</ref> See also section on [[#Comments about Jews on The Big Idea|comments about Jews on The Big Idea]] below.

== Political activities ==
[[Image:Jimmy Wales photo of Ann Coulter crop.jpg|right|thumb|Ann Coulter.]]
Coulter's political activities have included advising a plaintiff suing President Bill Clinton and considering a run for Congress.

=== The Paula Jones – Bill Clinton case ===
Coulter debuted as a public figure shortly before becoming an unpaid legal advisor for the attorneys representing [[Paula Jones]] in her [[sexual harassment]] suit against President Bill Clinton. Coulter's friend George Conway had been asked to assist Jones' attorneys, and shortly afterward Coulter, who wrote a column about the Paula Jones case for ''Human Events'', was also asked to help; she began writing legal briefs for the case.

Coulter later stated that she would come to mistrust the motives of Jones' head lawyer, Joseph Cammaratta, who by [[August 1997|August]] or September 1997 was advising Jones that her case was weak and to [[legal settlement|settle]], if a favorable settlement could be negotiated.<ref name=Daley1999 /><ref name=conason/> From the onset, Jones had sought an apology from Clinton at least as eagerly as she sought a settlement.<ref>Barak, Daphne. "[http://archives.tcm.ie/irishexaminer/1998/09/23/fhead.htm Jones would have been happy with an apology]". ''[[Irish Examiner]]''. September 23, 1998. Retrieved on July 10, 2006.</ref> However, in a later interview Coulter recounted that she herself had believed that the case was strong, that Jones was telling the truth, that Clinton should be held publicly accountable for his misconduct, and that a settlement would give the impression that Jones was merely interested in [[extortion|extorting]] money from the President.<ref name=Daley1999 />

David Daley, who wrote the interview piece for the ''[[Hartford Courant]]'' recounted what followed:

<blockquote>Coulter played one particularly key role in keeping the Jones case alive. In ''[[Newsweek]]'' reporter [[Michael Isikoff]]'s new book ''Uncovering Clinton: A Reporter's Story'', Coulter is unmasked as the one who leaked word of Clinton's "distinguishing characteristic" — his reportedly bent penis that Jones said she could recognize and describe — to the news media. Her hope was to foster mistrust between the Clinton and Jones camps and forestall a settlement...

:"I thought if I leaked the distinguishing characteristic it would show bad faith in negotiations. [Clinton lawyer] [[Bob Bennett]] would think Jones had leaked it. Cammaratta would know he himself hadn't leaked it and would get mad at Bennett. It might stall negotiations enough for me to get through to [Jones adviser] [[Susan Carpenter-McMillan]] to tell her that I thought settling would hurt Paula, that this would ruin her reputation, and that there were other lawyers working for her. Then 36 hours later, she returned my phone call.
:"I just wanted to help Paula. I really think Paula Jones is a hero. I don't think I could have taken the abuse she came under. She's this poor little country girl and she has the most powerful man she's ever met hitting on her sexually, then denying it and smearing her as president. And she never did anything tacky. It's not like she was going on TV or trying to make a buck out of it."<ref name=Daley1999 />
</blockquote>

In his book, Isikoff also reported Coulter as saying: "We were terrified that Jones would settle. It was contrary to our purpose of bringing down the President."<ref name=conason>Conason, Joe; Lyons, Gene. "[http://archive.salon.com/news/feature/2000/03/04/willey/print.html Impeachment's little elves]". ''[[Salon.com]]''. March 4, 2000. Retrieved July 10, 2006.</ref> After the book came out, Coulter clarified her stated motives, saying:

<blockquote>
The only motive for leaking the distinguishing characteristic item that [Isikoff] gives in his book is my self-parodying remark that "it would humiliate the president" and that a settlement would foil our efforts to bring down the president.... I suppose you could take the position, as [Isikoff] does, that we were working for Jones because we thought Clinton was a lecherous, lying scumbag, but this argument gets a bit circular. You could also say that [[Juanita Broaddrick]]'s secret motive in accusing Clinton of rape is that she hates Clinton because he raped her. The whole reason we didn't much like Clinton was that we could see he was the sort of man who would haul a low-level government employee like Paula to his hotel room, drop his pants, and say, "Kiss it." You know: Everything his defense said about him at the impeachment trial. It's not like we secretly disliked Clinton because of his administration's position on California's citrus cartels or something, and then set to work on some crazy scheme to destroy him using a pathological intern as our [[Mata Hari]].<ref>Coulter, Ann (May 1999). "Spikey and me". [[George (magazine)|''George''.]]</ref>
</blockquote>

The case went to court after Jones broke with Coulter and her original legal team, and it was dismissed via [[summary judgment]]. The judge ruled that even if her allegations proved true, Jones did not show that she had suffered any damages, stating "...plaintiff has not demonstrated any tangible job detriment or adverse employment action for her refusal to submit to the governor's alleged advances. The president is therefore entitled to summary judgment on plaintiff's claim of [[quid pro quo]] sexual harassment". The ruling was [[appeal]]ed by Jones' lawyers. During the pendency of the appeal, Clinton settled with Jones for $850,000 ($151,000 after legal fees) in November 1998, in exchange for Jones' dismissal of the appeal. By then, the Jones lawsuit had led to the [[Lewinsky scandal|Monica Lewinsky sex scandal]].

In October 2000, Jones revealed that she would pose for nude pictures in an adult magazine, saying she wanted to use the money to pay taxes and support her grade-school-aged children, in particular saying, "I'm wanting to put them through college and maybe set up a college fund."<ref name=larryking>Jones, Paula. "[http://transcripts.cnn.com/TRANSCRIPTS/0010/24/lkl.00.html Paula Jones describes why she's posing for ''Penthouse'']". ''Larry King Live''. ''CNN''. October 24, 2000. Retrieved on October 24, 2000</ref> Coulter publicly denounced Jones, calling her "the trailer-park trash they said she was," (Coulter had earlier chastened Clinton supporters for calling Jones this name<ref>Ann Coulter "[http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3827/is_199801/ai_n8803510 "'Trailer park trash' strikes back]". ''Human Events''. January 30, 1998. Retrieved on November 18, 2006</ref> after Clinton's former campaign strategist [[James Carville]] had made the widely reported remark, "Drag a $100 bill through a trailer park, and you'll never know what you'll find" and called Jones a "[[fraud]], at least to the extent of pretending to be an honorable and moral person."<ref name=larryking/> Coulter wrote: "Paula surely was given more than a million dollars in free legal assistance from an array of legal talent she will never again encounter in her life, much less have busily working on her behalf. Some of those lawyers never asked for or received a dime for hundreds of thousands of dollars in legal work performed at great professional, financial and personal cost to themselves. Others got partial payments out of the settlement. But at least they got her reputation back. And now she's thrown it away."<ref>Coulter, Ann. "[http://www.jewishworldreview.com/cols/coulter103000.asp Clinton sure can pick 'em]". ''Jewish World Review''. October 30, 2000. Retrieved July 11, 2006.</ref> Jones claimed not to have been offered any help with a book deal of her own or any other additional financial help after the lawsuit.<ref name = larryking/>

=== Aborted congressional candidacy ===
In 1999 and 2000, Coulter considered running for [[United States House of Representatives|Congress]] from [[Connecticut]] on the [[Libertarian Party (United States)|Libertarian Party]] ticket to serve as a [[Spoiler effect|spoiler]] in order to throw the seat to the Democratic candidate and see that Republican Congressman [[Christopher Shays]] failed to gain re-election, as a punishment for Shays' vote against Clinton's [[impeachment]]. The leadership of the [[Libertarian Party of Connecticut]], after meeting with Coulter, declined to endorse her. As a result, her self-described "total sham, media-intensive, third-party [[Jesse Ventura]] campaign" did not take place.<ref name = "arm candy">Lehman, Susan. "[http://www.salon.com/media/lehm/1999/03/04lehm.html Conservative pinup battles "arm candy" canard]". ''[[Salon.com]]''. March 4, 1999. Retrieved July 10, 2006.</ref><ref>Browne, Harry. "[http://harrybrowne.org/articles/Coulter.htm We're more ambitious than the Republicans are]". ''[[Harry Browne]]''. September 22, 2000. Retrieved July 10, 2006.</ref>

=== 2008 presidential campaign ===

In a June 2007 interview, Coulter named [[Duncan Hunter]] as her choice for the 2008 Republican Presidential nomination, saying "my favorite candidate is [Rep.] Duncan Hunter [R-[[California|CA]]], and he is magnificent. The problem is most people say, "Who's Duncan Hunter?" He's a genuine war hero. He has one son, I think, in Iraq, one in [[Afghanistan]]. He is good on every single issue. He has been out front on building a wall. He did build a wall at [[San Diego]]. He's very good on — on the life issue. He's good on everything."<ref>[http://mediamatters.org/items/200706260001 Media Matters - Good Morning America 's Chris Cuomo interviews Coulter, promotes Godless]</ref>

On January 16, just three days before Hunter dropped out of the race, Coulter began endorsing Governor [[Mitt Romney]] as her choice for the 2008 Republican nomination, saying he is "manifestly the best candidate" (contrasting Romney only with Republican candidates McCain, Huckabee, and Giuliani).<ref>Ann Coulter: [http://www.anncoulter.com/cgi-local/article.cgi?article=230 The Elephant In The Room] January 16, 2008</ref> Romney suspended his campaign 22 days later on February 7, 2008.

By contrast, Coulter was critical of eventual Republican nominee [[John McCain]]. On the January 31, 2008 broadcast of ''[[Hannity and Colmes]]'', Coulter claimed that, if McCain won the Republican nomination for president, she would support and campaign for [[Hillary Clinton]], stating, "[Clinton] is more conservative than McCain."<ref name=Foxnews>[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HuTqgqhxVMc YouTube - Coulter: I'll campaign for Hillary if McCain is the nominee]</ref> Clinton withdrew from the race in early June.

In an April 2, 2008 column, she characterized [[Barack Obama]]'s book ''[[Dreams From My Father]]'' as a "Dimestore ''[[Mein Kampf]]''." Coulter writes, "He says the reason black people keep to themselves is that it's 'easier than spending all your time mad or trying to guess whatever it was that white folks were thinking about you.' Here's a little inside scoop about white people: We're not thinking about you. Especially [[White Anglo-Saxon Protestant|WASPs]]. We think everybody is inferior, and we are perfectly charming about it."<ref name=MeinKampfObama>[http://www.anncoulter.com/cgi-local/printer_friendly.cgi?article=243 AnnCoulter.com - Printer Friendly Article: OBAMA'S DIMESTORE 'MEIN KAMPF']</ref>

== Legal and professional disputes ==
=== Irregularities in public registration ===

In September 2002, ''[[Washington Post]]'' columnist [[Lloyd Grove]] wrote a column titled, "Mystery of the Ages", raising questions about Coulter's actual date of birth.<ref name=Grove>Grove, Lloyd. "[http://www.washingtonpost.com/ac2/wp-dyn/A43120-2002Sep5?language= Mystery of the ages]", ''[[The Washington Post]]'', September 6, 2002. Retrieved on July 24, 2006.</ref> At the time, Coulter was insisting that she was not yet 40, despite media reports to the contrary. Attempting to resolve the discrepancy, Grove noted that Coulter had given her date of birth as December 8, 1961 when she first registered to vote in 1980 (the year of the [[United States presidential election, 1980|Reagan-vs-Carter presidential election]]), in New Canaan, Connecticut, where the legal voting age is 18. He said that Coulter's [[Connecticut]] driver's license also listed her birth date as December 1961, but pointed out that a driver's license issued to her years later in [[Washington, D.C.]], gave her date of birth as December 1963. In her emailed reply to Grove's inquiry, Coulter maintained that she was 38 years old. In April 2005, ''Time'''s cover story on Coulter reported, "Coulter says she won't confirm the date 'for privacy reasons' — she's had several [[stalking|stalkers]]. 'And I'm a girl,' she adds."<ref name="timemag"/>

=== Factual inaccuracies, actual and alleged ===

Comedian, author and political commentator [[Al Franken]] has questioned the factual accuracy of her books, and also accuses her of citing passages out of context.<ref name="frankenbook">{{cite book|author = Franken, Al|title=Lies and the Lying Liars Who Tell Them|publisher = Dutton Books|year = 2003|isbn = 0-525-94764-7|unused_data = |Lies and the Lying Liars Who Tell Them: A Fair and Balanced Look at the Right}}</ref> Others have investigated these charges, and have also raised questions about the books' accuracy and presentation of facts.<ref>Scherer, Michael; Secules, Sarah. "[http://cjr.org/issues/2002/6/slander-scherer.asp Books: how slippery is ''Slander''?]" ''[[Columbia Journalism Review]].'' 2002. Retrieved on July 11, 2006.</ref><ref>[http://www.spinsanity.org/columns/20020713.html "Throwing the book at her"], ''Spinsanity''. July 13, 2002. Retrieved September 30, 2007.</ref><ref>[http://www.spinsanity.com/columns/20030630.html "Screed: With Treason, Ann Coulter once again defines a new low in America's political debate"], ''Spinsanity''. June 30, 2003. Retrieved September 30, 2007.</ref> Coulter responded to these and similar criticisms in a column called "Answering My Critics",<ref name=answering>Coulter, Ann. "[http://www.jewishworldreview.com/cols/coulter100903.asp Answering my critics]." ''[http://www.jewishworldreview.com/ Jewish World Review].'' October 9, 2003. Retrieved on July 11, 2006.</ref> where she claims "the most devastating examples of my alleged 'lies' keep changing" and that some accusations of her factual inaccuracy are either outright wrong or really just "trivial" factual errors (e.g. referring to "endnotes" as "footnotes", or incorrectly identifying [[Evan Thomas]]' grandfather, [[Socialist Party of America|Socialist Party]] presidential candidate [[Norman Thomas]], as his father).

====New York Times' NASCAR coverage====

In the first edition of ''Slander'', Coulter alleged that ''[[The New York Times]]'' did not cover [[NASCAR]] driver [[Dale Earnhardt]]'s death until two days after he died:
<blockquote>The day after seven-time NASCAR Winston Cup champion Dale Earnhardt died in a race at the [[Daytona 500]], almost every newspaper in America carried the story on the front page. Stock-car racing had been the nation's fastest-growing sport for a decade, and NASCAR the second-most-watched sport behind the [[NFL]]. More Americans recognize the name Dale Earnhardt than, say, [[Maureen Dowd]]. ([[Manhattan]] liberals are dumbly blinking at that last sentence.) It took ''The New York Times'' two days to deem Earnhardt's death sufficiently important to mention it on the first page. Demonstrating the left's renowned [[populism|populist]] touch, the article began, 'His death brought a silence to the [[Wal-Mart]].' The ''Times'' went on to report that in vast swaths of the country people watch stock-car racing. Tacky people were mourning Dale Earnhardt all over the South!<ref name="slander">Coulter, Ann. ''Slander.'' 2006, Crown Forum Publishing. ISBN 1-4000-4661-0</ref></blockquote>

''The New York Times'' did, in fact, cover Earnhardt's death the same day that he died: sportswriter
[[Robert Lipsyte]] authored an article for the front page that was published on February 18, 2001. Another front page article appeared in the ''Times'' on the following day. Coulter cited an article indeed written two days after Earnhardt's death—[[Rick Bragg]], a [[Pulitzer Prize]] winner who grew up in the South, wrote a personal piece on Earnhardt and his passing—bringing the total to three days in a row in which the ''Times'' covered Earnhardt's death on its front page.<ref name="frankenbook"/> (The paper also ran a prominent story about Earnhardt before his death.)

Coulter responded to this widely publicized error as follows:
<blockquote>In my three best-selling books—making the case for a president's impeachment, accusing liberals of systematic lying and [[propaganda|propagandizing]], arguing that Joe McCarthy was a great American patriot, and detailing 50 years of treachery by the Democratic Party—this is the only vaguely substantive error the Ann Coulter hysterics have been able to produce, corrected soon after publication. CONGRATULATIONS, LIBERALS!!! At least I didn't miss the [[Ukrainian famine]] (cf., Pulitzer Prize-winning ''New York Times'' reporter [[Walter Duranty]]).<ref name="answering"/></blockquote>

Coulter corrected the error in the paperback edition of her book.<ref>Coulter, Ann: "Slander" (paperback), page 261. Three Rivers Press, 2003</ref>

====Canadian troops in Vietnam====

Coulter has been criticized for a statement she made on ''[[The Fifth Estate]]'', an [[investigative journalism]] program produced by [[CBC television]]. During an interview by host [[Bob McKeown]], Coulter said, "[[Canada]] used to be...one of our most...most loyal friends, and vice versa. I mean, Canada sent troops to Vietnam. Was Vietnam less containable and more of a threat than [[Saddam Hussein]]?" McKeown contradicted her with, "No, actually Canada did not send troops to Vietnam."<ref name="fifth estate"> {{cite web
| url = http://www.cbc.ca/fifth/sticksandstones.html
| title = "Sticks and Stones"
| accessdate = 2007-12-05
| author = the fifth estate (television program)
| date = aired January 26, 2005
| publisher = CBC News
| quote = "For the record, like Iraq, Canada did not send troops to Vietnam"(voiceover, @33:20 of ''Sticks and Stones'')}}</ref> On the February 18, 2005 edition of ''[[Washington Journal]]'', Coulter justified her statement by referring to the thousands of Canadians who served in the American armed forces during the Vietnam era, either because they volunteered or because they were living in the USA during the war years and got [[conscription|drafted]]. (Between 5,000 and 20,000 Canadians fought in Vietnam itself, including approximately 80 who were killed.).<ref name="vvic">{{cite web |date=2005-06-10, September 11, 2005 updated|url = http://www.vvic.org/canadians.htm|title = Canadians in Vietnam|format = HTML |publisher = Vietnam Veterans In Canada| accessdate = 2007-11-24 | last= |quote=}}</ref> John Cloud of ''Time'', writing a few months later, suggested that Coulter may have been right, on the basis that "Canada [sent] noncombat troops to [[Indochina]] in the 1950s and again to Vietnam in 1972".<ref>See Cloud, John. "[http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1050304-10,00.html Ms. Right p. 10]". ''Time Magazine.'' April 25, 2005. Retrieved [[2001-02-11]]. Cloud refers the soldiers Canada contributed to the [[International Control Commission|ICC]] and the [[International Commission of Control and Supervision|ICCS]], the international commissions which oversaw, respectively, the cease-fire at the end of the [[First Indochina War]], in 1954, and the cease-fire which interrupted the Vietnam War in 1973. For further information on Canada's involvement in the Vietnam War, see [[Canada and the Vietnam War]].</ref> However, Coulter's initial assertion was that Canada sent troops into Vietnam in support of the American position; in this connection, [[Fairness and Accuracy in Reporting|FAIR]] countered that Cloud made "quite a stretch to prove that Coulter was correct."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fair.org/index.php?page=2496 |title=Time Covers Coulter: Action Alert |accessdate=2007-02-11 |author=Fairness and Accuracy in Reporting |date=2005-04-21}}</ref>

====New York Times Christians/Nazis controversy====
In her book ''Slander'', Coulter also stated that the ''[[New York Times]]'' made several statements comparing Christians to [[Nazi]]s. As examples, she cites a headline reading "Did the Nazi Crimes Draw On Christian Tradition?" and a quote, "The church was co-responsible for the [[Holocaust]]." She does not mention that the first quote was from a book review in which the reviewer disagreed with the [[thesis]] that the Nazi crimes drew on Christian tradition. The second quote was from a discussion printed in the ''Times'', in which a historian also states that [[Pope Pius XII]] was responsible for saving 750,000 Jews.<ref>C., Scott: "World O'Crap", http://blogs.salon.com/0002874/2003/10/09.html</ref>

== Controversies and criticism ==
Coulter's [[polemics]] - she has described herself as a "[[polemicist]]" who likes to "stir up the pot" and doesn't "pretend to be impartial or balanced, as broadcasters do"<ref name="polemicist">Aloi, Daniel. "[http://www.news.cornell.edu/stories/April06/coulter.pre.dea.html Conservative pundit Ann Coulter '84 to speak May 7]". ''[[Cornell University|Cornell University Chronicle]]''. April 17, 2006. Retrieved on July 10, 2006.</ref> - sometimes start firestorms of [[controversy]], ranging from rowdy uprisings at many of the colleges where she speaks to protracted discussions in the media.

=== The 9/11 "Jersey Girls" ===
In ''Godless'', Coulter criticized the four 9/11 widows known as the "[[Jersey Girls]]", writing:
<blockquote>These broads are millionaires, lionized on TV and in articles about them, reveling in their status as celebrities and stalked by grief-arazzis. These self-obsessed women seemed genuinely unaware that 9/11 was an attack on our nation and acted as if the terrorist attacks happened only to them. ... I've never seen people enjoying their husbands' deaths so much ... the Democrat ratpack gals endorsed [[John Kerry]] for president ... cutting campaign commercials... how do we know their husbands weren't planning to [[divorce]] these [[Harpy|harpies]]? Now that their shelf life is dwindling, they'd better hurry up and appear in ''[[Playboy]]''.<ref>Coulter, Ann. ''[[Godless: The Church of Liberalism]]''. 2006, ''[http://www.randomhouse.com/crown/forum.html Crown Forum Publishing].'' pp. 100-112.</ref></blockquote>

These statements received national attention after an interview on ''[[Today (NBC program)|The Today Show]]'', and were widely criticized.<ref>Grimaldi, Christine. "[http://nbs.gmnews.com/news/2006/0615/Front_Page/036.html Writer's claims disturb families of 9/11 victims: Ann Coulter referred to group as the 'Witches of East Brunswick']." ''North Brunswick Sentinel''. July 16, 2006. Retrieved on November 10, 2006 </ref><ref name="attack911">[http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2006/06/07/entertainment/main1690954.shtml "Ann Coulter attacks 9/11 widows."] ''[[CBS News]].'' June 7, 2006. Retrieved on July 10, 2006.</ref><ref>Staff Writer. "[http://www.cnn.com/2006/POLITICS/06/07/coulter.911.widows.ap/ Clinton slams Coulter's 'vicious' put-down of some 9/11 widows]." ''[[CNN]].'' June 7, 2006.</ref><ref name="lathemalgar">Lathem, Niles; Algar, Selim. "[http://www.nypost.com/news/nationalnews/67195.htm Give-'em-hill Fury vs. Coulter]." ''[[New York Post]].'' June 8, 2006. Retrieved on July 10, 2006.</ref><ref>Staff Writer. "[http://www.worldnetdaily.com/news/article.asp?ARTICLE_ID=50585 9-11 commish lashes Coulter]." ''[[WorldNetDaily]].'' June 9, 2006. Retrieved on July 10, 2006.</ref><ref>Elliot, Philip. "[http://abcnews.go.com/US/wireStory?id=2058973 9/11 Commissioner criticizes Coulter]." ''[[ABC News]].'' June 9, 2006. Retrieved on July 10, 2006.</ref> Coulter refused to apologize, and responded, "I feel sorry for all the widows of 9/11...[but] I do not believe that sanctifies their political message....They have attacked Bush, they have attacked [[Condoleezza Rice]], they're cutting campaign commercials for Kerry. But we can't respond because their husbands died . . . I think it's one of the ugliest things 'the left' has done...this idea that you need some sort of personal authenticity in order to make a political point..."<ref>{{cite web
| url = http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,198718,00.html
| title = Ann Coulter Fires Back at Critics
| accessdate = 2007-12-04
| date = 2006-06-08
| publisher = Fox News }}</ref><ref name="newsmax">From the NewsMax.com staff, "[http://archive.newsmax.com/archives/ic/2006/6/8/101032.shtml NBC News Slanders Ann Coulter]." ''[[Newsmax]]'', Thursday, June 8, 2006.</ref>

===Comments about the ''New York Times''===
Coulter has a long-running animosity toward the ''New York Times''. Her book ''Slander'' accuses the news media of unfairly criticizing conservatives, and cites the ''Times'' as a prime example.<ref>Coulter, Ann. [http://books.google.com/books?id=0ULoAAAACAAJ&dq=slander "Google Books Database: Slander"]. Google Books. Retrieved on July 16, 2007. </ref>

In an interview with George Gurley of the ''[[New York Observer]]'' shortly after the publication of ''Slander'', it was mentioned that Coulter actually had friends and acquaintances who worked for the ''Times'', namely restaurant critic Frank Bruni and correspondent [[David E. Sanger]]. Later in the interview, she expressed amusement at her recollections of the ''Times''' gratuitousness in publishing two photos of [[George H. W. Bush]] throwing up at a diplomatic meeting in [[Japan]], then said:
"Is your tape recorder running? Turn it on! I got something to say...My only regret with [[Timothy McVeigh]] is he did not go to the ''New York Times'' Building." Gurley told her to be careful, to which she responded "You’re right, after 9/11 I shouldn’t say that".<ref name="Coultergeist"> Gurley, George. [http://www.observer.com/node/37827 "Coultergeist"]. ''New York Observer''. August 26, 2002. Retrieved on October 8, 2007.</ref>

By way of context, during an interview earlier in June 2002 with [[Katie Couric]] to promote the same book, Coulter expressed frustration about "constant mischaracterization" through being misquoted. "The idea that someone can go out and find one quote that will suddenly, you know, portray me — just dismiss her ideas, read no more, read no further, this person is crazy... is precisely what liberals do all the time".<ref> Coulter, Ann. [http://www.drudgereportarchives.com/data/2002/06/27/20020627_075636_flash.htm "Interview with Katie Couric on ''Slander'']. NBC. ''Today''. June 26, 2002. Reprinted at Drudge Report Archive. Retrieved on October 7, 2006. </ref>

When asked by John Hawkins, the web manager of a right-wing [[blog]], through a pre-written set of interview questions if she regretted the statement, Coulter replied by saying: "Of course I regret it. I should have added, 'after everyone had left the building except the editors and reporters.'"<ref>Hawkins, John. "[http://rightwingnews.com/interviews/anncoulter.php An interview with Ann Coulter]." Retrieved on July 11, 2006.</ref><ref>Transcript. "[http://transcripts.cnn.com/TRANSCRIPTS/0306/30/cf.00.html Interview with Ann Coulter]." ''[[CNN]] (Crossfire).'' June 30, 2003. Retrieved on July 11, 2006.</ref> Lee Salem, the president of [[Universal Press Syndicate]], which distributes Coulter's column, later defended Coulter by characterizing her comments as [[satire]].<ref>Salem, Lee. "[http://www.editorandpublisher.com/eandp/news/article_display.jsp?vnu_content_id=1002763918 Universal Executive Responds to 'E&P' Column on Ann Coulter]." ''[[Editor & Publisher]].'' June 28, 2006. Retrieved on July 11, 2006.</ref>

The subject came up again when Coulter appeared on the [[Fox News]] program ''[[Hannity & Colmes]]''. [[Alan Colmes]] mentioned Salem's claim, and said to her that remarks like saying "Timothy McVeigh should have bombed ''The New York Times'' building" were "laughable happy satires, right?" He then said that Coulter was "actually a ''liberal'' who is doing this to mock and parody the way conservatives think." She replied, "Well, it's not working very well if that were my goal. No, I think the Timothy McVeigh line was merely prescient after ''The New York Times'' has leaped beyond — beyond nonsense straight into [[treason]], last week". She was referring to a ''Times'' report that revealed [[classified information]] about an [[anti-terrorism]] program of the U.S. government involving [[surveillance]] of international financial transactions of persons suspected of having [[Al-Qaida]] links. Colmes continued in vein when he responded, calling her remarks "great humor", and that it "belongs on ''[[Saturday Night Live]]''. It belongs on ''[[The Daily Show]]''."<ref>"Hannity and Colmes." ''Fox News Channel''. June 29, 2006</ref><ref name="snl">E&P Staff. "[http://www.mediainfo.com/eandp/news/article_display.jsp?vnu_content_id=1002765267 Coulter Affirms Previous Statement About Bombing 'NYT' Office]" ''[[Editor & Publisher]]'' June 30, 2006. Retrieved on July 11, 2006.</ref>

===Comments on Islam, Arabs and terrorism===
On September 14, 2001, three days after the [[9-11]] attacks (in which her friend [[Barbara Olson]] had been killed), Coulter wrote in her column:
<blockquote>Airports scrupulously apply the same laughably ineffective airport harassment to [[Suzy Chaffee|Suzy Chapstick]] as to [[Muslim]] [[Aircraft hijacking|hijackers]]. It is preposterous to assume every passenger is a potential crazed homicidal maniac. We know who the homicidal maniacs are. They are the ones cheering and dancing right now.</blockquote><blockquote>We should invade their countries, kill their leaders and convert them to Christianity. We weren't punctilious about locating and punishing only [[Hitler]] and his top officers. We [[carpet bombing|carpet-bombed]] [[Germany|German]] cities; we killed civilians. That's war. And this is war.<ref>[http://web.archive.org/web/20010914225811/http://www.nationalreview.com/coulter/coulter091301.shtml This Is War]</ref></blockquote>

Responding to this comment, Ibrahim Hooper of the [[Council on American-Islamic Relations]] remarked in the ''[[Chicago Sun Times]]'' that before September 11, Coulter "would have faced swift repudiation from her colleagues", but "now it's accepted as legitimate commentary."<ref>Jim Ritter, "Muslims see a growing media bias", Chicago Sun Times, September 4, 2006</ref>

[[David Horowitz]], however, saw Coulter's words as irony:
<blockquote>I began running Coulter columns on Frontpagemag.com shortly after she came up with her most infamous line, which urged America to put [[jihad]]ists to the sword and convert them to Christianity. Liberals were horrified; I was not. I thought to myself, this is a perfect send-up of what our [[Islamo-fascism|Islamo-fascist]] enemies believe – that as infidels we should be put to the sword and converted to Islam. I regarded Coulter’s [[philippic|phillipic]] (sic) as a [[Swiftian]] commentary on liberal illusions of multi-cultural outreach to people who want to rip out our hearts.<ref>[http://www.frontpagemag.com/Articles/Read.aspx?GUID=%7B85013A39-1679-49EF-9799-DE762C337F95%7D The Trouble with “Treason”], by [[David Horowitz]], ''[[FrontPage Magazine]]'', July 08, 2003</ref></blockquote>

One day after the attacks (before the culprits had been identified and when death toll estimates were higher than they later became), Coulter asserted that only Muslims could have been behind the attacks:
<blockquote>Not all Muslims may be terrorists, but all terrorists are Muslims -- at least all terrorists capable of assembling a murderous plot against America that leaves 7,000 people dead in under two hours.<ref name="Future widows">{{citeweb |url=http://www.jewishworldreview.com/cols/coulter092801.asp |author=Coulter, Ann |title= Future widows of America: Write your congressman |work=Jewish World Review |accessdate=2007-04-16 |date=2001-09-28}}</ref></blockquote>

Coulter has been highly critical of the [[U.S. Department of Transportation]] and especially its then-secretary [[Norman Mineta]]. Her many criticisms include their refusal to use [[racial profiling]] as a component of airport screening.<ref>Coulter, Ann. "[http://www.jewishworldreview.com/cols/coulter022802.asp Mineta's Bataan death march]", ''Jewish World Review.'' February 28, 2002. Retrieved on July 11, 2006.</ref> After a group of Muslims were expelled from a [[US Airways]] flight when other passengers expressed worries, sparking a call for Muslims to boycott the airline because of the [[Flying Imams controversy|ejection from a flight of six imams]], Coulter wrote:

<blockquote>If only we could get Muslims to boycott all airlines, we could dispense with airport security altogether.<ref>{{citeweb |url=http://www.anncoulter.com/cgi-local/printer_friendly.cgi?article=158 |title=What can I do to make your flight more uncomfortable? |author= Coulter, Ann |date=2006-11-22 |accessdate=2007-04-17 |work=AnnCoulter.com}}</ref></blockquote>

Coulter also cited the 2002 Senate testimony of FBI whistleblower [[Coleen Rowley]], who was acclaimed for condemning her superiors for refusing to authorize a [[search warrant]] for 9-11 conspirator [[Zacarias Moussaoui]] when he refused to consent to a search of his computer. They knew that he was a Muslim in flight school who had overstayed his visa, and the [[French Intelligence Service]] had confirmed his affiliations with radical fundamentalist Islamic groups. Coulter said she agreed that [[probable cause]] existed in the case, but that refusing consent, being in flight school and overstaying a visa shouldn't constitute grounds for a search. Citing a poll which found that 98 percent of Muslims between the ages of 20 to 45 said they would not fight for Britain in the war in [[Afghanistan]], and that 48 percent said they would fight for [[Osama bin Laden]],<ref> Coulter says the poll was "by the "[[Daily Telegraph]]", actually it was by Sunrise, an "Asian"(i.e., Indian subcontinent-oriented) radio station, canvassing the opinions of 500 Muslims in Greater London (not Britain as a whole), mainly of Pakistani origin and aged between 20 and 45. {{cite web
| last = Smith
| first = Michael
| coauthors = Amit Roy
| title = Britons who join Taliban to face trial
| publisher = Telegraph
| date= 2001-10-30
| url = http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=/news/2001/10/30/nmus30.xml
| accessdate = 2007-11-30 }}</ref> she asserted "any Muslim who has attended a [[mosque]] in [[Europe]] -- certainly in [[England]], where Moussaoui lived -- has had 'affiliations with radical fundamentalist Islamic groups'", so that she parsed Rowley's position as meaning that "'probable cause' existed to search Moussaoui's computer because he was a Muslim who had lived in England." Because "FBI headquarters...refused to engage in racial profiling" they failed to uncover the 9-11 plot, Coulter asserted. "The FBI allowed thousands of Americans to be slaughtered on the altar of [[political correctness]]. What more do liberals want?"<ref>Coulter, Ann. "[http://www.jewishworldreview.com/cols/coulter061302.asp This whistle-blower they like]", ''Jewish World Review'' June 13, 2002. Retrieved on October 1, 2006.</ref>

Coulter wrote in another column that she had reviewed the [[civil rights]] lawsuits against certain airlines to determine which airlines had subjected [[Arab]]s to the most "egregious discrimination" so that she could fly only that airline. She also said that the airline should be bragging instead of denying any of the charges of discrimination brought against them.<ref>Coulter, Ann. "[http://www.jewishworldreview.com/cols/coulter043004.asp Arab hijackers now eligible for pre-boarding]" ''Jewish World Review'' April 29, 2004. Retrieved on July 11, 2006.</ref> In an interview with the ''The Guardian'' she quipped, "I think airlines ought to start advertising: 'We have the most [[civil rights]] lawsuits brought against us by Arabs.'" When the interviewer replied by asking what Muslims would do for travel, she responded, "They could use [[flying carpet]]s."<ref name=appmagic>Freedland, Jonathan "[http://www.guardian.co.uk/weekend/story/0,3605,956452,00.html An appalling magic]". ''[[The Guardian]]'', May 17, 2003. Retrieved on July 10, 2006.</ref>

One comment that drew criticism from the [[blogosphere]], as well as fellow conservatives,<ref>Gossett, Sherrie. "[http://www.cnsnews.com/news/viewstory.asp?Page=\Culture\archive\200602\CUL20060213b.html Ann Coulter 'Raghead' comments spark blogger blacklash]" ''[[Cybercast News Service]]'' February 13, 2006. Retrieved on July 11, 2006.</ref> was made during a speech at the [[Conservative Political Action Conference]] in February 2006, where she said, referring to the prospect of a nuclear-equipped [[Iran]], "What if they start having one of these [[Bipolar disorder|bipolar]] episodes with [[nuclear weapon]]s? I think our motto should be, post-9-11: raghead talks tough, raghead faces consequences."<ref>Kurtz, Howard. "[http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/blog/2006/02/14/BL2006021400549_pf.html Monumental misfire]" ''[[Washington Post]]'' February 14, 2006. Retrieved on July 11, 2006.</ref> Coulter had previously written a nearly identical passage in her syndicated column: "...I believe our motto should be after 9/11: [[Jihad]] monkey talks tough; jihad monkey takes the consequences. Sorry, I realize that's offensive. How about '[[List of ethnic slurs#C|camel jockey]]'? What? Now what'd I say? Boy, you tent merchants sure are touchy. Grow up, would you?"<ref>Coulter, Ann. [http://www.townhall.com/columnists/AnnCoulter/2006/02/15/muslim_bites_dog Muslim bites dog]. February 15, 2006</ref>

In October 2007, Coulter made more controversial remarks about Arabs, in this case Iraqis, when she stated, in an interview with the ''[[New York Observer]]''

<blockquote>We’ve killed about 20,000 of them, of terrorists, of militants, of Al Qaeda members, and they’ve gotten a little over 3,000 of ours. That is where the war is being fought, in Iraq, that is where we are fighting Al Qaeda. Sorry we have to use your country, Iraqis, but you let Saddam come to power, ''ha-ha'', and we ''are'' going to instill [[democracy]] in your country.<ref>[http://www.observer.com/2007/tea-miss-coulter Tea With Miss Coulter]</ref></blockquote>

In a May 2007 article looking back at the life of the recently deceased evangelical Reverend [[Jerry Falwell]], Coulter commented on Falwell's statement after the 9/11 attacks that "[[pagans]]", [[abortion]]ists, [[feminist]]s, and [[Gay (term)|gays]] and [[lesbian]]s, among others, helped make the attacks happen. In her article, Coulter stated that she disagreed with Falwell's statement, "because Falwell neglected to specifically include [[Ted Kennedy|Teddy Kennedy]] and 'the Reverend' [[Barry W. Lynn|Barry Lynn]]."<ref>Coulter, Ann. "[http://www.anncoulter.com/cgi-local/printer_friendly.cgi?article=183 Jerry Falwell -- Say Hello to Ronald Reagan]" ''AnnCoulter.com'' May 16, 2007. Retrieved on May 23, 2007.</ref>

In October 2007, Coulter participated in [[David Horowitz]]' "Islamo-Fascism Awareness Week", remarking in a speech at the [[University of Southern California]], "The fact of Islamo-Fascism is indisputable," she said. "I find it tedious to detail the savagery of the enemy . . . I want to kill them. Why don't Democrats?"<ref>{{cite web
| url = http://www.chicagotribune.com/news/custom/religion/la-me-islamo25oct25,0,7812911.story
| title = Coulter's appearance at USC prompts ovations, protests
| accessdate = 2007-12-04
| last = Trounson
| first = Rebecca
| date = 2007-10-25
| publisher = Los Angeles Times
}}</ref>

===2007 John Edwards controversy===
The next year, Coulter drew criticism for statements she made at the 2007 [[Conservative Political Action Conference]] about presidential candidate [[John Edwards]].<ref>TAHMAN BRADLEY "[http://abcnews.go.com/Politics/story?id=2924630&page=1 Controversial columnist draws fire for gay slur]." ''[[ABC News]].'' March 5, 2007. Retrieved on December 24, 2008.</ref><ref>[http://lifeandstylemag.hollywood.com/2007/01/life_style_exclusive_isaiah_wa.php Isaiah Washington Enters Treatment Facility!]</ref> Coulter said:

