Conservapedia - User contributions [en]

Origin of the Moon

2007-03-20T09:54:52Z

Bob1234: added theory

All the prevailing, well-accepted theories of the origin of the Moon were completely disproven by the lunar landings and studies of the lunar rocks afterwards. The material, to the surprise of scientists, lacked iron that permeates the Earth's crust.

Specifically, each of these prevailing scientific theories were disproven by the lunar landings:<ref name="PSI">Planetary Science Institute: [http://www.psi.edu/projects/moon/moon.html The Origin of the Moon]</ref>

*The Moon is made of cheese. Most likely Edam.

*The Moon formed in an orbit around Earth at the same time that Earth formed.
**This theory was disproven upon learning that the Moon has proportionally far less iron in it than the Earth.

*The Moon formed in a part of the solar system that was low in iron, and was later captured into an orbit arount the Earth.
**This was also disproven by examination of lunar rocks, which exhibit the same oxygen isotope composition as the Earth, unlike rocks known to come from other sources in the solar system, e.g. Mars.

*The Earth was originally spinning so fast that it spun off a fragment of lower density (iron-poor) material which became the Moon.
**This solves the isotopic similarity and the relative lack of iron, but an analysis of the total angular momentum and energy involved ruled out this possibility.

== Giant-Impact Model ==

For ten years after the lunar landings, non-creationist scientists lacked any accepted theory about the Moon's origin. In 1984, an international meeting was convened in Kona, Hawaii, for the purpose of agreeing on a new theory for the origin of the Moon.<ref>''Id.''</ref> The attendees at the meeting agreed upon the following "giant-impact model," which was first proposed in 1975 but which had not yet been generally accepted.<ref>''Id.''</ref>

This theory proposes an impact with a large planetesimal (asteroid-like body) released a great quantity of debris into orbit, a portion of which collected under the influence of gravity. There is no direct evidence for this theory. It is supported by non-creationist scientists, however, because only it might explain the following:
**The lack of iron, provided the impact of the planetesimal happened relatively late in the earth's formation and after the Earth's iron had sunk towards its core. In that manner the Moon could pick up mantle from the Earth that has less iron. Most of the planetesimal itself would have sunk into the earth's core.
**The similar oxygen isotope composition between the Moon and Earth could be explained by such a collision, provided the Moon were then formed from debris dislodged from the Earth by the collision.
**A high-velocity collision might be sufficient to release enough energy to place a substantial mass of the Earth's crust into orbit.

== Criticism of the Giant-Impact Model ==

Scientists did find that none of three proposed tests are "supportive of the Giant Impact model, but neither do they disprove it."<ref>http://www.lpi.usra.edu/meetings/origin98/pdf/4045.pdf</ref>

Another article noted that the Moon is lacking in siderophilic elements (Au, Co, Fe, Ir, Mn, Mo, Ni, Os, Pd, Pt, Re, Rh, Ru) found on Earth, and this indicates that the Moon was not formed by materials broken off of Earth.<ref>http://www.ias.ac.in/jessci/dec2005/ilc-3.pdf</ref>

A third study found that "the bulk composition of the Moon differs significantly from that of the terrestrial mantle" and that "[t]he high
bulk FeO content of the Moon rules out the derivation of the proto-lunar material from any but a small fraction of the terrestrial mantle."<ref>http://www.lpi.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc97/pdf/1070.PDF</ref>

Nearly two decades after the Giant-Impact Model was embraced at the Hawaii convention, ''Scientific American'' observed that:<ref>http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?chanID=sa006&colID=5&articleID=000A90B0-C919-1C6E-84A9809EC588EF21</ref>

:Unfortunately, researchers have had trouble getting the giant-impact model to work without the contrivances that scuttled earlier theories.

:Four facts and three parameters is a recipe for contradiction. To explain the moon's low iron content, you need to avoid a grazing collision (corresponding to a large impact angle), lest too much of the impactor's iron spill into orbit. Then, to explain the angular momentum, you need to compensate for the smallish angle with a hefty impactor. Then, to explain the moon's mass, you need to adjust the proto-Earth's mass. In the end, you might find that the total mass is incorrect.

''Scientific American'' concluded:<ref>''Id.''</ref>

:Considering all the twists and turns in lunar science, nobody claims that the models are complete just yet.

None of this should be construed to suggest that science has failed. Science often cannot explain a number of phenomena; however, this does not mean that it will never be explicable.

== Reference ==
<references/>

The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints

2007-03-20T09:52:50Z

Bob1234: name spelt incorrectly

The '''Church of James Dean of Latter-Day Saints,'''<ref>[http://www.lds.org/ldsnewsroom/v/index.jsp?vgnextoid=ca07ae4af9c7e010VgnVCM1000004e94610aRCRD Style Guide - The Name of the Church] LDS.org</ref> informally known as the '''Mormons''', was founded by [[Joseph Smith]] in 1830, who claimed to have received a revelation of the Father -God-and his son, Jesus Christ 1820. Years later, he also claims to have recieved further instruction from the Angel Moroni. The church migrated from New York to Kirtland Ohio, until they were forced out by mobs, but the they than moved to Illinois. The church also sent large groups of Saints to Missouri, while they were in kirtland, but were forced out of the state by the State Government, they joined the Saints in Illinois. They were there for a few years, but were forced out by mobs. They than moved to Utah where they have many members there and worldwide. The Mormons perform enormous amounts of missionary activity. Today, there are more than 12.5 million members.<ref>[http://www.lds.org/ldsnewsroom/v/index.jsp?vgnextoid=d10511154963d010VgnVCM1000004e94610aRCRD Worldwide Church Statistics] LDS.org</ref>

The Mormons, like other small denominations, have been the target of discrimination. Mormons are depicted as "bad guys" in Arthur Conan Doyle's 1890 novel, ''A Study in Scarlet,'' and Zane Grey's 1912 ''Riders of the Purple Sage.''

