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Protestantism

2007-07-12T04:33:24Z

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{{Christianity}}

'''Protestantism''' encompasses the forms of [[Christian]] faith and practice that originated with the doctrines of the [[Reformation]]. The term is derived from the [[Protestation at Speyer|''Protestatio'']] delivered by a minority of delegates against the (1529) [[Second Diet of Speyer|Diet of Speyer]], which passed legislation opposed by the [[Lutheranism|Lutherans]]. Since that time, the term has been used in many different senses, but not as the official title of any church until it was assumed in 1783 by the [[Episcopal_Church_in_the_United_States_of_America#Official_names|Protestant Episcopal Church]] in the United States, the [[United_States|American]] branch of the Anglican Communion. Most broadly, Protestantism is [[Western Christianity]] that is not subject to papal authority.<ref>[http://www.episcopalchurch.org/19625_15125_ENG_HTM.htm Definition of Protestantism at the Episcopal Church website]</ref>

The doctrines of the Reformation can be summarized as a) ''the rejection of [[Pope|papal]] authority'', b) ''rejection of some fundamental [[Roman Catholicism|Roman Catholic]] doctrines'', c) ''the [[priesthood of all believers]]'', d) ''the [[Prima scriptura|primacy]] of the [[Bible]] as the only source of revealed truth'', and e) the belief ''in [[Sola fide|justification by faith]]'' alone.<ref> Encarta Dictionary under "Protestant"</ref><ref>Merriam Webster Dictionary under "Protestant"</ref>

==Major Groupings==
''Protestantism'' generally refers to the faiths and churches born directly or indirectly of the [[Protestant Reformation]] in which many
[[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholics]] split from the larger body and formed their own communions.<ref>''Protestantism'', The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.[http://www.bartleby.com/65/pr/Protstnt.html]</ref>
In common [[Western World|Western]] usage, the term is often used in contradistinction to [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholicism]] and [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Eastern Orthodoxy]]<ref> Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia</ref>. This usage, however, is regarded by many groups as improper since, among other things, there are many non-Roman-Catholic, non-Eastern-Orthodox communions that long predate the Reformation (notably [[Oriental Orthodoxy]]). The case of the [[Anglican communion|Anglicans]] can be argued to be different as well in that, although born during the Reformation era, the [[Anglican doctrine]] is substantially different from the Reformation principles of most of the other Protestants of the time and is sometimes referred to as a middle path - a ''via media'' - between [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholic]] and Protestant doctrines. Yet some other groups, such as the [[Latter Day Saint movement|Mormons]] and the [[Jehovah's Witnesses]], reject Protestantism as having deviated from true Christianity and see themselves as [[Restorationism|Restorationists]].

The churches most commonly associated with Protestantism can be divided along four fairly definitive lines<ref> [[Schism (religion)]]</ref>:

#[[Mainline Protestants]] - a North American phrase - are those who trace their lineage to [[Martin Luther|Luther]], [[Calvinism|Calvin]], or [[Anglicanism]]. The [[Protestant Reformation|doctrines of the Reformation]] are their doctrines. They include such denominations as [[Lutheran]]s, [[Presbyterian]]s, and [[Methodist]]s.
#[[Anabaptist]]s are a movement that developed from the [[Radical Reformation]]. Today, denominations such as [[Baptist]]s<ref name="Baptist">Baptists usually are considered Protestants, although some Baptists reject that association. See the [[Baptist]] article and its [[Baptist#Origins|Origins subsection]] for a further discussion of Baptist Perpetuity.</ref>, [[Pentecostal]]s, [[Brethren]], [[Mennonite]]s and [[Amish]] eschew infant baptism and see baptism as aligned with a demonstration of the gifts of the spirit.
#[[Nontrinitarianism|Nontrinitarian movements]] reject the doctrine of the [[trinity]]. Today, they include such denominations as the [[Universalist Church of America|Universalist]]s, [[Unitarian]]s, and some [[Quaker]]s.
#[[Restorationism|Restorationists]] are a more recent movement. Today, they include such denominations as the [[Latter Day Saint movement|Latter-day Saints]], [[Jehovah's Witnesses]] and [[Seventh-day Adventist Church|Adventists]].