<blockquote>I was going to have a few comments on the other Democratic presidential candidate, John Edwards, but it turns out that you have to go into rehab if you use the word '[[Faggot (slang)|faggot]],' so I'm - so, kind of at an impasse, can't really talk about Edwards, so I think I'll just conclude here and take your questions.<ref name="coulter_edwards_slur"> "[http://www.metacafe.com/watch/460871/ann_coulter_uses_slur_to_describe_john_edwards_cpac/ Ann Coulter uses slur to describe John Edwards @ CPAC]." March 2, 2007. Retrieved on March 6, 2007.</ref><ref>https://johnedwards.com/action/contribute/coulter Flash video on Edwards' website</ref><ref name="coulter slur">{{Cite web|url=http://www.cnn.com/2007/POLITICS/03/04/coulter.edwards/index.html|title=Coulter under fire for anti-gay slur|accessdate=2007-04-05|publisher=Cable News Network. A Time Warner Company.|year=[[2007-03-04]]|work=CNN.com: Politics}}</ref></blockquote>

This was an allusion to ''[[Grey's Anatomy]]'' star [[Isaiah Washington]]'s use of the epithet and his subsequent mandatory "psychological assessment" imposed by [[American Broadcasting Company|ABC]] executives.<ref name="greysanatomy">Lopez, Kathryn Jean. "[http://corner.nationalreview.com/post/?q=MTI2ZDNiNGZmMTlhZjk4YmVhMDk5NmQ1NThjMjZhNzQ= Breaking News: Ann Coulter Was Ann Coulter at CPAC]." ''[[National Review]].'' March 3, 2007. Retrieved on March 6, 2007.</ref><ref>[http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,256949,00.html Ann Coulter Defends Edwards Comments] FoxNews.com, March 6, 2007</ref> This comment was widely interpreted as meaning that Coulter had called Edwards a "faggot",<ref>[http://mediamatters.org/items/200703030002 Media Matters - Coulter reference to Edwards as "faggot" gives rise to questions for media]</ref> but Coulter has argued on a couple of occasions that she didn't actually do so, while simultaneously indicating she would not have been wrong to say it.<ref>http://mediamatters.org/items/200706260001 "...I did not call John Edwards the 'F' word. I said I couldn't talk about him because you go into rehab for using that word."</ref><ref>http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/21016080/ incl. video excerpt of MSNBC ''Hardball'' June 26, 2007 "...I didn't say anything about him [Edwards], actually, either time".</ref>

The audience laughed, but Edwards responded on his website by characterizing Coulter's words as "un-American and indefensible" and asking readers to help him "raise $100,000 in 'Coulter Cash' this week to keep this campaign charging ahead and fight back against the politics of bigotry."<ref name="edwards_response">Staff Writer. "[http://edition.cnn.com/2007/POLITICS/03/04/coulter.edwards/ Coulter under fire for anti-gay slur]" ''[[CNN]]'' March 4, 2007. Retrieved on March 6, 2007.</ref> Coulter's words also drew condemnation from many prominent Republicans, Democrats, and Libertarians, as well as groups such as the Gay and Lesbian Alliance Against Defamation ([[GLAAD]]).<ref name="edwards_response"/><ref name="nyt_gop_response">Nagourney, Adam. "[http://www.nytimes.com/2007/03/04/us/politics/04coulter.html?_r=1&em&ex=1173157200&en=01c86fe9521cf152&ei=5087%0A&oref=slogin G.O.P. Candidates Criticize Slur by Conservative Author]" ''[[New York Times]]'' March 4, 2007. Retrieved on March 6, 2007.</ref><ref name="open_letter">Peak, Alexander S. "[http://tiger.towson.edu/~apeak1/writtenwork/thoughtpieces/anopenlettertoanncoulter.html An Open Letter to Ann Coulter]" March 3, 2007. Retrieved on March 6, 2007.</ref><ref name="e&p">E&P Staff. "[http://www.mediainfo.com/eandp/news/article_display.jsp?vnu_content_id=1003553226 Edwards Campaign Responds to Coulter Calling Him 'Faggot']" ''[[Editor & Publisher]]'' March 3, 2007. Retrieved on March 6, 2007.</ref> Coulter responded in an e-mail to the ''New York Times'': "C’mon, it was a joke. I would never insult gays by suggesting that they are like John Edwards. That would be mean."<ref name="nyt_gop_response"/> She also posted a response on her website: "I'm so ashamed, I can't stop laughing!"<ref name="cbs_coulter">Staff Writer. "[http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2007/03/04/eveningnews/main2534792.shtml Coulter Under Fire For Anti-Gay Slur]" ''[[CBS News]]'' March 4, 2007. Retrieved on March 6, 2007.</ref>

On March 5, 2007, Coulter appeared on ''Hannity and Colmes'' and said, "[f]aggot isn't offensive to gays; it has nothing to do with gays. It's a schoolyard taunt meaning 'wuss'".<ref name="foxnews">Staff Writer. "[http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,256860,00.html Ann Coulter Fires Back at Critics Over John Edwards 'Faggot' Barb]" ''[[Fox News]]'' March 6, 2007. Includes Flash video of exchange. Retrieved on March 6, 2007.</ref>

In response to this issue, three advertisers ([[Verizon]], [[Sallie Mae]] and [[Netbank]]) pulled their advertisements from Coulter's website,<ref name="pull_ads">Hamby, Peter. "[http://www.cnn.com/2007/POLITICS/03/05/coulter.ads/index.html Companies to pull ads from Coulter's Web site]" ''[[CNN]]'' March 5, 2007. Retrieved on March 6, 2007.</ref> and several [[newspaper]]s dropped Coulter's column.<ref>Astor, Dave. "[http://www.mediainfo.com/eandp/news/article_display.jsp?vnu_content_id=1003554574 Two More Newspapers Drop Ann Coulter's Column]" ''[[Editor & Publisher]]'' March 7, 2007. Retrieved on March 7, 2007.</ref><ref>Staff report. "[http://www.editorandpublisher.com/eandp/news/article_display.jsp?vnu_content_id=1003555954 Statement by Shreveport Editor Today on Dropping Ann Coulter]" ''[[Editor & Publisher]]'' March 8, 2007. Retrieved on March 8, 2007.</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Staff Writer | date=March 11, 2007 | title=Has Ann Coulter Hit Her Tipping Point? | url=http://tv.msn.com/tv/article.aspx?news=254652&GT1=7703 | publisher=[[MSN]] |accessdate=2007-03-11}}</ref>

Responding to the controversy, Coulter said:<blockquote>Just for the record, I've never attempted to revise, or extend, nor have I apologized and the attempts to silence me have made me even more money…Those newspapers pay me about 25 cents per month, but I picked up a LOT of speeches...Attempts to censor me have really backfired.<ref>Hannity and Colmes</ref></blockquote> She also said, "I wasn't saying it on TV. I was saying it at a right-wing political convention with 7,000 college Republicans. I didn't put it on TV." The CPAC convention was, in fact, broadcast on [[C-SPAN]]. In an interview with [[Glenn Beck]], she said, "[[Sarah Silverman]] uses the word, and, oh, liberals don't mind it when she uses it."<ref>{{cite web | date=June 28, 2007 | title=Coulter defended CPAC comment about Edwards: "I wasn't saying it on TV" | url=http://mediamatters.org/items/200706280009 | publisher=[[Media Matters For America]] |accessdate=2008-01-12}}</ref>

This controversy revived an earlier dispute originating from a 2003 column where Coulter disparaged Democratic Presidential candidates who mention family tragedies in their campaign speeches — including Edwards, who, she stated, talks frequently about the death of his son Wade in a traffic accident.<ref>[http://www.uexpress.com/anncoulter/index.html?uc_full_date=20031119 Coulter, Ann; "The Party of Ideas"; uexpress.com; November 19, 2003.]</ref>

In a June 25, 2007 appearance on ''[[Good Morning America]]'', Coulter said: "But about the same time, you know, [[Bill Maher]] was not joking and saying he wished [[Dick Cheney]] had been killed in a terrorist attack -- so I've learned my lesson: If I'm going to say anything about John Edwards in the future, I'll just wish he had been killed in a terrorist assassination plot."<ref name=RCP-no-lady>[http://www.realclearpolitics.com/articles/2007/06/that_was_no_lady_that_was_my_h.html That Was No Lady -- That Was My Husband]</ref>

The next day, on [[MSNBC]]’s ''[[Hardball with Chris Matthews]]'', Coulter received a phone call from [[Elizabeth Edwards]], John Edwards’ wife, asking her to stop the personal attacks and to stick to discussing the issues. Coulter responded, saying that the Edwards campaign was “raising money off it” and denied "saying anything about him [Edwards], actually, either time." Mrs. Edwards also confronted Coulter for writing that they had a bumper sticker on their car saying "Ask me about my dead son" in reference to the death of their son Wade. Coulter responded by characterizing Edwards' call as an attempt to silence her and by attacking Edwards for his activities as a trial lawyer.<ref>[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6xYcUQiJ3sk Elizabeth Edwards confronts Ann Coulter]</ref><ref>[http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/21016080/ John Edwards' better half?]</ref>

Coulter refused to apologize, and explained her response to Mrs. Edwards in a subsequent column: "Edwards is...the trial lawyer who pretended in court to channel the spirit of a handicapped [[fetus]] in front of illiterate jurors to scam tens of millions of dollars off of innocent doctors...Apparently every time Edwards began a story about his dead son with 'I've never told anyone this before,' everyone on the campaign could lip-sync the story with him... If you want points for not using your son's death politically, don't you have to take down all those 'Ask me about my son's death in a horrific car accident' bumper stickers? Edwards is like a politician who keeps announcing that he will not use his opponent's criminal record for partisan political advantage... As a commentator, I bring facts like these to the attention of the American people in a lively way."<ref name=RCP-no-lady/>

John Edwards responded by calling her a "she-devil." He immediately added, "I should not have name-called. But the truth is - forget the names - people like Ann Coulter, they engage in hateful language."<ref>[http://blogs.abcnews.com/politicalradar/2007/08/edwards-calls-c.html Edwards Calls Coulter 'She-Devil']</ref>

===Disenfranchisement of women===
''Time'' magazine's John Cloud observes that Coulter "likes to shock reporters by wondering aloud whether America might be better off if women lost the right to vote."<ref name="timemag"/> For example, in a May 2003 interview with ''[[The Guardian]]'', Coulter said:<ref name=appmagic/>

{{quote|...It would be a much better country if women did not vote. That is simply a fact. In fact, in every presidential election since 1950—except [[Barry Goldwater|Goldwater]] in '64—the Republican would have won, if only the men had voted.}}<ref>Democrats would also have won in 1976 (Jimmy Carter) and 1992 (Bill Clinton), had only male votes been counted.{{Fact|date=January 2008}}</ref>

{{wikinews|Ann Coulter: Take away women's votes because "women are voting so stupidly"}}
Again, in an October 2007 interview with the ''[[New York Observer]],'' Coulter said:<ref>Gurley, George (October 2, 2007) [http://www.observer.com/2007/coulter-culture "Coulter Culture"] ''The New York Observer'' retrieved October 5, 2007</ref>

{{quote|If we took away women's right to vote, we'd never have to worry about another Democrat president. It's kind of a pipe dream, it's a personal fantasy of mine, but I don't think it's going to happen. And it is a good way of making the point that women are voting so stupidly, at least single women.}}

{{quote|It also makes the point, it is kind of embarrassing, the Democratic Party ought to be hanging its head in shame, that it has so much difficulty getting men to vote for it. I mean, you do see it's the party of women and 'We'll pay for health care and tuition and day care—and here, what else can we give you, soccer moms?'}}

==References==

{{reflist|3}}

==Bibliography==
*{{cite book
|last=Coulter |first=Ann H.
|title= High Crimes and Misdemeanors: The Case Against Bill Clinton
|year=1998
|publisher=Regnery Pub. and distributed to the trade by National Book Network
|location=Washington, DC; Lanham, MD
|isbn=0895263602
|oclc=39380711}}
*{{cite book
|last=Coulter |first=Ann H.
|title=Slander: Liberal Lies About the American Right
|year=2002
|publisher=Crown
|location=New York, NY
|isbn=1400046610
|oclc=49673076}}
*{{cite book
|last=Coulter |first=Ann H.
|title=Treason: Liberal Treachery from the Cold War to the War on Terrorism
|year=2003
|publisher=Crown Forum
|location=New York, NY
|isbn=1400050308
|oclc=52133318}}
*{{cite book
|last=Coulter |first=Ann H.
|title=How to Talk to a Liberal (If You Must): The World According to Ann Coulter
|year=2004
|publisher=Crown Forum
|location=New York, NY
|isbn=1400054184
|oclc=55746549}}
*{{cite book
|last=Coulter |first=Ann H.
|title=Godless: The Church of Liberalism
|year=2006
|publisher=Crown Forum
|location=New York, NY
|isbn=1400054206
|oclc=69594152}}
*{{cite book
|last=Coulter |first=Ann H.
|title=If Democrats Had Any Brains, They'd Be Republicans
|year= 2007
|publisher=Crown Forum
|location=New York, NY
|isbn=9780307353450
|oclc=156784826}}

== External links ==

{{sisterlinks|Ann Coulter}}
* [http://anncoulter.com/ Ann Coulter Official Web Site]
* [http://www.nndb.com/people/474/000022408/ Ann Coulter biography at Notable Names Database]
*{{imdb name | id=1326010 | name=Ann Coulter}}
* [http://mediamatters.org/issues_topics/people/anncoulter Ann Coulter] at [[Media Matters for America]]

=== Column archives ===
* [http://findarticles.com/p/search?qt=%22ann+coulter%22&qf=qa3827&tag=content;col1 Ann Coulter column archive] for ''[[Human Events]]'' articles at BNet Find Articles with advanced search (1998-2007)
* [http://www.humanevents.com/search.php?author_name=Ann+Coulter Ann Coulter column archive] at ''[[Human Events]]'' (2002-present)
* [http://www.nationalreview.com/coulter/coulter-archive.shtml Ann Coulter column archive] at ''[[National Review]]'' (2000-2001)
* [http://www.uexpress.com/anncoulter/index.html Ann Coulter column archive] at uExpress.com (1999-present) [select headline archive]

{{Universal Press columns}}

{{Persondata
|NAME=Coulter, Ann Hart
|ALTERNATIVE NAMES=
|SHORT DESCRIPTION=author, political commentator
|DATE OF BIRTH=December 8, 1961
|PLACE OF BIRTH=New York City, New York, USA
|DATE OF DEATH=
|PLACE OF DEATH=
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Coulter, Ann}}
[[Category:1961 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:American Christians]]
[[Category:Scottish-Americans]]
[[Category:American columnists]]
[[Category:American political pundits]]
[[Category:American political writers]]
[[Category:Cornell University alumni]]
[[Category:Intelligent design advocates]]
[[Category:Lewinsky scandal figures]]
[[Category:New York Republicans]]
[[Category:People from Connecticut]]
[[Category:University of Michigan alumni]]
[[Category:Conservatives]]
[[Category:Criticism of feminism]]

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[[es:Ann Coulter]]
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[[fr:Ann Coulter]]
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Kangaroo

2008-11-09T12:28:38Z

AnthonyToddler: trying to remove too-obvious bias (some bias is ok, but I think too much just damages CP)

{{semiprotected|small=yes}}
{{otheruses}}
{{Taxobox
| name = Kangaroos<ref name=MSW3>{{MSW3 Groves | pages= 64 & 66}}</ref>
| image = Kangaroo and joey03.jpg
| image_width = 250px
| image_caption = Female [[Eastern Grey Kangaroo]] with [[Joey (marsupial)|joey]]
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| classis = [[Mammal]]ia
| subclassis = [[Marsupialia]]
| ordo = [[Diprotodontia]]
| subordo = [[Macropodiformes]]
| familia = [[Macropodidae]]
| genus = ''[[Macropus]]''
| genus_authority = in part
| subdivision_ranks = Species
| subdivision =
[[Red Kangaroo|''Macropus rufus'']] 
[[Eastern Grey Kangaroo|''Macropus giganteus'']] 
[[Western Grey Kangaroo|''Macropus fuliginosus'']] 
[[Antilopine Kangaroo|''Macropus antilopinus'']]
}}
A '''kangaroo''' is a [[marsupial]] from the family [[Macropodidae]] (macropods, meaning 'large foot'). In common use the term is used to describe the largest [[species]] from this family, the [[Red Kangaroo]], the [[Antilopine Kangaroo]], and the [[Eastern Grey Kangaroo|Eastern]] and [[Western Grey Kangaroo]] of the ''[[Macropus]]'' genus. The family also includes many smaller species which include the [[wallaby|wallabies]], [[tree-kangaroo]]s, [[wallaroo]]s, [[pademelon]]s and the [[Quokka]], some 63 living species in all.<ref name=MSW3/> Kangaroos are [[endemic (ecology)|endemic]] to the [[continent]] of [[Australia (continent)|Australia]], while the smaller macropods are found in Australia and [[New Guinea]].

In general, larger kangaroos have adapted much better to changes wrought to the Australian landscape by humans and though many of their smaller cousins are endangered, they are plentiful. They are not farmed to any extent, but wild kangaroos are shot [[Kangaroo meat|for meat]], sport, and to protect grazing land for sheep and cattle.<ref>[http://www.kangaroo-industry.asn.au/morinfo/BACKGR1.HTM Kangaroo Industry Background Kangaroo Industries Association of Australia. July 2008]</ref> Although there is some controversy, harvesting kangaroos for meat has many environmental and health benefits over sheep or cows grazed for meat.<ref>[http://www.smh.com.au/news/environment/an-industry-thats-under-the-gun/2007/09/25/1190486311919.html?page=fullpage#contentSwap2 Steve Dow: "An industry that's under the gun". ''Sydney Morning Herald online''], September 26, 2007.</ref>

The kangaroo is an Australian icon: it is featured on the [[Coat of arms of Australia|Australian coat of arms]],<ref>[http://www.dfat.gov.au/facts/coat_of_arms.html Australia's coat of arms] URL accessed [[January 6]], [[2007]].</ref> on some of its [[Australian coins|currency]],<ref>[http://www.dfat.gov.au/facts/currency.html The Australian currency] URL accessed [[January 6]], [[2007]].</ref> and is used by many Australian organisations, including [[Qantas]].<ref>[http://www.qantas.com.au/info/about/history/details19 The Kangaroo symbol] URL accessed [[January 6]], [[2007]].</ref>

==Terminology==
The word ''kangaroo'' derives from the [[Guugu Yimidhirr language|Guugu Yimidhirr]] word ''gangurru'', referring to a grey kangaroo.<ref>[http://www.iberianature.com/trivia/etymology_mammals.htm Etymology of mammal names] URL accessed [[January 7]], [[2007]].</ref> The name was first recorded as "Kangooroo or Kanguru" on [[4 August]] [[1770]], by [[Lieutenant]] (later [[Captain (naval)|Captain]]) [[James Cook]] on the banks of the [[Endeavour River]] at the site of modern [[Cooktown, Queensland|Cooktown]], when [[HM Bark Endeavour|HM Bark ''Endeavour'']] was beached for almost seven weeks to repair damage sustained on the [[Great Barrier Reef]].<ref>{{cite web | title = Kangaroo - Captain Cook's Journal | publisher = [[Project Gutenberg]] | url = http://www.gutenberg.org/files/8106/8106-h/8106-h.htm#ch8 | accessdate = 2006-12-31 }}</ref>

A common myth about the kangaroo's English name is that it came from the Aboriginal words for "I don't understand you." According to this [[urban legend|legend]], Captain [[James Cook]] and naturalist Sir [[Joseph Banks]] were exploring Australia when they happened upon the animal. They asked a nearby local what the creatures were called. The local responded "Kangaroo", meaning "I don't understand you", which Cook took to be the name of the creature. This myth was debunked in the 1970s by linguist John B. Haviland.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Haviland |first=John B. |year=1974 |title=A last look at Cook's Guugu-Yimidhirr wordlist |journal=Oceania |volume=44 |issue=3 |pages=216–232 |url=http://www.anthro.ucsd.edu/~jhaviland/Publications/HavilandOceania.pdf |accessdate=2008-04-13 }}</ref>

Male kangaroos are called ''bucks'', ''boomers'', ''jacks'', or ''old men''; females are ''does'', ''flyers'', or ''jills'', and the young ones are ''[[Joey (marsupial)|joeys]]''.<ref name="sandiego">[http://www.sandiegozoo.org/animalbytes/t-kangaroo.html Animal Bytes: Kangaroo and Wallaby] URL accessed [[January 7]], [[2007]].</ref> The [[collective nouns|collective noun]] for kangaroos is a ''mob'', ''troop'', or ''court''. Kangaroos are often colloquially referred to as ''roos''.<ref>{{cite web | title = Roo | work = [[Compact Oxford English Dictionary]] | publisher = Ask Oxford.com | url =http://www.askoxford.com/concise_oed/roo?view=uk | accessdate = 2006-12-31 }}</ref>

==Overview==
[[Image:Kangaroo-in-flight.jpg|thumb|240px|right|A [[Tasmania]]n Forester ([[Eastern Grey Kangaroo|Eastern Grey]]) Kangaroo in motion.]]
There are four species that are commonly referred to as kangaroos:
* The Red Kangaroo (''Macropus rufus'') is the largest surviving [[marsupial]] anywhere in the world. Fewer in numbers, the Red Kangaroo occupies the arid and semi-arid centre of the continent. A large male can be 2 metres (6 ft 7 in) tall and weigh 90 kg (200 lb).<ref name="reds">{{cite web | url = http://www.red-kangaroos.com/ | title = Red Kangaroos | accessdate = 2007-01-07}}</ref>
* The Eastern Grey Kangaroo (''Macropus giganteus'') is less well-known than the red (outside of Australia), but the most often seen, as its range covers the fertile eastern part of the continent.
* The Western Grey Kangaroo (''Macropus fuliginosus'') is slightly smaller again at about 54 kg (119 lb) for a large male. It is found in the southern part of [[Western Australia]], [[South Australia]] near the coast, and the [[Darling River]] basin.
* The Antilopine Kangaroo (''Macropus antilopinus'') is, essentially, the far-northern equivalent of the Eastern and Western Grey Kangaroos. Like them, it is a creature of the grassy plains and woodlands, and gregarious.

In addition, there are about 50 smaller macropods closely related to the kangaroo in the family [[Macropodidae]].

==Description==
[[Image:Kangur.rudy.drs.jpg|thumbnail|right|240px|[[Red Kangaroo]] (''Macropus rufus'')]]
Europeans have long regarded kangaroos as strange animals. Early explorers described them as creatures that had heads like deer (without antlers), stood upright like men, and hopped like frogs. Combined with the two-headed appearance of a mother kangaroo, this led many back home to dismiss them as travellers' tales for quite some time.{{Fact|date=February 2007}} The first kangaroo to be exhibited in the western world was an example shot by [[John Gore (seaman)|John Gore]], an officer on Captain Cook's ''Endeavour'' in 1770.<ref>[http://www.nma.gov.au/shared/libraries/attachments/friends/archive/in_the_national_museum_captain_john_gore/files/17814/Captain_John_Gore_rf.pdf Captain John Gore] by Johanna Parker, curator at the [[National Museum of Australia]] (June 2006)</ref><ref>[http://calisto.slv.vic.gov.au/latrobejournal/issue/latrobe-66/latrobe-66-004.html The La Trobe Journal], Vol. 66, pages 4 and [http://calisto.slv.vic.gov.au/latrobejournal/issue/latrobe-66/latrobe-66-005.html 5], Spring 2000</ref> The animal was shot and its skin and skull transported back to England whereupon it was stuffed (by [[taxidermy|taxidermists]] who had never seen the animal before) and displayed to the general public as a curiosity.

Kangaroos have large, powerful hind legs, large feet adapted for leaping, a long muscular [[tail]] for balance, and a small head. Like all [[marsupial]]s, female kangaroos have a [[pouch (marsupial)|pouch]] called a marsupium in which joeys complete [[postnatal]] development.

==Behaviour==

Kangaroos are the only large animals to use hopping as a means of [[Animal locomotion|locomotion]]. The comfortable hopping speed for Red Kangaroo is about 20–25 [[km/h]] (13–16 mph), but speeds of up to 70 km/h (44 mph) can be attained, over short distances, while it can sustain a speed of 40 km/h (25 mph) for nearly two kilometres.<ref name="secret">{{cite book | last = Penny | first = Malcolm | title = The Secret Life of Kangaroos | publisher = Raintree Steck-Vaughn Puiblishers | date = 2002 | location = Austin, Texas | isbn = 0-7398-4986-7 }}</ref> This fast and energy-efficient method of travel has evolved because of the need to regularly cover large distances in search of food and water, rather than the need to escape predators.

Because of its long feet, it cannot walk correctly. To move at slow speeds, it uses its tail to form a tripod with its two [[forelimb]]s. It then raises its hind feet forward, in a form of locomotion called "crawl-walking."<ref name="secret" />

The average [[life expectancy]] of a kangaroo is about 4–6 years.<ref>{{cite web | title = Gestation, Incubation, and Longevity of Selected Animals | publisher = infoplease.com | url = http://www.infoplease.com/ipa/A0004723.html | accessdate = 2006-12-31}}</ref>

===Diet===
Different species of kangaroos have different diets, although all are strict herbivores. The Eastern Grey Kangaroo is predominantly a grazer eating a wide variety of grasses whereas some other species (e.g. the Red Kangaroo) include significant amounts of shrubs in the diet. The smaller species of kangaroos also consume hypogeal fungi. Many species are [[nocturnal]]<ref name="archive">[http://www.madsci.org/posts/archives/dec96/845059250.Zo.r.html Archives] URL accessed [[January 7]], [[2007]].</ref> and [[crepuscular]],<ref name="colzoo">[http://www.colszoo.org/animalareas/austral/kangfact.html Columbus Zoo article] URL accessed [[January 7]], [[2007]].</ref> usually spending the days resting in shade and the cool evenings, nights and mornings moving about and feeding.

Because of its grazing, kangaroos have developed specialized teeth. Its incisors are able to crop grass close to the ground, and its molars chop and grind the grass. Since the two sides of the lower jaw are not joined together, the lower incisors are farther apart, giving the kangaroo a wider bite. The [[silica]] in grass is abrasive, so kangaroo molars move forward as they are ground down, and eventually fall out, replaced by new teeth that grow in the back.<ref name="secret" />

===Absence of digestive methane release===
Despite having a herbivorous diet similar to [[ruminant]]s such as cattle which release large quantities of [[methane]] through [[breathing|exhaling]] and [[eructation]], kangaroos release virtually none. The hydrogen byproduct of fermentation is instead converted into acetate, which is then used to provide further energy. Scientists are interested in the possibility of transferring the bacteria responsible from kangaroos to cattle, since the [[greenhouse gas]] effect of methane is 23 times greater than that of [[carbon dioxide]].<ref>[http://www.abc.net.au/ra/innovations/stories/s1159618.htm ''Radio Australia'' - Innovations:]
"Methane In Agriculture." 15 August 2004. Retrieved 28 August 2007.</ref>

===Predators===
Kangaroos have few natural [[predator]]s. The [[Thylacine]], considered by palaeontologists to have once been a major natural predator of the kangaroo, is now [[extinction|extinct]]. Other [[extinction|extinct]] predators included the [[Marsupial Lion]], [[Megalania]] and the [[Wonambi]]. However, with the arrival of humans in Australia at least 50,000 years ago and the introduction of the [[dingo]] about 5,000 years ago, kangaroos have had to adapt.  The mere barking of a dog can set a full-grown male boomer into a wild frenzy.{{Fact|date=February 2007}} Wedge-tailed Eagles and other raptors usually eat kangaroo carrion. [[Goanna]]s and other carnivorous [[reptile]]s also pose a danger to smaller kangaroo species when other food sources are lacking. 

Along with dingos and other [[canidae|canids]], [[Invasive species, Australia|introduced species]] like [[fox]]es and [[feral cat]]s also pose a threat to kangaroo populations. Kangaroos and wallabies are adept [[swimming|swimmers]], and often flee into waterways if presented with the option. If pursued into the water, a large kangaroo may use its forepaws to hold the predator underwater so as to [[drowning|drown]] it.<ref name="camuseum">[http://www.nature.ca/notebooks/english/kanga.htm Canadian Museum of Nature - Kangaroo] URL accessed [[January 6]], [[2007]].</ref> Another defensive [[tactic (method)|tactic]] described by witnesses is catching the attacking dog with the forepaws and [[disembowel]]ling it with the hind legs.

===Adaptations===
[[Image:Joey in pouch.jpg|thumb|Newborn joey sucking on a teat in the pouch]]
Kangaroos have developed a number of adaptations to a dry, infertile continent and highly variable climate. As with all [[marsupial]]s, the young are born at a very early stage of development – after a [[gestation]] of 31–36 days. At this stage, only the forelimbs are somewhat developed, to allow the newborn to climb to the [[Pouch (marsupial)|pouch]] and attach to a [[teat]]. In comparison, a human [[embryo]] at a similar stage of development would be about seven weeks old, and [[premature birth|premature babies]] born at less than 23 weeks are usually not mature enough to survive. When the joey is born, it is about the size of a lima bean. The joey will usually stay in the pouch for about nine months (180–320 days for the Western Grey) before starting to leave the pouch for small periods of time. It is usually fed by its mother until reaching 18 months.

The female kangaroo is usually [[pregnant]] in permanence, except on the day she gives birth; however, she has the ability to freeze the development of an embryo until the previous [[Joey (marsupial)|joey]] is able to leave the pouch. This is known as [[embryonic diapause|diapause]], and will occur in times of drought and in areas with poor food sources. The composition of the [[milk]] produced by the mother varies according to the needs of the joey. In addition, the mother is able to produce two different kinds of milk simultaneously for the newborn and the older joey still in the pouch.

Unusually, during a dry period, males will not produce sperm, and females will only conceive if there has been enough rain to produce a large quantity of green vegetation.<ref name="animal">{{cite book | last = Burnie | first = David | coauthors = Don E. Wilson | title = Animal | publisher = DK Publishing, Inc. | date = 2001 | location = New York, New York | pages = 99-101 | id = ISBN 0-7894-7764-5}}</ref>

[[Image:Kaenguru Hinterfuss-drawing.jpg|thumb|left|Hindleg of a kangaroo]] Kangaroos and wallabies have large, stretchy tendons in their hind legs. They store elastic strain energy in the [[tendon]]s of their large hind legs, providing most of the energy required for each hop by the spring action of the tendons rather than by any muscular effort. This is true in all animal species which have muscles connected to their skeleton through elastic elements such as tendons, but the effect is more pronounced in kangaroos.

There is also a link between the hopping action and breathing: as the feet leave the ground, air is expelled from the lungs; bringing the feet forward ready for landing refills the lungs, providing further energy efficiency. Studies of kangaroos and wallabies have demonstrated that, beyond the minimum energy expenditure required to hop at all, increased speed requires very little extra effort (much less than the same speed increase in, say, a horse, dog or human), and that the extra energy is required to carry extra weight. For kangaroos, the key benefit of hopping is not speed to escape predators—the top speed of a kangaroo is no higher than that of a similarly-sized quadruped, and the Australian native predators are in any case less fearsome than those of other continents—but economy: in an infertile continent with highly variable weather patterns, the ability of a kangaroo to travel long distances at moderately high speed in search of food sources is crucial to survival.

A [[sequencing]] project of the kangaroo [[genome]]{{specify|date=August 2008|which species?}} was started in 2004 as a collaboration between [[Australia]] (mainly funded by the [[Victoria (Australia)|state of Victoria]]) and the [[National Institutes of Health]] in the [[United States|US]].<ref name="genome">[http://www.nih.gov/news/pr/jun2004/nhgri-08.htm Kangaroo hops in line for genome sequencing] URL accessed [[January 6]], [[2007]].</ref> The genome of a marsupial such as the kangaroo is of great interest to scientists studying [[comparative genomics]] because marsupials are at an ideal degree of evolutionary divergence from humans: [[mouse|mice]] are too close and haven't developed many different functions, while [[bird]]s are genetically too remote. The dairy industry has also expressed some interest in this project.{{Specify|date=January 2007}}{{Fact|date=February 2007}}

===Kangaroo blindness===
Eye disease is rare but not new among kangaroos. The first official report of kangaroo blindness took place in 1994, in central [[New South Wales]]. The following year, reports of blind kangaroos appeared in [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]] and [[South Australia]]. By 1996, the disease had spread "across the desert to [[Western Australia]]".{{Fact|date=February 2007}} Australian authorities were concerned that the disease could spread to other livestock and possibly humans. Researchers at the Australian Animal Health Laboratories in [[Geelong]] detected a virus called the Wallal virus in two species of [[midge]], believed to have been the carriers.<ref>{{cite journal | last = Hooper | first = P | title = Kangaroo blindness and some other new viral diseases in Australia | journal = Australian Veterinary Journal | volume = 77 | issue = 8 | month = August | year = 1999 | url = http://www.ava.com.au/avj/9908/99080514.pdf | accessdate = 2006-12-31 | doi = 10.1111/j.1751-0813.1999.tb12122.x | pages = 514}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | title = Viruses on the hop | journal = Ecos | publisher = [[CSIRO Publishing]] | issue = 87 | month = Autumn | year = 1996 | url = http://www.publish.csiro.au/?act=view_file&file_id=EC87p36.pdf | accessdate =2006-12-31}}</ref> [[Veterinarians]] also discovered that less than three percent of kangaroos exposed to the virus developed blindness.<ref>{{cite web | title = Unknown | publisher = National Wildlife Federation | url = http://www.nwf.org/internationalwildlife/kangaroo.html}}</ref>

==Interaction with humans==
Before [[European ethnic groups|European]] settlement, the kangaroo was a very important animal for [[Australian Aborigines]], for its [[kangaroo (meat)|meat]], hide, bones and [[tendon|sinews]]. In addition, there were important [[Dreaming (spirituality)|Dreaming stories]] and ceremonies involving the kangaroo. [http://www.aherrenge.nt.gov.au/ Aherrenge] is a current kangaroo dreaming site in the [[Northern Territory]]. The game of [[Marn grook]] was played using a ball made from kangaroo by the [[Kurnai]] people.

Unlike many of the smaller macropods, kangaroos have fared well since [[History of Australia|European settlement]]. European settlers cut down forests to create vast grasslands for [[Domestic sheep|sheep]] and [[cattle]] grazing, added stock watering points in arid areas, and have substantially reduced the number of [[dingo]]es.

Kangaroos are shy and retiring by nature, and in normal circumstances present no threat to humans. Male kangaroos often "box" amongst each other, playfully, for dominance, or in competition for mates. The dexterity of their forepaws is utilised in both punching and grappling with the foe, but the real danger lies in a serious kick with the hindleg. The sharpened [[toenail]]s can disembowel an opponent.

There are very few records of kangaroos attacking humans without provocation; however, several such unprovoked attacks in 2004 spurred fears of a [[rabies]]-like disease possibly affecting the marsupials. The only reliably documented case of a fatality from a kangaroo attack occurred in New South Wales, in 1936. A hunter was killed when he tried to rescue his two dogs from a heated fray. Other suggested causes for erratic and dangerous kangaroo behaviour include extreme thirst and hunger.

In 2003, Lulu, an Eastern Grey, saved a farmer's life. She received the [[RSPCA]] National Animal Valor Award on May 19 of the next year.<ref>{{cite news | title =Blind kangaroo jumps in to rescue farmer | publisher = [[The Scotsman]] |date= [[2003-09-22]]| url = http://news.scotsman.com/international.cfm?id=1053612003| accessdate = 2006-12-31 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | last =Morse | first =Sherry | title = Half-Blind Kangaroo Saves Life Of Unconscious Man | publisher =Buzzle.com |date=2003-04-10 | url = http://www.buzzle.com/editorials/10-4-2003-46148.asp | accessdate = 2006-12-31 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | title = Lulu the Kangaroo" receives the RSPCA "National Animal Valor Award | publisher = luluthekangaroo.com.au |date | url = http://www.luluthekangaroo.com.au/
| accessdate = 2006-12-31 }}</ref>

===Side effects of harvesting===
There are some side effects of harvesting kangaroos that are undesirable and work against the stated goals of the harvest. These side effects lock managers into more intervention rather than addressing population concerns. Ecological resilience, exclusion of plant species, a destabilizing of an ecological system, increased instability between prey and predator populations, an increase in juvenile population survival and ultimately a change in the genetic structure of the population. <ref>[http://www.environment.gov.au/biodiversity/trade-use/wild-harvest/kangaroo/harvesting/roobg-02.html Commercial harvesting of Kangaroos in Australia Department of Zoology, The University of Queensland for Environment Australia, August 1999 Side effects of harvesting]</ref>

=== Conflict with vehicles ===
[[Image:Kangaroo Sign at Stuart Highway.jpg|left|thumb|200px|A "kangaroo crossing" sign on an Australian highway.]]
[[Image:Western australia kan.jpg|right|thumb|270px|A kangaroo crossing a highway.]]
A collision with a vehicle is capable of killing a kangaroo. Kangaroos dazzled by headlights or startled by engine noise have been known to leap in front of cars. Since kangaroos in mid-bound can reach speeds of around 50 km/h (31 mph) and are relatively heavy, the force of impact can be severe. Small vehicles may be destroyed, while larger vehicles may suffer engine damage. The risk of harm to vehicle occupants is greatly increased if the [[windscreen]] is the point of impact. As a result, "kangaroo crossing" signs are commonplace in Australia.

[[Image:Wedge-tailed Eagle.jpg‎|thumb|A [[Wedge-tailed Eagle]] feeding on a kangaroo 'road-kill' in the Pilbara region of Western Australia.]]

Vehicles that frequent isolated roads, where roadside assistance may be scarce, are often fitted with "[[Bull bar|roo bars]]" to minimise damage caused by collision. [[Hood (vehicle)|Bonnet]]-mounted devices, designed to scare wildlife off the road with [[ultrasound]] and other methods, have been devised and marketed.

If a female is the victim of a collision, animal welfare groups ask that her pouch be checked for any surviving joey, in which case it may be removed to a wildlife sanctuary or veterinary surgeon for [[Wildlife rehabilitation|rehabilitation]]. Likewise, when an adult kangaroo is injured in a collision, a [[Veterinary surgeon|vet]], the [[RSPCA Australia|RSPCA]] or the [[National Parks and Wildlife Service]] can be consulted for instructions on proper care. In New South Wales, rehabilitation of kangaroos is carried out by volunteers from [[NSW Wildlife Information and Rescue Service|WIRES]].