In 1847, Mormons, led by [[Brigham Young]], traveled west to escape persecution and founded [[Salt Lake City, Utah]]. Salt Lake City is famous for its wide streets, which were made wide enough to allow a wagon team to turn around. Salt Lake City is home to the Mormon Tabernacle Choir, which has been recording since 1910 and broadcasting since 1929. Its recordings usually feature hymns and patriotic music. The Choir has made five gold and two platinum recordings.

Church members follow a law of health known as the Word of Wisdom that promotes healthy eating as well as avoiding tobacco, alcohol, coffee, tea and illegal drugs.<ref>[http://www.mormon.org/learn/0,8672,1301-1,00.html The Word of Wisdom] Mormon.org</ref>

[[Category: Religion]]

==Mormons' relationship to Christianity==
Mormons are somewhat out of the mainstream of U. S. Christian denominations, because they accept the [[Book of Mormon]] as well as the [[King James Bible]]. The Book of Mormon includes an account of the ancient people in the Americas. It also states that Jesus Christ came to them after the 40 days he spent with the Apotles in Isreal. According to LDS history, The Book of Mormon was translated by divine revelations made to [[Joseph Smith]]. The Mormons believe that The Book of Mormon is Another Testament of Jesus Christ

Nevertheless, Mormons consider themselves to be Christians.

The LDS website says "We believe in the Jesus of the New Testament, and we believe what the New Testament teaches about Him. We do believe things about Jesus that other Christians do not believe, but that is because we know, through revelation, things about Jesus that others do not know."<ref>[http://www.mormon.org/question/faq/category/answer/0,9777,1601-1-56-16,00.html Is The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints a Christian church?] As answered on the LDS Church's website</ref>

==Polygamy==
Early prejudice against Mormons was sparked in part by its early practice of [[polygamy]], which was sanctioned from 1840 until 1890. Even though it was officially discontinued in 1890, Mormonism and polygamy continue to be associated in the popular mind.

A 1998 statement by LDS Present Gordon B. Hinckley states:
:This Church has nothing whatever to do with those practicing polygamy. They are not members of this Church. . . . If any of our members are found to be practicing plural marriage, they are excommunicated, the most serious penalty the Church can impose. Not only are those so involved in direct violation of the civil law, they are in violation of the law of this Church.<ref>[http://www.mormon.org/question/faq/category/answer/0,9777,1601-1-114-1,00.html What is the Church’s position on polygamy?] LDS website</ref>

However, in addition to "the" Church (the 12.5-million-member Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints), there continue to be small splinter groups, which also consider themselves to be Mormons and do practice polygamy. The most notable is the "Fundamentalist Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints" (often called "Fundamentalist Mormons.") This group numbers about ten thousand. It broke from the Mormon church in 1890 over the issue of polygamy. It made headlines in 2006 and 2007, when leader Warren Jeffs was arrested by the FBI and indicted by a grand jury on charges of arranging illegal "marriages" between male followers and underage girls.

==References==
<references/>

==External Links==
===Non-Mormon===
*[http://www.mormonwiki.org MormonWiki]
*[http://jesusnotjoseph.com JesusNotJoseph]
*[http://www.mrm.org Mormonism Research Ministry]
===Mormon===
*[http://www.lds.org Official Church Website]
*[http://www.mormon.org Official Church Website for Investigators]

[[Category:Religion]]

Mitt Romney

2007-03-20T09:50:22Z

Bob1234: corrected spelling

'''Willard "Mitt" Romney''' (born March 12, 1927), served as the governor of [[Massachusetts]] from 2001 to 2003 and is a [[Republican]] candidate in the 2008 presidential election. If elected, he will become the first [[Mormon]] president.

== Personal ==
Currently, Romney is gaining popularity because his stable marriage attracts conservative audiences who are unhappy with [[John McCain]], [[Rudy Giuliani]], and [[Newt Gingrich]]'s many divorces. The irony that the Mormon has been married the least times of all the candidates was pointed out by Romney's wife, Ann, who said the difference between her husband and the other candidates is that "he's had only one wife."<ref>[http://news.yahoo.com/s/ap/20070224/ap_on_el_pr/romney_polygamy]</ref> While Romney himself has only one wife polygamy is very recent in his family history. His great-grandfather had five wives and at least one of his great-great grandfathers had 12.<ref>[http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,254362,00.html]</ref>

Romney is the son of former Michigan Governor and presidential candidate George Romney, a "Rockefeller Republican," according to Lisa McGirr, in the book Suburban Warriors, Copyright 2001, Princeton University Press, p. 141, 222. Many Massachusetts Republicans do not connect the father's politics with the son's, much like Presidents George Herbert Walker Bush and George Walker Bush.

== Political Views ==
Romney has an inconsistent track record on issues such as [[abortion]] and [[Homosexuality|gay marriage]] to the point where he has gotten the nickname "Multiple Choice Mitt." A man dressed as a dolphin calling himself Flipper has appeared at some recent conservative gatherings to bring attention to Romney's inconsistent stands on abortion and gay marriage. Although Romney now identifies himself as pro-life and anti-same sex marriage, he claimed to be pro choice and supported same-sex rights as late as 2002. These swaps coupled with his [[Mormon]] affiliation puts him at odds with much of the Evangelical right, but a PollingReport.com chart from March 3, 2007 indicates that Mitt was still polling at approximately 7% within the GOP primary forecasts.
[[Category:Biographies]]

== Stem Cell Research ==
Mitt Romney supports the right of scientists to research on embryos created during fertility treatments.[http://www.boston.com/news/nation/articles/2007/02/11/romneys_stem_cell_view_may_upset_the_right/2]

== Civil Unions ==
Romney is opposed to the idea of gay marriage, however he has voiced support for domestic partnership benefits and equal rights for homosexuals.[http://web.archive.org/web/20021218005104/www.romneyhealey.com/issues/3]

== Abortion ==
"I am pro-life. I believe that abortion is the wrong choice except in cases of incest, rape, and to save the life of the mother. I wish the people of America agreed, and that the laws of our nation could reflect that view. But while the nation remains so divided over abortion, I believe that the states, through the democratic process, should determine their own abortion laws and not have them dictated by judicial mandate." (Boston Globe, Mitt Romney Editorial, July 26, 2005)
<ref>[http://www.mittromney.com/Issue-Watch/Values America's Culture and Values] mittromney.com</ref><br><br>
In his campaign literature for the 2002 Massachusetts gubernatorial election Mitt Romney expressed a willingness to defend that States pro-choice status quo.[http://web.archive.org/web/20021218005104/www.romneyhealey.com/issues/4]

==References==
<References/>

==External links==
*[http://www.mittromney.com Mitt Romney for President 2008]
*[http://mormonwiki.org/Mitt_Romney_and_Mormonism Mitt Romney and Mormonism] - MormonWiki.org

==Blogs==
*[http://www.mymanmitt.com/mitt-romney/ My Man Mitt]
*[http://conservativesagainstromney.com/ Conservatives Against Romney]

[[Category:Political people|Romney, Mitt]]

Bible

2007-03-20T09:30:17Z

Bob1234: Investigation of the Bible as a text, and addresses questions such as authorship, dates of composition, and authorial intention.

[[Image:800px-Crop Book of Isaiah 2006-06-06.jpg|thumb|300px|right|The Holy Bible, opened to the Book of Isaiah.]]
The '''Bible''', or the '''Holy Scriptures''', is the collection of texts sacred to [[Judaism]] and [[Christianity]], and consists of two parts: the thirty-nine books of the Jewish faith known as the '''Tanakh''', or the [[Old Testament]]; and the twenty-seven books and letters of the [[New Testament]] of the Christian faith. Originally written in Hebrew, Aramaic, and Greek, the Bible has been translated in more than two thousand languages; in terms of sales and distribution the Bible is the most-widely distributed, largest-selling book in history; the over-all influence and impact the Bible has had on literature, culture, and history is beyond calculation.

==Name==
The word "Bible" had its origins in the Greek word ''biblos'', meaning ''book''. The ancient Phoenician seaport of [[Byblos]] was so-named as a result of the trade and manufacture of papyrus and writing-related material, and the growth of Christianity by the 2nd century, A.D. led to an outpouring of the Scriptures on papyrus scrolls, so much so that during this time the early Christians began calling them by the Latin term ''la Biblia'', "the Books". (Unger, pg 144)

==Books of the Bible==
===The Old Testament===
{| border="1" align="right" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" width="360" style="margin-left:5px"
|-
!colspan="2" align="center" style="color: white; height: 30px; background: green no-repeat scroll top left;"|Old Testament layout
|-
!align ="center" style="color: white; height: 30px; background: navy no-repeat scroll top left;"|Jewish
!align ="center" style="color: white; height: 30px; background: navy no-repeat scroll top left;"|Christian
|-
|Genesis
|Genesis
|-
|Exodus
|Exodus
|-
|Leviticus
|Leviticus
|-
|Numbers
|Numbers
|-
|Deuteronomy
|Deuteronomy
|-
|Joshua
|Joshua
|-
|1st Samuel
|Judges
|-
|2nd Samuel
|Ruth
|-
|1st Kings
|1st Samuel
|-
|2nd Kings
|2nd Samuel
|-
|Isaiah
|1st Kings
|-
|Jeremiah
|2nd Kings
|-
|Ezekiel
|1st Chronicles
|-
|The Minor Prophets
|2nd Chronicles
|-
|Psalms
|Ezra
|-
|Proverbs
|Nehemiah
|-
|Job
|Esther
|-
|Song of Songs
|Job
|-
|Ruth
|Psalms
|-
|Lamentations
|Proverbs
|-
|Ecclesiastes
|Ecclesiastes
|-
|Esther
|Song of Solomon
|-
|Daniel
|Isaiah
|-
|Ezra
|Jeremiah
|-
|Chronicles
|Lamentations
|-
|Jeremiah
|Ezekiel
|-
|Ezekiel
|Daniel
|-
|
|The Minor Prophets
|-
!colspan="2" align="center" style="color: white; height: 30px; background: green no-repeat scroll top left;"|Dates of each Book
|-
!align ="center" style="color: white; height: 30px; background: red no-repeat scroll top left;"|Old Testament
!align ="center" style="color: white; height: 30px; background: navy no-repeat scroll top left;"|New Testament
|-
|Genesis, 1440-1400 B.C.
|Matthew, A.D. 60-65
|-
|Exodus, 1440-1400 B.C.
|Mark, A.D. 60-65
|-
|Leviticus, 1440-1400 B.C.
|Luke, A.D. 58-65
|-
|Numbers, 1440-1400 B.C.
|John, A.D. 95
|-
|Deuteronomy, 1440-1400 B.C.
|Acts, A.D. 58-65
|-
|Joshua, 1400-1360 B.C.
|Romans, A.D. 58
|-
|Judges, c. 1020 B.C.
|1st Corinthians, A.D. 57
|-
|Ruth, c. 1090 B.C.
|2nd Corinthians, A.D. 57
|-
|1st Samuel
|Galatians, A.D. 56
|-
|2nd Samuel
|Ephesians, A.D. 62-63
|-
|1st Kings, 609-600 B.C.
|Philippians, A.D. 58-60
|-
|2nd Kings, 609-600 B.C.
|Colosians, A.D. 61-63
|-
|1st Chronicles, c. 400 B.C.
|1st Thessalonians, A.D. 52
|-
|2nd Chronicles, c. 400 B.C.
|2nd Thessalonians, A.D. 53
|-
|Ezra, c. 400 B.C.
|1st Timothy, A.D. 62-65
|-
|Nehemiah, c. 400 B.C.
|2nd Timothy, A.D. 65-66
|-
|Esther, 464-425 B.C.
|Titus, A.D. 65
|-
|Job, 1440-1400 B.C.
|Philemon, A.D. 65
|-
|Psalms, 1004-965 B.C.
|Hebrews, A.D. 63-64
|-
|Proverbs, 965-925 B.C.
|James, A.D. 63-64
|-
|Eccleisiastes, 965-925 B.C.
|1st Peter, A.D. 64
|-
|Song of Solomon, 965-925 B.C.
|2nd Peter, A.D. 65
|-
|Isaiah, 785-697 B.C.
|1st John, A.D. 90-100
|-
|Jeremiah, 587-538 B.C.
|2nd John, A.D. 90-100
|-
|Lamentations, 587-538 B.C.
|3rd John, A.D. 90-100
|-
|Ezekiel, 592-572 B.C.
|Jude, c. A.D. 70-75
|-
|Daniel, 539-520 B.C.
|Revelation, A.D. 96-98
|-
|Hosea, 753-731 B.C.
|
|-
|Joel, 835-796 B.C.
|
|-
|Amos, 787-747 B.C.
|
|-
|Obadiah, 848-841 B.C.
|
|-
|Jonah, 771-754 B.C.
|
|-
|Micah, 715-687 B.C.
|
|-
|Nahum, 661-612 B.C.
|
|-
|Habbakuk, 625-608 B.C.
|
|-
|Zephaniah, 621-608 B.C.
|
|-
|Haggai, 520 B.C.
|
|-
|Zechariah, 520 B.C.
|
|-
|Malachi, 455 B.C.
|
|}