===Hand-raising===
Occasionally, individuals take on the task of rearing a recovered joey themselves. The [[rule of thumb|rule-of-thumb]] says that if the joey is already covered with fur at the time of the accident (as opposed to still being in its embryonic stage), it stands a good chance of growing up properly. [[Lactose]]-free milk is required, otherwise the animal may develop [[blindness]]. They hop readily into a cloth bag when it is lowered in front of them approximately to the height where the mother's pouch would be. The joey's instinct is to "cuddle up", thereby endearing themselves to their keepers, but after hand-rearing a joey, it cannot usually be released into the wild and be expected to provide for itself immediately. Usually wildlife sanctuaries are willing to adopt kangaroos which are no longer practical, or have grown too large to contain, needing at least {{convert|1|acre|m2|sing=on}} and {{convert|7|ft|m|abbr=on}} boundary fences for a fully grown kangaroo.{{Fact|date=October 2008}}

==Kangaroo emblems and popular culture==
{{main|Kangaroo emblems and popular culture}}

Kangaroos have been featured on coins, as well as being used as emblems and logos. They have also been used as mascots and in the naming of sports teams and are extremely well-represented in films, television, toys and souvenirs around the world.

==Kangaroo meat ==
{{main|Kangaroo meat}}
Kangaroo meat is used in [[barbecue]]s, [[stew]]s and various other types of cooking. The meat is also a staple part of the [[Indigenous Australians|Aboriginal]] diet.{{Fact|date=August 2008}}

==See also==
{{commons|Macropus}}
*[[Embryonic diapause]]
*[[Kangaroo (meat)]]
*[[Kangaroo court]] (mock justice)
*[[Boxing Kangaroo]] (symbol)
*[[Kangaroo emblems and popular culture]]

== References ==
*Dawson, Terence J. 1995. ''Kangaroos: Biology of the Largest Marsupials''. Cornell University Press, Ithaca, New York. Second printing: 1998. ISBN 0-8014-8262-3.
*Flannery, Timothy Fridtjof, et al. 1996. ''Tree Kangaroos: A Curious Natural History''. Reed Books, Melbourne. ISBN 0-7301-0492-3
*Underhill D. 1993. ''Australia's Dangerous Creatures'', Reader's Digest, Sydney, New South Wales, ISBN 0-86438-018-6
*Weldon, Kevin. 1985. ''The Kangaroo''. Weldons Pty. Ltd., Sydney. ISBN 0-949708-22-4

== Footnotes==
{{reflist|2}}

==External links==
*[http://kango.anu.edu.au/ The Kangaroo Genome Project] at [[Australian National University]]
*[http://rubens.anu.edu.au/student.projects/kangaroos/court-mate.html Courtship and Mating]
*[http://www.abc.net.au/ozfossil/megafauna/fauna/fauna.htm Prehistoric mammals]

{{Diprotodontia|M.}}

[[Category:Marsupials of Australia]]
[[Category:Macropods]]
[[Category:Words and phrases of Australian Aboriginal origin]]
[[Category:Australian Aboriginal culture]]

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Bill Clinton

2008-11-09T12:28:03Z

AnthonyToddler: trying to remove too-obvious bias (some bias is ok, but I think too much just damages CP)

{{pp-semi-protected|small=yes}}
{{Infobox Officeholder
|name = William Jefferson Clinton
|image = Bill Clinton.jpg
|order = 42nd
|office = President of the United States
|term_start = January 20, 1993
|term_end = January 20, 2001
|vicepresident = [[Al Gore]]
|predecessor = [[George H. W. Bush]]
|successor = [[George W. Bush]]
|order2 = 40th and 42nd
|office2 = Governor of Arkansas
|term_start2 = January 11, 1983
|term_end2 = December 12, 1992
|lieutenant2 = [[Winston Bryant]] (1983-1991) [[Jim Guy Tucker]] (1991-1992)
|predecessor2 = [[Frank D. White]]
|successor2 = [[Jim Guy Tucker]]
|term_start3 = January 9, 1979
|term_end3 = January 19, 1981
|lieutenant3 = [[Joe Purcell]]
|predecessor3 = [[Joe Purcell]] (acting)
|successor3 = [[Frank D. White]]
|office4 = [[Arkansas Attorney General]]
|term_start4 = 1977
|term_end4 = 1979
|predecessor4 = [[Jim Guy Tucker]]
|successor4 = [[Steve Clark (attorney)|Steve Clark]]
|birth_date = {{birth date and age|mf=yes|1946|08|19}}
|birth_place = [[Hope, Arkansas]]
|nationality = [[United States|American]]
|party = [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic]]
|spouse = [[Hillary Rodham Clinton]]
|children = [[Chelsea Clinton]]
|occupation = [[Lawyer]]
|alma_mater = [[Georgetown University]] [[Yale Law School]]
|religion = [[Protestant Christianity]] ([[Southern Baptist]])
|signature = Signature of Bill Clinton.svg
|website = [http://www.clintonlibrary.gov/ William J. Clinton Presidential Library]
}}

'''William Jefferson "Bill" Clinton''' (born '''William Jefferson Blythe III''', August 19, 1946)<ref name="whitehouse.gov bio">{{cite web |title=Biography of William J. Clinton |publisher=[[The White House]] |url=http://www.whitehouse.gov/history/presidents/bc42.html |accessdate=2008-10-29}}</ref> served as the [[List of Presidents of the United States|forty-second]] [[President of the United States]] from 1993 to 2001. He was the fifteenth Democrat elected to that office. He was the [[List of United States presidents by age at ascension to office|third-youngest president]], only older than [[Theodore Roosevelt]] and [[John F. Kennedy]] when he went into office. He became president at the end of the [[Cold War]], and as he was born in the period after [[World War II]], is known as the first [[Baby Boomer]] president.<ref>{{cite news |last=Sandalow |first=Marc |title=Clinton Era Marked by Scandal, Prosperity: 1st Baby Boomer in White House Changed Notions of Presidency |publisher=[[San Francisco Chronicle]] |date=2001-01-14 |url=http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?file=/chronicle/archive/2001/01/14/MN71509.DTL |accessdate=2008-10-29}}</ref> His wife, [[Hillary Rodham Clinton]], is a [[United States Senator]] from [[New York]], and former candidate for the Democratic nomination in 2008.

Clinton was described as a [[New Democrats|New Democrat]] and was largely known for the [[Third Way (centrism)|Third Way]] philosophy of governance that came to epitomize his two terms as president.<ref name = 'The Natural'>{{cite book |last=Klein |first=Joe |title=The Natural: The Misunderstood Presidency of Bill Clinton |publisher=Doubleday |date=2002 |isbn=0767914120}}</ref> His policies, on issues such as the [[North American Free Trade Agreement]] and [[welfare reform]], have been described as "centrist."<ref>{{cite news |last=Safire |first=William |title=Essay; Looking Beyond Peace |publisher=[[The New York Times]] |date=1993-12-06 |url=http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9F0CE5D91F39F935A35751C1A965958260 |accessdate=2008-10-29}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Duffy |first=Michael |coauthors=Laurence I. Barrett, Ann Blackman, James Carney |title=Secrets of |publisher=[[Time Magazine]] |date=1993-11-29 |url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,979697,00.html?iid=chix-sphere |accessdate=2008-10-29}}</ref> Clinton presided over the longest period of peace-time economic expansion in American history, which included a balanced budget and a reported federal surplus.<ref name = "economic expansion">{{cite web |last=Clinton |first=Bill |title=April 2, 1999: The Longest Peacetime Expansion in History |publisher=[[National Archives and Records Administration]] |date=1999-04-02 |url=http://clinton4.nara.gov/textonly/WH/Work/040299.html whitehouse.gov{{ndash}} |accessdate=2008-10-29}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title= House Report 105-648 - Department of Transportation and Related Agencies Appropriations Bill, 1999 |publisher=[[Library of Congress]] |date=1999 |url=http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/cpquery/?&dbname=cp105&sid=cp105AqBYv&refer=&r_n=hr648.105&item=&sel=TOC_627612& |accessdate=2008-10-29}}</ref> Based on Congressional accounting rules, at the end of his presidency Clinton reported a surplus of $559 billion. On the heels of a failed attempt at [[Clinton health care plan|health care reform]] with a [[Democratic Party of the United States|Democratic]] [[United States Congress|Congress]], [[Republican Party of the United States|Republicans]] [[Republican Revolution|won control]] of the [[United States House of Representatives|House of Representatives]] for the first time in forty years.<ref>{{cite web |last=Hulsey |first=Byron |title=The Altered Terrain of American Politics (Review of Do Elections Matter?) |date= |url=http://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.cgi?path=2154881707717 |accessdate=2008-10-29}}</ref> Two years later, he was re-elected and became the first member of the Democratic Party since [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] to win a second term as President.<ref name="Clinton@2">{{cite book |last=Jones |first=Charles O. |title=The Presidency in a Separated System |publisher=[[The Brookings Institution]] |date=2005 |pages=318}}</ref> Later he was [[Impeachment of Bill Clinton|impeached]] for [[obstruction of justice]], but subsequently was acquitted by the U.S. Senate.<ref>{{cite news |last=No Author |title=Clinton impeached |publisher=[[British Broadcasting Company|British Broadcasting Company News]] |date=1998-12-19 |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/events/clinton_under_fire/latest_news/238784.stm |accessdate=2008-10-29}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last= Baker |first=Peter |coauthors=Helen Dewar |title=The Senate Acquits President Clinton |publisher=[[The Washington Post]] |date=1999-02-13 |pages=A1 |url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/politics/special/clinton/stories/impeach021399.htm |accessdate=2008-10-29}}</ref>

Clinton left office with an [[approval rating]] at 65%, the highest end of office rating of any President since [[World War II]].<ref>http://uspolitics.about.com/od/polls/l/bl_historical_approval.htm</ref> Since then, Clinton has been involved in public speaking and humanitarian work. To promote and address international causes, such as treatment and prevention of [[HIV]]/[[AIDS]] and [[global warming]], he created the [[William J. Clinton Foundation]].

In 2004, he released his autobiography, ''[[My Life (Bill Clinton autobiography)|My Life]]'', and more recently has been involved in his wife Hillary's [[Hillary Rodham Clinton presidential campaign, 2008|2008 presidential campaign]] and in that of [[President-elect]] [[Barack Obama]].

== Early life ==
[[Image:William Jefferson Blythe 1950.jpg|thumb|upright|left|William Jefferson Blythe, III, in 1950 at age four. Known at the time as Billy, he did not formally adopt his stepfather's name until age fourteen.]]

[[Image:Bill Clinton Boyhood Home in Hope, Arkansas IMG 1515.JPG|thumb|right|Bill Clinton Boyhood Home in [[Hope, Arkansas]]]]

Bill Clinton was born "William Jefferson Blythe III" in [[Hope, Arkansas|Hope]], [[Arkansas]]. His father, [[William Jefferson Blythe, Jr.]], was a traveling [[salesman]] who died in an [[automobile]] accident three months before Bill was born.<ref name="whitehouse.gov bio" /> Following his birth, in order to study nursing, his mother [[Virginia Clinton Kelley|Virginia Dell Cassidy]] (1923-1994), traveled to [[New Orleans]], leaving Bill in Hope with grandparents Eldridge and Edith Cassidy, who owned and operated a small [[grocery store]].{{Fact|date=October 2008}} At a time when the [[Southern United States]] were [[Racial segregation in the United States|racially segregated]], Bill's grandparents sold goods on [[Credit (finance)|credit]] to people of all racial groups.{{Fact|date=October 2008}} In 1950, Bill's mother returned from nursing school and shortly thereafter married [[Roger Clinton, Sr.|Roger Clinton]], who together with his brother owned an [[Car dealership|automobile dealership]] in [[Hot Springs, Arkansas]].<ref name="My Life">{{cite book |last=Clinton |first=Bill |title=My Life |publisher=[[Random House, Inc]] |date=2004 |isbn=140003003X}}</ref> The family moved to Hot Springs in 1950.

Although he assumed use of his stepfather's surname, it was not until Billy (as he was known then) turned fourteen that he formally adopted the surname Clinton, partially as a gesture toward his stepfather.<ref name="My Life" /> Clinton says he remembers his stepfather as a [[gambler]] and an [[alcoholism|alcoholic]] who regularly abused his mother and, at times, his half-brother, [[Roger Clinton, Jr.|Roger, Jr.]]<ref name="My Life" /><ref name="First In His Class">{{cite book |last=Maraniss |first=David |title=First In His Class: A Biography Of Bill Clinton |publisher=Touchstone |date=1996 |isbn= 0684818906}}</ref> Clinton intervened multiple times with the threat of violence to protect them.

== Education ==
In Hot Springs, Clinton attended St. John's Catholic Elementary School, Ramble Elementary School, and [[Hot Springs High School (Arkansas)|Hot Springs High School]] - where he was an active student leader, avid [[reader]], and [[musician]].{{Fact|date=October 2008}} He was in the chorus and played the [[tenor saxophone]], winning first chair in the state band's [[saxophone]] section. He briefly considered dedicating his life to [[music]], but as he noted in his [[autobiography]] ''[[My Life (Bill Clinton autobiography)|My Life]]'':

{{cquote|(…) Sometime in my sixteenth year I decided I wanted to be in public life as an elected official. I loved music and thought I could be very good, but I knew I would never be [[John Coltrane]] or [[Stan Getz]]. I was interested in medicine and thought I could be a fine doctor, but I knew I would never be [[Michael E. DeBakey|Michael DeBakey]]. But I knew I could be great in public service.<ref name ="My Life" />}}

[[Image:Clinton at Georgetown 1967.jpg|right|upright|thumb|Clinton attended the School of Foreign Service at [[Georgetown University]] in [[Washington D.C.]], receiving a degree in 1968, during which he ran for [[President]] of the Student Council.]]
In 1963, two influential moments in Clinton's life contributed to his decision to become a public figure. One was his visit to the [[White House]] to meet President [[John F. Kennedy]], as a [[Boys Nation]] senator.<ref name="My Life" /><ref name="First In His Class" /> The other was listening to [[Martin Luther King, Jr.|Martin Luther King's]] 1963 ''[[I Have a Dream]]'' speech (he memorized Dr. King's words).<ref>{{cite web |title=It All Began in a Place Called Hope (Archived whitehouse.gov Article) |publisher=[[National Archives and Records Administration]], previously [[The White House]] |url=http://clinton4.nara.gov/WH/EOP/OP/html/Hope.html |accessdate=2007-01-02}}</ref>

With the aid of scholarships, Clinton attended the [[Edmund A. Walsh School of Foreign Service]] at [[Georgetown University]] in [[Washington, D.C.]], receiving a [[List of tagged degrees|Bachelor of Science in Foreign Service]] ([[Bachelor of Science|B.S.]][[Diplomatic service|F.S.]]) degree in 1968. He spent the summer of 1967, the summer before his senior year, working as an [[intern]] for Arkansas [[United States Senate|Senator]] [[J. William Fulbright]].<ref name="My Life" /> While in college he became a brother of [[Alpha Phi Omega]] and was elected to [[Phi Beta Kappa]]. Clinton was also a member of Youth Order of [[DeMolay International|DeMolay]], but he never actually became a [[Freemasonry|Freemason]].{{Fact|date=October 2008}} He is a member of [[Kappa Kappa Psi]]'s National Honorary Band Fraternity, Inc.{{Fact|date=October 2008}}

Upon graduation he won a [[Rhodes Scholarship]] to [[University College, Oxford]] where he studied [[Government]].<ref name="First In His Class" /> He developed an interest in [[rugby union]], playing at Oxford and later for the Little Rock Rugby club in Arkansas. While at Oxford he also participated in [[Vietnam War]] [[Opposition to the Vietnam War|protests]], including organizing an October 1969 [[Moratorium to End the War in Vietnam|Moratorium]] event.<ref name="My Life" /> In later life he admitted to smoking [[cannabis]] at the university, but claimed that he "never inhaled".<ref name="First In His Class" /><ref name = "My Life" />

After Oxford, Clinton attended [[Yale Law School]] and obtained a [[Juris Doctor]] (J.D.) degree in 1973.<ref name="First In His Class" /> While at Yale, he began dating law student [[Hillary Rodham Clinton|Hillary Rodham]] who was a year ahead of him. They married in 1975 and their only child, [[Chelsea Clinton|Chelsea]], was born in 1980.

==Early political career==
===Leader of Texas McGovern Presidential Campaign of 1972===
During Yale, Clinton took a job with the [[George McGovern|McGovern]] campaign and was assigned to lead McGovern's effort in Texas. He spent considerable time in Dallas, Texas, at the McGovern campaign's local headquarters on Lemmon Avenue where he had an office. There, Clinton worked with [[Ron Kirk]], who was later elected mayor of Dallas twice, future governor of Texas [[Ann Richards]], and then unknown television director (and future filmmaker) [[Steven Spielberg]].

===Governor of Arkansas===
After graduating from Yale Law School, Clinton returned to Arkansas and became a professor at the [[University of Arkansas]]. A year later, he ran for the [[United States House of Representatives|House of Representatives]] in 1974. The incumbent, [[John Paul Hammerschmidt]], defeated Clinton by a 52% to 48% margin. Without opposition in the general election, Clinton was elected [[Arkansas]] [[Attorney General]] in 1976.<ref name="First In His Class" />
{{see|Arkansas gubernatorial election, 1978}}

[[Image:Bill Clinton 1978.jpg|thumb|left|Clinton, as the newly elected [[Governor of Arkansas]] meeting with President [[Jimmy Carter]] in 1978.]]
Clinton was elected [[Governor of Arkansas]] in 1978, making him the youngest governor in the country at age thirty-two. He worked on educational reform and Arkansas's roads, with wife Hillary leading a successful committee on urban health care reform. However, his term included an unpopular motor vehicle tax and citizens' anger over the escape of [[Cuba]]n refugees (from the [[Mariel boatlift]]) detained in [[Fort Chaffee]] in 1980. [[Monroe Schwarzlose]] of [[Kingsland, Arkansas|Kingsland]] in [[Cleveland County, Arkansas|Cleveland County]], polled 31% of the vote against Clinton in the Democratic gubernatorial primary of 1980. Some suggested Schwarzlose's unexpected voter turnout foreshadowed Clinton's defeat in the general election that year by [[United States Republican Party|Republican]] challenger [[Frank D. White]]. As Clinton once joked, he was the youngest ex-governor in the nation's history.<ref name="First In His Class" />
{{see|Arkansas gubernatorial election, 1980}}

Clinton joined friend's [[Bruce Lindsey]]'s law firm of [http://www.wlj.com/ Wright, Lindsey and Jennings], though he spent most of the next two years working on his re-election campaign. Clinton was again elected governor and kept his job for ten years. He helped [[Arkansas]] transform its [[economy]] and significantly improve the state's educational system. He became a leading figure among the [[New Democrats]].<ref name="The Natural"/> The New Democrats, organized within the [[Democratic Leadership Council|Democratic Leadership Council (DLC)]] were a branch of the Democratic Party that called for welfare reform and smaller government, a policy supported by both Democrats and Republicans. He served as Chair of the [[National Governors Association]] from 1986 to 1987, bringing him to an audience beyond Arkansas.<ref name="First In His Class" />

Clinton made economic growth, job creation and educational improvement high priorities. For [[senior citizens]], he removed the [[sales tax]] from [[medicine]] and increased the home property tax exemption.

In the early 1980s, Clinton made reform of the Arkansas education system a top priority. The Arkansas Education Standards Committee, chaired by Clinton's wife, attorney and [[Legal Services Corporation]] chair [[Hillary Rodham Clinton|Hillary Rodham]], succeeded in reforming the education system, transforming it from the worst in the nation, into one of the best. This has been considered by many the greatest achievement of the Clinton governorship. Clinton and the committee were responsible for state educational improvement programs, notably more spending for schools, rising opportunities for gifted children, an increase in vocational education, raising of teachers' salaries, inclusion of a wider variety of courses, and mandatory teacher testing for aspiring educators.<ref name="First In His Class" /><ref name="The Natural" />

Clinton's Governorship answered conservative criticism, but personal and business transactions made by the Clintons during this period became the basis of the [[Whitewater controversy|Whitewater]] investigation, which dogged his later presidential administration.<ref name="Clinton Wars">{{cite book |last=Blumenthal |first=Sidney |title=The Clinton Wars |publisher=Farrar, Straus and Giroux |edition=1st |date=2003 |isbn= 0374125023}}</ref> After very extensive investigation over several years, no indictments were made against the Clintons related to the years in Arkansas.<ref name="First In His Class" /><ref name="The Survivor">{{cite book |last= Harris |first=John F. |title=The Survivor: Bill Clinton in the White House |publisher=Random House Trade Paperbacks |date=2006 |edition=1st |isbn= 0375760849 }}</ref>

===Democratic presidential primaries of 1988===
[[Image:Reagans with the Clintons.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Governor and Mrs. Clinton attend the Dinner Honoring the Nation's Governors in the [[White House]] with President [[Ronald Reagan]] and first lady [[Nancy Reagan]], 1987. Though Governor Clinton had little to do with national politics at the time, Hillary Rodham had, several years previously, clashed over [[Legal Services Corporation]] funding with President Reagan as the organization's chair.]]
In 1987 there was media speculation Clinton would enter the race after then-[[Governor of New York|New York Governor]] [[Mario Cuomo]] declined to run and Democratic front-runner [[Gary Hart]] withdrew owing to revelations of marital infidelity. Clinton decided to remain as Arkansas governor (following consideration for the potential candidacy of Hillary Rodham Clinton for governor, initially favored, but ultimately vetoed, by the First Lady).<ref name="First In His Class">David Maraniss, ''First in His Class: A Biography of Bill Clinton'' (New York: Random House, 1996; ISBN 978-0684818900).</ref> For the nomination, Clinton endorsed [[Governor of Massachusetts|Massachusetts Governor]] [[Michael Dukakis]]. However, he gave the opening night address at the [[1988 Democratic National Convention]], which was nationally televised, but it was criticized for length.<ref>{{cite news|last=Church|first=George J.|title=Cover: Is Bill Clinton For Real?|url=http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,974739,00.html|work=[[Time (magazine)|Time]]|date=1992-01-27|accessdate=2008-03-28}}</ref> Presenting himself as a moderate and a member of the [[New Democrat]] wing of the Democratic Party, he headed the moderate [[Democratic Leadership Council]] in 1990 and 1991.<ref name="The Natural" /><ref name="The Choice">{{cite book |last=Woodward |first=Bob |title=The Choice: How Bill Clinton Won |publisher=[[Simon and Schuster]] |edition= |date=2005 |isbn= 074328514X}}</ref>

===Democratic presidential primaries of 1992===
====Boy Governor====
{{see|Democratic Party (United States) presidential primaries, 1992}}
Due to his youthful appearance he was often called the "Boy Governor". In the first contest, the [[Iowa caucus]], he finished a very distant third to Iowa Senator [[Tom Harkin]]. During the campaign for the [[New Hampshire Primary]] reports of an extramarital affair with [[Gennifer Flowers]] surfaced. As Clinton fell far behind former [[Massachusetts]] Senator [[Paul Tsongas]] in the New Hampshire polls,<ref name="First In His Class" /> following the [[Super Bowl]], Clinton and his wife Hillary went on ''[[60 Minutes]]'' to refute the charges.

====The Comeback Kid====
Their television appearance was a calculated risk but Clinton regained several delegates. He finished second to Tsongas in the [[New Hampshire primary]], but after trailing badly in the polls and coming within single digits of winning, the media viewed it as a victory. On election night, Clinton labeled himself "The Comeback Kid". He ended leading New Hampshire by a large percentage. However, Tsongas picked up little or no momentum from his victory.<ref name="First In His Class" />

Winning the big prizes of [[Florida]] and [[Texas]] and many of the [[Southern United States|Southern primaries]] gave Clinton a sizable delegate lead. However, former [[California]] Governor [[Jerry Brown]] was scoring victories and Clinton had yet to win a significant contest outside of his native South.<ref name="First In His Class" /><ref name="The Choice" />

With no major Southern state remaining, Clinton targeted the New York primary, which contained a large number of delegates. He scored a resounding victory in [[New York City]] and won, shedding his image as a regional candidate.<ref name="The Choice" /> Having been transformed into the consensus candidate, he secured the Democratic Party nomination, finishing with a victory in [[Jerry Brown]]'s home state of [[California]].<ref name="First In His Class" />

===Presidential Election===
[[Image:Debates.jpg|thumb|right|Bill Clinton with [[Ross Perot]], Independent, and President [[George H. W. Bush]], [[Republican party (United States)|Republican]], in a national debate.]]

{{main|United States presidential election, 1992}}
{{see also|Bill Clinton presidential campaign, 1992}}

Clinton won the [[U.S. presidential election, 1992|1992 presidential election]] (43.0% of the vote) against Republican incumbent [[George H. W. Bush]] (37.4% of the vote) and billionaire [[Populism|populist]] [[Ross Perot]], who ran as an independent (18.9% of the vote) on a platform focusing on domestic issues; a significant part of Clinton's success was Bush's steep decline in public approval. Because Bush's [[approval rating]]s were in the 80% range during the [[Gulf War]], he was described as "unbeatable." However, when Bush compromised with Democrats in an attempt to lower Federal deficits, he reneged on his [[Read my lips: no new taxes|promise not to raise taxes]], hurting his approval rating. Clinton repeatedly condemned Bush for making a promise he failed to keep.<ref name="The Choice" /> By election time, the economy was souring and Bush saw his approval rating plummet to slightly over 40%.<ref>{{cite news |title=How the Presidents Stack Up: A look at U.S. presidents' job-approval ratings |publisher=[[Wall Street Journal|The Wall Street Journal Online]] |date=2006 |url=http://online.wsj.com/public/resources/documents/info-presapp0605-31.html |accessdate=2008-10-30}}</ref><ref name="The Choice" /> Finally, conservatives were previously united by anti-[[communism]], but with the end of the [[Cold War]], the party lacked a uniting issue. When [[Pat Buchanan]] and [[Pat Robertson]] addressed Christian themes
at the [[1992 Republican National Convention|Republican National Convention]], with Bush criticizing Democrats for omitting God from their platform, many moderates were alienated.<ref>{{cite web|last=Le Beau|first=Bryan|authorlink= |coauthors= |title=The Political Mobilization of the New Christian Right|work= |publisher=[[Creighton University]]|date= |url=http://are.as.wvu.edu/lebeau1.htm|format= |doi= |accessdate=2006-12-01 }}</ref> Clinton then pointed to his moderate, "New Democrat" record as governor of Arkansas, though some on the more liberal side of the party remained suspicious.<ref>{{citation |last=Walker |first=Martin |title=Tough love child of Kennedy |url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/usa/story/0,12271,1240962,00.html |accessdate=2007-10-12}}</ref> Many Democrats who supported [[Ronald Reagan]] and Bush in previous elections switched their allegiance to Clinton.<ref>{{cite news |title=On this day (November 4) in 1992: Clinton beats Bush to the White House |publisher=[[BBC News Online]] |date= |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/november/4/newsid_3659000/3659498.stm |accessdate=2008-10-31}}</ref>

His election ended twelve years of Republican rule of the [[White House]], and twenty of the previous twenty four years. The election gave Democrats full control of the [[United States Congress]].<ref name="whitehouse.gov bio"/> Clinton was the first president to enjoy this windfall since [[Jimmy Carter]] in the late 1970s.

However, during the campaign questions of [[conflict of interest]] regarding state business and the politically powerful [[Rose Law Firm]], at which Hillary Rodham Clinton was a partner, arose. Clinton maintained questions were moot because all transactions with the state were deducted prior to determining Hillary's firm pay.<ref>{{cite news |last=Ifill |first=Gwen |title=Hillary Clinton Defends Her Conduct in Law Firm |publisher=[[The New York Times]] |url=http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9E0CE1D61039F934A25750C0A964958260 |date=1992-03-17 |accessdate=2008-03-28}}</ref><ref name=<ref name="My Life"/> Further concern arose when Bill Clinton announced that, with Hillary, voters would be getting two presidents "for the price of one".<ref>{{cite news|last=MacGillis|first=Alec |last2=Kornblut |first2=Anne E. |title=Hillary Clinton Embraces Her Husband's Legacy |publisher=[[The Washington Post]]|url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/12/21/AR2007122102588.html |pages=A1|date=2007-12-21 |accessdate=2008-03-28}}</ref>

==Presidency, 1993–2001==
{{main|Clinton Administration|Foreign policy of the Clinton Administration}}

{{Infobox U.S. Cabinet
|align = right
|Name = Clinton
|President = [[Bill Clinton]]
|President start = 1993
|President end = 2001
|Vice President = [[Al Gore]]
|Vice President start = 1993
|Vice President end = 2001
|State = [[Warren Christopher]]
|State start = 1993
|State end = 1997
|State 2 = [[Madeleine Albright]]
|State start 2 = 1997
|State end 2 = 2001
|Treasury = [[Lloyd Bentsen]]
|Treasury start = 1993
|Treasury end = 1994
|Treasury 2 = [[Robert Rubin]]
|Treasury start 2 = 1995
|Treasury end 2 = 1999
|Treasury 3 = [[Lawrence Summers]]
|Treasury start 3 = 1999
|Treasury end 3 = 2001
|Defense = [[Les Aspin]]
|Defense start = 1993
|Defense end = 1994
|Defense 2 = [[William Perry]]
|Defense start 2 = 1994
|Defense end 2 = 1997
|Defense 3 = [[William Cohen]]
|Defense start 3 = 1997
|Defense end 3 = 2001
|Justice = [[Janet Reno]]
|Justice start = 1993
|Justice end = 2001
|Interior = [[Bruce Babbitt]]
|Interior start = 1993
|Interior end = 2001
|Agriculture = [[Mike Espy]]
|Agriculture start = 1993
|Agriculture end = 1994
|Agriculture 2 = [[Daniel Glickman]]
|Agriculture start 2 = 1994
|Agriculture end 2 = 2001
|Commerce = [[Ron Brown (U.S. politician)|Ron Brown]]
|Commerce start = 1993
|Commerce end = 1996
|Commerce 2 = [[Mickey Kantor]]
|Commerce start 2 = 1996
|Commerce end 2 = 1997
|Commerce 3 = [[William M. Daley|William Daley]]
|Commerce start 3 = 1997
|Commerce end 3 = 2000
|Commerce 4 = [[Norman Mineta]]
|Commerce start 4 = 2000
|Commerce end 4 = 2001
|Labor = [[Robert Reich]]
|Labor start = 1993
|Labor end = 1997
|Labor 2 = [[Alexis Herman]]
|Labor start 2 = 1997
|Labor end 2 = 2001
|Health and Human Services = [[Donna Shalala]]
|Health and Human Services start = 1993
|Health and Human Services end = 2001
|Education = [[Richard Riley]]
|Education start = 1993
|Education end = 2001
|Housing and Urban Development = [[Henry Cisneros]]
|Housing and Urban Development start = 1993
|Housing and Urban Development end = 1997
|Housing and Urban Development 2 = [[Andrew Cuomo]]
|Housing and Urban Development start 2 = 1997
|Housing and Urban Development end 2 = 2001
|Transportation = [[Federico Peña]]
|Transportation start = 1993
|Transportation end = 1997
|Transportation 2 = [[Rodney E. Slater|Rodney Slater]]
|Transportation start 2 = 1997
|Transportation end 2 = 2001
|Energy = [[Hazel R. O'Leary|Hazel O'Leary]]
|Energy start = 1993
|Energy end = 1997
|Energy 2 = [[Federico Peña]]
|Energy start 2 = 1997
|Energy end 2 = 1998
|Energy 3 = [[Bill Richardson (politician)|Bill Richardson]]
|Energy start 3 = 1998
|Energy end 3 = 2001
|Veterans Affairs = [[Jesse Brown]]
|Veterans Affairs start = 1993
|Veterans Affairs end = 1997
|Veterans Affairs 2 = [[Togo D. West, Jr.|Togo West]]
|Veterans Affairs start 2 = 1998
|Veterans Affairs end 2 = 2000
|Chief of Staff = [[Mack McLarty]]
|Chief of Staff start = 1993
|Chief of Staff end = 1994
|Chief of Staff 2 = [[Leon Panetta]]
|Chief of Staff start 2 = 1994
|Chief of Staff end 2 = 1997
|Chief of Staff 3 = [[Erskine Bowles]]
|Chief of Staff start 3 = 1997
|Chief of Staff end 3 = 1998
|Chief of Staff 4 = [[John Podesta]]
|Chief of Staff start 4 = 1998
|Chief of Staff end 4 = 2001
|Environmental Protection = [[Carol Browner]]
|Environmental Protection start = 1993
|Environmental Protection end = 2001
|Management and Budget = [[Leon Panetta]]
|Management and Budget start = 1993
|Management and Budget end = 1994
|Management and Budget 2 = [[Alice Rivlin]]
|Management and Budget start 2 = 1994
|Management and Budget end 2 = 1996
|Management and Budget 3 = [[Franklin Raines]]
|Management and Budget start 3 = 1996
|Management and Budget end 3 = 1998
|Management and Budget 4 = [[Jacob Lew]]
|Management and Budget start 4 = 1998
|Management and Budget end 4 = 2001
|National Drug Control = [[Lee P. Brown|Lee Brown]]
|National Drug Control start = 1993
|National Drug Control end = 1995
|National Drug Control 2 = [[Barry McCaffrey]]
|National Drug Control start 2 = 1996
|National Drug Control end 2 = 2001
|Trade = [[Mickey Kantor]]
|Trade start = 1993
|Trade end = 1997
|Trade 2 = [[Charlene Barshefsky]]
|Trade start 2 = 1997
|Trade end 2 = 2001
}}

===First term, 1993–1997===
Clinton was inaugurated as the 42nd [[President of the United States]] on January 20, 1993. In his inaugural address he declared:

{{cquote|Our democracy must be not only the envy of the world but the engine of our own renewal. There is nothing wrong with America that cannot be cured by what is right with America.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/presiden/inaug/clinton1.htm|title=Bill Clinton First Address, 1993}}</ref>}}

====Legislative agenda====
Shortly after taking office, Clinton signed the [[Family and Medical Leave Act of 1993]], which required large employers to allow employees to take unpaid leave for pregnancy or a serious medical condition. While this action was popular, Clinton's attempt to fulfill another campaign promise of allowing openly [[homosexuality|homosexual men and women]] to serve in the armed forces garnered criticism from the left (for being too tentative in promoting [[LGBT rights in the United States|gay rights]]) and from the right (who opposed any effort to allow homosexuals to serve). After much debate, Congress implemented the "[[Don't Ask, Don't Tell]]" policy, stating as long as homosexuals keep their sexuality secret, they may serve in the military. Some gay rights advocates criticized Clinton for not going far enough and accused him of making his campaign promise to get votes and contributions.<ref>[http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1316/is_n11_v28/ai_18855826 Stranger Among Friends. - book reviews] - John Cloud, ''[[Washington Monthly]]'', November 1996</ref><ref>[http://www.gaymilitary.ucsb.edu/PressClips/03_0110_WashingtonBladeEd.htm Washington Blade Editorial: Bush Has Mandate to Let Gays Serve] - Kevin Naff, Center for the Study of Sexual Minorities in the Military, [[2003-01-10]]</ref> These advocates feel Clinton should have integrated the military by executive order, noting President [[Harry Truman]] used executive order to racially desegregate the armed forces. Clinton's defenders argue an executive order might have prompted the Democratic Senate to write the exclusion of homosexuals into law, potentially making it harder to integrate the military in the future.<ref name="The Natural" /> Later in his presidency, in 1999, Clinton said he did not think any serious person could say the way the policy was being implemented was not "out of whack."<ref>[http://archives.cnn.com/1999/ALLPOLITICS/stories/12/11/clinton.gays.military/index.html President seeks better implementation of 'do not ask, do not tell'] - [[CNN]], [[1999-12-11]] </ref>

The Clinton administration launched the first official [[White House]] website on October 21, 1994.<ref>{{cite news |first= |last= |url=http://clinton1.nara.gov/White_House/html/White_House_Home.html |title=Welcome to the White House|work= |publisher= | date|accessdate=2007-06-06}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |first= |last= |url=http://usgovinfo.about.com/library/weekly/aa012201b.htm |title=The Clinton White House Web Site|work= |publisher= | date|accessdate=2007-06-06}}</ref> It was followed by three more versions, resulting in the final edition launched in 2000.<ref>{{cite news |first= |last= |url=http://clinton5.nara.gov/index.html|title=Welcome to the White House|work= |publisher= | date|accessdate=2007-06-06}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |first= |last= |url=http://usgovinfo.about.com/library/weekly/aa012201b.htm|title=The Clinton White House Web Site: Part 2: Preserving the Clinton White House Web Site|work= |publisher= | date|accessdate=2007-06-06}}</ref> The White House website was part of a wider movement of the Clinton administration toward web-based communication. According to Robert Longley, "Clinton and Gore were responsible for pressing almost all federal agencies, the U.S. court system and the U.S. military onto the Internet, thus opening up America's government to more of America's citizens than ever before. On July 17, 1996, President Clinton issued Executive Order 13011 – Federal Information Technology, ordering the heads of all federal agencies to fully utilize information technology to make the information of the agency easily accessible to the public."<ref>{{cite web |first=Robert |last=Longley |url=http://usgovinfo.about.com/library/weekly/aa012201a.htm|title=The Clinton White House Web Site: Part 1: Perhaps the most important Web site in American history|work= |publisher=About.com |accessdate=2007-06-06}}</ref>

[[Image:ClintonAdmin.jpg|left|350px|thumb|President Clinton's Cabinet, 1993. The President is seated front right, with Vice President [[Al Gore]] seated front left.]]

Also in 1993, Clinton controversially supported ratification of the [[North American Free Trade Agreement]] by the U.S. Senate. Clinton, along with most of his Democratic Leadership Committee allies, strongly supported free trade measures; there remained, however, strong intra-party disagreement. Opposition chiefly came from anti-trade Republicans, protectionist Democrats and supporters of [[Ross Perot]]. The bill passed the house with 234 votes against 200 opposed (132 Republicans and 102 Democrats voting in favor, 156 Democrats, 43 Republicans, and 1 independent against). The treaty was then ratified by the Senate and signed into law by the President on January 1, 1994.<ref>Livingston, C. Don, Kenneth A. Wink; "The Passage of the North American Free Trade Agreement in the U.S. House of Representatives: Presidential Leadership or Presidential Luck?" Presidential Studies Quarterly, Vol. 27, 1997</ref>

Clinton signed the [[Brady Bill]], which imposed a five-day waiting period on handgun purchases. He also expanded the [[Earned Income Tax Credit]], a subsidy for low income workers.<ref name="The Survivor" />

One of the most prominent items on Clinton's legislative agenda was the result of a taskforce headed by [[Hillary Clinton]], which was [[Clinton health care plan|a health care reform plan]] aimed at achieving universal coverage via a national healthcare plan. Though initially well-received in political circles, it was ultimately doomed by well-organized opposition from conservatives, the [[American Medical Association]], and the health insurance industry. However, [[John F. Harris]], a biographer of Clinton's, states the program failed because of a lack of co-ordination within the [[White House]].<ref name="The Survivor" /> Despite his party holding a majority in Congress, the effort to create a national healthcare system ultimately died under heavy public pressure. It was the first major legislative defeat of Clinton's administration.<ref name="The Natural" /><ref name="The Survivor" />

Two months later, after two years of Democratic Party control, the Democrats lost control of Congress in the [[U.S. House election, 1994|mid-term elections in 1994]], for the first time in forty years.