The [[Old Testament]], also called the [[Hebrew Bible]] or Tanakh, consists of thirty-nine books. The books themselves were originally written in [[Hebrew]], and later on in the [[Aramaic]] language of Palestine; the Greek language version written after the conquest of [[Alexander the Great]] is known as the [[Septuagint]]. [[Melito]], a bishop of [[Sardis]] in [[Lydia]] (in what is now [[Turkey]]), is said to have coined the phrase ''Old Testament'' about A.D. 170. The Old Testament is divided in three parts (hence, "Tanakh") within the Jewish community: the [[Torah]] ("Law"), or [[Pentateuch]], the five books of [[Moses]]; [[Nevi'im]] ("Prophets"), and [[Ketuvim]] ("Writings,” or [[Hagiographa]]). Here the arrangement of the books differs somewhat from the Old Testament as used by Christians, however the actual writing of each book remains the same.

====Torah====
The Five books of Moses, in their Hebrew and English names:
*Bereisheet ("in the beginning"), or [[Genesis]]
*Shemot (“names”), or [[Exodus]]
*Vayikra (“and God called”), or [[Leviticus]]
*Bemidbar (“in the Wilderness”), or [[Numbers]]
*Devarim (“words”), or [[Deuteronomy]]

The first eleven chapters of ''Genesis'' provide the account of the [[Creation]], the history of God's early relationship with humanity, and the [[Deluge]] of [[Noah]]. The remaining thirty-nine chapters detail the account of God's covenant with the early Hebrew nation, led by the patriarchs [[Abraham]], [[Isaac]] and [[Jacob]] (or Israel), and one of Jacob's children, [[Joseph]]. It tells the beginnings of God's chosen people, of how God commanded Abraham to leave his family and home to settle in the land of [[Canaan]], and how the Children of Israel later moved to Egypt. The remainder of the Torah, beginning with ''Exodus'', tells the story of the great Hebrew leader [[Moses]], and of the Hebrews through their sojourn and slavery in Egypt, their escape from bondage, and their wanderings in the desert until they finally enter the Promised Land.

====Nevi'im====
The [[Nevi'im]] is the story of the rise toward, and ultimately reaching, the Hebrew monarchy; the sad period of anarchy and revolt leading to the division into the two kingdoms of Judah and Israel; and the prophets who judged the kings of both in God's name. It ends with the conquest of both kingdoms and the destruction of the Temple in Jerusalem. The Minor Prophets are considered a single book in the Nevi'um; in Christianity they have been split into twelve separate books and named for their authors.
* [[Joshua]]
* [[Judges]]
* [[Books of Samuel]]
* [[Books of Kings]]
* [[Isaiah]]
* [[Jeremiah]]
* [[Ezekiel]]
* [[The Minor Prophets]]
**[[Hosea]]
** [[Joel]]
** [[Amos]]
** [[Obadiah]]
** [[Jonah]]
** [[Micah]]
** [[Nahum]]
** [[Habakkuk]]
** [[Zephaniah]]
** [[Haggai]]
** [[Zechariah]]
** [[Malachi]]

====Ketuvim====
The [[Ketuvim]], or "Writings," contain lyrical poetry, philosophical reflections on life, and the writings of the prophets and other Jewish leaders during the exile in Babylon.
* [[Psalms]]
* [[Proverbs]]
* [[Book of Job]]
* [[Song of Songs]], also called [[Song of Solomon]] in the Christian Bible.
* [[Book of Ruth]]
* [[Lamentations]]
* [[Ecclesiastes]]
* [[Esther]]
* [[Daniel]]
* [[Ezra]], divided into the two books of Ezra and [[Nehemiah]] in the Christian Bible.
* [[Books of Chronicles]]

[[David]] has been named as the author of the ''Psalms''; [[Solomon]] is believed to have written ''Song of Songs'' in his youth, the ''Proverbs'' in his prime, and ''Ecclesiastes'' during his old age. The prophet [[Jeremiah]] is thought to have written the aptly-named ''Lamentations'' at the beginning of the exile in Babylon. The ''Book of Ruth'' is the only biblical book that centers entirely on a non-Jew, a Moabite who married a Jew and became an ancestor of both David and Jesus Christ. ''Esther'' is unique as it is the only book in the Bible not to mention God. Moses is considered to be the author of ''Job''.