Clinton signed the [[Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act of 1993]] in August 1993, which passed Congress without a Republican vote. It cut taxes for fifteen million low-income families, made tax cuts available to 90% of small businesses,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.clintonfoundation.org/legacy/080393-presidential-press-conference-in-nevada.htm|title=Presidential Press Conference - 08/03/1993}}</ref> and raised taxes on the wealthiest 1.2% of taxpayers.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.clintonpresidentialcenter.org/legacy/012594-speech-by-president-sotu-address.htm|title=1994 State of the Union Address}}</ref> Additionally, through the implementation of spending restraints, it mandated the budget be balanced over a number of years.

In 1997 Senators [[Ted Kennedy]], a Democrat, and [[Orrin Hatch]], a Republican, teamed up with Hillary Rodham Clinton and her staff and succeeded in passing legislation forming the [[Children's Health Insurance Program]], the largest (successful) health care reform in the years of the Clinton Presidency. That same year Hillary Clinton shepherded the [[Adoption and Safe Families Act]] through Congress and two years later Rodham Clinton succeeded in helping pass the [[Foster Care Independence Act]]. Bill Clinton supported both bills as well, and signed both of them into law.

====Travelgate controversy====
{{main|White House travel office controversy|White House FBI files controversy}}

When several longtime employees of the White House Travel Office were fired, the White House travel office controversy began on May 19, 1993. A [[whistleblower]]'s letter, written during the previous administration, triggered an FBI investigation, which revealed evidence of financial malfeasance. Independent Counsel Kenneth Starr investigated the firings and found no evidence of wrongdoing on the Clintons' part.<ref>Howard Kurtz, The Washington Post, [[1998-11-23]]</ref>

The White House FBI files controversy of June 1996 arose around improper access to [[FBI]] security-clearance documents. Craig Livingstone, head of the White House Office of Personnel Security, improperly requested, and received from the FBI, background report files without asking permission of the subject individuals; many of these were employees of former Republican administrations. In March 2000, Independent Counsel Robert Ray determined that there was no credible evidence of any criminal activity. Ray's report further stated "there was no substantial and credible evidence that any senior White House official was involved" in seeking the files.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://archives.cnn.com/2000/ALLPOLITICS/stories/07/28/clinton.filegate/|title=No substantial and credible evidence, CNN}}</ref>

====Death penalty====
{{see|Capital punishment in Arkansas|Capital punishment by the United States federal government}}

The application of the federal death penalty was expanded to include crimes not resulting in death, such as running a large-scale drug enterprise, by Clinton’s 1994 Omnibus Crime Bill. During Clinton's re-election campaign he said, "''My 1994 crime bill expanded the death penalty for drug kingpins, murderers of federal law enforcement officers, and nearly 60 additional categories of violent felons.''"<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.clintonfoundation.org/102496-speech-by-president-to-the-people-of-new-orlean-la.htm|title=William J Clinton Foundation Speech by President to the People of New Orleans, LA, 1996}}</ref>

While campaigning for U.S. President, then-Governor Clinton returned to Arkansas to see that [[Ricky Ray Rector]] would be executed. After killing a police officer and a civilian, Rector shot himself in the head, leading to what his lawyers said was a state where he could still talk but didn't understand the concept of death. According to Arkansas state and Federal law, a seriously mentally impaired inmate cannot be executed. The courts disagreed with the claim of grave mental impairment and allowed the execution. Clinton's return to Arkansas for the execution was framed in a [[New York Times]] article as a possible political move to counter "soft on crime" accusations.<ref>{{cite news|last=Applebome|first=Peter|title=Arkansas Execution Raises Questions on Governor's Politics|url=http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9E0CEED91F3EF936A15752C0A964958260&sec=&spon=&pagewanted=all|work=The New York Times|date=1992-01-25|accessdate=2008-03-28}}</ref><ref name = "mbsrgd">[[George Stephanopoulos]], ''All Too Human: A Political Education'', 1999</ref>

According to some sources Clinton was a death penalty opponent in his early years who switched positions.<ref name = "mbsrgd"/> During Clinton's term, Arkansas performed its first executions since 1964 (the death penalty was re-enacted on March 23, 1973<ref>[http://www.deathpenaltyinfo.org/state/ Death Penalty Information Center]</ref>). As Governor, he oversaw four executions: one by [[electric chair]] and three by [[lethal injection]]. However, Clinton was the first President to pardon a death row inmate since the federal death penalty was reintroduced in 1988.<ref>[http://www.deathpenaltyinfo.org/article.php?did=126&scid=13 Clemency]</ref> Federal executions were resumed under his successor [[George W. Bush]].

===Second term, 1997–2001===
[[Image:Clinton Karlspreis.jpg|thumb|Clinton receiving the 2000 [[Charlemagne Prize]] for his work toward [[European integration]].]]

In the [[United States presidential election, 1996|1996 presidential election]], Clinton was re-elected, receiving 49.2% of the popular vote over Republican [[Bob Dole]] (40.7% of the popular vote) and [[Reform Party USA|Reform]] candidate [[Ross Perot]] (8.4% of the popular vote), becoming the first Democrat to win presidential reelection since Franklin Roosevelt. The Republicans lost a few seats in the House and gained a few in the Senate, but overall retained control of the Congress. Clinton received 379, or over 70% of the [[United States Electoral College|Electoral College]] votes, with Dole receiving 159 electoral votes.

====Lewinsky scandal====
{{Main|Lewinsky scandal}}
The media and prominent Republicans<ref>{{cite news |title=Time Line |work=Washington Post Special Report: Clinton Accused |date=September 13, 1998 |page=A32 |url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/politics/special/clinton/timeline.htm | |publisher=The Washington Post | accesseddate =2007-01-20 }}</ref> raised controversy over Clinton's relationship with a 22-year-old White House intern named [[Monica Lewinsky]], resulting in the [[Lewinsky scandal]], on January 21, 1998.<ref name="The Survivor" /> In a [[lame duck (politics)|lame duck]] session after the 1998 elections, for the belief Clinton lied about his relationship with Lewinsky in a sworn [[deposition]] in the [[Paula Jones]] lawsuit, the Republican-controlled House [[Impeachment of Bill Clinton|voted to impeach Clinton]] in 1998, making him the second U.S. president to be impeached after [[Andrew Johnson]].

=====Impeachment and trial in the Senate=====
{{main|Impeachment of Bill Clinton}}
The House held no serious impeachment hearings before the [[U.S. midterm election|mid-term elections]]. Though the mid-term elections held in November 1998 were at the 6-year point in an 8-year presidency (a time in the electoral cycle where the party holding the White House usually loses Congressional seats) the Democratic Party gained several seats.<ref name="The Survivor">''The Survivor: Bill Clinton in the White House,'' John F. Harris , 2005, ISBN 0-375-50847-3</ref> To hold impeachment proceedings, the Republican leadership called a [[lame duck (politics)|lame duck]] session in December 1998.

[[Image:Senate in session.jpg|thumb|left|The impeachment trial of President Bill Clinton in 1999, [[William H. Rehnquist|Chief Justice William H. Rehnquist]] presiding.]]

While the [[House Judiciary Committee]] hearings were perfunctory and ended in a straight party line vote, there was lively debate on the House floor. The two charges passed in the House (largely on the basis of Republican support but with a handful of Democratic votes as well) were for [[perjury]] and [[obstruction of justice]]. The perjury charge arose from Clinton's testimony about his relationship to [[Monica Lewinsky]] during a sexual harassment lawsuit (later dismissed, appealed and settled for $850,000)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/politics/special/pjones/pjones.htm|title=Case Closed, Washington Post}}</ref> brought by former Arkansas state employee [[Paula Jones]]. The obstruction charge was based on his actions during the subsequent investigation of that testimony. The Senate later voted to acquit Clinton on both charges.<ref>"CNN-Clinton_aquiter"</ref> The Senate refused to convene to hold an impeachment trial before the end of the old term, so the trial was held over until the next Congress. Clinton was represented by Washington law firm [[Williams & Connolly]].

The Senate concluded a twenty-one day trial on February 12, 1999, with the vote on both counts falling short of the Constitutional two-thirds majority requirement to convict and remove an office holder. The final vote was generally along party lines, with no Democrats voting guilty. Some Republicans voted not guilty for both charges. On the perjury charge, fifty five senators voted to acquit, including ten Republicans, and forty five voted to convict; on the obstruction charge the Senate voted 50–50.<ref>{{cite news |title=Clinton acquitted; president apologizes again |publisher=CNN |date=February 12, 1999 |url=http://www.cnn.com/ALLPOLITICS/stories/1999/02/12/impeachment/ |accessdate=2006-12-21 }}</ref>

====Digital Millennium Copyright Act====
Clinton enacted the [[Digital Millennium Copyright Act]] on October 21, 1998. It served as the first significant amendment to the [[United States Copyright Act|Copyright Act]] since 1976. The DMCA extended the protection of [[intellectual property]] to outlaw [[reverse engineering]] of digital protection. It provided a framework for [[record label|sound recording copyright owners]] and recording artists to seek public performance royalties under statute, which proved to be a landmark achievement for the recording industry.<ref>{{cite press release |title=Senate Ratifies Historic Treaties Securing Copyright Online |date=October 21, 1998 |url=http://www.riaa.com/news/newsletter/press1998/102198.asp |publisher=Recording Industry Association of America |accessdate=2007-02-12 }}</ref>

====Military and foreign events====
Three notable military events occurred during Clinton's second term. In Clinton's [[State of the Union Address]], Clinton warned Congress of Iraqi dictator [[Saddam Hussein|Saddam Hussein's]] pursuit of nuclear weapons:

{{cquote|Together we must also confront the new hazards of chemical and biological weapons, and the outlaw states, terrorists and organized criminals seeking to acquire them. Saddam Hussein has spent the better part of this decade, and much of his nation's wealth, not on providing for the Iraqi people, but on developing nuclear, chemical and biological weapons and the missiles to deliver them. The United Nations weapons inspectors have done a truly remarkable job, finding and destroying more of Iraq's arsenal than was destroyed during the entire gulf war. Now, Saddam Hussein wants to stop them from completing their mission. I know I speak for everyone in this chamber, Republicans and Democrats, when I say to Saddam Hussein, "You cannot defy the will of the world," and when I say to him, "You have used weapons of mass destruction before; we are determined to deny you the capacity to use them again.<ref>{{cite press release |title=Senate Ratifies Historic Treaties Securing Copyright Online |date=January 27, 1998 |url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/politics/special/states/docs/sou98.htm|publisher=The Washington Post|accessdate=2007-07-15 }}</ref></blockquote>}}

To weaken Saddam Hussein's grip of power, Clinton signed H.R. 4655 into law on October 31, 1998, which instituted a policy of "regime change" against Iraq, though it explicitly stated it did not speak to the use of American military forces.<ref>[http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/z?c105:H.R.4655.ENR: Iraq Liberation Act of 1998], H.R.4655, One Hundred Fifth Congress of United States of America at Second Session; Library of Congress</ref><ref>[http://www.library.cornell.edu/colldev/mideast/libera.htm The Iraq Liberation Act, Statement by the President], Office of the Press Secretary For Immediate Release, October 31, 1998</ref> The administration then launched a four-day bombing campaign named [[Operation Desert Fox]], lasting from December 16 to December 19, 1998.

The [[Battle of Mogadishu (1993)|Battle of Mogadishu]] also occurred in [[Somalia]] in 1993. During the operation, two U.S. [[MH-60 Black Hawk]] helicopters were shot down by [[rocket-propelled grenade]] attacks to their [[tail rotor]]s, trapping soldiers behind enemy lines. This resulted in an urban battle that killed 18 American soldiers, wounded 73 others, and one was taken prisoner. There were many more Somali casualties. Some of the American bodies were dragged through the streets and broadcasted on television news programs. In response, U.S. forces were withdrawn from Somalia and later conflicts were approached with fewer soldiers on the ground.

[[Image:Clinton.jpg|thumb|right|Clinton's official White House portrait]]
To stop the [[ethnic cleansing]] and [[genocide]]<ref>Cohen, William (April 7, 1999). "[http://www.defenselink.mil/transcripts/transcript.aspx?transcriptid=582 Secretary Cohen's Press Conference at NATO Headquarters]".</ref><ref>Clinton, Bill (June 25, 1999). "[http://clinton6.nara.gov/1999/06/1999-06-25-press-conference-by-the-president.html Press Conference by the President]".</ref> of [[Albanians]] by nationalist [[Serbs|Serbians]] in the former [[Federal Republic of Yugoslavia]]'s province of [[Kosovo]], Clinton authorized the use of American troops in a [[NATO]] bombing campaign against Yugoslavia in 1999, named [[Operation Allied Force]]. [[General Wesley Clark]] was [[Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe#Supreme Allied Commander Europe (SACEUR)|Supreme Allied Commander of NATO]] and oversaw the mission. With [[United Nations Security Council Resolution 1244]], the bombing campaign ended on June 10, 1999. The resolution placed Kosovo under [[UN]] administration and authorized a [[Kosovo Force|peacekeeping force]].<ref>[http://www.unmikonline.org/press/reports/N9917289.pdf Resolution 1244] adopted by the United Nations Security Council on June 10, 1999.</ref> NATO claimed to have suffered zero combat deaths,<ref name="roblect">[http://www.princeton.edu/~lisd/events/talks/Roberts_Lecture.pdf The Impact of the Laws of War in Contemporary Conflicts] (PDF) by Adam Roberts on April 10, 2003 at a seminar at Princeton University titled "The Emerging International System{{ndash}} Actors, Interactions, Perceptions, Security". Retrieved January 25, 2007.</ref> and two deaths from an [[AH-64 Apache|Apache helicopter]] crash.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/335709.stm Two die in Apache crash] by BBC News on May 5, 1999. Retrieved January 25, 2007.</ref> Opinions in the popular press criticized pre-war genocide claims by the Clinton administration as greatly exaggerated.<ref>Pilger, John (September 4, 2000). "[http://www.newstatesman.com/200009040011 US and British officials told us that at least 100,000 were murdered in Kosovo. A year later, fewer than 3,000 bodies have been found]". ''New Statesman''.</ref><ref>Pearl, Daniel and Block, Robert (December 31, 1999). "War in Kosovo Was Cruel, Bitter, Savage; Genocide It Wasn’t". ''The Wall Street Journal'', p. A1.</ref> A U.N. Court ruled genocide did not take place, but recognized, "a systematic campaign of terror, including murders, rapes, arsons and severe maltreatments".<ref>"[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/1530781.stm Kosovo assault 'was not genocide']". (September 7, 2001). BBC.</ref> The term "ethnic cleansing" was used as an alternative to "genocide" to denote not just ethnically motivated murder but also displacement, though critics charge there is no difference.<ref>[http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9390062/ethnic-cleansing Encylopaedia Britannica - Ethnic Cleansing].</ref> [[Slobodan Milošević]], the President of Yugoslavia at the time, was eventually charged with the "murders of about 600 individually identified ethnic Albanians" and "crimes against humanity."<ref>"[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/1402790.stm#kosovo The charges against Milosevic]." (July 5, 2004). BBC.</ref>

After initial successes such as the [[Oslo accords]] of the early 1990s, Clinton attempted to address the [[Arab-Israeli conflict]]. Clinton brought Israeli Prime Minister [[Ehud Barak]] and Palestinian Authority Chairman [[Yasser Arafat]] together at [[Camp David]].<ref name="The Survivor" /> However, the [[Camp David 2000 Summit|negotiations]] were ultimately unsuccessful.<ref name="The Survivor" /> The situation broke down completely with the start of the [[Second Intifada]].

Clinton became the first president to visit [[Vietnam]] since the end of the [[Vietnam War]]
in November 2000.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/asia-pacific/1025169.stm Clinton's Vietnam Visit, [[BBC]] News 2000]</ref> Clinton remained popular with the public throughout his two terms as President, ending his presidential career with a 65% approval rating, the highest end-of-term approval rating of any President since [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]].<ref>{{cite news |first=Gary |last=Langer |title=Historical Presidential Approval Ratings |date=January 17, 2001 |url=http://abcnews.go.com/sections/politics/DailyNews/poll_clintonlegacy010117.html |publisher=abcnews.go.com |accessdate=2007-01-20 }}</ref> Clinton also oversaw a boom of the U.S. economy. Under Clinton, the United States had a projected federal budget surplus for the first time since 1969.<ref>{{cite web |title=Historical Budget Data |url=http://www.cbo.gov/budget/historical.pdf |format=PDF |publisher=Congressional Budget Office |date=January 26, 2006 |accessdate=2007-01-20 }}</ref>

====Whitewater controversy====
{{main|Whitewater (controversy)}}
The Whitewater controversy was an [[United States|American]] political controversy that began with the [[real estate]] dealings of Bill and [[Hillary Rodham Clinton|Hillary Clinton]] and their associates, [[Jim McDougal|Jim]] and [[Susan McDougal]] in the [[Whitewater Development Corporation]], a failed business venture in the 1970s and 1980s.

[[David Hale (Whitewater)|David Hale]], the source of criminal allegations against President Bill Clinton in the Whitewater affair, claimed in November 1993 that Bill Clinton, while governor of Arkansas, pressured him to provide an illegal $300,000 loan to Susan McDougal, the partner of the Clintons in the Whitewater land deal.<ref name="salon031798">[[Jonathan Broder]] and [[Murray Waas]], [http://www.salon.com/news/1998/03/cov_17news.html "The road to Hale"], [[Salon.com]], March 17, 1998. Accessed August 25, 2007.</ref>

A [[U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission]] investigation did result in convictions against the McDougals for their role in the Whitewater project, but the Clintons themselves were never charged, and Clinton maintains innocence in the affair.

====Law license suspension====
In a separate case, Clinton was ordered to pay $25,000 in fines to Arkansas state's bar officials and his Arkansas law license was suspended for five years.<ref>{{cite news |title=Clinton to contest Supreme Court suspension |publisher=CNN |date=October 2, 2001 |url=http://archives.cnn.com/2001/LAW/10/01/scotus.clinton/ |accessdate=2006-12-21 }}</ref> The agreement came on the condition that Whitewater prosecutors would not pursue federal [[perjury]] charges against him.<ref>{{cite news |title=Bill Clinton Disbarment to End |publisher=AP/11alive.com |date=January 18, 2006 |url=http://www.11alive.com/rss/article.aspx?storyid=74815 |accessdate=2006-12-21 }}</ref> Clinton was suspended by the Supreme Court in October 2001, and, facing disbarment from that court, Clinton resigned from the Supreme Court bar in November.<ref>{{cite news |title=Clinton asks to quit Supreme Court Bar |publisher=CNN.com |url=http://archives.cnn.com/2001/ALLPOLITICS/11/09/clinton.bar/ |date=November 9, 2001 |accessdate=2007-09-20 }}</ref>

===Troopergate===
{{main|Troopergate (Bill Clinton)}}
Troopergate is the popular name of an alleged [[scandal]] involving allegations by two [[Arkansas]] state troopers that they arranged sexual liaisons for then-[[governor]] Bill Clinton. The allegations by state troopers [[Larry Patterson]] and Roger Perry were first reported by [[David Brock]] in the [[American Spectator]] in 1993. The story mentioned a woman named ''Paula'', a reference to [[Paula Jones]]. The troopers were discovered to have been paid for their stories and Brock later admitted journalistic dishonesty and apologized.

====Pardons and campaign finance====
{{main|Bill Clinton pardons controversy|1996 United States campaign finance controversy}}
Clinton issued 141 pardons and 36 commutations on his last day in office on January 20, 2001.<ref name="The Survivor" /><ref>[http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/aponline/20010120/aponline135239_000.htm "Clinton Pardon's List"], ''[[Associated Press]] via [[The Washington Post]]'', 2001-01-20</ref> Most of the controversy surrounded [[Marc Rich]] and allegations that Hillary Clinton's brother, [[Hugh Rodham]], accepted payments in return for influencing the president's decision-making regarding the pardons.<ref>{{cite news |title=Clinton pardons: Cast of characters |publisher=BBC |date=February 22, 2001 |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/1184118.stm |accessdate=2006-12-21 }}</ref> Some of Clinton's pardons remain a point of controversy.<ref>Curl, Joseph, [http://washingtontimes.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20070706/NATION/107060099/1001 "Clintons hit over Libby criticism"], ''[[Washington Post]]''</ref>

The 1996 United States campaign finance controversy was an alleged effort by the [[People's Republic of China]] (PRC) to influence the domestic policies of the United States, prior to and during the Clinton administration and also involved the fundraising practices of the administration itself.<ref name=embassy>Woodward, Bob and Duffy, Brian, [http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/politics/special/campfin/stories/china1.htm "Chinese Embassy Role In Contributions Probed"], ''Washington Post'', February 13, 1997
</ref>

===Legislation and programs===
{{col-begin}}
{{col-2}}

'''Major legislation signed'''
*[[1993-02-05]] - [[Family and Medical Leave Act of 1993]]
*[[1993-08-10]] - [[Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act of 1993]] - Raised income tax rates; [[income tax]], top rate: 39.6%; [[corporate tax]]: 35%
*[[1993-09-21]] - creation of the [[AmeriCorps]] volunteer program
*[[1993-11-30]] - [[Brady Handgun Violence Prevention Act|Brady Bill]]
*[[1994-09-13]] - [[Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act]], part of an omnibus crime bill, the federal [[capital punishment|death penalty]] was expanded to some 60 different [[offense]]s (see [[Federal assault weapons ban]])
*[[1996-02-01]] - [[Communications Decency Act]]
*[[1996-02-08]] - [[Telecom Reform Act]]: eliminated major ownership restrictions for radio and television groups.
*[[1996-02-26]] - [[Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act]], a [[welfare reform]] bill
*[[1996-03-14]] - authorized $100 million [[counter-terrorism]] agreement with [[Israel]] to track down and root out [[terrorism|terrorists]].
*[[1996-04-09]] - [[Line Item Veto Act of 1996|Line Item Veto Act]]<ref>This law was declared to be unconstitutional in [[Clinton v. City of New York]].</ref>
*[[1996-04-24]] - [[Antiterrorism and Effective Death Penalty Act]]
*[[1996-08-20]] - [[Minimum wage]] Increase Act
*[[1996-09-21]] - [[Defense of Marriage Act]], allowed states to refuse recognition of certain [[same-sex marriage]]s, and defined marriage as between a male and female for purposes of federal law.
*[[1997-08-05]] - [[Taxpayer Relief Act of 1997]]
*[[1998-10-28]] - [[Digital Millennium Copyright Act]]
*[[1998-10-31]] - [[Iraq Liberation Act]]
{{col-2}}

'''Major legislation vetoed'''
*[[United States budget process|national budget]]
*H.R. 1833, [[partial birth abortion]] ban
*Twice vetoed [[welfare reform]] before signing
*the [[Private Securities Litigation Reform Act]]. Congress [[List of United States presidential vetoes#Bill Clinton|overrode]] the veto, however, to enact the bill into law.

'''Proposals not passed by Congress'''
*[[Clinton health care plan|Health care reform]]
*[[Campaign finance reform]] (1993)

'''Initiatives'''
*Tried to get [[Ehud Barak]] of [[Israel]] and [[Yasser Arafat]] of the [[Palestinian National Authority]], to agree to a final [[Oslo Accords|settlement agreement]].
*Initiated the [[Don't ask, don't tell]] policy toward [[Gay (term)|gays]] in the military, 1993.
*Reversed a ban on senior [[Sinn Féin]] politicians entering the U.S.
*Proposed a national challenge to end the racial divide in America, the [[One America Initiative]].
{{col-end}}

===Supreme Court appointments===
Clinton appointed the following justices to the [[Supreme Court of the United States|Supreme Court]]:
*[[Ruth Bader Ginsburg]] - 1993{{Fact|date=October 2008}}
*[[Stephen Breyer]] - 1994<ref>{{cite web|url=http://law.onecle.com/ussc/justices/512usxi-appointment-of-justice-breyer.html|title=Appointment and swearing in of Justice Breyer, 1994}}</ref>

==Public approval==
[[Image:Clinton approval rating.png|thumb|300px|Clinton's [[approval rating]]s throughout his presidential career]]

Clinton's job [[approval rating]] ranged from 36% in mid-1993 to 64% in late 1993 and early 1994.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ropercenter.uconn.edu/cgi-bin/hsrun.exe/Roperweb/PresJob/PresJob.htx;start=HS_fullresults?pr=Clinton|title=Job Performance Ratings for President Clinton|accessdate=2006-02-25}}</ref> In his second term, his rating was consistently ranged from the high-50s to the high-60s.<ref>[http://www.pollingreport.com/clinton-.htm Bill Clinton: Job Ratings] - PollingReport.com</ref> After his impeachment proceedings in 1998 and 1999, Clinton's rating reached its highest point at 73% approval.<ref>[http://www.cnn.com/ALLPOLITICS/stories/1998/12/20/impeachment.poll/ Poll: Clinton's approval rating up in wake of impeachment] - [[CNN]], [[1998-12-20]]</ref> He finished with an approval rating of 68%, which was higher than that of any other departing president since polling began more than seventy years earlier.

As he was leaving office, a CNN/USA TODAY/Gallup poll revealed only 45% said they'd miss him. While 55% thought he "would have something worthwhile to contribute and should remain active in public life", 68% thought he'd be remembered for his "involvement in personal scandal", and 58% answered "No" to the question "Do you generally think Bill Clinton is honest and trustworthy?". 47% of the respondents identified themselves as being Clinton supporters. 47% said he would be remembered as either "outstanding" or "above average" as a president while 22% said he would be remembered as "below average" or "poor".<ref name = "CNN-Clinton-gone">[http://archives.cnn.com/2001/ALLPOLITICS/stories/01/10/cnn.poll.clinton/ Poll: Majority of Americans glad Clinton is leaving office] - Keating Holland, [[CNN]], [[2001-01-10]]</ref>

The [[Gallup Organization]] published a poll in February 2007 asking respondents to name the greatest president in U.S. history; Clinton came in fourth place, capturing 13% of the vote. In a 2006 [[Quinnipiac University]] poll asking respondents to name the best president since [[World War II]], Clinton ranked 3% behind [[Ronald Reagan]] to place second with 25% of the vote. However, in the same poll, when respondents were asked to name the worst president since World War II, Clinton placed 1% behind Nixon and 18% behind George W. Bush to come in third with 16% of the vote.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.pollingreport.com/wh-hstry.htm |title=Presidents and History |publisher=pollingreport.com |accessdate=2007-06-25 }}</ref>

In May 2006, a CNN poll comparing Clinton's job performance with that of his successor, George W. Bush, found that a strong majority of respondents said Clinton outperformed Bush in six different areas questioned.<ref>[http://edition.cnn.com/2006/POLITICS/05/12/bush.clinton.poll/index.html Poll: Clinton outperformed Bush] - CNN.com</ref> [[ABC News]] characterized public consensus on Clinton as, "You can't trust him, he's got weak morals and ethics{{ndash}} and he's done a heck of a good job."<ref>[http://abcnews.go.com/sections/politics/DailyNews/poll_clintonlegacy010117.html Poll: Clinton Legacy Mixed], ABCNews.com, January 17, 2001.</ref> Clinton's 65% Gallup Poll approval rating was also the highest Gallup approval rating of any President leaving office.<ref name="C)(0">[http://uspolitics.about.com/od/polls/l/bl_historical_approval.htm Historical Presidential Approval Ratings - End Of Term Plus Current Ratings]</ref>

==Public image==
[[Image:ClintonChild.jpg|thumb|upright|right|Clinton reading with a child in [[Chicago]], September, 1998.]]

As the first [[Baby Boomer]] president, Clinton was the first president in a half-century not to have been shaped by [[World War II]]. Authors Martin Walker and Bob Woodward state Clinton's innovative use of [[soundbite]]-ready dialogue, personal charisma, and public perception-oriented campaigning was major for his high public [[approval rating]]s.<ref>Martin Walker, Clinton: the President they deserve, Fourth Estate 1999</ref><ref>Bob Woodward, The choice: how Clinton won, Touchstone 1996, ISBN 0-684-81308-4</ref> When Clinton played the saxophone on ''[[The Arsenio Hall Show]]'', Clinton was sometimes described by religious conservatives as "the [[MTV]] president."<ref>{{cite news |last=Bresler |first=Robert J. |title=The Muddled Meaning of the 2000 Election |publisher=USA Today (Society for the Advancement of Education)
|month=January |year=2001 |url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1272/is_2668_129/ai_69698398 |accessdate=2007-01-02 }}</ref>

Clinton was very popular among [[African American]]s and made improving race relations a major theme of his presidency.<ref>[http://www.americanprogress.org/site/pp.asp?c=biJRJ8OVF&b=122950 A Conversation With President Bill Clinton on Race in America Today] - interview with Clinton, [[Center for American Progress]], July 16, 2004.</ref> In 1998, [[Nobel Prize]]-winning author [[Toni Morrison]] called Clinton "the first Black president," saying, "Clinton displays almost every trope of [[blackness]]: single-parent household, born poor, working-class, saxophone-playing, [[McDonald's]]-and-junk-food-loving boy from Arkansas," and comparing Clinton's sex life, scrutinized despite his career accomplishments, to the stereotyping and [[double standards]] that blacks typically endure.<ref>{{cite web|last=Morrison |first=Toni |authorlink=Toni Morrison|coauthors= |title=Clinton as the first black president |work= |publisher=The New Yorker|month=October |year=1998|url=http://ontology.buffalo.edu./smith/clinton/morrison.html|format= |doi= |accessdate=2006-12-01 }}</ref> In 2008, after having endorsed the candidacy of [[Barack Obama]], Morrison distanced herself from her 1998 remark about Clinton, saying that it was misunderstood. She noted that she has "no idea what his real instincts are, in terms of race" and claimed she was only describing the way he was being treated during the impeachment trial as an equivalent to a poor black person living in the ghetto.<ref>Sachs, Andrea. [http://www.time.com/time/arts/article/0,8599,1738303,00.html "10 questions for Tony Morrison"], ''Time'', May 7, 2008. Accessed May 8, 2008.</ref>

Standing over 6'2" tall (1.88 m), Clinton was one of the tallest U.S. Presidents in the nation's history.<ref>{{citation |last=Baker |first=Peter |title=Head and Shoulders Above the Rest |url=http://blog.washingtonpost.com/the-trail/2007/10/11/head_and_shoulders_above.html |accessdate=2007-10-12}}</ref><ref>{{citation |last=Carnahan |first=Ira |title=Presidential Timber Tends To Be Tall |url=http://www.forbes.com/compensation/2004/05/19/cz_ic_0519beltway.html |accessdate=2007-10-12}}</ref>

===Sexual misconduct allegations===
Throughout his career, Clinton has been subject to various allegations of sexual misconduct, though only his extramarital sexual relationships with Lewinsky and Flowers have been admitted by him.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9E07E4D91739F937A25750C0A96E958260| title=TESTING OF A PRESIDENT: THE ACCUSER; JONES LAWYERS ISSUE FILES ALLEGING CLINTON PATTERN OF HARASSMENT OF WOMEN| publisher=[[The New York Times]]| date=1998-03-14| quote=The Presidential deposition released today confirmed several revelations reported earlier, including Mr. Clinton's confirmation... that he had had sex with Gennifer Flowers, a one-time Arkansas worker. | accessdate=2008-03-20}}</ref>

For alleged misconduct during his governorship [[Paula Jones]] brought a sexual harassment lawsuit against Clinton while he was president. However, Jones did not have any clear evidence to support her allegations.<ref>[http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,988011,00.html Sex And The Law - TIME]</ref> On April 2, 1998, Jones' lawsuit was dismissed.<ref name="JO#$">[http://www.cnn.com/ALLPOLITICS/1998/04/02/clinton.jones.reax/ Clinton Welcomes Jones Decision; Appeal Likely - April 2, 1998]</ref> After which, Jones tried to file for an appeal.<ref name="JO#$" /> In May of 1998, Jones refiled her lawsuit with the US Court of Appeals and alleged Clinton both sexual harassed her and defamed her character.<ref>[http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/politics/special/pjones/docs/reqad1.htm washingtonpost.com: Jones v. Clinton Resources and Links]</ref> During the depositions for this lawsuit, Clinton [[I did not have sexual relations with that woman|denied having sexual relations]] with [[Monica Lewinsky]]{{ndash}} a denial that became the basis for the impeachment charge of perjury. On November 18, 1998, Clinton agreed to an out-of-court settlement, and agreed to pay Jones and her attorneys a sum of $850,000.00.<ref name="CO{}{">[http://www.cnn.com/ALLPOLITICS/stories/1998/11/18/jones/ Appeals court ponders Paula Jones settlement - November 18, 1998]</ref> Clinton, however, still offered no apology to Jones and still denied ever engaging in a sexual affair with her.<ref name="CO{}{" />

In 1998, [[Kathleen Willey]] alleged Clinton sexually assaulted her four years previously. In 1998, [[Juanita Broaddrick]] alleged she was raped by Clinton some twenty years previously. The claims by Willey and Broaddrick were never brought before a court. The independent counsel determined Willey gave "false information" to the FBI and inconsistent sworn testimony related to the Jones allegation. Broaddrick's only sworn testimony about Clinton was a previous denial of any harassment by Clinton.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/politics/special/clinton/stories/broaddrick022599.htm|title=Clinton Accuser's Story Aired, Washington Post, 1999}}</ref> [[Gennifer Flowers]], [[Elizabeth Ward Gracen]], [[Sally Perdue]] and Dolly Kyle Browning – claimed to have had [[Adultery|adulterous]] sexual relations with Clinton during or before his service as governor. Gracen later apologized to Hillary Clinton for having sex with Bill.<ref>[http://www.cnn.com/ALLPOLITICS/1998/04/25/clinton.gracen/ Former Miss America Apologizes To First Lady - April 25, 1998]</ref>

Dolly Kyle Browning alleged that she and Clinton engaged in a long sexual affair between the years of 1959 and 1992.{{Fact|date=September 2008}} In 1998, like Paula Jones had previously done, Browning sued Clinton for sexual harassment, but her lawsuit was eventually dismissed.<ref>[http://www.cnn.com/ALLPOLITICS/1998/03/16/jones.clinton.docs/dolly.browning.declaration/ Legal Documents:The Dolly Kyle Browning Declaration - March 16, 1998]</ref> In April 2002, Browning tried to file for an appeal,<ref name="Brow237">[http://www.ll.georgetown.edu/federal/judicial/dc/opinions/01opinions/01-5050a.html Dolly Kyle Browning v. William J. Clinton]</ref> but the US Court of Appeals would deny her appeal.<ref name="Brow237" />

==Security incidents==
[[Frank Eugene Corder]] crashed a stolen [[Cessna 150]] onto the South Lawn of the [[White House]] early on [[September 12]], [[1994]], apparently trying to hit the building; he was the sole casualty.

[[Francisco Martin Duran]] on [[October 29]], [[1994]] fired 29 rounds from an [[assault rifle]] at the White House. He was later convicted of attempting to assassinate a [[United States]] [[President of the United States|President]] and sentenced to 40 years in prison.

==Post-presidential career==
===Public speaking and campaigning===
[[Image:ClintonSenate.jpg|thumb|upright|Hillary Clinton re-enacts being sworn in as a U.S. Senator by Vice President Gore as Bill and [[Chelsea Clinton]] observe.]]

Clinton comments on contemporary politics in speaking engagements around the world.<ref>Press release: [http://www.witsa.org/press/clinton.htm President Bill Clinton to be keynote speaker at World Congress on IT 2002], ''World Information Technology and Services Alliance'', Adelaide, South Australia</ref><ref>
Katherine Hamilton. "[http://www.dailyprincetonian.com/archives/2006/04/18/news/15263.shtml Bill Clinton to speak at Class Day]", ''[[The Daily Princetonian]]'', 2006-04-18</ref> One notable theme is his advocacy of multilateral solutions to world problems. Clinton's opened his personal office in the [[Harlem]] section of [[New York City]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.house.gov/apps/list/hearing/ny15_rangel/opedclintonharlem.html |title=Clinton Is Welcome in Harlem |publisher=Congressman [[Charles Rangel]], Washington D.C. Office|date=2001-02-14 |accessdate=2007-03-25}}</ref>

After the Clintons moved to [[Chappaqua, New York]], in the northern suburbs of New York City, at the end of his Presidency, he assisted his wife, [[Hillary Rodham Clinton|Hillary Clinton]], in her campaign for office as [[United States Senate|Senator]] from [[New York]].<ref name = "historic win">{{cite news |url=http://archives.cnn.com/2000/ALLPOLITICS/stories/11/07/senate.ny/ |title=Hillary Rodham Clinton scores historic win in New York |publisher=CNN |date=2000-11-08 |accessdate=2006-08-22 }}</ref> Clinton campaigned for a number of Democratic candidates for the Senate in the 2002 elections.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://archives.cnn.com/2002/ALLPOLITICS/11/02/elec02.campaign.countdown/index.html|title=Clinton Campaign Blitz, CNN, 2002}}</ref>

Clinton spoke for the fifth consecutive time at the [[2004 Democratic National Convention|Democratic National Convention]] on July 26, 2004, praising candidate [[John Kerry]]. He said of President George W. Bush's depiction of Kerry, "strength and wisdom are not opposing values." Despite Clinton's speech, the post-convention bounce to Kerry's poll numbers was less than was hoped for.<ref>{{cite news |last=Page |first=Susan |title=Poll: No boost for Kerry after convention |publisher=USA TODAY |date=August 1, 2004 |url=http://www.usatoday.com/news/politicselections/nation/president/2004-08-01-poll-kerry_x.htm |accessdate=2007-02-01 }}</ref>

Mostly to corporations and philanthropic groups in [[North America]] and [[Europe]], Clinton has given dozens of paid speeches each year, earning $100,000 to $300,000 per speech.<ref>Josh Gerstein, ''Clinton Eligible, Once Again, To Practice Law'', New York Sun, January 17, 2006, downloaded from [http://www.nysun.com/article/25965?page_no=2 N.Y. Sun article].</ref> According to his wife’s Senate ethics reports, he earned more than $30 million in speaking from 2001 to 2005.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2007/05/10/us/politics/10clinton.html?_r=1&n=Top%2fReference%2fTimes%20Topics%2fPeople%2fC%2fClinton%2c%20Bill&oref=slogin|title=Bill Clinton Ponders a role as 'First Gentlemen', NY Times, 2007}}</ref> In 2007, it is estimated he amassed around $40 million from speaking.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.independent.co.uk/world/americas/article2300374.ece|title=Forty Million Dollar Bill, Independent, 2007}}</ref>

Clinton made his first visit to new [[United Nations]] Secretary-General [[Ban Ki-moon]] in April 2007. The 45-minute meeting, called at Clinton's request, touched on a host of topics, including disease, war, famine and poverty in Africa, especially in the [[Darfur]] region. The [[Middle East]], the conflict in Iraq, and Iran's nuclear standoff with the U.N. were on the agenda, as well as HIV/AIDS.<ref>[http://www.newsmax.com/archives/articles/2007/4/13/121244.shtml Bill Clinton's Strange U.N. Visit]. NewsMax.com, April 13, 2007.</ref>

He was the opening speaker at the Ontario Economic Summit held on November 13, 2007 in which he addressed people on various subjects including [[Canada's role in Afghanistan]], [[environmentalism]] and access to [[healthcare]].<ref>[http://www.ctv.ca/servlet/ArticleNews/story/CTVNews/20071114/clinton_afghan_071114/20071114?hub=Canada Ontario Economic Summit], CTV.</ref>

Clinton served as one of the organizers for the [[New Baptist Covenant]] alongside former President [[Jimmy Carter]] and other Baptist leaders. This effort sought to bring various Baptists in America together, especially across racial lines, to discuss issues that unite them. Clinton spoke at the January 2008 celebration in Atlanta, GA.

===William J. Clinton Presidential Center===
{{main|William J. Clinton Presidential Center and Park}}
Clinton dedicated his [[presidential library]], the [[William J. Clinton Presidential Center and Park|William J. Clinton Presidential Center]] in [[Little Rock, Arkansas|Little Rock]], Arkansas on November 18, 2004.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/4021201.stm|title=Clinton Library open for business, BBC News, 2004}}</ref> Under rainy skies, Clinton received praise from former presidents [[Jimmy Carter]] and [[George H. W. Bush]], as well as from president [[George W. Bush]]. He was treated to a musical rendition from [[Bono]] and [[David Howell Evans|The Edge]] from [[U2]], who expressed their gratitude at Clinton's efforts to resolve [[The Troubles|the Northern Ireland conflict]] during his presidency.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/in_pictures/4022823.stm|title=Opening of Clinton Library in Pictures, BBC News, 2004}}</ref> The Clinton facility received a $10 million dollar donation from the royal family of Saudi Arabia.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/12/14/AR2007121402124.html|title=Clinton library got funds from abroad, Washington Post, 2007}}</ref> The library has the largest archives of any presidential library.

===Published work===
Clinton released a personal [[autobiography]], ''[[My Life (Bill Clinton autobiography)|My Life]]'' in 2004. The book was published by the [[Alfred A. Knopf|Knopf Publishing Group]] at [[Random House]] on June 22, 2004. According to the publisher, for single day non-fiction book sales, the book set a worldwide record.<ref>Alfred A. Knopft (2004) [http://www.randomhouse.com/knopf/clinton/salesrecord.pdf Bill Clinton's ''My Life'' sets one day, non-fiction sales record]</ref> Later released as an audio book, total sales were in excess of 400,000 copies. As a writer's fee, he received U.S. $12 million in advance.<ref>{{cite news |last=Glaister |first=Dan |title=Oprah Winfrey book deal tops Clinton's $12 m |date=May 22, 2006 |publisher=The Guardian |url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/usa/story/0,,1780286,00.html}}</ref>

He released, ''[[Giving: How Each of Us Can Change the World]]'' in September 2007, which became a bestseller and gandered positive reviews.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2007/09/23/books/bestseller/0923besthardnonfiction.html?_r=1&oref=slogin|title=New York Times Best Seller list for 9/23/07|accessdate=2007-09-18|publisher=New York Times}}</ref> The book is about citizen activism and the role of public charity and [[public service]] in the modern world.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/20593850/ |title=Bill Clintons New Book|accessdate=2007-11-23|publisher=MSNBC}}</ref> The [[audiobook]] version was nominated for a 2008 [[Grammy Award]] in the category of [[50th Grammy Awards#Best Spoken Word Album|Best Spoken Word Album]].

===William Clinton Foundation===
{{main|William J. Clinton Foundation}}
The William J. Clinton Foundation promotes and provides for a number of humanitarian causes. Within the foundation, the Clinton Foundation [[HIV]] and [[AIDS]] Initiative (CHAI) strives to make treatment for HIV/AIDS more affordable and to implement large-scale integrated care, treatment, and prevention programs. While in [[Sydney]] to attend a Global Business Forum, Clinton signed a memorandum of understanding on behalf of his presidential foundation with the Australian government to promote HIV/AIDS programs in the [[Asia-Pacific]] region.

[[Image:Bush and Clinton.jpg|thumb|left|Clinton with former President [[George H. W. Bush]] in January 2005.]]
The Clinton Global Initiative (CGI), funded by the Clinton Foundation, was inaugurated September September 15-17 2005 in New York City to coincide with the [[2005 World Summit]]. The focus areas of the initiative include attempts to address world problems such as global [[public health]], [[poverty]] alleviation and religious and [[ethnic conflict]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.clintonglobalinitiative.org/|title=Clinton Global Initiative}}</ref>

Clinton announced through the [[William J. Clinton Foundation]] an agreement by major soft drink manufacturers to stop selling sugared sodas and juice drinks, in public primary and secondary schools within the United States,
on May 3, 2005.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.comcast.net/news/index.jsp?cat=GENERAL&fn=/2006/05/03/383279.html|title=William J. Clinton Foundation announces agreement to reduce junk food in schools}}</ref>

===Relations with George H. W. Bush===
In the aftermath of the [[Indian Ocean tsunami|Asian tsunami]] and [[Hurricane Katrina]], Clinton established, with fellow former-President George H. W. Bush, the Bush-Clinton Katrina Fund and Bush-Clinton Tsunami Fund, for which they were awarded the 2006 [[Philadelphia Liberty Medal]] on October 5, 2006.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.constitutioncenter.org/libertymedal/|title=2006 Philadelphia Liberty Medal Award}}</ref> They spoke together at the funeral of [[Boris Yeltsin]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,268092,00.html|title=Former Presidents Bush, Clinton Represent U.S. at Boris Yeltsin's Funeral, Fox News, 2007}}</ref>

President George W. Bush, to help the victims of the [[2004 Indian Ocean earthquake]], named Clinton and [[George H. W. Bush]] to lead a nationwide campaign on January 3, 2005. U.N. Secretary-General [[Kofi Annan]] selected Clinton to head the [[United Nations]] [[Humanitarian response to the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake|earthquake and tsunami relief and reconstruction effort]] on February 1, 2005.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cnn.com/2005/US/02/01/clinton.tsunami/index.html|title=Clinton named head of U.N. tsunami rebuilding, CNN, 2005}}</ref>

Five days later, to raise money for relief through the [[USA Freedom Corps]], Clinton and Bush appeared on the [[Fox Television Network|Fox]] [[Super Bowl XXXIX]] pre-game show.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A39788-2005Jan26.html|title=Senior Bush, Clinton to Appear at Super Bowl, Washington Post, 2005}}</ref> Thirteen days later, to see the relief efforts, they traveled to the affected areas.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/4281627.stm|title=Bush, Clinton end tsunami visit, BBC News, 2005}}</ref>

[[Image:JPII on bier.jpg|thumb|right|Clinton, along with [[George W. Bush]], [[Laura Bush]], [[George H. W. Bush]], [[Condoleezza Rice]], and [[Andrew Card]] pay their respects to Pope [[John Paul II]] before the [[Funeral of Pope John Paul II|pope's funeral]].]]

===Environment===
To create the Clinton Foundation Climate Change Initiative (CCI), the [[William J. Clinton Foundation]] entered into a partnership with the [[Large Cities Climate Leadership Group]] on August 1, 2006, agreeing to provide resources to allow the participating cities to enter into an energy-saving product purchasing consortium and to provide technical and communications support.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.clintonfoundation.org/080106-nr-cf-cci-pr-president-clinton-launches-clinton-climate-initiative.htm|title=Clinton Foundation and Climate Partnership, Press Release}}</ref>

Clinton criticized the Bush administration for its handling of emissions control while speaking at the [[United Nations Climate Change Conference]] in [[Montreal]] on December 9, 2005. To promote initiatives concerning the [[environmentalism|environment]], Clinton twice visited the [[University of California, Los Angeles]] in 2006. First, to advertise the [[Large Cities Climate Leadership Group]], he met with [[Tony Blair]], [[Ken Livingstone]], [[Antonio Villaraigosa]], and [[Gavin Newsom]] on August 1, 2006. On October 13, 2006, he spoke in favor of [[California Proposition 87 (2006)|California Proposition 87]] on [[Energy development|alternative energy]], which was voted down.<ref>{{cite news |first=Peach |last=Indravudh |coauthors= |title=Clinton backs Prop. 87 |date= |publisher=[[UCLA]] |url=http://www.dailybruin.ucla.edu/news/2006/oct/16/clinton-backs-prop-87/ |work=Daily Bruin |pages= |accessdate=2007-07-19 |language=}}</ref>

===Personal health===
Clinton had an episode of [[Angina pectoris|angina]] and was evaluated at Northern Westchester Hospital on September 2, 2004. It was determined he did not suffer a [[coronary infarction]], and he was sent home, returning the following day for [[angiography]], which disclosed multiple vessel [[coronary artery disease]]. He was transferred to [[Columbia Presbyterian Medical Center]] in New York City, where he underwent a successful quadruple [[coronary artery bypass surgery]] on September 6, 2004. The medical team stated, had he not had surgery, he would have likely suffered a massive [[myocardial infarction|heart attack]] within a few months.<ref>{{cite news |last=Vedantam |first=Shankar |title=Clinton's Heart Bypass Surgery Called a Success |pages=A01 |publisher=The Washington Post |date=September 7, 2004 |url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A409-2004Sep6.html |accessdate=2007-01-02 }}</ref> As a result of his open-heart surgery, he underwent a follow-up surgery to remove scar tissue and fluid from his left chest cavity on March 10, 2005.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iht.com/articles/2005/03/09/news/clinton.php|title=Clinton follow-up surgery, International Herald Tribune, 2005}}</ref> He has since recovered.

===2008 election involvement===
In the course of the [[Democratic Party (United States) presidential primaries, 2008|2008 Democratic presidential primary campaign]], Clinton vigorously advocated on behalf of his wife, [[Hillary Clinton]], leading some observers and party members to question the appropriateness of his role in view of his status as a former president.<ref>[http://ap.google.com/article/ALeqM5jKO5e6zT8U1vEd2XfWjNq4IF4z9QD8UCHOE01 The Associated Press: Quotes on Bill Clinton's Campaign Role]</ref> Some felt that Clinton was overshadowing his wife in the campaign,<ref>[http://www.chicagotribune.com/news/nationworld/chi-assess_tackett_sunjan27,0,5782634.story For better or worse, Bill Clinton in race - chicagotribune.com]</ref><ref>[http://www.vanityfair.com/ontheweb/blogs/daily/2008/01/bruce-feirste-1.html VF Daily: Bruce Feirstein: Bill Clinton, Nasty Man: On The Web: vanityfair.com]</ref><ref>[http://www.weeklystandard.com/Content/Public/Articles/000/000/014/627lchzc.asp The Bubba Factor]</ref> with her presidential rival [[Barack Obama]] complaining that he sometimes "did not know which Clinton he was running against."<ref>[http://www.latimes.com/news/opinion/la-oe-brooks24jan24,0,1569475.column A Clinton twofer's high price - Los Angeles Times]</ref> At a MSNBC debate, Republican primary candidate [[Mitt Romney]] said that he "can't imagine Bill Clinton left with nothing to do in the White House", suggesting that Clinton would be a "co-president and try and help manage the economy and help manage the world affairs".<ref>[http://firstread.msnbc.msn.com/archive/2008/01/26/611577.aspx Romney on McCain, the Clintons], Posted: Saturday, January 26, 2008 3:19 PM by Mark Murray</ref>

[[Image:Bill Clinton @ Hillary Rally.jpg|thumb|left|Clinton speaking at a rally for his wife at [[Dickinson College]].]]
Top Democratic Party officials, including Rep. [[Rahm Emmanuel]], chairman of the Democratic Congressional Campaign Committee and a declared Clinton supporter, asked Clinton to tone down his attacks on Obama following the bitterly contested Nevada caucus, suggesting that Clinton could be damaging his own political capital and global stature.<ref>[http://www.newsweek.com/id/96385 Leading Democrats To Bill Clinton: Pipe Down | Newsweek Periscope | Newsweek.com]</ref> Some commentators even accused the former president of "playing the race card" against Obama, who is half-black, by suggesting he would understand if South Carolina's African Americans naturally would vote for the black candidate, but rejected suggestions that America was not ready for a black President.<ref>[http://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=washingtonstory&sid=a86pY4CBoF0U Bloomberg.com: News]</ref><ref>[http://www.slate.com/id/2182569#obamaescape Obama beats... Jesse Jackson? - By Mickey Kaus - Slate Magazine]</ref><ref>[http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/html/politics/2004141629_apclintonrace23.html Politics | ON DEADLINE: Clinton Makes Race an Issue | Seattle Times Newspaper]</ref> Many felt that by alienating black voters who had once overwhelmingly supported the Clintons, Clinton had tarnished his legacy as the so-called "first black president."<ref name = "CBS-Tarnish">[http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2008/01/26/politics/main3755521.shtml Analysis: Bill Clinton's Lost Legacy, CBSNews.com's Vaughn Ververs: Inflammatory Remarks Tarnish Ex-President's Reputation - CBS News]</ref><ref>[http://www.nytimes.com/2008/01/23/opinion/23dowd.html?_r=1&ref=opinion&oref=slogin Two Against One - New York Times]</ref> In particular, Rep. [[James Clyburn]] (D-SC) suggested that Clinton's vocal attacks on Obama could damage the former President's legacy.<ref>[http://transcripts.cnn.com/TRANSCRIPTS/0801/21/sitroom.03.html CNN.com - Transcripts]</ref>
Following his wife's disappointing defeat in South Carolina, Clinton again made headlines when he appeared to undermine and racialize Obama's victory by comparing it to [[Jesse Jackson]]'s failed 1984 bid for the Presidency.<ref>[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Qqd2dfjl2pw YouTube - Bill Clinton on Barack Obama]</ref> Some observers suggested that the controversial comments fueled Sen. [[Ted Kennedy]]'s decision to endorse Sen. Obama for the Presidency.<ref>[http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2008/01/27/sen-kennedy-backs-obama-_n_83505.html Sen. Kennedy Backs Obama for President - Politics on The Huffington Post]</ref> Clinton attracted further controversy with a series of attacks against Obama that many independents and former Clinton supporters felt to be unfair.<ref name = "Guardian-tomasky">[http://commentisfree.guardian.co.uk/michael_tomasky/2008/01/winning_ugly.html Comment is free: Winning ugly]</ref><ref name = "CBS-Tarnish"/><ref name = "latimes-chait">[http://www.latimes.com/news/opinion/la-oe-chait26jan26,0,7890763.column Is the right right on the Clintons? - Los Angeles Times]</ref><ref>[http://www.realclearpolitics.com/articles/2008/01/bill_clinton_credited_reagan_i.html RealClearPolitics - Articles - Clinton's Depressing Assault on Obama]</ref> While some believed the attacks might eventually pay off,<ref>[http://www.realclearpolitics.com/articles/2008/01/how_clinton_will_win_the_nomin.html RealClearPolitics - Articles - How Clinton Will Win the Nomination by Losing S.C]</ref> others felt they would damage Hillary Clinton's presidential prospects and alienate Democratic voters in the general election.<ref name = "Guardian-tomasky"/><ref name = "latimes-chait"/><ref>[http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/01/23/AR2008012303325.html There You Go Again - washingtonpost.com]</ref> Former President Bill Clinton defended his role in the [[Hillary Clinton presidential campaign, 2008]] in [[South Carolina]], disputing claims he made [[Race (classification of human beings)|race]] a campaign issue.<ref>[http://edition.cnn.com/2008/POLITICS/03/17/clinton.bill/index.html Bill Clinton: What happened in South Carolina a 'myth' - cnn.com]</ref> According to some reports, the accusations of racism hurt him personally, as blacks had long been Clinton's most loyal supporters.<ref name="autogenerated2">[http://www.nytimes.com/2008/06/08/us/politics/08recon.html The Long Road to a Clinton Exit - NYTimes.com]</ref><ref name="autogenerated1">[http://www.iht.com/articles/2008/06/08/america/08exit.php The long road to a Clinton exit - International Herald Tribune]</ref>

During the primary campaign, his wife's aides criticized Clinton’s freelancing and deemed his office uncooperative{{ndash}} at one point, they complained, his people would not allow one of her people to ride on his plane to campaign stops. His aides, on the other hand, stewed over what they saw as her people’s disregard for the advice of one of this generation’s great political minds and bristled at surrendering control of his schedule. On the night of the [[Pennsylvania Democratic primary, 2008|Pennsylvania primary]], Clinton grew playfully competitive with his wife over who had done more events or had had more impact. Governor [[Ed Rendell]] showed Clinton the county-by-county returns, while she was superstitious and rarely watched election night coverage. According to Rendell, “The president wanted to know exactly what the returns were in the places he had been and Hillary hadn’t been. He kept showing Hillary, and she would laugh.”<ref name="autogenerated2" /><ref name="autogenerated1" />

Due to Clinton's prominent role in his wife's presidential run and his criticism of Obama, many perceived an enduring distance between the two. Clinton was asked later if he thought presidential nominee [[Barack Obama]] was qualified to be president. He replied that the Constitution sets qualifications. When pressed as to whether Obama was "ready" to be president, Clinton replied, "You could argue that no one is ready to be president."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.newsweek.com/id/151388/output/print|publisher=Newsweek|author=Jonathan Alter|accessdate=2008-08-28|title=A Catharsis in Denver?}}</ref> Such remarks lead to apprehension that the party would be split to the detriment of Obama's election. Fears were allayed August 27, 2008 when Clinton enthusiastically endorsed Obama at the 2008 [[Democratic National Convention]], saying that all his experience as president assures him that Obama is "ready to lead".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://blogs.suntimes.com/sweet/2008/08/bill_clinton_vouches_for_obama.html|title=Bill Clinton vouches for Obama: now "ready to lead."|accessdate=2008-08-28|publisher=Sun-Times News Group}}</ref>

==Honors and accolades==
The President of the [[Czech Republic]] awarded Clinton the [[Order of the White Lion]], First Class with Collar Chain in 1998.<ref>[http://old.hrad.cz/kpr/rady/rbl_lide_uk.html List of Individuals Awarded the Order of the White Lion] </ref>

[[Image:Clinton pres library.jpg|thumb|right|[[William J. Clinton Presidential Center and Park]], [[Little Rock, Arkansas]].]]

From a poll conducted of the American people in December 1999, Clinton was among eighteen included in [[Gallup's List of Widely Admired People|Gallup's List of Widely Admired People of the 20th century]].

Clinton received the 2000 [[Karlspreis|International Charlemagne Prize of the city of Aachen]] (a prestigious European prize),<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.karlspreis.de/index.php?id=12&doc=42|title=International Prize of the city of Aachen (German)}}</ref> 2004 [[Grammy Award]] for [[Grammy Award for Best Spoken Word Album for Children|Best Spoken Word Album for Children]] for narrating the [[Russian National Orchestra]]'s album ''[[Wolf Tracks and Peter and the Wolf]]'' (along with [[Mikhail Gorbachev]] and [[Sophia Loren]]) and 2005 [[Grammy Award for Best Spoken Word Album]] for ''[[My Life (Bill Clinton autobiography)|My Life]]'', 2005 [[J. William Fulbright]] Prize for International Understanding,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fulbright.org/prize/2005/fenton-may.htm|title=Fulbright prize to Clinton, 2006}}</ref> and 2007 [[TED (conference)|TED]] Prize (named for the confluence of technology, entertainment and design).<ref>[http://tedblog.typepad.com/tedblog/2007/04/2007_ted_prize__2.html Acceptance speech].</ref> On October 17, 2002, Clinton became the first white person to be inducted into the Arkansas Black Hall of Fame.<ref>[http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9A0DE3DE153DF934A25753C1A9649C8B63&n=Top%2FReference%2FTimes%20Topics%2FSubjects%2FA%2FAwards%2C%20Decorations%20and%20Honors ''Campaign Season; Another First for Clinton'' at New York Times.com]</ref>

He received an [[honorary doctorate]] of [[Doctor of Laws|laws]] from [[Tulane University]] in New Orleans (along with George H. W. Bush),<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tulane.edu/newwave/cornerpics/051906_grads.html|title=President Bill Clinton with an honorary doctorate of law}}</ref> and also from the [[University of Michigan]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/04/29/AR2007042900145.html|title=Bill Clinton Speaks at U. of Michigan}}</ref> He is the recipient of an [[Doctor of Humane Letters|honorary doctorate of humane letters]] from [[Pace University]]'s [[Lubin School of Business]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://appserv.pace.edu/execute/page.cfm?doc_id=20436|title=Clinton kicks off centennial anniversary of university, 2006}}</ref> from [[Rochester Institute of Technology]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thetigerbeat.com/news/?v=rit-welcomes-president-clinton-as-commencement-spe|title=Keynote speaker at RIT}}</ref> and from [[Knox College (Illinois)|Knox College]].<ref>[http://www.thewikifire.org/index.php?title=Bill_Clinton Bill Clinton] - from The Wiki Fire</ref>

On November 22, 2004, New York Republican Governor [[George Pataki]] named Clinton and the other living former presidents ([[Gerald Ford]], [[Jimmy Carter]], and [[George H. W. Bush]]) as honorary members of the board rebuilding the [[World Trade Center]]. In 2005, the [[University of Arkansas System]] opened the [[Clinton School of Public Service]] on the grounds of the Clinton Presidential Center.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.clintonschool.uasys.edu/|title=Clinton School of Public service}}</ref>

On December 3, 2006, Clinton was made an [[Orders, decorations, and medals of Papua New Guinea|honorary chief and Grand Companion]] of the [[Order of Logohu]] by [[Prime Minister of Papua New Guinea]] [[Michael Somare]]. Clinton was awarded the honor for his "outstanding leadership for the good of mankind during two terms as U.S. president" and his commitment to the global fight against HIV/AIDS and other health challenges in developing countries.<ref>{{cite web |last=Jones |first=Lloyd |title=It's 'Chief Clinton' to you |publisher=news.com.au |date=2005-12-03 |url=http://www.news.com.au/story/0,23599,20865977-1702,00.html|accessdate=2006-12-03}}</ref>
[[Image:Billclinton 1.jpg|thumb|upright|Clinton speaks at [[Knox College (Illinois)|Knox College]] June 2, 2007.]]

On June 2, 2007, Clinton, along with former president George H.W. Bush, received the International Freedom Conductor Award, for their help with the fund raising following the tsunami that devastated South Asia in 2004.<ref>[http://www.freedomcenter.org/ifca/International-Freedom-Conductor-Award-2007.html freedomcenter.org]</ref> On June 13, 2007, Clinton was honored by the Global Business Coalition on HIV/AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria alongside eight multinational-companies—[[HBO]], [[Chevron Corporation]], [[Standard Chartered plc]], [[Eli Lilly & Company]], Eskom Holdings Ltd, [[Marathon Oil Corporation]], [[Coca-Cola]], and [[Abbott]]—for his work to defeat HIV/AIDS.<ref>[http://www.businessfightsaids.org/live/media/news/article.php?id=114 GBC{{ndash}} News Articles]</ref>

In Europe, Bill Clinton remains popular, especially in a large part of the [[Balkans]] and in [[Ireland]]. In [[Priština]], [[Kosovo]], a five-story picture of the former president was permanently engraved into the side of the tallest building in the province as a token of gratitude for Clinton's support during the crisis in Kosovo.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.reuters.com/article/topNews/idUSL2316200920070523|title=Clinton honoured in Kosovo, Reuters News}}</ref> A statue of Clinton was also built and a road was named Clinton Boulevard.<ref>[http://www.reuters.com/article/topNews/idUSL2316200920070523 Kosovo to honor Bill Clinton with statue | Reuters]</ref>

On May 1, 1988, Bill Clinton was inducted into the [[DeMolay International]] Hall of Fame.<ref name=DeMolay-1>
{{cite web
|url=http://www.demolay.org/aboutdemolay/halloffame.php
|accessdate=2008-08-27
|title=DeMolay Hall of Fame
}}</ref>

On September 9, 2008, Bill Clinton was named as the next chairman of the [[National Constitution Center]] in [[Philadelphia]], [[Pennsylvania]]. His term will begin January 1, 2009, he will succeed Fmr. [[President of the United States|President]] [[George H. W. Bush]]<ref>
{{cite web
|url=http://www.philly.com/philly/hp/news_update/20080909_ap_billclintonnamedchairmanofconstitutioncenter.html
|accessdate=2008-09-10
|title=Bill Clinton named chairman of Constitution Center
}}</ref>.

==Electoral history==
{{main|Electoral history of Bill Clinton}}

==Gallery==

<center><gallery>
Image:Clintonchirac.jpg|Clinton with [[Jacques Chirac]] outside [[Élysée Palace]].
Image:Clinton Hashimoto 1996.jpg|Clinton meets [[Ryutaro Hashimoto]] at the [[Akasaka Palace]].
Image:Clinton and jiang.jpg|Clinton and [[Jiang Zemin]]
Image:Bill Clinton Kim Dae-Jung.jpg‎|Clinton (left) with [[Kim Dae-jung]] at [[APEC]] meeting in [[Auckland]], [[New Zealand]], on September 12, 1999
Image:Clinton_Set_One_9_Reflective.jpg|Clinton speaking to California Democratic Convention Delegates at [[San Jose, California]] on March 31, 2008.
Image:Bill Clinton closeup at dedication of WWII memorial, May 2004.jpg|Clinton walking along the [[National Mall]] on his way to the dedication ceremonies for the [[National World War II Memorial]], May 2004
</gallery></center>

== References ==

{{reflist|2}}

==Further reading==
===Primary sources===
* Clinton, Bill. ''[[My Life (Bill Clinton autobiography)|My Life]]''. (2004). ISBN 0-375-41457-6.
*--- (with [[Al Gore]]). ''[http://eric.ed.gov/ERICDocs/data/ericdocs2/content_storage_01/0000000b/80/22/4f/40.pdf Science in the National Interest].'' Washington, DC: The White House, August 1994.
*--- (with [[Al Gore]]). ''[http://www.gcrio.org/USCCAP/toc.html The Climate Change Action Plan].'' Washington, DC: The White House, October, 1993.
* --- (with Al Gore). ''[http://www.itsdocs.fhwa.dot.gov/JPODOCS/BRIEFING/7423.pdf Technology for America’s economic growth, a new direction to build economic strength].'' Washington, DC: The White House, February 22, 1993.
* [[Sidney Blumenthal]] ''The Clinton Wars''. (2003). ISBN 0-374-12502-3
* [[Kenneth Starr]] ''The [[Starr Report]]: The Findings of Independent Counsel Kenneth W. Starr on President Clinton and the Lewinsky Affair'' (1998) ISBN 1-891620-24-X
* [[George Stephanopoulos]] ''All Too Human: A Political Education'' (1998) ISBN 0-316-92919-0
* [[S. Daniel Abraham]] ''[[Peace is Possible (book)|Peace is Possible]]'', foreword by Bill Clinton

===Popular books===
* Peter Baker ''The Breach: Inside the Impeachment and Trial of William Jefferson Clinton'' (2000) ISBN 0-684-86813-X
* [[James Bovard]] ''Feeling Your Pain: The Explosion and Abuse of Government Power in the Clinton-Gore Years'' (2000) ISBN 0-312-23082-6
* [[Joe Conason]] and [[Gene Lyons]] ''The Hunting of the President: The Ten-Year Campaign to Destroy Bill and Hillary Clinton'' (2003) ISBN 0-312-27319-3
* [[Elizabeth Drew]] ''On the Edge: The Clinton Presidency'' (1994) ISBN 0-671-87147-1
* [[David Gergen]] ''Eyewitness to Power: The Essence of Leadership.'' (2000) ISBN 0-684-82663-1
* Nigel Hamilton ''Bill Clinton: An American Journey'' (2003) ISBN 0-375-50610-1
* [[John F. Harris]] ''The Survivor: Bill Clinton in the White House'' (2005) ISBN 0-375-50847-3
* [[Christopher Hitchens]] ''No One Left to Lie to: The Triangulations of William Jefferson Clinton'' (1999) ISBN 1-85984-736-6
* [[Michael Isikoff]] ''Uncovering Clinton: A Reporter's Story'' (1999) ISBN 0-609-60393-0
* [[Mark Katz]] ''Clinton and Me: A Real-Life Political Comedy'' (2004) ISBN 978-0786869497
* [[Joe Klein]] ''The Natural: The Misunderstood Presidency of Bill Clinton'' (2003) ISBN 0-7679-1412-0
* [[David Maraniss]] ''First in His Class: A Biography of Bill Clinton'' (1996) ISBN 0-684-81890-6
* [[David Maraniss]] ''The Clinton Enigma: A Four and a Half Minute Speech Reveals This President's Entire Life'' (1998) ISBN 0-684-86296-4
* [[Dick Morris]] with Eileen McGann ''Because He Could'' (2004) ISBN 0-06-078415-6
* [[Roger Morris (American writer)]] ''Partners in Power: The Clintons and Their America'' (1996) ISBN 0-89526-302-5
* [[Richard Posner|Richard A. Posner]] ''An Affair of State: The Investigation, Impeachment, and Trial of President Clinton'' (1999) ISBN 0-674-00080-3
* Mark J. Rozell ''The Clinton Scandal and the Future of American Government'' (2000) ISBN 0-87840-777-4
* Michael Waldman ''POTUS Speaks: Finding the Words That Defined the Clinton Presidency'' (2000) ISBN 0-7432-0020-9
* Ivory Tower Publishing Company [[Achievements of the Clinton Administration: the Complete Legislative and Executive]] (1995) ISBN 0-88032-748-0

===Academic studies===
* Cohen; Jeffrey E. "The Polls: Change and Stability in Public Assessments of Personal Traits, Bill Clinton, 1993-99" ''Presidential Studies Quarterly'', Vol. 31, 2001
* Cronin, Thomas E. and Michael A. Genovese; "President Clinton and Character Questions" ''Presidential Studies Quarterly'' Vol. 28, 1998
* Davis; John. "The Evolution of American Grand Strategy and the War on Terrorism: Clinton and Bush Perspectives" ''White House Studies'', Vol. 3, 2003
* Edwards; George C. "Bill Clinton and His Crisis of Governance" ''Presidential Studies Quarterly,'' Vol. 28, 1998
* Fisher; Patrick. "Clinton's Greatest Legislative Achievement? the Success of the 1993 Budget Reconciliation Bill" ''White House Studies'', Vol. 1, 2001
* Glad; Betty. "Evaluating Presidential Character" ''Presidential Studies Quarterly'', Vol. 28, 1998
* Harris, John F. ''The Survivor: Bill Clinton in the White House''. (2005) ISBN 0-375-50847-3, biography
* William G. Hyland. ''Clinton's World: Remaking American Foreign Policy'' (1999) ISBN 0-275-96396-9
* Jewett, Aubrey W. and Marc D. Turetzky; " Stability and Change in President Clinton's Foreign Policy Beliefs, 1993-96" ''Presidential Studies Quarterly'', Vol. 28, 1998
* Johnson, Fard. "Politics, Propaganda and Public Opinion: The Influence of Race and Class on the 1993 - 1994 Health Care Reform Debate." (2004). ISBN 1-4116-6345-4
* Laham, Nicholas, ''A Lost Cause: Bill Clinton's Campaign for National Health Insurance'' (1996)
* Lanoue, David J. and Craig F. Emmert; "Voting in the Glare of the Spotlight: Representatives' Votes on the Impeachment of President Clinton" ''Polity'', Vol. 32, 1999
* Livingston, C. Don, Kenneth A. Wink; "The Passage of the North American Free Trade Agreement in the U.S. House of Representatives: Presidential Leadership or Presidential Luck?" ''Presidential Studies Quarterly'', Vol. 27, 1997
* Maurer; Paul J. "Media Feeding Frenzies: Press Behavior during Two Clinton Scandals" ''Presidential Studies Quarterly,'' Vol. 29, 1999
* Nie; Martin A. "'It's the Environment, Stupid!': Clinton and the Environment" ''Presidential Studies Quarterly'', Vol. 27, 1997
* O'Connor; Brendon. "Policies, Principles, and Polls: Bill Clinton's Third Way Welfare Politics 1992-1996" ''The Australian Journal of Politics and History'', Vol. 48, 2002
* Poveda; Tony G. "Clinton, Crime, and the Justice Department" ''Social Justice'', Vol. 21, 1994
* Renshon; Stanley A. ''The Clinton Presidency: Campaigning, Governing, and the Psychology of Leadership'' Westview Press, 1995
* Renshon; Stanley A. "The Polls: The Public's Response to the Clinton Scandals, Part 1: Inconsistent Theories, Contradictory Evidence" ''Presidential Studies Quarterly'', Vol. 32, 2002
* Rushefsky, Mark E. and Kant Patel. ''Politics, Power & Policy Making: The Case of Health Care Reform in the 1990s'' (1998) ISBN 1-56324-956-1
* Schantz, Harvey L. ''Politics in an Era of Divided Government: Elections and Governance in the Second Clinton Administration'' (2001) ISBN 0-8153-3583-0
* Wattenberg; Martin P. "The Democrats' Decline in the House during the Clinton Presidency: An Analysis of Partisan Swings" ''Presidential Studies Quarterly'', Vol. 29, 1999
* Wattier; Mark J. "The Clinton Factor: The Effects of Clinton's Personal Image in 2000 Presidential Primaries and in the General Election" ''White House Studies'', Vol. 4, 2004
* Smithers, Luken J. "The Miracle Whip"

== External links ==
{{sisterlinks|Bill Clinton}}
*[http://www.millercenter.virginia.edu/index.php/academic/americanpresident/clinton Extensive essay on Bill Clinton and shorter essays on each member of his cabinet and First Lady from the Miller Center of Public Affairs]
*[http://millercenter.virginia.edu/scripps/digitalarchive/speechDetail/34 Full audio of a number of Clinton speeches via the Miller Center of Public Affairs (UVa)]
* [http://www.whitehouse.gov/history/presidents/bc42.html White House biography]
* [http://www.clintonfoundation.org/ William J. Clinton Foundation] official website
* [http://www.clintonglobalinitiative.org Clinton Global Initiative] official website
* [http://www.clintonlibrary.gov/ Clinton Presidential Library] official website
* [http://clinton6.nara.gov/ Clinton Presidential Materials Project] Archive of press releases and transcripts of speeches from the administration.
* [http://www.clintonschool.uasys.edu/ Clinton School of Public Service]
* {{worldcat id|id=lccn-n82-29644}}
* {{gutenberg author|id=Bill+Clinton | name=Bill Clinton}}
* {{imdb name|id=0001051|name=Bill Clinton}}
* [http://www.newyorker.com/fact/content/articles/060918fa_fact1 ''The Wanderer'']- A profile of Clinton in [[The New Yorker]], September 18, 2006. Clinton's most extensive interview in his post-presidency
* [http://americanheraldry.org/pages/index.php?n=President.Clinton] - "Armigerous American Presidents Series" article from the American Heraldry Society.
* Encyclopedia of Arkansas History & Culture entry: [http://www.encyclopediaofarkansas.net/encyclopedia/entry-detail.aspx?entryID=95 Bill Clinton]

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{{Persondata
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Dinosaur

2008-11-09T12:27:45Z

AnthonyToddler: trying to remove too-obvious bias (some bias is ok, but I think too much just damages CP)

{{otheruses}}
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{{Taxobox
|name = Dinosaurs
|fossil_range = {{Fossil range|235|65|earliest=Late Triassic|latest=0|PS= Descendant taxon [[Aves]] survives to present.}}
|image = field_dinos_2.jpg
|image_width = 260px
|image_caption = Mounted skeletons of ''[[Tyrannosaurus]]'' (left) and ''[[Apatosaurus]]'' (right) at the [[American Museum of Natural History]].
|regnum = [[Animal]]ia
|phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
|subphylum = [[Vertebrate|Vertebrata]]
|classis = [[Reptile|Sauropsida]]
|subclassis = [[Diapsid]]a
|infraclassis = [[Archosauromorpha]]
|superordo = '''Dinosauria'''
|superordo_authority = [[Richard Owen|Owen]], 1842
|subdivision_ranks = [[Order (biology)|Orders]] and [[Order (biology)|suborders]]
|subdivision = <div>
* '''[[Ornithischia]]''' [[extinction|†]]
** [[Cerapoda]] [[extinction|†]]
** [[Thyreophora]] [[extinction|†]]
* '''[[Saurischia]]'''
** [[Sauropodomorpha]] [[extinction|†]]
** [[Theropoda]]
}}
'''Dinosaurs''' ([[Greek]] δεινόσαυρος, deinosauros) were the dominant [[vertebrate]] animals of [[Landform|terrestrial]] [[ecosystem]]s for over 160 million years, from the late [[Triassic]] [[Period (geology)| period]] (about 230 [[Annum|million years ago]]) until the end of the [[Cretaceous]] [[Period (geology)| period]] (65 million years ago), when most of them became extinct in the [[Cretaceous–Tertiary extinction event]]. The 10,000 living species of [[birds]] have been [[cladistic|classified]] as dinosaurs.

The 1861 discovery of ''[[Archaeopteryx]]'' first suggested a close relationship between dinosaurs and birds; aside from the presence of fossilized feather impressions, ''Archaeopteryx'' was very similar to the contemporary small predatory dinosaur ''[[Compsognathus]]''. Research has since identified [[Theropoda|theropod]] dinosaurs as the most likely direct ancestors of [[bird]]s; most paleontologists today regard birds as the only surviving dinosaurs, and some suggest that dinosaurs and birds should be grouped into one biological class.<ref>Bakker, R. T., Galton, P., 1974. Dinosaur monophyly and a new class of vertebrates. ''Nature'' 248:168-172.</ref> Aside from birds, [[crocodilians]] are the only other close relatives of dinosaurs to have survived until the present day. Like dinosaurs and birds, crododilians are members of [[Archosauria]], a group of [[reptiles]] that first appeared in the very late [[Permian]] and came to predominate in the mid-Triassic.

Through the first half of the 20th century, most of the scientific community believed dinosaurs to be slow, unintelligent [[cold-blooded]] animals. Most [[Dinosaur renaissance|research conducted since the 1970s]], however, has supported the view that dinosaurs were active animals with elevated metabolisms and numerous adaptations for social interaction. The resulting transformation in the scientific understanding of dinosaurs, which was also influenced by evidence that theropod dinosaurs were the progenitors of birds, has gradually filtered into popular consciousness.

Since the first dinosaur [[fossil]]s were recognized in the early nineteenth century, mounted dinosaur skeletons have become major attractions at museums around the world. Dinosaurs have become a part of world culture and remain consistently popular. They have been featured in best-selling books and films (notably ''[[Jurassic Park]]''), and new discoveries are regularly covered by the [[News media|media]].

The term "dinosaur" was coined in 1842 by [[Sir Richard Owen]] and derives from [[Greek language|Greek]] ''δεινός'' (''deinos'') "terrible, powerful, wondrous" + ''σαῦρος'' (''sauros'') "lizard". It is sometimes used informally to describe other prehistoric reptiles, such as the [[pelycosaur]] ''[[Dimetrodon]]'', the winged [[pterosaur]]s, and the aquatic [[ichthyosaur]]s, [[plesiosaur]]s and [[mosasaur]]s, although none of these animals were dinosaurs.