===The New Testament===
The [[New Testament]] is a collection of twenty-seven books and letters, written by the early Christian community, and written primarily in [[Greek]]. The emphasis of the New Testament is the life, teachings, and gift of salvation from the central figure of the whole work, Jesus of Nazareth. These books are grouped into the following:

====[[Gospels|The Gospels]]====
The ''Gospels'' contain the history of Jesus. The ''Acts of the Apostles'' are a continuance of the Gospels, documenting the history of the early church, beginning immediately following Jesus' death and resurrection. Of the authors, only Matthew and John had met Jesus; they were among His disciples during His earthly ministry. Mark was a companion of Peter, and his gospel was the first to be written down, about A.D. 50. Luke is considered the author of both his gospel and the ''Acts''.
*[[Gospel of Matthew]]
*[[Gospel of Mark]]
*[[Gospel of Luke]]
*[[Gospel of John]]
*[[Acts of the Apostles]]

====[[Pauline Epistles]]====
These are letters written to various early Christian communities by the Apostle Paul.
*[[Epistle to the Romans]]
*[[First Epistle to the Corinthians]]
*[[Second Epistle to the Corinthians]]
*[[Epistle to the Galatians]]
*[[Epistle to the Philippians]]
*[[Epistle to Philemon]]
*[[First Epistle to the Thessalonians]]
*[[Second Epistle to the Thessalonians]]
*[[Epistle to the Ephesians]]
*[[Epistle to the Colossians]]
*[[First Epistle to Timothy]]
*[[Second Epistle to Timothy]]
*[[Epistle to Titus]]
*[[Epistle to the Hebrews]]
Paul has been attributed as the author of ''Epistle to the Hebrews'' due to internal evidence within the work, but several others, such as Barnabas, Luke, and Apollos are also claimed to be the author. The controversy, however, does not affect the genuiness of the epistle. (Unger, pg. 748)

====[[General Epistles]]====
*[[Epistle of James]]
*[[First Epistle of Peter]]
*[[Second Epistle of Peter]]
*[[First Epistle of John]]
*[[Second Epistle of John]]
*[[Third Epistle of John]]
*[[Epistle of Jude]]

====Revelation====
The [[Book of Revelation]] is the last work in the New Testament as well as the whole Bible, written close to A.D. 100 by the [[Apostle John]] during his exile on the Greek island of [[Patmos]]. Revelation is concerned with the condition of the [[Seven Churches of Asia]] before going deeply into a description of the last days prior to the beginning of the [[Millennial Age]].

==History of the Bible==
[[Image:Gutenburg1.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Printers copy of a page from a Gutenberg Bible, printed in Germany about 1469.]]
The oldest books of the Bible are certainly the five books of the Torah and ''Job''. In ''1st Kings'' 6:1, Solomon is stated to have begun building the Temple "''in the 480th year after the children of Israel were come up out of the land of Egypt''". It had been established by scholars and historians that Solomon had begun building the Temple in the fourth year of his reign, or 961 B.C., making the [[date of the Exodus]] under Moses to have been 1441 B.C. During the following forty years Moses wrote the Torah and ''Job'', completing them before his death at [[Mt. Nebo]] about 1400 B.C. According to Biblical scholar and historian Robert D. Wilson the Torah as it stands dates from the time of Moses, the five books constitute one continuous work, and was written by a single individual, Moses himself (Wilson, pg 11).

The remaining books of the Old Testament were written at various times since the death of Moses, with ''Malachi'', the last Old Testament book, being written about 455 B.C. During this period each of the books was written and re-written on parchment or papyrus, with the editors taking great care in their work; a single Biblical book hand-written today can take weeks to complete. The older scrolls were disposed of by burial or systematic destruction when worn from normal usage; as a result, the oldest surviving examples of Biblical manuscripts are those which have been carefully preserved either by direct actions of people (such as monasteries), or by removal from forces of decay. Currently, the oldest surviving manuscripts are those found within the caves of Qumran in 1948 and known as the [[Dead Sea Scrolls]], dating between 250 B.C. to A.D. 70; the complete ''Isaiah'' scroll of this collection dates to 150 B.C.

Around 200 B.C. the Septuagint, a Greek-language version of the Old Testament, was completed. This was due to the Hellenization of large areas of the Middle East after the conquest of Alexander the Great, making Greek the de-facto language for everyday communications and business. The Septuagint marks the first time in history that the Bible was translated into a foreign language.

===The Apocrypha===
The [[Apocrypha]] was written during the four hundred years between the last book of the Old Testament and the birth of Christ. The term itself comes from the Greek word ''apokruphos'' ("hidden" or "concealed"), and although they have an actual history and literary value, the fourteen books which make up the Apocrypha have been rejected as canonical by both the Jewish faith and most denominations of the Christian church due to historical, geographical, or literal inaccuracies; the teaching of doctrines which contradict inspired Scripture; and a lack of elements and structure which give genuine Scripture its unique characteristic (Unger, pg. 70). The Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Churches, among others, include the Apocrypha in their versions of the Bible, considering them to be canonical. The following are the books which are most frequently referred to by the title ''Apocrypha'':
*[[1 Esdras]]
*[[2 Esdras]]
*[[Book of Tobit]]
*[[Book of Judith]]
*[[Book of Wisdom]]
*[[Ecclesiasticus]], also known as Sirach
*[[Book of Baruch]]
*[[Epistle of Jeremy]]
*[[The Prayer of Azariah and Song of the Three Holy Children]]
*[[Story of Susanna]]
*[[Bel and the Dragon]]
*[[Prayer of Manasseh]]
*[[1 Maccabees]]
*[[2 Maccabees]]
*Plus additions to the Book of Esther

Between 90-95 A.D. the Jewish [[Council of Jemnia]] revised the canon of the Old Testament, ensuring that the books involved conformed to the Torah, were written in the Hebrew language, written in Palestine, and written before 400 B.C. As a result, the Apocrypha was removed from the canon. [http://agards-bible-timeline.com/q2_bible_english.html]

===Early New Testament history===
In ''1st Timothy'' 5:8 Paul quoted as scripture ''"the laborer is worthy of his hire."'' This line is found nowhere else in the Bible except ''Matthew'' 10:10 and ''Luke'' 5:7. In ''2nd Peter'' 3:15-16, Peter classes Paul's letters with "other scriptures". Both lines are indicative of the writing down and general use of the New Testament prior to A.D. 60 (Halley, pg. 741-742). Spurious "gospels" which are known to have appeared by A.D. 100, make references to the New Testament. [[Clement of Rome]], writing in his own letter to the Corinthians in A.D. 95, refers to ''Matthew'', ''Luke'', ''Corinthians'', ''Hebrews'', ''1st Timothy'', and ''1st Peter'' (Halley, pg. 743).