==Description==
===Etymology===
The [[taxon]] '''Dinosauria''' was formally named in 1842 by [[English people|English]] [[palaeontology|palaeontologist]] [[Richard Owen]], who used it to refer to the "distinct tribe or sub-order of Saurian Reptiles" that were then being recognized in England and around the world.<ref>Owen, R. (1842). "Report on British Fossil Reptiles." Part II. Report of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, Plymouth, England.</ref> The term is derived from the [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] words δεινός (''deinos'' meaning "terrible", "powerful", or "wondrous") and σαύρα (''saura'' meaning "lizard" or "reptile").<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/lexindex?lookup=deino/s&lang=greek&doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0169&formentry=0
|title=Liddell-Scott-Jones Lexicon of Classical Greek |accessdate=2008-08-05
}}</ref> Though the taxonomic name has often been interpreted as a reference to dinosaurs' teeth, claws, and other fearsome characteristics, Owen intended it merely to evoke their size and majesty.<ref name=FBS97>{{cite book|author=Farlow, J.O., and Brett-Surman, M.K.|date=1997|title=Preface. In: Farlow, J.O., and Brett-Surman, M.K. (eds.). ''The Complete Dinosaur.''|publisher=Indiana University Press|pages=ix-xi|isbn=0-253-33349-0}}</ref>

In colloquial English "dinosaur" is sometimes used to describe an obsolete or unsuccessful thing or person,<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/dinosaur
|title=dinosaur - Definition from the Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary
|accessdate=2008-08-05
}}</ref> despite the dinosaurs' 160 million year reign and the global abundance and diversity of their descendants, the birds. This usage became common while dinosaurs were regarded as cold-blooded and sluggish.

===Modern definition===
[[Image:Triceratops AMNH 01.jpg|right|thumb|225px|''[[Triceratops]]'' [[skeleton]] at the [[American Museum of Natural History]] in New York City.]]
Under [[phylogenetics|phylogenetic taxonomy]], dinosaurs are usually defined as all descendants of the most recent common ancestor of ''[[Triceratops]]'' and modern [[birds]].<ref name="Irmis07">{{cite journal|author=Irmis, Randall B.|date=2007|title=A reappraisal of the phylogeny of early dinosaurs|journal=The Palaeontological Association Newsletter|volume=65|pages=92–94|url=http://socrates.berkeley.edu/~irmisr/sylbrad.pdf|accessdate=2007-11-22}}</ref> It has also been suggested that Dinosauria be defined as all of the descendants of the most recent common ancestor of ''[[Megalosaurus]]'' and ''[[Iguanodon]]'', because these were two of the three genera cited by Richard Owen when he recognized the Dinosauria.<ref name="olshevsky2000">Olshevsky, G. (2000). "An annotated checklist of dinosaur species by continent." ''Mesozoic Meanderings'', '''3''': 1–157</ref> Both definitions result in the same set of animals being defined as dinosaurs, including [[theropoda|theropods]] (mostly [[bipedalism|bipedal]] [[carnivore]]s), [[sauropodomorpha|sauropodomorph]]s (mostly large [[herbivore|herbivorous]] [[quadruped]]s with long necks and tails), [[ankylosauria]]ns (armored herbivorous quadrupeds), [[stegosauria]]ns (plated herbivorous quadrupeds), [[ceratopsia]]ns (herbivorous quadrupeds with horns and frills), and [[ornithopoda|ornithopods]] (bipedal or quadrupedal herbivores including "duck-bills"). These definitions are written to correspond with scientific conceptions of dinosaurs that predate the modern use of phylogenetics. The continuity of meaning is intended to prevent confusion about what the term "dinosaur" means.

There is an almost universal consensus among paleontologists that birds are the descendants of theropod dinosaurs. Using the strict [[cladistics|cladistical]] definition that all descendants of a single common ancestor must be included in a group for that group to be natural, birds ''are'' dinosaurs and dinosaurs are, therefore, not extinct. Birds are classified by most paleontologists as belonging to the subgroup [[Maniraptora]], which are [[Coelurosauria|coelurosaurs]], which are theropods, which are [[saurischia]]ns, which are dinosaurs.<ref name=KP04>Padian, K. (2004). Basal Avialae. In: Weishampel, D.B., Dodson, P., and Osmólska, H. (eds.). ''The Dinosauria'' (second edition). University of California Press:Berkeley, 210–231. ISBN 0-520-24209-2.</ref>

From the point of view of cladistics, birds are dinosaurs, but in ordinary speech the word "dinosaur" does not include birds. Additionally, referring to dinosaurs that are not birds as "non-avian dinosaurs" is cumbersome. For clarity, this article will use "dinosaur" as a synonym for "non-avian dinosaur". The term "non-avian dinosaur" will be used for emphasis as needed. It is also technically correct to refer to dinosaurs as a distinct group under the older [[Linnaean classification]] system, which accepts [[paraphyletic]] taxa that exclude some descendants of a single common ancestor.

===General description===
[[Image:Stego fieldmuseum.jpg|right|thumb|225px|''[[Stegosaurus]]'' skeleton, [[Field Museum]], [[Chicago]].]]
Using one of the above definitions, dinosaurs (aside from birds) can be generally described as terrestrial [[archosaur]]ian [[reptile]]s with [[terrestrial locomotion#Stance|limbs held erect beneath the body]], that existed from the [[Late Triassic]] (first appearing in the [[Carnian]] [[faunal stage]]) to the [[Late Cretaceous]] (going extinct at the end of the [[Maastrichtian]]).<ref name=DFG97>{{cite book |last=Glut |first=Donald F. |authorlink=Donald F. Glut |title=Dinosaurs: The Encyclopedia |year=1997 |publisher=McFarland & Co |location=Jefferson, North Carolina |pages=40 |isbn=0-89950-917-7}}</ref> Many prehistoric animals are popularly conceived of as dinosaurs, such as ichthyosaurs, mosasaurs, plesiosaurs, pterosaurs, and ''[[Dimetrodon]]'', but are not classified scientifically as dinosaurs. Marine reptiles like ichthyosaurs, mosasaurs, and plesiosaurs were neither terrestrial nor archosaurs; pterosaurs were archosaurs but not terrestrial; and ''Dimetrodon'' was a [[Permian]] animal more closely related to mammals.<ref name=DL90>{{cite book |last=Lambert |first=David |coauthors=and the Diagram Group |title=The Dinosaur Data Book |year=1990 |publisher=Avon Books |location=New York |isbn=0-380-75896-3 |pages=288}}</ref> Dinosaurs were the dominant terrestrial vertebrates of the Mesozoic, especially the [[Jurassic]] and Cretaceous. Other groups of animals were restricted in size and niches; mammals, for example, rarely exceeded the size of a cat, and were generally rodent-sized carnivores of small prey.<ref name=MM97>{{cite book |last=Morales |first=Michael |editor=Farlow, James O.; and Brett-Surman, Michael K. (eds.) |title=The Complete Dinosaur |year=1997 |publisher=Indiana University Press |location=Bloomington |isbn=0-253-33349-0 |pages=607–624 |chapter=Nondinosaurian vertebrates of the Mesozoic }}</ref> One notable exception is ''[[Repenomamus|Repenomamus giganticus]]'', a [[triconodont]] weighing between {{kg to lb|12}} and {{kg to lb|14}} that is known to have eaten small dinosaurs like young ''[[Psittacosaurus]]''.<ref name=huetal2005>{{cite journal |author=Hu Yaoming |coauthors=Meng Jin; Wang Yuanqing; and Li Chuankui |year=2005 |title=Large Mesozoic mammals fed on dinosaurs |journal=Nature |volume=433 |pages=149–152|doi=10.1038/nature03102}}</ref>

Dinosaurs were an extremely varied group of animals; according to a 2006 study, over 500 dinosaur genera have been identified with certainty so far, and the total number of genera preserved in the fossil record has been estimated at around 1,850, nearly 75% of which remain to be discovered.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Wang, S.C., and Dodson, P. |date=2006|title=Estimating the Diversity of Dinosaurs|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA|volume=103|issue=37|pages=13601–13605|pmid= 16954187|doi=10.1073/pnas.0606028103}}</ref> An earlier study predicted that about 3,400 dinosaur genera existed, including many which would not have been preserved in the fossil record.<ref name="russell1995">{{cite journal|author=Russell, Dale A.|date=1995|title=China and the lost worlds of the dinosaurian era|journal=Historical Biology|volume=10|pages=3–12}}</ref> As of September 17, 2008, 1,047 different species of dinosaurs have been named.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/7620621.stm Will the real dinosaurs stand up?], BBC, September 17, 2008</ref> Some were herbivorous, others carnivorous. Some dinosaurs were bipeds, some were quadrupeds, and others, such as ''[[Ammosaurus]]'' and ''[[Iguanodon]]'', could walk just as easily on two or four legs. Many had [[armour (zoology)|bony armor]], or cranial modifications like horns and crests. Although known for large size, many dinosaurs were human-sized or smaller. Dinosaur remains have been found on every continent on Earth, including [[Antarctica]].<ref name="MacLeod"/> No dinosaurs are known to have lived in marine or aerial habitats, although it is possible some feathered theropods were flyers.

===Distinguishing features===
While recent discoveries have made it more difficult to present a universally agreed-upon list of dinosaurs' distinguishing features, nearly all dinosaurs discovered so far share certain modifications to the ancestral [[archosaur]]ian skeleton. Although some later groups of dinosaurs featured further modified versions of these traits, they are considered typical across Dinosauria; the earliest dinosaurs had them and passed them on to all their descendants. Such common features across a taxonomic group are called [[synapomorphy|synapomorphies]].

Dinosaur synapomorphies include an elongated crest on the [[humerus]], or upper arm bone, to accommodate the attachment of [[clavipectoral triangle|deltopectoral]] muscles; a shelf at the rear of the [[ilium (bone)|ilium]], or main hip bone; a [[tibia]], or shin bone, featuring a broad lower edge and a flange pointing out and to the rear; and an ascending projection on the [[talus bone|astragalus]], one of the ankle bones, which secures it to the tibia.<ref name=MJB04>{{cite book |last=Benton |first=Michael J. |authorlink=Michael J. Benton |editor=Weishampel, David B.; Dodson, Peter; and Osmólska, Halszka (eds.)|title=The Dinosauria |edition=2nd |year=2004|publisher=University of California Press |location=Berkeley |isbn=0-520-24209-2 |pages=7–19 |chapter=Origin and relationships of Dinosauria}}</ref>

[[Image:Edmontonia dinosaur.png|190px|left|thumb|''[[Edmontonia]]'' was an "armored dinosaur" of the group [[Ankylosauria]].]]
A variety of other skeletal features were shared by many dinosaurs. However, because they were either common to other groups of [[archosaurs]] or were not present in all early dinosaurs, these features are not considered to be synapomorphies. For example, as [[diapsid]] reptiles, dinosaurs ancestrally had two pairs of [[temporal fenestra]]e (openings in the skull behind the eyes), and as members of the diapsid group Archosauria, had additional openings in the [[antorbital fenestra|snout]] and lower jaw.<ref name=TRHJ00>{{cite book|author=Holtz, Jr., T.R. |date=2000|title=Classification and evolution of the dinosaur groups. In: Paul, G.S. (ed.). ''The Scientific American Book of Dinosaurs.''|publisher=St. Martin's Press|pages=140–168|isbn=0-312-26226-4}}</ref> Additionally, several characteristics once thought to be synapomorphies are now known to have appeared before dinosaurs, or were absent in the earliest dinosaurs and independently evolved by different dinosaur groups. These include an elongated [[scapula]], or shoulder blade; a [[sacrum]] composed of three or more fused [[vertebra]]e (three are found in some other archosaurs, but only two are found in ''[[Herrerasaurus]]'');<ref name=MJB04/> and an [[acetabulum]], or hip socket, with a hole at the center of its inside surface (closed in ''[[Saturnalia (dinosaur)|Saturnalia]]'', for example).<ref name=LARB99>{{cite journal|author=Langer, M.C., Abdala, F., Richter, M., and Benton, M.J. |date=1999|title=A sauropodomorph dinosaur from the Upper Triassic (Carnian) of southern Brazil|journal=Comptes Rendus de l'Academie des Sciences, Paris: Sciences de la terre et des planètes|volume=329|pages=511–517}}</ref> Another difficulty of determining distinctly dinosaurian features is that early dinosaurs and other archosaurs from the Late Triassic are often poorly known and were similar in many ways; these animals have sometimes been misidentified in the literature.<ref name=NIP07>{{cite journal |last=Nesbitt |first=Sterling J. |coauthors=Irmis, Randall B.; and Parker, William G. |year=2007 |title=A critical re-evaluation of the Late Triassic dinosaur taxa of North America |journal=Journal of Systematic Palaeontology |volume=5 |issue=2 |pages=209–243 |doi=10.1017/S1477201907002040 }}</ref>

[[Image:Sprawling and erect hip joints - horiz.png| thumb | right | 300px | Hip joints and hindlimb postures.]]
Dinosaurs stood erect in a manner similar to [[Evolution of mammals#Erect limbs|most modern mammals]], but distinct from most other reptiles, whose limbs sprawl out to either side.<ref>This was recognized not later than 1909: {{cite web |title=Dr. Holland and the Sprawling Sauropods |url=http://www.hmnh.org/library/diplodocus/holland1910.html }} The arguments and many of the images are also presented in {{cite book |title=Hot Blooded Dinosaurs |author=Desmond, A. |publisher=DoubleDay |date=1976 |isbn=0385270631}}</ref> Their posture was due to the development of a laterally-facing recess in the pelvis (usually an open socket) and a corresponding inwardly-facing distinct head on the femur.<ref name=MJB00>{{cite book|author=Benton, M.J.|date=2004|title=Vertebrate Paleontology|publisher=Blackwell Publishers|pages=xii-452|isbn=0-632-05614-2}}</ref> Their erect posture enabled dinosaurs to breathe easily while moving, which likely permitted stamina and activity levels that [[Carrier's constraint|surpassed those of "sprawling" reptiles]].<ref name=RC05>{{cite book |last=Cowen |first=Richard |title=History of Life |edition=4th edition |chapter=Dinosaurs |publisher=Blackwell Publishing |isbn=1405117567 |pages=151–175 |year=2004 |oclc=53970577}}</ref> Erect limbs probably also helped support the evolution of large size by reducing bending stresses on limbs.<ref name=TKMB07>{{cite journal |last=Kubo |first=T. |coauthors=M.J. Benton |year=2007 |title=Evolution of hindlimb posture in archosaurs: limb stresses in extinct vertebrates |journal=Palaeontology |volume=50 |issue=6 |pages=1519–1529 |doi=10.1111/j.1475-4983.2007.00723.x}}</ref> Some non-dinosaurian archosaurs, including [[rauisuchia]]ns, also had erect limbs but achieved this by a "pillar erect" configuration of the hip joint, where instead of having a projection from the femur insert on a socket on the hip, the [[ilium (bone)|upper pelvic bone]] was rotated to form an overhanging shelf.<ref name=TKMB07/>

==Natural history==
===Origins and early evolution===
{{main|Evolution of dinosaurs}}
[[Image:Eopraptor sketch5.png|thumb|''[[Eoraptor]]'', an early dinosaur genus.]]
For a long time many scientists thought dinosaurs were [[polyphyletic]] with multiple groups of unrelated "dinosaurs" evolving due to similar pressures,<ref>{{cite journal |author=Seeley, H.G. |date=1887 |title=On the classification of the fossil animals commonly named Dinosauria |journal=Proc R Soc London |publisher=[[Royal Society]] |volume=43 |pages=165–171 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Romer, A.S. |date=1956 |title=Osteology of the Reptiles |publisher=University of Chicago }}</ref><ref name="Ostrom1980EvidenceOfEndothermyInDinosaurs">{{ citation |author=Ostrom, J.H. |date=1980 |chapter=The evidence of endothermy in dinosaurs |editor=Thomas, R.D.K. and Olson, E.C. |title=A cold look at the warm-blooded dinosaurs |pages=82–105 |publisher=American Association for the Advancement of Science |location=Boulder, CO |url=http://bio.fsu.edu/~amarquez/Evolutionary%20Morphology%20fall%202004/Ostrom/The%20evidence%20for%20endothermy%20in%20dinosaurs%20-%20Ostrom.pdf }}</ref> but dinosaurs are now known to have formed a single group.<ref>{{cite journal |date=1974 |title=Dinosaur monophyly and a new class of vertebrates |journal=Nature |volume=248 |pages=168–172 | doi=10.1038/248168a0 |url=http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v248/n5444/abs/248168a0.html |author=Bakker, R. T., and Galton, P.}}</ref><ref name="MJB04" />

Dinosaurs diverged from their [[archosaur]] ancestors approximately 230 million years ago during the Middle to Late [[Triassic]] period, roughly 20 million years after the [[Permian-Triassic extinction event]] wiped out an estimated 95% of all [[life on Earth]].<ref>{{cite journal|author=Kump LR, Pavlov A & Arthur MA|title=Massive release of hydrogen sulfide to the surface ocean and atmosphere during intervals of oceanic anoxia|journal=Geology|date=2005|volume=33|issue=5|pages=397–400|doi=10.1130/G21295.1}}</ref><ref name="TannerLucas">{{cite journal|author=Tanner LH, Lucas SG & Chapman MG|title=Assessing the record and causes of Late Triassic extinctions|journal=Earth-Science Reviews|volume=65|issue=1-2|pages=103–139|date=2004|doi=10.1016/S0012-8252(03)00082-5|url=http://nmnaturalhistory.org/pdf_files/TJB.pdf|accessdate=2007-10-22}}</ref> [[Radiometric dating]] of the [[rock formation]] that contained fossils from the early dinosaur [[genus]] ''[[Eoraptor]]'' establishes its presence in the fossil record at this time. Paleontologists believe ''Eoraptor'' resembles the [[Common descent|common ancestor]] of all dinosaurs;<ref name="Sereno1999">{{cite journal|author=Sereno PC|title=The evolution of dinosaurs|date=1999|journal=Science|volume=284|issue=5423|pages=2137–2147|doi=10.1126/science.284.5423.2137|pmid=10381873}}</ref> if this is true, its traits suggest that the first dinosaurs were small, bipedal [[predation|predators]].<ref name=SFRM93>{{cite journal |last=Sereno |first=P.C. |authorlink=Paul Sereno |coauthors=Forster, C.A.; Rogers, R.R.; and Monetta, A.M. |year=1993 |title=Primitive dinosaur skeleton from Argentina and the early evolution of Dinosauria |journal=Nature |volume=361 |pages=64–66|doi=10.1038/361064a0}}</ref> The discovery of primitive, dinosaur-like [[ornithodiran]]s such as ''[[Marasuchus]]'' and ''[[Lagerpeton]]'' in [[Argentina|Argentinian]] [[Middle Triassic]] strata supports this view; analysis of recovered fossils suggests that these animals were indeed small, bipedal predators.

When dinosaurs appeared, terrestrial habitats were occupied by various types of basal archosaurs and [[therapsida|therapsids]], such as [[aetosaur]]s, [[cynodont]]s, [[dicynodont]]s, [[ornithosuchidae|ornithosuchid]]s, [[rauisuchia]]s, and [[rhynchosaur]]s. Most of these other animals became extinct in the Triassic, in one of two events. First, at about the boundary between the [[Carnian]] and [[Norian]] [[faunal stage]]s (about 215 million years ago), dicynodonts and a variety of basal [[archosauromorpha|archosauromorph]]s, including the [[prolacertiformes|prolacertiforms]] and rhynchosaurs, became extinct. This was followed by the [[Triassic-Jurassic extinction event]] (about 200 million years ago), that saw the end of most of the other groups of early archosaurs, like aetosaurs, ornithosuchids, [[phytosaur]]s, and rauisuchians. These losses left behind a land fauna of [[crocodylomorpha|crocodylomorph]]s, dinosaurs, [[mammal]]s, [[pterosauria]]ns, and [[turtle]]s.<ref name=MJB04/>

The first few lines of primitive dinosaurs [[Adaptive radiation|diversified]] through the [[Carnian]] and [[Norian]] [[faunal stage|stage]]s of the Triassic, most likely by occupying the niches of groups that became extinct. Traditionally, dinosaurs were thought to have [[Competition (biology)|replaced]] the variety of other Triassic land animals by proving superior through a long period of competition. This now appears unlikely, for several reasons. Dinosaurs do not show a pattern of steadily increasing in diversity and numbers, as would be predicted if they were competitively replacing other groups; instead, they were very rare through the Carnian, making up only 1-2% of individuals present in [[fauna]]s. In the Norian, however, after the extinction of several other groups, they became significant components of faunas, representing 50-90% of individuals. Also, what had been viewed as a key adaptation of dinosaurs, their erect stance, is now known to have present in several contemporaneous groups that were not as successful (aetosaurs, ornithosuchids, rauisuchians, and some groups of crocodylomorphs). Finally, the Late Triassic itself was a time of great upheaval in life, with shifts in plant life, marine life, and climate.<ref name="MJB04" /> [[Crurotarsi|Crurotarsans]], today represented only by crocodilians but in the Late Triassic also encompassing such now-extinct groups as aetosaurs, phytosaurs, ornithosuchians, and rauisuchians, were actually more diverse in the Late Triassic than dinosaurs, indicating that the survival of dinosaurs had more to do with luck than superiority.<ref name="SBetal08">{{cite journal|last=Brusatte|first=S.L.|coauthors=Benton, M.J.; Ruta, M.; and Lloyd, G.T.|date=2008|title=Superiority, competition, and opportunism in the evolutionary radiation of dinosaurs|journal=Science|volume=321|issue=5895|pages=1485–1488 |doi=10.1126/science.1161833|pmid=18787166}}</ref>

===Low diversification in the Cretaceous===
Statistical analyses based on raw data suggest that dinosaurs diversified, i.e. the number of species increased, in the Late [[Cretaceous]]. However in July 2008 Graeme T. Lloyd ''et al'' argued that this apparent diversification was an illusion caused by [[sampling bias]], because Late Cretaceous rocks have been very heavily studied. Instead, they wrote, dinosaurs underwent only two significant diversifications in the Late Cretaceous, the initial [[evolutionary radiation| radiations]] of the [[hadrosaur| euhadrosaurs]] and [[ceratopsian]]s. In the Mid Cretaceous, the flowering [[angiosperm]] plants became a major part of terrestrial [[ecosystem]]s, which had previous been dominated by [[gymnosperm]]s such as conifers. Dinosaur [[coprolite]]s (fossilized dung) indicate that, while some ate angiosperms, most herbivorous dinosaurs mainly ate gymnosperms. Meanwhile [[herbivorous]] insects and [[mammal]]s diversified rapidly to take advantage of the new type of plant food, while lizards, snakes, [[crocodilian]]s and [[bird]]s also diversified at the same time. Lloyd ''et al'' suggest that dinosaurs' failure to diversify as ecosystems were changing doomed them to extinction.<ref name="LloydDavisPisaniEtAl2008DinosAndKTR">{{cite journal
|title=Dinosaurs and the Cretaceous Terrestrial Revolution
|author=Lloyd, G.T., Davis, K.E., Pisani, D., ''et al''
|journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society: Biology |date=22 July 2008 |doi=10.1098/rspb.2008.0715
|url=http://journals.royalsociety.org/content/7k63203q852h4006/ |accessdate=2008-07-28
|volume=275
|pages=2483
}} The URL contains links to all the content, and it's all free.</ref>

===Classification===
{{main|Dinosaur classification}}

Dinosaurs (including birds) are [[archosaur]]s, like modern [[crocodilia]]ns. Archosaurs' [[diapsid]] skulls have two holes, called [[temporal fenestrae]], located where the jaw muscles attach, and an additional [[antorbital fenestra]] in front of the eyes. Most reptiles (including birds) are diapsids; mammals, with only one temporal fenestra, are called [[synapsid]]s; and [[turtle]]s, with no temporal fenestra, are [[anapsid]]s. Anatomically, dinosaurs share many other archosaur characteristics, including teeth that grow from sockets rather than as direct extensions of the jawbones. Within the archosaur group, dinosaurs are differentiated most noticeably by their gait. Dinosaur legs extend directly beneath the body, whereas the legs of lizards and crocodylians sprawl out to either side.

Collectively, dinosaurs are usually regarded as a [[superorder]] or an unranked [[clade]]. They are divided into two [[Order (biology)|orders]], [[Saurischia]] and [[Ornithischia]], depending upon [[pelvis|pelvic]] structure. Saurischia includes those taxa sharing a more recent common ancestor with ''birds'' than with Ornithischia, while Ornithischia includes all [[taxon|taxa]] sharing a more recent common ancestor with ''[[Triceratops]]'' than with Saurischia. Saurischians ('lizard-hipped', from the [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] ''sauros'' (''σαυρος'') meaning 'lizard' and ''ischion'' (''ισχιον'') meaning 'hip joint') retained the hip structure of their ancestors, with a [[pubis (bone)|pubis]] bone directed [[anatomical terms of location|cranially]], or forward.<ref name=MJB00/> This basic form was modified by rotating the pubis backward to varying degrees in several groups (''[[Herrerasaurus]]'',<ref name=GSP88>{{cite book|last=Paul |first=G.S. |year=1988 |title=Predatory Dinosaurs of the World |location=New York |publisher=Simon and Schuster |pages=248–250 }}</ref> [[therizinosaur]]oids,<ref name="clarketal2004">Clark, J.M., Maryanska, T., and Barsbold, R. (2004). "Therizinosauroidea", in ''The Dinosauria'', 2nd ed. 151–164.</ref> [[dromaeosauridae|dromaeosaurids]],<ref name=MAPM04>Norell, M.A., and Makovicky, P.J. (2004). "Dromaeosauridae", in ''The Dinosauria'', 2nd ed. 196-210.</ref> and [[bird]]s<ref name=KP04/>). Saurischia includes the [[Theropoda|theropods]] (bipedal and mostly carnivores, except for birds) and [[Sauropodomorpha|sauropodomorphs]] (long-necked quadrupedal [[herbivore]]s).

By contrast, ornithischians ('bird-hipped', from the [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] ''ornitheios'' (''ορνιθειος'') meaning 'of a bird' and ''ischion'' (''ισχιον'') meaning 'hip joint') had a pelvis that superficially resembled a bird's pelvis: the [[pubis (bone)|pubis]] bone was oriented [[anatomical terms of location|caudally]] (rear-pointing). Unlike birds, the ornithischian pubis also usually had an additional forward-pointing process. Ornithischia includes a variety of herbivores. ('''NB:''' the terms "lizard hip" and "bird-hip" are misnomers{{ndash}} birds evolved from dinosaurs with "lizard hips".)

<center><gallery>
Image:Saurischia.png|[[Saurischia]]n pelvis structure (left side)
Image:Tyrannosaurus pelvis left.jpg|''[[Tyrannosaurus]]'' pelvis (showing saurischian structure - left side)
Image:Ornithischia.png|[[Ornithischia]]n pelvis structure (left side).
Image:Edmontosaurus pelvis left.jpg|''[[Edmontosaurus]]'' pelvis (showing ornithischian structure - left side)
</gallery></center>

The following is a simplified classification of dinosaur families. A more detailed version can be found at [[List of dinosaur classifications]].

[[Image:Struthiomimus altus jconway.jpg|thumb|300px|''[[Struthiomimus]]'', an ostrich-like [[theropod]] dinosaur.]]
*Dinosauria
:*[[Saurischia]] (theropods and sauropods)
::*[[Herrerasaur]]ians (early bipedal predators)
::*[[Theropod]]s (all [[Bipedalism| bipedal]]; most were carnivores)
:::*[[Coelophysoidea|Coelophysoids]] (''[[Coelophysis]]'' and close relatives)
:::*[[Ceratosauria]]ns (''[[Ceratosaurus]]'' and [[abelisaur]]ids - the latter were important Late Cretaceous predators in southern continents)
:::*[[Spinosauroidea|Spinosauroids]] (long bodies, short arms, some with crocodile-like skulls and bony "sails" in their backs)
:::*[[Carnosauria]]ns (''[[Allosaurus]]'' and close relatives, like ''[[Carcharodontosaurus]]'')
:::*[[Coelurosauria]]ns (diverse, with a range of body sizes and niches)
::::*[[Tyrannosauroidea|Tyrannosauroids]] (small to gigantic, often with reduced forelimbs)
::::*[[Ornithomimosauria]]ns ("[[ostrich]]-mimics", toothless, carnivores to herbivores)
::::*[[Therizinosaur]]oids (bipedal herbivores with long arms and small heads)
::::*[[Oviraptorosauria]]ns (toothless; their diet and lifestyle are uncertain)
::::*[[Dromaeosauridae|Dromaeosaurids]] (like the "raptors" in ''[[Jurassic Park]]'')
::::*[[Troodontidae|Troodontids]] (similar to dromaeosaurids, but more lightly built, and possibly omnivorous)
::::*[[Aves|Birds]] (the only living dinosaurs)
[[Image:Brachiosaurus-brancai jconway.jpg|thumb|300px|''[[Brachiosaurus]]'' is an example of a [[sauropod]] dinosaur.]]
::*[[Sauropodomorpha|Sauropodomorphs]] (quadrupedal herbivores with small heads and long necks and tails, and elephant-like bodies)
:::*"[[Prosauropoda|Prosauropods]]" (early relatives of sauropods; small to quite large; some possibly omnivorous; bipeds and quadrupeds)
:::*[[Sauropoda|Sauropods]] (very large, usually over 15 meters long [49 ft])
::::*[[Diplodocoidea|Diplodocoids]] (skulls and tails elongated; teeth typically narrow and pencil-like)
::::*[[Macronaria]]ns (boxy skulls; spoon-shaped or pencil-shaped teeth)
:::::*[[Brachiosauridae|Brachiosaurids]] (very long necks; forelimbs longer than hindlimbs)
:::::*[[Titanosauria]]ns (diverse; stocky, with wide hips; most common in the Late Cretaceous of southern continents)
[[Image:Ornithopods jconway.jpg|300px|thumb|Various [[ornithopod]] dinosaurs and one [[heterodontosaurid]]. Far left: ''[[Camptosaurus]]'', left: ''[[Iguanodon]]'', center background: ''[[Shantungosaurus]]'', center foreground: ''[[Dryosaurus]]'', right: ''[[Corythosaurus]]'', far right (small): ''[[Heterodontosaurus]]'', far right (large) ''[[Tenontosaurus]]''.]]
:*[[Ornithischia]]ns (diverse bipedal and quadrupedal herbivores)
::*[[Heterodontosauridae|Heterodontosaurids]] (meter- or yard-scale herbivores or omnivores with prominent canine teeth)
::*[[Thyreophora]]ns (armored dinosaurs, mostly quadrupeds)
:::*[[Ankylosauria]]ns ([[scutes]] as primary armor; some had club-like tails)
:::*[[Stegosauria]]ns (spikes and plates as primary armor)
::*[[Ornithopoda|Ornithopods]] (diverse, from meter- or yard-scale bipeds to 12 meter (39 ft) animals that could moves as both bipeds and quadrupeds, evolved a method of chewing using skull flexibility and large numbers of teeth)
:::*[[Hadrosaur]]ids ("duckbilled dinosaurs")
::*[[Pachycephalosauria]]ns ("bone-heads", bipeds with domed or knobby growth on skulls)
::*[[Ceratopsia]]ns (dinosaurs with horns and frills, although most early forms had only the beginnings of these features)

===Evolution and paleobiogeography===
{{main|Evolution of dinosaurs}}

Dinosaur evolution after the Triassic follows changes in vegetation and the location of continents. In the Late Triassic and Early Jurassic, the continents were connected as the single landmass [[Pangaea]], there was a worldwide dinosaur fauna mostly composed of [[coelophysoidea|coelophysoid]] [[carnivore]]s and [[prosauropod]] [[herbivore]]s.<ref name=HCL04>{{cite book |last=Holtz |first=Thomas R., Jr. |coauthors=Chapman, Ralph E.; and Lamanna, Matthew C. |editor=Weishampel, David B.; Dodson, Peter; and Osmólska, Halszka (eds.)|title=The Dinosauria |edition=2nd |year=2004|publisher=University of California Press |location=Berkeley |isbn=0-520-24209-2 |pages=627–642 |chapter=Mesozoic biogeography of Dinosauria}}</ref> [[Gymnosperm]] plants (particularly [[conifer]]s), a potential food source, radiated in the Late Triassic. Prosauropods did not have sophisticated mechanisms for processing food in the mouth, so must have employed other means of breaking down food farther along the digestive tract.<ref name=FS04>{{cite book |last=Fastovsky |first=David E. |coauthors=and Smith, Joshua B. |editor=Weishampel, David B.; Dodson, Peter; and Osmólska, Halszka (eds.)|title=The Dinosauria |edition=2nd |year=2004|publisher=University of California Press |location=Berkeley |isbn=0-520-24209-2 |pages=614–626 |chapter=Dinosaur paleoecology}}</ref> The general homogeneity of dinosaurian faunas continued into the Middle and Late Jurassic, where most localities had predators consisting of [[ceratosauria]]ns, [[spinosauroidea|spinosauroids]], and [[carnosauria]]ns, and herbivores consisting of [[stegosauria]]n ornithischians and large sauropods. Examples of this include the [[Morrison Formation]] of North America and [[Tendaguru|Tendaguru Beds]] of Tanzania. Dinosaurs in China show some differences, with specialized [[sinraptoridae|sinraptorid]] theropods and unusual, long-necked sauropods like ''[[Mamenchisaurus]]''.<ref name=HCL04/> [[Ankylosauria]]ns and [[ornithopoda|ornithopods]] were also becoming more common, but prosauropods had become extinct. Conifers and [[pteridophyte]]s were the most common plants. Sauropods, like the earlier prosauropods, were not oral processors, but ornithischians were evolving various means of dealing with food in the mouth, including potential [[cheek]]-like organs to keep food in the mouth, and jaw motions to grind food.<ref name=FS04/> Another notable evolutionary event of the Jurassic was the appearance of true birds, descended from [[maniraptora]]n [[coelurosauria]]ns.<ref name=KP04/>
[[Image:CeratopsiaI BW.jpg|right|thumb|200px|An Illustration of 18 species of basal ceratopsia to scale.]]
By the Early Cretaceous and the ongoing breakup of Pangaea, dinosaurs were becoming strongly differentiated by landmass. The earliest part of this time saw the spread of ankylosaurians, [[iguanodontia]]ns, and [[brachiosauridae|brachiosaurids]] through Europe, North America, and northern Africa. These were later supplemented or replaced in Africa by large [[spinosaurid]] and [[carcharodontosauridae|carcharodontosaurid]] theropods, and [[rebbachisauridae|rebbachisaurid]] and [[titanosauria]]n sauropods, also found in South America. In Asia, [[maniraptora]]n [[coelurosauria]]ns like [[dromaeosauridae|dromaeosaurids]], [[troodontidae|troodontid]]s, and [[oviraptorosauria]]ns became the common theropods, and [[ankylosauridae|ankylosaurids]] and early [[ceratopsia]]ns like ''Psittacosaurus'' became important herbivores. Meanwhile, Australia was home to a fauna of basal ankylosaurians, [[hypsilophodont]]s, and iguanodontians.<ref name=HCL04/> The stegosaurians appear to have gone extinct at some point in the late Early Cretaceous or early Late Cretaceous. A major change in the Early Cretaceous, which would be amplified in the Late Cretaceous, was the evolution of [[angiosperm|flowering plants]]. At the same time, several groups of dinosaurian herbivores evolved more sophisticated ways to orally process food. Ceratopsians developed a method of slicing with teeth stacked on each other in batteries, and iguanodontians refined a method of grinding with tooth batteries, taken to its extreme in [[hadrosaurid]]s.<ref name=FS04/> Some sauropods also evolved tooth batteries, best exemplified by the rebbachisaurid ''[[Nigersaurus]]''.<ref name=serenoetal07>{{cite journal |last=Sereno |first=P.C. |coauthors=Wilson, J.A.; Witmer, L.M.; Whitlock, J.A.; Maga, A.; Ide, O.; and Rowe, T.A. |year=2007 |title=Structural extremes in a Cretaceous dinosaur |journal=PLoS ONE |volume=2 |issue=11 |pages=e1230 |url=http://www.plosone.org/article/fetchArticle.action?articleURI=info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0001230 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0001230}}</ref>

There were three general dinosaur faunas in the Late Cretaceous. In the northern continents of North America and Asia, the major theropods were [[tyrannosauridae|tyrannosaurid]]s and various types of smaller maniraptoran theropods, with a predominantly ornithischian herbivore assemblage of hadrosaurids, ceratopsians, ankylosaurids, and [[pachycephalosauria]]ns. In the southern continents that had made up the now-splitting [[Gondwana]], [[abelisauridae|abelisaurids]] were the common theropods, and titanosaurian sauropods the common herbivores. Finally, in Europe, dromaeosaurids, [[rhabdodontidae|rhabdodontid]] iguanodontians, [[nodosauridae|nodosaurid]] ankylosaurians, and titanosaurian sauropods were prevalent.<ref name=HCL04/> Flowering plants were greatly radiating,<ref name=FS04/> with the first grasses appearing by the end of the Cretaceous.<ref name=PSAS05>{{cite journal |last=Prasad |first=V. |coauthors=Strömberg, C.A.E.; Alimohammadian, H; and Sahni, A. |year=2005 |title=Dinosaur coprolites and the early evolution of grasses and grazers |journal=Science |volume=310 |issue=5751 |pages=1170–1180 |doi=10.1126/science.1118806 |pmid=16293759}}</ref> Grinding hadrosaurids and shearing ceratopsians became extremely diverse across North America and Asia. Theropods were also radiating as herbivores or omnivores, with [[therizinosaur]]ians and [[ornithomimosauria]]ns becoming common.<ref name=FS04/>

The [[Cretaceous–Tertiary extinction event]], which occurred approximately 65 million years ago at the end of the Cretaceous period, caused the extinction of all dinosaurs except for the birds. Some other [[diapsid]] groups, such as crocodylians, [[lizard]]s, [[snake]]s, [[sphenodontia]]ns, and [[choristodera]]ns, also survived the event.<ref name=AF04>{{cite book |last=Archibald |first=J. David |coauthors=and Fastovsky, David E. |editor=Weishampel, David B.; Dodson, Peter; and Osmólska, Halszka (eds.)|title=The Dinosauria |edition=2nd |year=2004|publisher=University of California Press |location=Berkeley |isbn=0-520-24209-2 |pages=672–684 |chapter=Dinosaur Extinction}}</ref>

==Paleobiology==
Knowledge about dinosaurs is derived from a variety of fossil and non-fossil records, including [[fossil]]ized [[bone]]s, [[feces]], [[trackway]]s, [[gastrolith]]s, [[feather]]s, impressions of skin, [[Viscus|internal organs]] and [[soft tissue]]s.<ref name="softtissue">{{cite journal|author=Dal Sasso, C. and Signore, M. |date=1998)|title=Exceptional soft-tissue preservation in a theropod dinosaur from Italy|journal=Nature|volume=292|issue=6674|pages=383–387|doi=10.1038/32884}}</ref><ref name="Schweitzer2005"/> Many fields of study contribute to our understanding of dinosaurs, including [[physics]] (especially [[biomechanics]]), [[chemistry]], [[biology]], and the [[earth sciences]] (of which [[paleontology]] is a sub-discipline). Two topics of particular interest and study have been dinosaur size and behavior.