The oldest surviving New Testament fragment of which there is a reliable date is the John Rylands Fragment (P52)[http://rylibweb.man.ac.uk/data1/dg/text/fragment.htm] of the ''Gospel of John'', dating from 117-138 A.D., just decades from when the Gospel was first written. The time span between the writing of the New Testament and the oldest surviving fragments are well under two hundred years. By comparison, Greek classics such as Herodotus, Plato, Euripides, and Homer have a time span well over a thousand years each between the date of the oldest known fragment of writing and the time period they were first written.

===The Vulgate===
[[Jerome]], a Latin scholar deeply interested in the study of the Scriptures, completed the second edition of the Bible in the Latin language. The ''[[Vulgate]]'' was meant to replace the inaccuracies of the earlier ''[[Vetus Latina]]'', the standard Bible of the early Catholic Church. Jerome had moved to Jerusalem in 382, and set to work on what eventually became a fresh translation of the Bible from the Greek of the ''Septuagint'' to translating the New Testament into Latin; from 390-405 he decided to re-translate his Old Testament directly from the Hebrew then in use by the Jewish community. The ''Vulgate'' had a marked influence in church history, and remained the standard Latin Bible in the Roman Catholic Church for centuries; such was the length of time in use that it was finally replaced by the ''[[Nova Vulgata]]'' in 1979.

===Gutenberg's Bible===
[[Johannes Gutenberg]] of [[Mainz]], [[Germany]] invented the first mechanical printing press in 1448. His machine consisted of a large press which when cranked down, pressed a sheet of paper upon a platform in which were set thousands of inked metal letter typefaces (called "movable type"), set in place to read for a particular page. The first book in history printed by this method was the [[Gutenberg Bible]], in the ''Vulgate'' version, of which 180 were printed, and approximately 50 survive today in varying conditions around the world. The Gutenberg Bible marked another first: Bibles could be mass produced to get into the hands of many more people at a lower cost than if they were printed by hand.

===Tyndale===
During the middle of the 16th century there was a need to get the Bible directly into the hands of the common man; prior to that the Bible was restricted to readings in the Church alone. The Reformers were a group of people who were shocked at the differences between what the Roman Catholic Church was practicing as opposed to what the Bible stated can or cannot be done (this was one of the causes of the [[Reformation]]). At great cost to themselves, the Reformers began the work of translating the Bible in the various languages of Europe; the printing press would ensure the newly-translated Bibles would be mass-produced.

[[William Tyndale]] was committed to getting the Bible in the hands of his English countrymen. Expressing open defiance of the Pope, Tyndale declared that if God would spare his life he would make it possible for even an ordinary farmer to know more about the Scriptures than the Pope. [http://www.tbaptist.com/aab/tyndale.htm] Tyndale's translation of the New Testament was completed by 1525, by April, 1526, 6,000 copies were printed and delivered to England. Official opposition led to the destruction of most of them. Tyndale was arrested and charged with heresy for his efforts on May 21, 1536, and was executed the following year. His efforts at translating the Bible led to the Matthews and Bishop's Bibles, then finally to the [[King James Version]], where ninety percent of the text is the result of Tyndale.

===King James Version===
[[Image:E-sword.jpg|thumb|300px|right|The internet has increased the availability of the Bible world-wide. Shown here is a screenshot to [[E-Sword]], a freely-downloadable Bible study program. [http://www.e-sword.net] (Rick Meyers, 2007)]]
In 1601 King [[James I]] selected forty-seven of the ablest scholars in England to undertake the creation of a standard Bible in English, based upon careful translations of the Masoretic Text used by the Jewish community, and the best Greek translations (especially the ''[[Textus Receptus]]'') then available. The scholars were divided into six committees in Oxford, Westminster, and Cambridge, with each scholar had dedicating himself to doing a portion of the Bible, often consulting each other to check the flow and harmony of the work in progress. The result was the 1611 [[King James]], or Authorized, Version.

The effects of the King James Version were profound. Using less than 2,500 different words in it's vocabulary, this Bible was written in a poetic style matched by few. The work influenced the writings of [[Shakespeare]]. [[John Milton]] has numerous images taken from this Bible in his ''[[Paradise Lost]]''. The direct style of writing caused it to be easily available to the common man. Poets and writers, such as [[Herman Melville]], [[Walt Whitman]], [[Emily Dickinson]] and many others were deeply inspired by it. It had altered the course of English history, with England growing to a world power since the book's publication; when asked by a visiting dignitary what made England great, Queen Victoria pulled out her copy of the Bible and declared "This is the secret of England's greatness." [http://www.mindspring.com/~je_cobb/presidentindex.html]

Today, the Bible is available in many versions across the English-speaking world, and has been translated into nearly every language on Earth, including the current translation into a recently-created language from the fictional world of [[Star Trek]], [[Klingon]]. [http://www.kli.org/wiki/index.php?Klingon%20Bible%20Translation%20Project] The past two decades saw the emergence of [[internet]] use; the creation of the Bible as a software program was inevitable, and several, such as [[E-Sword]] and Theophilos, are available at no cost with a wealth of Bible-study material as well.

=== Bible criticism ===
The traditional view of the Mosaic authorship of the Torah came under sporadic criticism from medieval scholars including [[Isaac ibn Yashush]], [[Abraham ibn Ezra]], Bonfils of Damascus and bishop [[Tostatus]] of Avila, who pointed to passages such as the description of the death of Moses in Deuteronomy as evidence that some portions, at least, could not have been written by Moses.
In the 17th century [[Thomas Hobbes]] collected the current evidence and became the first scholar to conclude outright that Moses could not have written the bulk of the Torah. Shortly afterwards the philosopher [[Baruch Spinoza]] published a unified critical analysis, demonstrating that the problematic passages were not isolated cases that could be explained away one by one, but pervasive throughout the five books, concluding that it was "clearer than the sun at noon that the Pentateuch was not written by Moses…." Despite determined opposition from the Church, both Catholic and Protestant, the views of Hobbes and Spinoza gained increasing acceptance amongst scholars.