===Size===
{{main|Dinosaur size}}
[[Image:Largestdinosaursbysuborder scale.png|thumb|400px|right|Scale diagram comparing the largest known dinosaurs in four [[Order (biology)|suborders]] and a human.]]
While the evidence is incomplete, it is clear that, as a group, dinosaurs were large. Even by dinosaur standards, the [[Sauropoda|sauropods]] were gigantic. For much of the dinosaur era, the smallest sauropods were larger than anything else in their habitat, and the largest were an [[order of magnitude]] more massive than anything else that has since walked the Earth. Giant prehistoric [[mammal]]s such as the ''[[Indricotherium]]'' and the Columbian [[mammoth]] were dwarfed by the giant sauropods, and only a handful of modern aquatic animals approach or surpass them in size{{ndash}} most notably the [[blue whale]], which reaches up to {{kg to lb|173000|precision=-3}} and over {{m to ft|30|precision=-1}} in length.<ref name=Cosewic>{{cite web|url=http://www.wildwhales.org/cetaceans/blue/sr_blue_whale_e.pdf.pdf|publisher=Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada|date=2002|title=Assessment and Update Status Report on the Blue Whale ''Balaenoptera musculus''|accessdate=2007-12-05}}</ref> There are several proposed advantages for the large size of sauropods, including protection from predation, reduction of energy use, and longevity, but it may be that the most important advantage was dietary. Large animals are more efficient at digestion than small animals, because food spends more time in their digestive systems. This also permits them to subsist on food with lower nutritive value than smaller animals. Sauropod remains are mostly found in [[rock formation]]s interpreted as dry or seasonally dry, and the ability to eat large quantities of low nutrient browse would have been advantageous in such environments.<ref name=KC06>{{cite book |last=Carpenter |first=Kenneth |authorlink=Kenneth Carpenter |year=2006 |chapter=Biggest of the big: a critical re-evaluation of the mega-sauropod ''Amphicoelias fragillimus'' |editor=Foster, John R.; and Lucas, Spencer G. (eds.) |title=Paleontology and Geology of the Upper Jurassic Morrison Formation |publisher=New Mexico Museum of Natural History and Science |location=Albuquerque |series=New Mexico Museum of Natural History and Science Bulletin '''36''' |pages=131–138 |url=https://scientists.dmns.org/sites/kencarpenter/PDFs%20of%20publications/Amphicoelias.pdf |format=pdf}}</ref>

Most dinosaurs, however, were much smaller than the giant sauropods. Current evidence suggests that dinosaur average size varied through the Triassic, early Jurassic, late Jurassic and Cretaceous periods.<ref name="Sereno1999"/> Theropod dinosaurs, when sorted by estimated weight into categories based on [[order of magnitude]], most often fall into the 100 to 1,000 kilogram (220 to 2,200 lb) category, whereas [[Holocene|recent]] predatory [[carnivora]]ns peak in the 10 to 100 kilogram (22 to 220 lb) category.<ref name=JF93>{{cite book |last=Farlow |first=James A. |authorlink=James Farlow |year=1993 |title=Functional Morphology and Evolution |editors=Dodson, Peter; and Gingerich, Philip |series=American Journal of Science, Special Volume '''293-A''' |chapter=On the rareness of big, fierce animals: speculations about the body sizes, population densities, and geographic ranges of predatory mammals and large, carnivorous dinosaurs |pages=167–199}}</ref> The [[Mode (statistics)|mode]] of dinosaur body masses is between one and ten metric tonnes.<ref>Peczkis, J. (1994). "Implications of body-mass estimates for dinosaurs". ''Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology'' '''14'''(4): 520-33</ref> This contrasts sharply with the size of [[Cenozoic]] mammals, estimated by the [[National Museum of Natural History]] as about 2 to 5 kilograms (5 to 10 lb).<ref name=NMNH>{{cite web |url=http://paleobiology.si.edu/dinosaurs/info/everything/evo_1.html |title=Anatomy and evolution |accessdate=2007-11-21 |publisher=National Museum of Natural History}}</ref>

====Largest and smallest====
Only a tiny percentage of animals ever fossilize, and most of these remain buried in the earth. Few of the specimens that are recovered are complete skeletons, and impressions of skin and other soft tissues are rare. Rebuilding a complete skeleton by comparing the size and morphology of bones to those of similar, better-known species is an inexact art, and reconstructing the muscles and other organs of the living animal is, at best, a process of educated guesswork. As a result, scientists will probably never be certain of the [[largest organism|largest and smallest dinosaurs]].

[[Image:Brachiosaurus scale.png|thumb|160px|right|Comparative size of ''[[Brachiosaurus]]''.]]
The tallest and heaviest dinosaur known from good skeletons is ''[[Brachiosaurus|Brachiosaurus brancai]]'' (also known as ''[[Giraffatitan]]''). Its remains were discovered in [[Tanzania]] between 1907–12. Bones from multiple similarly-sized individuals were incorporated into the skeleton now mounted and on display at the [[Humboldt Museum]] of [[Berlin]];<ref name=EC68>Colbert, E.H. (1968). ''Men and Dinosaurs: The Search in Field and Laboratory.'' E. P. Dutton & Company:New York, vii + 283 p. ISBN 0140212884.</ref> this mount is {{m to ft|12}} tall and {{m to ft|22.5}} long, and would have belonged to an animal that weighed between 30,000 and 60,000 kilograms (70,000 and 130,000 lb). The longest complete dinosaur is the 27 m (89 ft) long ''[[Diplodocus]]'', which was discovered in [[Wyoming]] in the [[United States]] and displayed in [[Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania|Pittsburgh's]] [[Carnegie Natural History Museum]] in 1907.
[[Image:Human-eoraptor size comparison(v2).png|thumb|140px|left|Comparative size of ''[[Eoraptor]]''.]]
There were larger dinosaurs, but knowledge of them is based entirely on a small number of fragmentary fossils. Most of the largest [[herbivore|herbivorous]] specimens on record were all discovered in the 1970s or later, and include the massive ''[[Argentinosaurus]]'', which may have weighed 80,000 to 100,000 kilograms (90 to 110 short tons); some of the longest, the {{m to ft|33.5|precision=-1}} long ''[[Diplodocus|Diplodocus hallorum]]''<ref name=KC06/> (formerly ''Seismosaurus'') and the {{m to ft|33|precision=-1}} long ''[[Supersaurus]]'';<ref name=LHW07>{{cite journal |last=Lovelace |first=David M. |coauthors=Hartman, Scott A.; and Wahl, William R. |year=2007 |title=Morphology of a specimen of ''Supersaurus'' (Dinosauria, Sauropoda) from the Morrison Formation of Wyoming, and a re-evaluation of diplodocid phylogeny |journal=Arquivos do Museu Nacional |volume=65 |issue=4 |pages=527–544 }}</ref> and the tallest, the {{m to ft|18}} ''[[Sauroposeidon]]'', which could have reached a sixth-floor window. The longest of them all may have been ''[[Amphicoelias|Amphicoelias fragillimus]]'', known only from a now lost partial vertebral [[neural arch]] described in 1878. Extrapolating from the illustration of this bone, the animal may have been {{m to ft|58}} long and weighed over {{kg to lb|120000|precision=-4}},<ref name=KC06/> heavier than all known dinosaurs except possibly the poorly known ''[[Bruhathkayosaurus]]'', which could have weighed 175,000 to 220,000 kilograms (400,000 to 500,000 lb). The largest known [[carnivore|carnivorous]] dinosaur was ''[[Spinosaurus]]'', reaching a length of 16 to 18 meters (50 to 60 ft), and weighing in at {{kg to lb|8150|precision=-2}}.<ref name=SMBM06>dal Sasso, C., Maganuco, S., Buffetaut, E., and Mendez, M.A. (2006). New information on the skull of the enigmatic theropod ''Spinosaurus'', with remarks on its sizes and affinities. ''Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology'' '''25'''(4):888–896.</ref> Other large meat-eaters included ''[[Giganotosaurus]]'', ''[[Mapusaurus]]'', ''[[Tyrannosaurus|Tyrannosaurus rex]]'' and ''[[Carcharodontosaurus]]''.

Not including modern birds, the smallest dinosaurs known were about the size of a [[crow]] or a [[chicken]]. The theropods ''[[Microraptor]]'' and ''[[Parvicursor]]'' were both under 0.6 meters (2 ft) in length.

===Behavior===
[[Image:Maiasaurusnest.jpg|thumb|210px|A nesting ground of ''[[Maiasaura]]'' was discovered in 1978.]]

Interpretations of dinosaur behavior are generally based on the pose of body fossils and their [[Habitat (ecology)|habitat]], [[computer simulation]]s of their [[biomechanics]], and comparisons with modern animals in similar [[ecological niche]]s. As such, the current understanding of dinosaur behavior relies on speculation, and will likely remain controversial for the foreseeable future. However, there is general agreement that some behaviors which are common in crocodiles and birds, dinosaurs' closest living relatives, were also common among dinosaurs.

The first potential evidence of [[herd]]ing behavior was the 1878 discovery of 31 ''[[Iguanodon]]'' dinosaurs which were then thought to have perished together in [[Bernissart]], [[Belgium]], after they fell into a deep, flooded [[sinkhole]] and drowned.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Yans J, Dejax J, Pons D, Dupuis C & Taquet P|date=2005|title=Implications paléontologiques et géodynamiques de la datation palynologique des sédiments à faciès wealdien de Bernissart (bassin de Mons, Belgique)|journal=Comptes Rendus Palevol|volume=4|issue=1-2|pages=135–150|language=French|doi=10.1016/j.crpv.2004.12.003}}</ref> Other mass death sites have been subsequently discovered. Those, along with multiple trackways, suggest that gregarious behavior was common in many dinosaur species. Trackways of hundreds or even thousands of herbivores indicate that [[Hadrosaurid|duck-bills]] (hadrosaurids) may have moved in great herds, like the [[American Bison]] or the African [[Springbok Antelope|Springbok]]. Sauropod tracks document that these animals traveled in groups composed of several different species, at least in [[Oxfordshire]], England,<ref>{{cite journal |last=Day |first=J.J. |coauthors=and Upchurch, P. |year=2002 |title=Sauropod trackways, evolution, and behavior |journal=Science |volume=296 |pages=1659|doi=10.1126/science.1070167 |pmid=12040187 }}</ref> although there is not evidence for specific herd structures.<ref name=JLW05>{{cite book |last=Wright |first=Joanna L. |year=2005 |chapter=Steps in understanding sauropod biology |title=The Sauropods: Evolution and Paleobiology |editor=Curry Rogers, Kristina A.; and Wilson, Jeffrey A. |publisher=University of California Press |location=Berkeley |pages=252–284 |isbn=0-520-24623-3}}</ref> Dinosaurs may have congregated in herds for defense, for [[Bird migration|migratory]] purposes, or to provide protection for their young. The interpretation of dinosaurs as gregarious has also extended to depicting carnivorous theropods as [[pack hunter]]s working together to bring down large prey.<ref name=LG93>{{cite book |last=Lessem |first=Don |coauthors=and Glut, Donald F. |year=1993 |title=The Dinosaur Society's Dinosaur Encyclopedia |chapter=''Allosaurus'' |pages=19–20|publisher=Random House|isbn=0-679-41770-2}}</ref><ref name="maxwell&ostrom1995">{{cite journal|last=Maxwell|first=W. D. |coauthors=Ostrom, J.H. |year=1995 |title=Taphonomy and paleobiological implications of ''Tenontosaurus''-''Deinonychus'' associations|journal=Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology |volume=15 |issue=4 |pages=707–712}}([http://www.vertpaleo.org/publications/jvp/15-707-712.cfm abstract])</ref> However, this lifestyle is uncommon among the modern relatives of dinosaurs ([[crocodile]]s and other reptiles, and [[bird]]s - [[Harris's Hawk]] is a well-documented exception), and the [[taphonomy|taphonomic]] evidence suggesting pack hunting in such theropods as ''[[Deinonychus]]'' and ''[[Allosaurus]]'' can also be interpreted as the results of fatal disputes between feeding animals, as is seen in many modern [[diapsid]] predators.<ref name=RB07>{{cite journal|last=Roach|first=Brian T.|coauthors=and Brinkman, Daniel L. |year=2007 |title=A reevaluation of cooperative pack hunting and gregariousness in ''Deinonychus antirrhopus'' and other nonavian theropod dinosaurs|journal=Bulletin of the Peabody Museum of Natural History |volume=48 |issue=1 |pages=103–138 |doi=10.3374/0079-032X(2007)48[103:AROCPH]2.0.CO;2}}</ref>
[[Image:Dino eggP9240092.JPG|thumb|right|Fossilized egg of the [[oviraptoridae|oviraptorid]] ''[[Citipati]]'', [[American Museum of Natural History]].]]
[[Jack Horner (paleontologist)|Jack Horner's]] 1978 discovery of a ''[[Maiasaura]]'' ("good mother dinosaur") [[nest]]ing ground in [[Montana]] demonstrated that parental care continued long after birth among the [[ornithopod]]s.<ref name=HM79>{{cite journal |last=Horner |first=J.R. |coauthors=and Makela, R. |year=1979 |title=Nest of juveniles provides evidence of family-structure among dinosaurs |journal=Nature |volume=282 |issue=5736 |pages=296–298 |doi=10.1038/282296a0}}</ref> There is also evidence that other Cretaceous-era dinosaurs, like [[Patagonia]]n [[titanosaur]]ian sauropods (1997 discovery), also nested in large groups.<ref name=LMCetal05>{{cite book |last=Chiappe |first=Luis M. |coauthors=Jackson, Frankie; Coria, Rodolfo A.; and Dingus, Lowell |year=2005 |chapter=Nesting titanosaurs from Auca Mahuevo and adjacent sites |title=The Sauropods: Evolution and Paleobiology |editor=Curry Rogers, Kristina A.; and Wilson, Jeffrey A. |publisher=University of California Press |location=Berkeley |pages=285–302 |isbn=0-520-24623-3}}</ref> The [[Mongolia]]n [[oviraptoridae|oviraptorid]] ''[[Citipati]]'' was discovered in a [[chicken]]-like [[Avian incubation|brooding]] position in 1993, which may mean it was covered with an insulating layer of feathers that kept the [[egg (biology)|eggs]] warm.<ref>[http://search.eb.com/dinosaurs/dinosaurs/BRa.html Oviraptor nesting] ''[[Oviraptor]]'' nests or ''[[Protoceratops]]''?</ref> Parental care is also implied by other finds. For example, the fossilized remains of a grouping of ''[[Psittacosaurus]]'' has been found, consisting of one adult and 34 juveniles; in this case, the large number of juveniles may be due to communal nesting.<ref name=mengetal2004>{{cite journal |author=Meng Qingjin; Liu Jinyuan; Varricchio, David J.; Huang, Timothy; and Gao Chunling |year=2004 |title=Parental care in an ornithischian dinosaur |journal=Nature |volume=431 |pages=145–146 |doi=10.1038/431145a}}</ref> Additionally, a dinosaur embryo (pertaining to the [[prosauropoda|prosauropod]] ''[[Massospondylus]]'') was found without teeth, indicating that some parental care was required to feed the young dinosaur.<ref name="Reiszetal05">{{cite journal|author=Reisz RR, Scott, D Sues, H-D, Evans, DC & Raath, MA|title=Embryos of an Early Jurassic prosauropod dinosaur and their evolutionary significance|journal=Science|volume=309|issue= |pages=761–764|publisher= |location= |date=2005|url= |doi=10.1126/science.1114942|id= |accessdate= | pmid =16051793}}</ref> Trackways have also confirmed parental behavior among ornithopods from the [[Isle of Skye]] in northwestern [[Scotland]].<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/scotland/3255494.stm Dinosaur family tracks] Footprints show maternal instinct after leaving the nest.</ref> Nests and eggs have been found for most major groups of dinosaurs, and it appears likely that dinosaurs communicated with their young, in a manner similar to modern birds and crocodiles.

[[Image:Centrosaurus dinosaur.png|thumb|left|225px|Artist's rendering of two ''[[Centrosaurus]]'', herbivorous [[ceratopsidae|ceratopsid]] dinosaurs from the late Cretaceous fauna of North America.]]
The crests and frills of some dinosaurs, like the [[marginocephalia]]ns, [[theropod]]s and [[lambeosaurine]]s, may have been too fragile to be used for active defense, so they were likely used for sexual or aggressive displays, though little is known about dinosaur mating and [[territory (animal)|territorialism]]. Head wounds from bites suggest that theropods, at least, engaged in active aggressive confrontations.<ref name=PC98>{{cite journal |last=Tanke |first=Darren H. |authorlink=Darren Tanke |coauthors=and Currie, Philip J. |year=1998 |title=Head-biting behavior in theropod dinosaurs: paleopathological evidence |journal=Gaia |issue=15 |pages=167–184 |url=http://www.mnhn.ul.pt/geologia/gaia/12.pdf |issn=0871-5424 |format=pdf}}</ref> The nature of dinosaur [[Animal communication|communication]] also remains enigmatic, and is an active area of research. For example, recent studies suggest that the hollow crests of the lambeosaurines may have functioned as [[resonance chamber]]s used for a wide range of [[Animal communication|vocalizations]].<ref name=JAH75>{{cite journal |last=Hopson |first=James A. |authorlink=James Hopson |year=1975 |title=The evolution of cranial display structures in hadrosaurian dinosaurs |journal=Paleobiology |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=21–43 |url= |accessdate=}}</ref><ref name=DW98>{{cite journal |last=Diegert |first=Carl F. |coauthors=and Williamson, Thomas E. |year=1998 |title=A digital acoustic model of the lambeosaurine hadrosaur ''Parasaurolophus tubicen'' |journal=Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology |volume=18 |issue=3, Suppl. |pages=38A }}</ref>

From a behavioral standpoint, one of the most valuable dinosaur fossils was discovered in the [[Gobi Desert]] in 1971. It included a ''[[Velociraptor]]'' attacking a ''[[Protoceratops]]'',<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.amnh.org/exhibitions/fightingdinos/ex-fd.html|title=The Fighting Dinosaurs|publisher=American Museum of Natural History|accessdate=2007-12-05}}</ref> providing evidence that dinosaurs did indeed attack each other.<ref name=carpenter1998>{{cite journal |last=Carpenter |first=K. |authorlink=Kenneth Carpenter |year=1998 |title=Evidence of predatory behavior by theropod dinosaurs |journal=Gaia |volume=15 |pages=135–144 |url=http://vertpaleo.org/publications/jvp/15-576-591.cfm|accessdate=2007-12-05}}</ref> Additional evidence for attacking live prey is the partially-healed tail of an ''[[Edmontosaurus]]'', a hadrosaurid dinosaur; the tail is damaged in such a way that shows the animal was bitten by a tyrannosaur but survived.<ref name=carpenter1998/> [[Cannibalism (zoology)|Cannibalism]] amongst some species of dinosaurs was confirmed by tooth marks found in Madagascar in 2003, involving the theropod ''[[Majungasaurus]]''.<ref name=rogersetal2003>{{cite_journal |last=Rogers |first=Raymond R. |coauthors=Krause, David W.; & [[Kristina Curry Rogers|Curry Rogers, Kristina]]. |year=2007 |title=Cannibalism in the Madagascan dinosaur ''Majungatholus atopus'' |journal=Nature |volume=422 |issue=6931 |pages=515–518 |doi=10.1038/nature01532}}</ref>

Based on current fossil evidence from dinosaurs such as ''[[Oryctodromeus]]'', some herbivorous species seem to have led a partially [[fossorial]] (burrowing) lifestyle,<ref name=VMK07>{{cite journal |author=Varricchio DJ, Martin, AJ and Katsura, Y|year=2007 |title=First trace and body fossil evidence of a burrowing, denning dinosaur |journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences |volume=274|issue=1616|pages=1361–1368 |doi=10.1098/rspb.2006.0443}}</ref> and some bird-like species may have been [[arboreal]] (tree-climbing), most notably primitive [[Dromaeosauridae|dromaeosaurids]] such as ''[[Microraptor]]''<ref name="chatterjee2007">{{cite journal |last=Chatterjee |first=S. |coauthors=and Templin, R.J. |year=2007 |title=Biplane wing planform and flight performance of the feathered dinosaur ''Microraptor gui'' |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=104 |issue=5 |pages=1576–1580 |url=http://www.pnas.org/cgi/reprint/0609975104v1.pdf |format=pdf |doi=10.1073/pnas.0609975104 }}</ref> and the enigmatic [[scansoriopterygidae|scansoriopterygids]].<ref name="zhang2002">{{cite journal |author=Zhang, F.; Zhou, Z.; Xu, X.; and Wang, X. |year=2002 |title=A juvenile coelurosaurian theropod from China indicates arboreal habits |journal=Naturwissenschaften |volume=89 |issue=9 |pages=394–398 |doi=10.1007 /s00114-002-0353-8}}</ref> However, most dinosaurs seem to have relied on land-based locomotion. A good understanding of how dinosaurs moved on the ground is key to models of dinosaur behavior; the science of [[biomechanics]], in particular, has provided significant insight in this area. For example, studies of the forces exerted by muscles and gravity on dinosaurs' skeletal structure have investigated how fast dinosaurs could run,<ref>{{cite journal|author=Alexander RM|title=Dinosaur biomechanics|journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society of Biological Sciences|volume=273|issue=1596|date=2006|pages=1849–1855|doi=10.1098/rspb.2006.3532}}</ref> whether [[diplodocid]]s could create [[sonic boom]]s via [[whip]]-like tail snapping,<ref>{{cite journal|author=Goriely A & McMillen T|title=Shape of a cracking whip|date=2002|journal=Physical Review Letters|volume=88|issue=24|pages=244301|doi=10.1103/PhysRevLett.88.244301}}</ref> and whether sauropods could float.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Henderson, D.M.|date=2003|title=Effects of stomach stones on the buoyancy and equilibrium of a floating crocodilian: A computational analysis|journal=Canadian Journal of Zoology|volume=81|issue=8|pages=1346–1357|doi=10.1139/z03-122}}</ref>

===Physiology===
{{main|Physiology of dinosaurs}}
[[Image:Palais de la Decouverte Tyrannosaurus rex p1050042.jpg|210px|thumb|right|''[[Tyrannosaurus|Tyrannosaurus rex]]'' skull and upper vertebral column, Palais de la Découverte, Paris.]]
[[Image:Eubrontes01.JPG|210px|thumb|right|''Eubrontes'', a dinosaur footprint in the Lower [[Jurassic]] Moenave Formation at the St. George Dinosaur Discovery Site at Johnson Farm, southwestern Utah.]]
A vigorous debate on the subject of temperature regulation in dinosaurs has been ongoing since the 1960s. Originally, scientists broadly disagreed as to whether dinosaurs were capable of regulating their body temperatures at all. More recently, dinosaur [[Warm-blooded|endotherm]] has become the consensus view, and debate has focused on the mechanisms of temperature regulation.

After dinosaurs were discovered, paleontologists first posited that they were [[ectotherm]]ic creatures: "terrible [[lizard]]s" as their name suggests. This supposed cold-bloodedness implied that dinosaurs were relatively slow, sluggish organisms, comparable to modern reptiles, which need external sources of heat in order to regulate their body temperature. Dinosaur ectothermy remained a prevalent view until [[Robert T. Bakker|Robert T. "Bob" Bakker]], an early proponent of dinosaur endothermy, published an influential paper on the topic in 1968.

Modern evidence indicates that dinosaurs thrived in cooler temperate climates, and that at least some dinosaur species must have regulated their body temperature by internal biological means (perhaps aided by the animals' bulk). Evidence of [[Warm-blooded|endotherm]] in dinosaurs includes the discovery of [[polar dinosaurs in Australia]] and [[Antarctica]] (where they would have experienced a cold, dark six-month winter), the discovery of dinosaurs whose feathers may have provided regulatory insulation, and analysis of blood-vessel structures that are typical of endotherms within dinosaur bone. Skeletal structures suggest that theropods and other dinosaurs had active lifestyles better suited to an endothermic cardiovascular system, while sauropods exhibit fewer endothermic characteristics. It is certainly possible that some dinosaurs were endothermic while others were not. Scientific debate over the specifics continues.<ref>Parsons, K.M. (2001). ''Drawing Out Leviathan''. Indiana University Press. 22–48. ISBN 0-253-33937-5.</ref>

Complicating the debate is the fact that warm-bloodedness can emerge based on more than one mechanism. Most discussions of dinosaur endothermy tend to compare them to average birds or mammals, which expend energy to elevate body temperature above that of the environment. Small birds and mammals also possess [[thermal insulation|insulation]], such as [[fat]], [[fur]], or [[feather]]s, which slows down heat loss. However, large mammals, such as elephants, face a different problem because of their relatively small ratio of surface area to volume ([[J. B. S. Haldane|Haldane's]] principle). This ratio compares the volume of an animal with the area of its skin: as an animal gets bigger, its surface area increases more slowly than its volume. At a certain point, the amount of heat radiated away through the skin drops below the amount of heat produced inside the body, forcing animals to use additional methods to avoid overheating. In the case of elephants, they have little hair as adults, and have large ears which increase their surface area, and have behavioral adaptations as well (such as using the trunk to spray water on themselves and mud wallowing). These behaviors increase cooling through evaporation.

Large dinosaurs would presumably have had to deal with similar issues; their body size suggest they lost heat relatively slowly to the surrounding air, and so could have been what are called [[gigantothermy|inertial homeotherms]], animals that are warmer than their environments through sheer size rather than through special adaptations like those of birds or mammals. However, so far this theory fails to account for the numerous dog- and goat-sized dinosaur species, or the young of larger species.

Modern [[computerized tomography]] (CT) scans of a [[Thescelosaurus|dinosaur]]'s chest cavity (conducted in 2000) found the apparent remnants of a four-chambered heart, much like those found in today's mammals and birds.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Fisher, P. E., Russell, D. A., Stoskopf, M. K., Barrick, R. E., Hammer, M. & Kuzmitz, A. A.|date=2000|title=Cardiovascular evidence for an intermediate or higher metabolic rate in an ornithischian dinosaur|journal=Science|volume=288|issue=5465|pages=503–505|doi=10.1126/science.288.5465.503|pmid=10775107}}</ref> The idea is controversial within the scientific community, coming under fire for bad anatomical science<ref>{{cite journal|author=Hillenius, W. J. & Ruben, J. A.|date=2004|title=The evolution of endothermy in terrestrial vertebrates: Who? when? why?|journal=Physiological and Biochemical Zoology|volume=77|issue=6|pages=1019–1042|doi=10.1086/425185}}</ref> or simply wishful thinking.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Dinosaur with a Heart of Stone|author=Rowe T, McBride EF, & Sereno PC |date=2001 |journal=Science |volume=291 |issue=5505 |pages=783 |doi=10.1126/science.291.5505.783a|pmid=11157158}}</ref> The question of how this find reflects on metabolic rate and dinosaur internal anatomy may be moot, though, regardless of the object's identity: both modern [[crocodilia]]ns and [[bird]]s, the closest living relatives of dinosaurs, have four-chambered hearts (albeit modified in crocodilians), so dinosaurs probably had them as well.<ref name=CH04>Chinsamy, Anusuya; and Hillenius, Willem J. (2004). "Physiology of nonavian dinosaurs". ''The Dinosauria'', 2nd. 643–659.</ref>

===Soft tissue and DNA===
[[Image:9119 - Milano, Museo storia naturale - Scipionyx samniticus - Foto Giovanni Dall'Orto 22-Apr-2007.jpg|thumb|''Scipionyx samniticus'' fossil showing tissue impressions, at the [[Museo Civico di Storia Naturale de Milan|Museo Civico di Storia Naturale]], in Milan, Italy.]]
One of the best examples of soft tissue impressions in a fossil dinosaur was discovered in [[Petraroia]], [[Italy]]. The discovery was reported in 1998, and described the specimen of a small, very young [[coelurosaur]], ''[[Scipionyx]] samniticus''. The fossil includes portions of the intestines, colon, liver, muscles, and windpipe of this immature dinosaur.<ref name="softtissue" />

In the March 2005 issue of ''[[Science (journal)|Science]]'', the paleontologist [[Mary Higby Schweitzer]] and her team announced the discovery of flexible material resembling actual soft tissue inside a 68-million-year-old ''[[Tyrannosaurus|Tyrannosaurus rex]]'' leg [[bone]] from the [[Hell Creek Formation]] in [[Montana]]. After recovery, the tissue was rehydrated by the science team.<ref name="Schweitzer2005"/>

When the fossilized bone was treated over several weeks to remove mineral content from the fossilized bone marrow cavity (a process called demineralization), Schweitzer found evidence of intact structures such as [[blood vessel]]s, bone matrix, and connective tissue (bone fibers). Scrutiny under the microscope further revealed that the putative dinosaur soft tissue had retained fine structures (microstructures) even at the cellular level. The exact nature and composition of this material, and the implications of Schweitzer's discovery, are not yet clear; study and interpretation of the material is ongoing.<ref name="Schweitzer2005">{{cite journal|author=Schweitzer, M.H., Wittmeyer, J.L. and Horner, J.R.|date=2005|title=Soft-Tissue Vessels and Cellular Preservation in Tyrannosaurus rex|journal=Science|volume=307|issue=5717|pages=1952–1955|doi=10.1126/science.1108397|pmid=15790853}}</ref>

Newer research, published in PloS One (30 July 2008), has challenged the claims that the material found is the soft tissue of ''Tyrannosaurus''. Thomas Kaye of the [[University of Washington]] and his co-authors contend that what was really inside the tyrannosaur bone was slimy [[biofilm]] created by bacteria that coated the voids once occupied by blood vessels and cells.<ref>{{cite journal|year=2008|month=July|first=T. G. |last=Kaye |coauthors=Gaugler, G.; and Sawlowicz, Z. |title=Dinosaurian Soft Tissues Interpreted as Bacterial Biofilms.|journal=PLoS ONE|volume=3|issue=7|pages=e2808|url=http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0002808 |accessdate=2008-10-27|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0002808}}</ref> The researchers found that what previously had been identified as remnants of blood cells, because of the presence of iron, were actually [[framboid]]s, microscopic mineral spheres bearing iron. They found similar spheres in a variety of other fossils from various periods, including an [[ammonite]]. In the ammonite they found the spheres in a place where the iron they contain could not have had any relationship to the presence of blood.<ref>[http://newswise.com/articles/view/542898/ New Research Challenges Notion That Dinosaur Soft Tissues Still Survive] Newswise, Retrieved on 29 July 2008.</ref>

The successful extraction of ancient DNA from dinosaur fossils has been reported on two separate occasions, but upon further inspection and [[peer review]], neither of these reports could be confirmed.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Wang, H., Yan, Z. and Jin, D.|date=1997|title=Reanalysis of published DNA sequence amplified from Cretaceous dinosaur egg fossil|journal=Molecular Biology and Evolution|volume=14|pages=589–591|url=http://mbe.oupjournals.org/cgi/reprint/14/5/589|accessdate=2007-12-05}}</ref> However, a functional visual [[peptide]] of a theoretical dinosaur has been inferred using analytical phylogenetic reconstruction methods on gene sequences of related modern species such as reptiles and birds.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Chang BS, Jönsson K, Kazmi MA, Donoghue MJ, Sakmar TP|date=2002|title=Recreating a Functional Ancestral Archosaur Visual Pigment|journal=Molecular Biology and Evolution|volume=19|issue=9|pages=1483–1489|pmid=12200476|url=http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/full/19/9/1483|accessdate=2007-12-05}}</ref> In addition, several [[protein]]s have putatively been detected in dinosaur fossils,<ref>{{cite journal|author=Embery G, Milner AC, Waddington RJ, Hall RC, Langley MS, Milan AM|title=Identification of proteinaceous material in the bone of the dinosaur Iguanodon|journal=Connect Tissue Res|date=2003|volume=44|issue=Suppl 1|pages=41–6|pmid=12952172|doi=10.1080/713713598}}</ref> including hemoglobin.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Schweitzer MH, Marshall M, Carron K, Bohle DS, Busse SC, Arnold EV, Barnard D, Horner JR, Starkey JR|title=Heme compounds in dinosaur trabecular bone|journal=Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A.|date=1997|volume=94|issue=12|pages=6291–6|pmid=9177210|doi=10.1073/pnas.94.12.6291}}</ref>

Even if dinosaur DNA could be reconstructed, it would be exceedingly difficult to clone and "grow" dinosaurs using current technology since no closely related species exist to provide [[zygote]]s or a suitable environment for [[Embryogenesis|embryonic development]].

==Feathers and the origin of birds==
{{main|Origin of birds}}

The possibility that dinosaurs were the ancestors of birds was first suggested in 1868 by [[Thomas Henry Huxley]].<ref name=huxley1868>{{cite_journal |last=Huxley |first=Thomas H. |authorlink=Thomas Henry Huxley |year=1868 |title=On the animals which are most nearly intermediate between birds and reptiles |journal=Annals of the Magazine of Natural History |volume=4 |issue=2 |pages=66–75}}</ref> After the work of [[Gerhard Heilmann]] in the early 20th century, the theory of birds as dinosaur descendants was abandoned in favor of generalized [[thecodont]] ancestors, with the key piece of evidence being the supposed lack of [[clavicle]]s in dinosaurs.<ref name=heilmann>{{cite_book |last=Heilmann |first=Gerhard |year=1926 |title=The Origin of Birds |location=London |publisher=Witherby |pages=208pp}}</ref> However, as later discoveries showed, clavicles (or a single fused [[furcula|wishbone]], which derived from separate clavicles) were not actually absent;<ref name=KP04/> they had been found as early as 1924 in ''Oviraptor'', but misidentified as an [[interclavicle]].<ref name=HO24>{{cite journal |last=Osborn |first=Henry Fairfield |year=1924 |title=Three new Theropoda, ''Protoceratops'' zone, central Mongolia |journal=American Museum Novitates |volume=144 |pages=1–12 |url=http://digitallibrary.amnh.org/dspace/bitstream/2246/3223/1/N0144.pdf |format=pdf}}</ref> In the 1970s, [[John Ostrom]] revived the dinosaur-bird theory,<ref name=ostrom1973>{{cite_journal |last=Ostrom |first=John H. |authorlink=John Ostrom |year=1973 |title=The ancestry of birds |journal=Nature |volume=242 |issue=5393 |pages=136 |doi=10.1038/242136a0}}</ref> which gained momentum in the coming decades with the advent of cladistic analysis,<ref name=gauthier1986>{{cite_book |last=Gauthier |first=Jacques. |authorlink=Jacques Gauthier |year=1986 |chapter=Saurischian monophyly and the origin of birds |editor=Padian, Kevin. (ed.) |title=The Origin of Birds and the Evolution of Flight |series=Memoirs of the California Academy of Sciences '''8''' |pages=1–55}}</ref> and a great increase in the discovery of small theropods and early birds.<ref name=TRHJ00/> Of particular note has been the fossils of the [[Yixian Formation]], where a variety of theropods and early birds have been found, often with feathers of some type.<ref name=KP04/> Birds share over a hundred distinct anatomical features with theropod dinosaurs, which are now generally accepted to have been their closest ancient relatives.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Mayr, G., Pohl, B. and Peters, D.S.|date=2005|title=A Well-Preserved Archaeopteryx Specimen with Theropod Features|journal=Science|volume=310|issue=5753|pages=1483–1486|doi=10.1126/science.1120331|pmid=16322455}}</ref>
They are most closely allied with [[maniraptora]]n coelurosaurs.<ref name=KP04/> A minority of scientists, most notably [[Alan Feduccia]] and [[Larry Martin]], have proposed other evolutionary paths, including revised versions of Heilmann's basal archosaur proposal,<ref name=martin2004>{{cite_journal |last=Martin |first=Larry D. |authorlink=Larry Martin |year=2006 |title=A basal archosaurian origin for birds |journal=Acta Zoologica Sinica |volume=50 |issue=6 |pages=977–990}}</ref> or that maniraptoran theropods are the ancestors of birds but themselves are not dinosaurs, only [[convergent evolution|convergent]] with dinosaurs.<ref name=AF02/>

===Feathers===
{{main|Feathered dinosaurs}}
[[Image:SArchaeopteryxBerlin2.jpg|thumb|210px|right|The famous Berlin Specimen of ''[[Archaeopteryx|Archaeopteryx lithographica]]''.]]