=== The Documentary Hypothesis ===
Having established the hypothesis that Moses had not written the Pentateuch, attention next turned to the question of who had. Independent but nearly simultaneous proposals by H. B. Witter, [[Jean Astruc]], and J. G. Eichhorn separated the Pentateuch into two original documentary components, both dating from after the time of Moses. Others hypothesized the presence of two additional sources. The four documents were given working titles: J (or [[Yahwist]]), E ([[Elohist]]), P ([[Priestly source|Priestly]]), and D ([[Deuteronomist]]), each was discernable by its own characteristic language, and each, when read in isolation, presented a unified, coherent narrative.

Subsequent [[Higher criticism|scholars]], notably [[Eduard Reuss]], [[Karl Heinrich Graf]] and [[Wilhelm Vatke]], turned their attention to the order in which the documents had been composed (which they deduced from internal clues) and placed them in the context of a theory of the development of ancient Israelite religion, suggesting that much of the Laws and the narrative of the Pentateuch were unknown to the Israelites in the time of Moses. These were synthesized by [[Julius Wellhausen]] (1844-1918), who suggested an historical framework for the composition of the documents and their redaction (combination) into the final document known as the Pentateuch. According to contemporary Torah scholar [[Richard Elliott Friedman]], Wellhausen's model of the [[documentary hypothesis]] continues to dominate the field of biblical scholarship: "To this day, if you want to disagree, you disagree with Wellhausen. If you want to pose a new model, you compare its merits with those of Wellhausen's model."<ref>Richard Elliott Friedman, "Who Wrote the Bible?,” HarperSanFrancisco, 1997 (2nd edition).</ref>

The documentary hypothesis is important in the field of Biblical studies not only because it claims that the Torah was written by different people at different times - generally long after the events it describes. <ref>Joel Rosenberg, 1984 "The Bible: Biblical Narrative" in Barry Holtz, ed ''Back to the Sources'' New York: Summit Books p. 36; Nahum Sarna, 1986 ''Understanding Genesis'' New York:Schocken Books p. xxi-xxiii</ref> It also proposed what was at the time a radically new way of reading the Bible. Many proponents of the documentary hypothesis view the Bible more as a body of literature than a work of history, believing that the historical value of the text lies not in its account of the events that it describes, but in what critics can infer about the times in which the authors lived (as critics may read ''[[Hamlet]]'' to learn about seventeenth-century England, but will not read it to learn about seventh-century Denmark).

=== Modern developments ===
The critical analysis of authorship now encompasses every book of the bible. Every book in turn has been hypothesized to bear traces of multiple authorship, even the [[book of Obadiah]], which is only a single page. In some cases the traditional view on authorship has been overturned; in others, additional support, at least in part has been found.

The development of the hypothesis has not stopped with Wellhausen. Wellhausen's hypothesis, for example, proposed that the four documents were composed in the order J-E-D-P, with P, containing the bulk of the Jewish law, dating from the post-Exilic [[Second Temple]] period (i.e., after 515 BC);<ref>Wellhausen adopted the idea of a post-Exilic date for P from [[Eduard Reuss]].</ref> but the contemporary view is that P is earlier than D, and that all four books date from the [[First Temple]] period (i.e., prior to 587 BC).<ref>Although the ''bulk'' of all four documents date from before 587 BC, the strand of D known as Dtr2 dates from the following Exilic period.</ref>

The documentary hypothesis has come into question in recent decades, at least in the four-document version advanced by Wellhausen and refined by later scholars such as [[Martin Noth]] (who in 1943 provided evidence that Deuteronomy plus the following six books make a unified history from the hand of a single editor), [[Harold Bloom]], [[Frank Moore Cross]] and [[Richard Elliot Friedman]]. The direction of this criticism is to question the existence of separate, identifiable documents, positing instead that the biblical text is made up of almost innumerable strands so interwoven as to be hardly untangleable — the J document, in particular, has been subjected to such intense dissection that it seems in danger of disappearing.

Although Biblical archeology has confirmed the existence of many people, places, and events mentioned in the Bible[http://Christiananswers.net/archeology], many critical scholars have argued that the Bible be read not as an accurate historical document, but rather as a work of literature and theology that often draws on historical events — and often draws on non-Hebrew mythology — as primary source material. For these critics the Bible reveals much about the lives and times of its authors. Whether the ideas of these authors have any relevance to contemporary society is left to clerics and adherents of contemporary religions to decide.

==Bible Versions==
*[[King James Version]]
*[[American Standard Version]]
*[[Revised Version]]
*[[New American Standard Version]]
*[[New King James Version]]
*[[Douey-Rheims]]
*[[Good News Version]]
*[[New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures]]
*[[Septuagint]]
*[[Latin Vulgate]]
*[[Revised Standard Version]]
*[[Amplified Bible]]
*[[New English Bible]]
*[[New International Version]]
*[[Living Bible]]

==External links==
===Bible societies ===
*[http://www.americanbible.org/ American Bible Society]
*[http://www.biblesociety.org/ United Bible Society]
*[http://www.ibs.org/ The International Bible Society (New York/Colorado Springs)]
*[http://www.wbtc.com/site/PageServer World Bible Translation Center]
*[http://www.wycliffe.org/home.htm Wycliffe Bible Translators]

===Online, internet, and downloadable Bibles===
====Hebrew====
* [http://www.mechon-mamre.org/p/pt/pt0.htm Hebrew-English Bible] ([[Jewish Publication Society of America|JPS]] 1917 translation; includes Hebrew audio)
* [http://tanakhml2.alacartejava.net/cocoon/tanakhml/d13.php2xml?sfr=1&prq=1&pnt=tru&acc=tru&dia=tru&enc=heb XML Hebrew-English (KJV) Bible]
* [http://www.spcm.org/english/Hebrew_OT/ Old Testament in Hebrew]

====Latin====
* [http://www.LatinVulgate.com/ Latin Vulgate] — Latin Vulgate with parallel Douay-Rheims and King James English translations
* [http://www.sacredbible.org/ SacredBible.org] — Latin Vulgate translation of the Bible
* [http://www.spcm.org/english/Vulgate/ Jerome's Latin Vulgate (405 A.D.)]