''[[Archaeopteryx]]'', the first good example of a "feathered dinosaur", was discovered in 1861. The initial specimen was found in the [[Solnhofen limestone]] in southern Germany, which is a ''[[Lagerstätten|lagerstätte]]'', a rare and remarkable geological formation known for its superbly detailed fossils. ''Archaeopteryx'' is a [[transitional fossil]], with features clearly intermediate between those of modern reptiles and birds. Brought to light just two years after Darwin's seminal ''[[The Origin of Species]]'', its discovery spurred the nascent debate between proponents of [[evolutionary biology]] and [[creationism]]. This early bird is so dinosaur-like that, without a clear impression of feathers in the surrounding rock, at least one specimen was mistaken for ''[[Compsognathus]]''.<ref name=PW88>{{cite journal|author=Wellnhofer, P|date=1988|title=Ein neuer Exemplar von ''Archaeopteryx''|journal=Archaeopteryx|volume=6|pages=1–30}}</ref>

Since the 1990s, a number of additional [[feathered dinosaurs]] have been found, providing even stronger evidence of the close relationship between dinosaurs and modern birds. Most of these specimens were unearthed in the [[Lagerstätten|lagerstätte]] of the Yixian Formation, [[Liaoning]], northeastern [[China]], which was part of an island continent during the Cretaceous. Though feathers have been found only in a few locations, it is possible that non-avian dinosaurs elsewhere in the world were also feathered. The lack of widespread fossil evidence for feathered non-avian dinosaurs may be due to the fact that delicate features like skin and feathers are not often preserved by [[fossil]]ization and thus are absent from the fossil record. To this point, protofeathers (thin, filament-like structures) are known from dinosaurs at the base of Coelurosauria, such as [[compsognathidae|compsognathids]] like ''[[Sinosauropteryx]]'' and [[tyrannosauroidea|tyrannosauroids]] (''[[Dilong (dinosaur)|Dilong]]''),<ref>{{cite journal|author=Xu X.; Norell, M.A.; Kuang X.; Wang X.; Zhao Q.; and Jia C.|title=Basal tyrannosauroids from China and evidence for protofeathers in tyrannosauroids|journal=Nature|date=2004|volume=431|issue=7009|pages=680–684|pmid=15470426 |doi=10.1038/nature02855 }}</ref> but barbed feathers are only known among the coelurosaur subgroup Maniraptora, which includes oviraptorosaurs, troodontids, dromaeosaurids, and birds.<ref name=KP04/><ref name=GC06>{{cite journal |last=Göhlich |first=U.B. |coauthors=and Chiappe, L.M. |year=2006 |title=A new carnivorous dinosaur from the Late Jurassic Solnhofen archipelago |journal=Nature |volume=440 |pages=329–332 |doi=10.1038/nature04579}}</ref> The description of feathered dinosaurs has not been without controversy; perhaps the most vocal critics have been Alan Feduccia and Theagarten Lingham-Soliar, who have proposed that protofeathers are the result of the decomposition of collagenous fiber that underlaid the dinosaurs' integument,<ref name=TLS03>{{cite journal |last=Lingham-Soliar |first=T. |year=2003 |title=The dinosaurian origin of feathers: perspectives from dolphin (Cetacea) collagen fibers |journal=Naturwissenschaften |volume=12 |pages=563–567 |pmid=14676953 |doi=10.1007/s00114-003-0483-7 }}</ref><ref name=FLH05>{{cite journal|last=Feduccia |first=A. |coauthors=Lingham-Soliar, T.; and Hinchliffe, J.R. |year=2005 |title=Do feathered dinosaurs exist? Testing the hypothesis on neontological and paleontological evidence |journal=Journal of Morphology |volume=266 |issue=2 |pages=125–166 |pmid=16217748 |doi=10.1002/jmor.10382 }}</ref><ref name=LSFX07>{{cite journal |last=Lingham-Soliar |first=T. |coauthors=Feduccia, A.; and Wang X. |year=2007 |title=A new Chinese specimen indicates that 'protofeathers' in the Early Cretaceous theropod dinosaur ''Sinosauropteryx'' are degraded collagen fibres |journal=Proceedings of the Biological Sciences |volume=274 |issue=1620 |pages=1823–9 |pmid=17521978 |doi=10.1098/rspb.2007.0352 }}</ref> and that maniraptoran dinosaurs with barbed feathers were not actually dinosaurs, but [[convergent evolution|convergent]] with dinosaurs.<ref name=AF02>{{cite journal |last=Feduccia |first=A. |year=2002 |title=Birds are dinosaurs: simple answer to a complex problem |journal=The Auk |volume=119 |pages=1187–1201 |doi=10.1642/0004-8038(2002)119[1187:BADSAT]2.0.CO;2}}</ref><ref name=FLH05/> However, their views have for the most part not been accepted by other researchers, to the point that the question of the scientific nature of Feduccia's proposals has been raised.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Prum |first=Richard O. |month=April |year=2003 |title=Are Current Critiques Of The Theropod Origin Of Birds Science? Rebuttal To Feduccia 2002 |journal=[[The Auk]] |volume=120 |issue=2 |pages=550–61 |url=http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0004-8038(200304)120:2%3C550:ACCOTT%3E2.0.CO;2-0 |doi=10.1642/0004-8038(2003)120[0550:ACCOTT]2.0.CO;2}}</ref>

===Skeleton===
Because feathers are often associated with birds, feathered dinosaurs are often touted as the [[transitional fossil|missing link]] between birds and dinosaurs. However, the multiple skeletal features also shared by the two groups represent another important line of evidence for [[paleontologist]]s. Areas of the skeleton with important similarities include the neck, [[pubis (bone)|pubis]], [[wrist]] (semi-lunate [[carpal]]), arm and [[pectoral girdle]], furcula (wishbone), and [[keel (bird)|breast bone]]. Comparison of bird and dinosaur skeletons through [[cladistics|cladistic analysis]] strengthens the case for the link.

===Soft anatomy===
Large meat-eating dinosaurs had a complex system of air sacs similar to those found in modern birds, according to an investigation which was led by [[Patrick O'Connor (paleontologist)|Patrick O'Connor]] of [[Ohio University]]. The lungs of theropod dinosaurs (carnivores that walked on two legs and had birdlike feet) likely pumped air into hollow sacs in their [[skeleton]]s, as is the case in birds. "What was once formally considered unique to birds was present in some form in the ancestors of birds", O'Connor said.<ref>{{cite journal|author=O'Connor, P.M. & Claessens, L.P.A.M.|date=2005|title=Basic avian pulmonary design and flow-through ventilation in non-avian theropod dinosaurs|journal=Nature|volume=436|pages=253–256|doi=10.1038/nature03716}}</ref> In a paper published in the online journal Public Library of Science ONE (September 29, 2008), scientists described ''[[Aerosteon|Aerosteon riocoloradensis]]'', the skeleton of which supplies the strongest evidence to date of a dinosaur with a bird-like breathing system. [[computed tomography|CT-scanning]] revealed the evidence of air sacs within the body cavity of the ''Aerosteon'' skeleton.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Sereno |first=P.C. |coauthors=Martinez, R.N.; Wilson, J.A.; Varricchio, D.J.; Alcober, O.A.; and Larsson, H.C.E.|year=2008|month=Sept|title=Evidence for Avian Intrathoracic Air Sacs in a New Predatory Dinosaur from Argentina|journal=PLoS ONE|volume=3|issue=9|pages= e3303|url=http://www.plosone.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0003303 |accessdate=2008-10-27|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0003303 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0003303}}</ref><ref>[http://newswise.com/articles/view/544722/ Meat-Eating Dinosaur from Argentina Had Bird-Like Breathing System] Newswise, Retrieved on September 29, 2008.</ref>

Another piece of evidence that birds and dinosaurs are closely related is the use of [[gizzard]] stones. These stones are swallowed by animals to aid digestion and break down food and hard fibres once they enter the stomach. When found in association with [[fossil]]s, gizzard stones are called [[gastrolith]]s.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Wings O|title=A review of gastrolith function with implications for fossil vertebrates and a revised classification|journal=Palaeontologica Polonica|volume=52|issue=1|pages=1–16|date=2007|url=http://www.app.pan.pl/acta52/app52-001.pdf|accessdate=2007-11-24|format={{dead link|date=June 2008}}{{ndash}} [http://scholar.google.co.uk/scholar?hl=en&lr=&q=intitle%3AA+review+of+gastrolith+function+with+implications+for+fossil+vertebrates+and+a+revised+classification&as_publication=Palaeontologica+Polonica&as_ylo=&as_yhi=&btnG=Search Scholar search]}}</ref>

===Reproductive biology===
A discovery of features in a ''[[Tyrannosaurus|Tyrannosaurus rex]]'' [[skeleton]] recently provided more evidence that dinosaurs and birds evolved from a common ancestor and, for the first time, allowed paleontologists to establish the sex of a dinosaur. When laying eggs, female birds grow a special type of bone in their limbs between the hard outer bone and the [[marrow]]. This ''medullary'' bone, which is rich in [[calcium]], is used to make eggshells. The presence of endosteally-derived bone tissues lining the interior marrow cavities of portions of the ''Tyrannosaurus rex'' specimen's hind limb suggested that ''T. rex'' used similar reproductive strategies, and revealed the specimen to be female.<ref name="schweitzeretal2005">{{cite journal |last=Schweitzer |first=M.H. |coauthors=Wittmeyer, J.L.; and Horner, J.R. |title=Gender-specific reproductive tissue in ratites and ''Tyrannosaurus rex'' |journal=Science |volume=308 |pages=1456–1460|url=http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/abstract/308/5727/1456 |doi=10.1126/science.1112158 |year=2005 | pmid=15933198}}</ref> Further research has found medullary bone in the theropod ''[[Allosaurus]]'' and ornithopod ''[[Tenontosaurus]]''. Because the line of dinosaurs that includes ''Allosaurus'' and ''Tyrannosaurus'' diverged from the line that led to ''Tenontosaurus'' very early in the evolution of dinosaurs, this suggests that dinosaurs in general produced medullary tissue. Medullary bone has been found in specimens of sub-adult size, which suggests that dinosaurs reached sexual maturity rather quickly for such large animals.<ref name=LW08>{{cite journal |last=Lee |first=Andrew H. |coauthors=and Werning, Sarah |year=2008 |title=Sexual maturity in growing dinosaurs does not fit reptilian growth models |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=105 |issue=2 |pages=582–587 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0708903105 |url=http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/abstract/105/2/582 |pmid=18195356 }}</ref>

===Behavioral evidence===
A recently discovered [[Troodontidae|troodont]] fossil demonstrates that some dinosaurs slept like certain modern birds, with their heads tucked under their arms.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Xu, X. and Norell, M.A.|date=2004|title=A new troodontid dinosaur from China with avian-like sleeping posture|journal=Nature|volume=431|pages=838–841|doi=10.1038/nature02898}}</ref> This behavior, which may have helped to keep the head warm, is also characteristic of modern birds.

==Extinction==
{{main|Cretaceous–Tertiary extinction event|K–T boundary}}

Non-avian dinosaurs suddenly became [[extinct]] approximately 65 million years ago. Many other groups of animals also became extinct at this time, including [[ammonite]]s ([[nautilus]]-like [[mollusk]]s), [[mosasaur]]s, plesiosaurs, pterosaurs, herbivorous [[turtle]]s and [[crocodile]]s, most birds, and many groups of mammals.<ref name="MacLeod">{{cite journal|author=MacLeod, N, Rawson, PF, Forey, PL, Banner, FT, Boudagher-Fadel, MK, Bown, PR, Burnett, JA, Chambers, P, Culver, S, Evans, SE, Jeffery, C, Kaminski, MA, Lord, AR, Milner, AC, Milner, AR, Morris, N, Owen, E, Rosen, BR, Smith, AB, Taylor, PD, Urquhart, E & Young, JR|title=The Cretaceous–Tertiary biotic transition|date=1997|journal=Journal of the Geological Society|volume=154|issue=2|pages=265–292|url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3721/is_199703/ai_n8738406/print|doi=10.1144/gsjgs.154.2.0265}}</ref> This [[mass extinction]] is known as the [[Cretaceous–Tertiary extinction event]]. The nature of the event that caused this mass extinction has been extensively studied since the 1970s; at present, several related theories are supported by paleontologists. Though the general consensus is that an impact event was the primary cause of dinosaur extinction, some scientists cite other possible causes, or support the idea that a confluence of several factors was responsible for the sudden disappearance of dinosaurs from the fossil record.

At the peak of the Mesozoic, there were no [[polar ice cap]]s, and sea levels are estimated to have been from 100 to 250 meters (300 to 800 ft) higher than they are today. The planet's temperature was also much more uniform, with only 25 °[[Celsius|C]] (45 °[[Fahrenheit|F]]) separating average polar temperatures from those at the equator. On average, atmospheric temperatures were also much warmer; the poles, for example, were 50 °C (90 °F) warmer than today.<ref name="pmid16311326">{{cite journal |author=Miller KG, Kominz MA, Browning JV, Wright JD, Mountain GS, Katz ME, Sugarman PJ, Cramer BS, Christie-Blick N, Pekar SF |title=The Phanerozoic record of global sea-level change |journal=Science |volume=310 |issue=5752 |pages=1293–8 |year=2005 |pmid=16311326 |doi=10.1126/science.1116412}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|title=Palaeotemperatures, polar ice-volume, and isotope stratigraphy (Mg/Ca, δ18O, δ13C, 87Sr/86Sr): The Early Cretaceous (Berriasian, Valanginian, Hauterivian)|author=McArthura JM, Janssenb NMM, Rebouletc S, Lengd MJ, Thirlwalle MF & van de Shootbruggef B|journal=Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology|volume=248|issues=3-4|date=2007|pages=391–430|doi=10.1016/j.palaeo.2006.12.015}}</ref>

The atmosphere's composition during the Mesozoic was vastly different as well. Carbon dioxide levels were up to 12 times higher than today's levels, and oxygen formed 32 to 35% of the atmosphere, as compared to 21% today. However, by the late Cretaceous, the environment was changing dramatically. Volcanic activity was decreasing, which led to a cooling trend as levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide dropped. Oxygen levels in the atmosphere also started to fluctuate and would ultimately fall considerably. Some scientists hypothesize that climate change, combined with lower oxygen levels, might have led directly to the demise of many species. If the dinosaurs had respiratory systems similar to those commonly found in modern birds, it may have been particularly difficult for them to cope with reduced respiratory efficiency, given the enormous oxygen demands of their very large bodies.<ref name="MacLeod"/>

===Impact event===
{{main|Chicxulub crater}}
[[Image:Chicxulub radar topography.jpg|thumb|The [[Chicxulub Crater]] at the tip of the [[Yucatán Peninsula]]; the impactor that formed this crater may have caused the dinosaur extinction.]]
The asteroid collision theory, which was brought to wide attention in 1980 by [[Walter Alvarez]] and colleagues, links the [[extinction event]] at the end of the Cretaceous period to a [[bolide]] impact approximately 65.5 million years ago. Alvarez ''et al.'' proposed that a sudden increase in [[iridium]] levels, recorded around the world in the period's rock stratum, was direct evidence of the impact.<ref name=Alvarezetal80>{{cite journal|title=Extraterrestrial cause for the Cretaceous–Tertiary extinction|author=Alvarez, LW, Alvarez, W, Asaro, F, and Michel, HV|date=1980|journal=Science|volume=208|issue=4448|pages=1095–1108|doi=10.1126/science.208.4448.1095|pmid=17783054}}</ref> The bulk of the evidence now suggests that a 5 to 15 kilometer (3 to 9 mi) wide [[bolide]] hit in the vicinity of the [[Yucatán Peninsula]], creating the {{km to mi|170|precision=-1}} wide [[Chicxulub Crater]] and triggering the [[mass extinction]].<ref name=ARHetal91>{{cite journal|author=Hildebrand, Alan R.; Penfield, Glen T.; Kring, David A.; Pilkington, Mark; Zanoguera, Antonio Camargo; Jacobsen, Stein B.; Boynton, William V. |title=Chicxulub Crater; a possible Cretaceous/Tertiary boundary impact crater on the Yucatan Peninsula, Mexico|year=1991|month=September |volume=19|issue=9 |journal=[[Geology (journal)|Geology]]|pages=867–871|url=http://geology.geoscienceworld.org/cgi/content/abstract/19/9/867 |doi=10.1130/0091-7613(1991)019<0867:CCAPCT>2.3.CO;2}}</ref> Scientists are not certain whether dinosaurs were thriving or declining before the [[impact event]]. Some scientists propose that the meteorite caused a long and unnatural drop in Earth's atmospheric temperature, while others claim that it would have instead created an unusual heat wave.

Although the speed of extinction cannot be deduced from the fossil record alone, various models suggest that the extinction was extremely rapid. The consensus among scientists who support this theory is that the impact caused extinctions both directly (by heat from the meteorite impact) and also indirectly (via a worldwide cooling brought about when matter ejected from the impact crater reflected thermal radiation from the sun).

In September of 2007, U.S. researchers led by [[William Bottke]] of the [[Southwest Research Institute]] in [[Boulder, Colorado]], and [[Czech Republic|Czech]] scientists used [[computer]] simulations to identify the probable source of the Chicxulub impact. They calculated a 90% probability that a giant asteroid named [[Baptistina]], approximately {{km to mi|160|precision=-1}} in diameter, orbiting in the asteroid belt which lies between [[Mars]] and [[Jupiter]], was struck by a smaller unnamed asteroid about 55 kilometers (35 mi) in diameter about 160 million years ago. The impact shattered Baptistina, creating a cluster which still exists today as the [[Baptistina family]]. Calculations indicate that some of the fragments were sent hurtling into earth-crossing orbits, one of which was the {{km to mi|10}} wide [[meteorite]] which struck [[Mexico]]'s [[Yucatan]] [[peninsula]] 65 million years ago, creating the [[Chicxulub crater]] ({{km to mi|175|precision=-1}}).<ref name='Billiards'> {{cite journal|title=Solar System: Lethal billiards|journal=Nature|date=2007-09-05|first=Claeys|last=P|coauthors=Goderis, S|volume=449|issue= |pages=30–31|doi=10.1038/449030a|url= |format= |accessdate=}}</ref>

While similar to Alvarez's impact theory (which involved a single asteroid or comet), this theory proposes that "passages of the [[Nemesis (star)|solar companion star Nemesis]] through the [[Oort cloud|Oort comet cloud]] would trigger comet showers."<ref name="Koeberl">{{cite book|date=2002|title=Catastrophic Events and Mass Extinctions|publisher=Geological Society of America|isbn=0-8137-2356-6|author=edited by Christian Koeberl and Kenneth G. MacLeod.|oclc=213836505|unused_data=Koeberl, C & MacLeodKG}}</ref> One or more of these objects then collided with the Earth at approximately the same time, causing the worldwide extinction. As with the impact of a single asteroid, the end result of this comet bombardment would have been a sudden drop in global temperatures, followed by a protracted cool period.<ref name="Koeberl"/>

===Deccan Traps===
{{main|Deccan Traps}}

Before 2000, arguments that the [[Deccan Traps]] [[flood basalt]]s caused the [[extinction]] were usually linked to the view that the extinction was gradual, as the flood basalt events were thought to have started around 68 mya and lasted for over 2 million years. However, there is evidence that two-thirds of the Deccan Traps were created in 1 million years about 65.5 mya, so these eruptions would have caused a fairly rapid extinction, possibly a period of thousands of years, but still a longer period than what would be expected from a single impact event.<ref name = "wwnjsd">{{cite journal|author=Hofman, C, Féraud, G & Courtillot, V|date=2000|title=40Ar/39Ar dating of mineral separates and whole rocks from the Western Ghats lava pile: further constraints on duration and age of the Deccan traps|journal=Earth and Planetary Science Letters|volume=180|pages=13–27|doi=10.1016/S0012-821X(00)00159-X}}</ref><ref name="Duncan">{{cite journal|title=Rapid eruption of the Deccan flood basalts at the Cretaceous/Tertiary boundary|author=Duncan, RA & Pyle, DG|date=1988|journal=Nature|volume=333|pages=841–843|doi=10.1038/333841a0}}</ref>

The Deccan Traps could have caused extinction through several mechanisms, including the release of dust and sulphuric aerosols into the air which might have blocked sunlight and thereby reducing photosynthesis in plants. In addition, Deccan Trap volcanism might have resulted in carbon dioxide emissions which would have increased the [[greenhouse effect]] when the dust and aerosols cleared from the atmosphere.<ref name="Duncan"/> Before the mass extinction of the dinosaurs, the release of [[volcanic gas]]ses during the formation of the [[Deccan traps]] "contributed to an apparently massive [[Global warming#History|global warming]]. Some data point to an average rise in temperature of 8 °C (14 °F) in the last half million years before the [[Chicxulub Crater|impact [at Chicxulub]]]."<ref name = "wwnjsd"/><ref name="Duncan"/>

In the years when the Deccan Traps theory was linked to a slower extinction, [[Luis Alvarez]] (who died in 1988) replied that [[paleontologists]] were being misled by [[Signor-Lipps effect|sparse data]]. While his assertion was not initially well-received, later intensive field studies of fossil beds lent weight to his claim. Eventually, most paleontologists began to accept the idea that the mass extinctions at the end of the Cretaceous were largely or at least partly due to a massive Earth impact. However, even Walter Alvarez has acknowledged that there were other major changes on Earth even before the impact, such as a drop in [[sea level]] and massive volcanic eruptions that produced the Indian Deccan Traps, and these may have contributed to the extinctions.<ref>{{cite book|author=Alvarez, W|title=T. rex and the Crater of Doom|date=1997|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-0691016306|pages=130–146}}</ref>

===Failure to adapt to changing conditions===
Lloyd ''et al'' (2008) noted that, in the Mid Cretaceous, the flowering [[angiosperm]] plants became a major part of terrestrial [[ecosystem]]s, which had previously been dominated by [[gymnosperm]]s such as conifers. Dinosaur [[coprolite]]s — fossilized dung — indicate that, while some ate angiosperms, most herbivorous dinosaurs mainly ate gymnosperms. Statistical analysis by Lloyd ''et al'' concluded that, contrary to earlier studies, dinosaurs did not diversify very much in the Late Cretaceous. Lloyd ''et al'' suggested that dinosaurs' failure to diversify as ecosystems were changing doomed them to extinction.<ref name="LloydDavisPisaniEtAl2008DinosAndKTR" />

===Possible Paleocene survivors===
Nonavian dinosaur remains are occasionally found above the [[K-T boundary]]. In 2002, paleontologists Zielinski and Budahn reported the discovery of a single [[hadrosauridae|hadrosaur]] leg bone fossil in the San Juan Basin, New Mexico and described it as evidence of [[Paleocene dinosaurs]]. The formation in which the bone was discovered has been dated to the early [[Paleocene]] epoch approximately 64.5 million years ago. If the bone was not re-deposited into that [[stratum]] by weathering action, it would provide evidence that some dinosaur populations may have survived at least a half million years into the Cenozoic Era.<ref name="Fassett">{{cite journal|url=http://www.lpi.usra.edu/meetings/impact2000/pdf/3139.pdf|title=Compelling new evidence for Paleocene dinosaurs in the Ojo Alamo Sandstone, San Juan Basin, New Mexico and Colorado, USA|author=Fassett, JE, Lucas, SG, Zielinski, RA, and Budahn, JR|date=2001|journal=Catastrophic events and mass extinctions, Lunar and Planetary Contribution|volume=1053|pages=45–46|accessdate=2007-05-18}}</ref> Other evidence includes the finding of dinosaur remains in the [[Hell Creek Formation]] up to 1.3 meters (51 in) above (40,000 years later than) the K-T boundary. Similar reports have come from other parts of the world, including China.<ref name="Sloan">{{cite journal|author=Sloan, R. E., Rigby, K,. Van Valen, L. M., Gabriel, Diane|date=1986|title=Gradual dinosaur extinction and simultaneous ungulate radiation in the Hell Creek Formation |journal=Science |volume=232 |issue=4750 |pages=629–633 |url=http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/abstract/232/4750/629|doi=10.1126/science.232.4750.629|accessdate=2007-05-18|pmid=17781415}}</ref> Many scientists, however, dismiss the "Paleocene dinosaurs" as re-worked, i.e. washed out of their original locations and then re-buried in much later sediments,<ref name=FS05>{{cite journal |last=Fastovsky |first=David E. |coauthors=and Sheehan, Peter M. |year=2005 |title=Reply to comment on "The Extinction of the dinosaurs in North America" |journal=GSA Today |volume=15 |pages=11 |url=http://www.gsajournals.org/archive/1052-5173/15/7/pdf/i1052-5173-15-7-11a.pdf |format=pdf |doi=10.1130/1052-5173(2005)015[11b:RTEOTD]2.0.CO;2 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Sullivan|first=RM|title=No Paleocene dinosaurs in the San Juan Basin, New Mexico|url=http://gsa.confex.com/gsa/2003RM/finalprogram/abstract_47695.htm|journal=Geological Society of America Abstracts with Programs|volume=35|issue=5|pages=15|date=2003|accessdate=2007-07-02}}</ref> or find that, if correct, the presence of a handful of dinosaurs in the early Paleocene would not change the underlying facts of the extinction.<ref name=FS05/>

==History of discovery==
Dinosaur fossils have been known for millennia, although their true nature was not recognized. The Chinese, whose modern word for dinosaur is ''konglong'' (恐龍, or "terrible dragon"), considered them to be [[Chinese dragon|dragon]] [[bone]]s and documented them as such. For example, ''Hua Yang Guo Zhi'', a book written by Zhang Qu during the [[Western Jin Dynasty]], reported the discovery of dragon bones at Wucheng in [[Sichuan]] Province.<ref>{{cite book|author=[[Dong Zhiming]]|year=1992|title=Dinosaurian Faunas of China|publisher=China Ocean Press, Beijing|isbn=3-540-52084-8|oclc=26522845}}</ref> Villagers in central China have been digging up dinosaur bones for decades, thinking they were from dragons, to make traditional medicine.<ref>{{cite web|last= |first= |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=Dinosaur bones 'used as medicine' |work= |publisher=BBC News|date=2007|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/6276948.stm|format= |doi= |accessdate=2007-07-06}}</ref> In Europe, dinosaur fossils were generally believed to be the remains of [[Giant (mythology)|giants]] and other creatures killed by the [[Deluge (mythology)|Great Flood]].

[[Image:William Buckland detail.png|thumb|left|130px|[[William Buckland]].]]
''[[Megalosaurus]]'' was the first dinosaur to be formally described, in 1677, when part of a bone was recovered from a [[limestone]] [[quarry]] at Cornwell near [[Chipping Norton, Oxfordshire|Chipping Norton]], [[Oxfordshire]], [[England]]. This bone fragment was identified correctly as the lower extremity of the [[femur]] of an animal larger than anything living in modern times. The second dinosaur genus to be identified, ''[[Iguanodon]]'', was discovered in 1822 by Mary Ann Mantell - the wife of English geologist [[Gideon Mantell]]. Gideon Mantell recognized similarities between [http://collections.tepapa.govt.nz/objectdetails.aspx?oid=212194&coltype=history&regno=gh004839 his fossils] and the bones of modern [[iguana]]s. Two years later, the Rev [[William Buckland]], a professor of [[geology]] at [[University of Oxford|Oxford University]], unearthed more fossilized bones of ''Megalosaurus'' and became the first person to describe dinosaurs in a [[scientific journal]].<ref name=WAS97>{{cite book |last=Sarjeant |first=William A.S. |editor=Farlow, James O.; and Brett-Surman, Michael K. (eds.) |title=The Complete Dinosaur |year=1997 |publisher=Indiana University Press |location=Bloomington |isbn=0-253-33349-0 |pages=3–11 |chapter=The earliest discoveries }}</ref>

The study of these "great fossil lizards" soon became of great interest to European and American scientists, and in 1842 the English paleontologist [[Richard Owen]] coined the term "dinosaur". He recognized that the remains that had been found so far, ''Iguanodon'', ''Megalosaurus'' and ''[[Hylaeosaurus]]'', shared a number of distinctive features, and so decided to present them as a distinct taxonomic group. With the backing of [[Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha]], the husband of [[Victoria of the United Kingdom|Queen Victoria]], Owen established the [[Natural History Museum]] in [[South Kensington]], [[London]], to display the national collection of dinosaur fossils and other biological and geological exhibits.

In 1858, the first known American dinosaur was discovered, in [[marl]] pits in the small town of [[Haddonfield, New Jersey]] (although fossils had been found before, their nature had not been correctly discerned). The creature was named ''[[Hadrosaurus]] foulkii''. It was an extremely important find; ''Hadrosaurus'' was one of the first nearly complete dinosaur skeletons found and it was clearly a [[bipedal]] creature. ([[Iguanodon#Gideon_Mantell.2C_Sir_Richard_Owen.2C_and_the_discovery_of_dinosaurs|The first]] was in 1834, in Maidstone, Kent, England) This was a revolutionary discovery as, until that point, most scientists had believed dinosaurs walked on four feet, like other lizards. Foulke's discoveries sparked a wave of dinosaur mania in the [[United States]].

[[Image:OthnielCharlesMarsh.jpg|left|thumb|130px|[[Othniel Charles Marsh]], 19th century photograph.]]
[[Image:edcope.jpg|130px|right|thumb|[[Edward Drinker Cope]], 19th century photograph.]]

Dinosaur mania was exemplified by the fierce rivalry between [[Edward Drinker Cope]] and [[Othniel Charles Marsh]], both of whom raced to be the first to find new dinosaurs in what came to be known as the [[Bone Wars]]. The feud probably originated when Marsh publicly pointed out that Cope's reconstruction of an ''[[Elasmosaurus]]'' skeleton was flawed; Cope had inadvertently placed the [[plesiosaur]]'s head at what should have been the animal's tail end. The fight between the two scientists lasted for over 30 years, ending in 1897 when Cope died after spending his entire fortune on the dinosaur hunt. Marsh 'won' the contest primarily because he was better funded through a relationship with the [[US Geological Survey]]. Unfortunately, many valuable dinosaur specimens were damaged or destroyed due to the pair's rough methods; for example, their diggers often used [[dynamite]] to unearth bones (a method modern paleontologists would find appalling). Despite their unrefined methods, the contributions of Cope and Marsh to paleontology were vast; Marsh unearthed 86 new species of dinosaur and Cope discovered 56, for a total of 142 new species. Cope's collection is now at the [[American Museum of Natural History]] in [[New York]], while Marsh's is on display at the [[Peabody Museum of Natural History]] at [[Yale University]].<ref>{{cite book|author=Holmes T|title=Fossil Feud: The Bone Wars of Cope and Marsh, Pioneers in Dinosaur Science|date=1996|publisher=Silver Burdett Press|isbn=978-0382391477|oclc=34472600}}</ref>

Since 1897, the search for dinosaur fossils has extended to every continent, including [[Antarctica]]. The first Antarctic dinosaur to be discovered, the [[ankylosaur]]id ''[[Antarctopelta|Antarctopelta oliveroi]]'', was found on [[Ross Island]] in 1986, although it was 1994 before an Antarctic species, the theropod ''[[Cryolophosaurus ellioti]]'', was formally named and described in a scientific journal.

Current dinosaur "hot spots" include southern South America (especially [[Argentina]]) and [[China]]. China in particular has produced many exceptional [[feathered dinosaur]] specimens due to the unique geology of its dinosaur beds, as well as an ancient arid climate particularly conducive to [[fossil]]ization.

===The "dinosaur renaissance"===
{{main|Dinosaur renaissance}}
The field of dinosaur research has enjoyed a surge in activity that began in the 1970s and is ongoing. This was triggered, in part, by [[John Ostrom]]'s discovery of ''[[Deinonychus]]'', an active predator that may have been [[warm-blooded]], in marked contrast to the then-prevailing image of dinosaurs as sluggish and [[cold-blooded]]. [[Vertebrate paleontology]] has become a global [[science]]. Major new dinosaur discoveries have been made by paleontologists working in previously unexploited regions, including [[India]], South America, [[Madagascar]], [[Antarctica]], and most significantly in [[China]] (the amazingly well-preserved [[feathered dinosaurs]] in [[China]] have further consolidated the link between dinosaurs and their conjectured living descendants, modern birds). The widespread application of [[cladistics]], which rigorously analyzes the relationships between biological organisms, has also proved tremendously useful in [[scientific classification|classifying]] dinosaurs. Cladistic analysis, among other modern techniques, helps to compensate for an often incomplete and fragmentary [[fossil record]].

==Cultural depictions==
{{main|Cultural depictions of dinosaurs}}
[[Image:London - Crystal Palace - Victorian Dinosaurs 1.jpg|right|thumb|170px|A ''[[Megalosaurus]]'' stalks [[Crystal Palace Park]] in [[London]].]]
By human standards, dinosaurs were creatures of fantastic appearance and often enormous size. As such, they have captured the public imagination and become an enduring part of human culture. Only three decades after the first scientific descriptions of dinosaur remains, the famous [[Crystal Palace dinosaurs|dinosaur sculptures]] were erected in [[Crystal Palace Park]] in [[London]]. These sculptures excited the public so strongly that smaller replicas were sold, one of the first examples of [[tie-in]] [[merchandising]]. Since Crystal Palace, dinosaur exhibitions have opened at parks and [[Museum#Natural history museums|museums]] around the world, both catering to, and reinforcing, the public interest.<ref name="torrens1993">{{cite journal|author=Torrens, H.S.|date=1993|title=The dinosaurs and dinomania over 150 years|journal=Modern Geology|volume=18|issue=2|pages=257–286}}</ref> Dinosaur popularity has long had a reciprocal effect on dinosaur science, as well. The competition between museums for public attention led directly to the [[Bone Wars]] waged between Marsh and Cope, each striving to return with more spectacular fossil remains than the other, and the resulting contribution to dinosaur science was enormous.<ref name="breithaupt1997">{{cite book|author=Breithaupt, Brent H.|date=1997|title=First golden period in the USA." In: Currie, Philip J. & Padian, Kevin (Eds.). ''The Encyclopedia of Dinosaurs''|publisher=University of California Press|pages=347–350|isbn=978-0122268106}}</ref>

Dinosaurs hold an integral place in modern culture. The word "dinosaur" itself has entered the English [[lexicon]] as an expression describing anything that is impractically large, slow-moving, or obsolete, bound for extinction.<ref name="m-w">"[http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/dinosaur Definition of dinosaur]" Merriam-Webster's Online Dictionary. Accessed 26 May 2007.</ref> The public preoccupation with dinosaurs led to their inevitable entrance into worldwide [[popular culture]]. Beginning with a passing mention of ''Megalosaurus'' in the first paragraph of [[Charles Dickens]]' ''[[Bleak House]]'' in 1852,<ref name="bleakhouse">"''London. Michaelmas term lately over, and the Lord Chancellor sitting in Lincoln's Inn Hall. Implacable November weather. As much mud in the streets, as if the waters had but newly retired from the face of the earth, and it would not be wonderful to meet a Megalosaurus, forty feet long or so, waddling like an elephantine lizard up Holborne Hill.''" From page 1 of Dickens, Charles J.H. (1852). ''Bleak House''. London: Bradbury & Evans.</ref> dinosaurs have been featured in a broad array of [[fiction]]al works. [[Sir Arthur Conan Doyle]]'s 1912 book ''[[The Lost World (Arthur Conan Doyle)|The Lost World]]'', the iconic 1933 [[motion picture|film]] ''[[King Kong (1933 film)|King Kong]]'', the 1954 introduction of ''[[Godzilla (1954 film)|Godzilla]]'' and its many subsequent sequels, the best-selling 1990 novel ''[[Jurassic Park]]'' by [[Michael Crichton]] and its 1993 [[Jurassic Park (film)|film version]], briefly the [[List of highest-grossing films|highest-grossing film of all time]], are just a few prominent examples of the long tradition of dinosaurs in fiction. [[Non-fiction]] authors, including some prominent paleontologists, have also sought to take advantage of dinosaur popularity, especially among children, to educate readers about dinosaurs in particular and science in general. Dinosaurs are ubiquitous in [[advertising]], with numerous [[Company (law)|companies]] seeking to utilize dinosaurs to sell their own products or to characterize their rivals as slow-moving or obsolete.<ref name=DFGlut1997>{{cite book|author=Glut, DF, & Brett-Surman, MK|date=1997|title=Dinosaurs and the media." In: Farlow, James O. & Brett-Surman, Michael K. (Eds.). ''The Complete Dinosaur''|publisher=Indiana University Press|pages=675–697|isbn=978-0253213136}}</ref>

==Religious views==
{{main|Young Earth Creationism#Palaeontology and dinosaurs}}
Various religious groups have views about dinosaurs that differ from those held by the vast majority of scientists, usually due to conflicts with [[Creationism|creation stories]] in their scriptures. However, most of the [[Scientific method|scientific]] community rejects these religiously-inspired interpretations of dinosaurs.<ref name="Kitcher">{{cite book|last=Kitcher|first=Philip|authorlink= |coauthors= |title=Abusing Science: The Case Against Creationism|publisher=MIT Press|date=1983|location= |pages=213|url=http://mitpress.mit.edu/catalog/item/default.asp?ttype=2&tid=5383|doi= |isbn=978-0-262-61037-7 }}</ref><ref name="Dawkins">{{cite book|last=Dawkins|first=Richard|authorlink= |coauthors= |title=The Blind Watchmaker: Why the Evidence of Evolution Reveals a Universe Without Design|publisher=W.W. Norton|date=1996|location= |pages=400|url= |doi= |isbn=978-0393315707}}</ref>

==See also==
{{seealsosection
|commons=Dinosauria
|portal=Dinosaurs}}
* [[Dinosaur classification]]
* [[Physiology of dinosaurs]]
* [[Fossil]]s
* [[List of dinosaurs]]
* [[List of dinosaur-bearing rock formations]]
* [[Prehistoric life]]
* [[Prehistoric reptile]]s

==Notes and references==
{{reflist|colwidth=45em}}

==General references==
<div class="references-small">
* Kevin Padian, and Philip J. Currie. (1997). ''Encyclopedia of Dinosaurs''. Academic Press. ISBN 0-12-226810-5. (Articles are written by experts in the field).
* [[Gregory S. Paul|Paul, Gregory S.]] (2000). ''The Scientific American Book of Dinosaurs''. St. Martin's Press. ISBN 0-312-26226-4.
*Paul, Gregory S. (2002). ''Dinosaurs of the Air: The Evolution and Loss of flight in Dinosaurs and Birds''. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 0-8018-6763-0.
*[[David B. Weishampel|Weishampel, David B.]] (2004). ''The Dinosauria''. University of California Press; 2nd edition. ISBN 0-520-24209-2.
</div>

==External links==

{{Spoken Wikipedia|Dinosaur.ogg|2005-12-30}}


;Images

*[http://skeletaldrawing.com/ Skeletal Drawing] Professional restorations of numerous dinosaurs, and discussions of dinosaur anatomy.

;Popular
*[http://www.nhm.ac.uk/nature-online/life/dinosaurs-other-extinct-creatures/index.html Dinosaurs & other extinct creatures]: From the [[Natural History Museum]], a well illustrated dinosaur directory.

*[http://www.dinosaurnews.org/ Dinosaurnews] (''www.dinosaurnews.org'') The dinosaur-related headlines from around the world. Recent news on dinosaurs, including finds and discoveries, and many links.
*[http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/diapsids/dinosaur.html Dinosauria] From UC Berkeley Museum of Paleontology Detailed information - scroll down for menu.
*[http://www.livescience.com/dinosaurs/ LiveScience.com] All about dinosaurs, with current featured articles.
*[http://www.dinoruss.com/ Dino Russ's Lair] hosts a large collection of dinosaur-related links.
*[http://www.enchantedlearning.com/subjects/dinosaurs/ Zoom Dinosaurs] (''www.enchantedlearning.com'') From Enchanted Learning. Kids' site, info pages and stats, theories, history.
*[http://www.geol.umd.edu/~tholtz/dinoappendix/DinoappendixSummer2008.pdf Dinosaur genus list] contains data tables on nearly every published dinosaur genus.

;Technical
*[http://palaeo-electronica.org/ ''Palaeontologia Electronica''] From Coquina Press. Online technical journal.
*[http://dinobase.gly.bris.ac.uk Dinobase] A searchable dinosaur database, from the University of Bristol, with dinosaur lists, classification, pictures, and more.
*[http://www.dinodata.org/index.php DinoData] (''www.dinodata.org'') Technical site, essays, classification, anatomy.
*[http://www.dinosauria.com/dml/dml.htm Dinosauria On-Line] (''www.dinosauria.com'') Technical site, essays, pronunciation, dictionary.
*[http://www.users.qwest.net/~jstweet1/ Thescelosaurus!] By Justin Tweet. Includes a cladogram and small essays on each relevant genera and species.
*[http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units/Unit310/000.html Dinosauromorpha Cladogram] From [http://www.Palaeos.com Palaeos]. A detailed amateur site about all things paleo.
*[http://www.dinoruss.com/de_4/dino30.htm The Dinosaur Encyclopaedia], an extensive overview of genera-based dinosaur information from 1999 and before.

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