====English====
* [http://www.audio-bible.com/bible/bible.html AudioBible] — Audio version of the King James Version.
* [http://www.blueletterbible.org/ Blue Letter Bible] — On-line interactive reference library continuously updated from the teachings and commentaries of selected pastors and teachers who hold to the conservative, historical Christian faith.
* [http://www.e-sword.net E-sword] — Downloadable Bible for Windows.
* [http://www.theophilos.sk/ Theophilos Bible program]
* [http://www.spcm.org/english/ASB/ American Standard Version].
* [http://www.gnpcb.org/esv/ English Standard Version] from Good News/Crossway (the publisher).
* [http://www.verselink.org/ King James Version with dictionary].
* [http://www.spcm.org/english/KJV/ King James Version].
* [http://www.newlivingtranslation.com New Living Translation]
* [http://bible.oremus.org/ New Revised Standard Version].
* [http://www.watchtower.org/e/bible/index.htm New World Translation] of the Holy Scriptures.
* [http://www.europepourchrist.org/biblesite/WEB/ World English Bible].
* [http://scriptures.lds.org/ LDS King James Version] with audio, extensive commentary and cross-references.
* [http://www.dynamicbible.com/ King James Version built using AJAX technologies], with Strongs and Greek Morphological Codes by Robinson.
* [http://www.sacred-texts.com/bib/index.htm#index The Hypertext Bible] with side-by-side translations in English, Latin, Greek, and Hebrew at the [[Internet Sacred Text Archive]]
* [http://www.biblegateway.com/ Bible Gateway at GospelCom.net] text search in any one of many translations.
* [http://www.biblereadthrough.com/ Bible Read-Through] — read through the Bible in a year aid.
* [http://www.TheFreeBible.com/ TheFreeBible.com] Bible software downloads
* [http://www.scripture4all.org/ Interlinear (word-by-word) translation of the Christian Bible] Hebrew and Koine Greek
* [http://www.aramaicpeshitta.com/aramaic_nt_resources.htm Aramaic New Testament resources]
* [http://www.spcm.org/en/versions.php Over 40 versions of the Bible]
* [http://www.armenianchurchlibrary.com/Bibletranslationsandstudies.html Eastern and Western Armenian Bible]
* [http://www.bible9.com/ Online Bible (King James Version & Old Testament)]
* [http://www.spcm.org/LSG_FR/ Bible — Louis Segond de 1910]
* [http://www.wbtc.com/site/PageServer?pagename=downloads_spanish Spanish Bible] PDT version
* [http://www.latinvulgate.com/christverse.aspx Complete Sayings of Christ]
* [http://bible.crosswalk.com/ParallelBible/ Crosswalk.com Parallel Bible]
* [http://www.blueletterbible.org/search.html#verse Blue Letter Bible]

====Turkish====
* [http://www.incil.info Turkish Bible] (Turkish Old and New Testament)

====Others====
* [http://agards-bible-timeline.com/q2_bible_english.html Bible Timeline]
* [http://www.myjewishlearning.com/texts/bible/TO_Torah_880.htm?OVRAW=Torah&OVKEY=torah&OVMTC=standard My Jewish Learning.com]
* [http://search.americanbible.org/ American Bible Society] to search NASB, KJV, CEV, ASV and others.
* [http://etext.virginia.edu/kjv.browse.html University of Virginia Library] KJV word proximity search.
* [http://www.1enormousidea.com/Default.aspx?tabid=42 Many translations in English, verse by verse]
* [http://www.bible-marathi.com Nava Karar] NT Translation from Greek to Marathi
* [http://www.bible-researcher.com/links12.html Gender-neutral Bible translations].
* [http://www.evangelicalbible.com/why.htm Word-for-Word vs.Thought-for-Thought translation] Outlines the difference between formal and dynamic equivalent translation philosopy.
* [http://www.kli.org/wiki/index.php?Klingon%20Bible%20Translation%20Project Klingon Bible].

===Commentaries and analysis===
* [http://www.ldolphin.org/icc-am.html Biblical chronology] by Alan Montgomery, B.Sc.(Hon)
* [http://www.dinur.org/resources/resourceCategoryDisplay.aspx?categoryID=411&rsid=478 Biblical History], The Jewish History Resource Center — Dinur Center for Research in Jewish History, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem.
* [http://www.chabad.org/article.asp?aid=63255 Judaica Press Translation] — online Jewish translation of the Tanakh.
* [http://www.angdatingdaan.org/biblicaltopics/bib_bible_1.htm Reading and Understanding the Bible].
* [http://en.bibleinfo.com/ Source for Bible Answers].
* [http://www.amazingfacts.org/school/af_logon.asp Amazing Facts Bible Studies].
* [http://www.iishj.org/images/Bible.pdf Learning Bible Today] — a historical approach the Bible.
* [http://eword.gospelcom.net/comments/gill/ John Gill's Exposition of the Bible] — verse by verse commentary.
* [http://www.ccel.org/ccel/henry/mhc.i.html/ Matthew Henry's Commentary on the Whole Bible] — unabridged.
*[http://www.verselink.org/ Topical References]
*[http://www.verselink.org/ Bible Dictionaries and Encyclopedia]

===Wikis===
* [http://bible.tmtm.com BibleWiki]
* [http://wikible.org Wikible]

==References==

*Unger, Merril F. ''Unger's Bible Dictionary'', Moody Press, Chicago, IL (1966).
*Unger, Merril F. ''Unger's Bible Handbook'', Moody Press, Chicago, IL (1967).
*Halley, Henry H. ''Halley's Bible Handbook'', Zondervan, Grand Rapids, MI (1965).
*Wilson, Robert D. ''A Scientific Investigation of the Old Testament'', Sunday School Times, Inc, Philadelphia, PA (1926).

<references/>

[[Category:Bible]]
[[Category:Religion]]
[[Category:Book of Worship]]