==Origins==
For proto-Protestant movements see {{Main|proto-Protestants}}

The Reformation came about through a number of factors, both political and theological. The [[Holy Roman Empire]] was by the 1500s, made up of approximately 300 states and imperial cities, each to some degree self-governing, most under a feudal lord - a prince, duke, margrave, etc. The 1521 Edict of Worms originally forbade [[Lutheranism|Lutheran]] teachings, the status of which within the Catholic Church was still unclear, within the [[Holy Roman Empire]]. However, the 1526 session of the [[Diet (assembly)|Diet]], the imperial parliament, gave each ruler within the empire the power to decide the religion of his subjects according to the principle of ''[[Cuius regio, eius religio]]'', allowing a local lord to forbid Lutheranism and enforce Catholicism, or forbid Catholicism and enforce Lutheranism.

In 1529, [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Emperor Charles V]] at the [[Diet of Speyer]] revised this policy again and declared that until there was clarification of the Catholic Church's position from another [[Ecumenical council|council]] all further new religious developments in the empire would remain forbidden:

<blockquote>''"Those that until now have followed the Edict of Worms should continue to do so [ i.e., where Lutheranism has been forbidden, it remains forbidden]. In the areas where this has been deviated from, there shall be no further new developments and no-one shall be refused Mass [i.e., where Lutheranism has been permitted, Catholicism must be at least permitted]. Finally, the sects which contradict the sacrament of the true body and blood, shall absolutely not be tolerated, no more than the Anabaptists [i.e., anything beyond Lutheranism or Catholicism is outlawed everywhere]."</blockquote>

The name ''protestant'' is derived from the Latin ''protestatio'' meaning ''declaration'' which Martin Luther made when he and his supporters dissented "from the decision of the Diet of Spires (1529), which reaffirmed the edict of the Diet of Worms against the Reformation<ref> Compact Oxford English Dictionary under "protestant"</ref>. The term '''Protestant''' was initially applied to a group of princes and imperial cities within the [[Holy Roman Empire]] who were against this decision, and therefore referred only to those who wished to forbid Catholicism and enforce Lutheranism within their territories. Later, '''Protestant''' came to be used as the collective name for those who opposed Roman Catholic practice in general and whose followers separated from it.

There were reformers and dissenters before the reformation - such as [[John Wycliff]] and [[Jan Hus]] - who did not foresee nor advocate a separation from the Catholic Church but rather sought to purge 'impurities' within the Catholic Church. With [[Martin Luther]], the reformation had its formal beginning. Like his proto-ideological predecessors, Luther was not schismatic and did not seek a formal separation from the Catholic Church. For five years, Luther was an open reformer within the Church until his ex-communication. Although the Catholic Church now had left him, Luther spent the rest of his life as a reformer of the Church but now from the outside as a spiritual exile. The rise of a separate Protestantism began with Luther but it was Luther's contemporaries and later reformers - such as [[John Calvin]], [[Huldrych Zwingli]], [[Thomas Cranmer]], and [[John Knox]] - who developed a doctrine and theology outside of the Catholic Church.

{{Protestant}}

As an intellectual movement, Protestantism grew out of the Renaissance and West European universities, attracting some learned intellectuals, as well as politicians, professionals, skilled tradesmen, and artisans. The new technology of the [[printing press]] allowed Protestant ideas to spread rapidly, as well as aiding in the dissemination of translations of the Christian [[Bible]] in native tongues. Nascent Protestant social ideals of liberty of conscience and individual freedom were formed through continuous confrontation with the authority of the Papacy, and the hierarchy of the Catholic priesthood. The Protestant movement away from the constraints of tradition, toward greater emphasis on individual conscience, anticipated later developments of democratization, and the so-called "[[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]]" of later centuries.

In [[German language|German]]-speaking and [[Scandinavia]]n countries, the word "Protestant" still refers specifically to national [[Lutheran church]]es{{Fact|date=February 2007}} (in contrast to [[Reformed churches]]), while the common historical designation ([[evangelical]]) for all churches originating from the Reformation is a term that, in the United States, is used to refer to specifically conservative Protestant churches. Some Western, non-Catholic, groups are labelled as Protestant (such as the [[Religious Society of Friends]]), despite the reality that they recognize no historical connection to Luther, Calvin, or the Catholic Church.

In England, before the Oxford movement of the 19th century,the word "Protestant" later came to be used to refer to the established [[Church of England]]. Protestants who were not members of the Church of England are further delineated as [[non-conformists]].

==Basic theological tenets of the Reformation==
{{main|Five solas}}
The '''Five Solas''' are five [[Latin]] phrases (or slogans) that emerged during the [[Protestant Reformation]] and summarize the Reformers' basic theological beliefs in contradistinction to the teaching of the [[Roman Catholic Church]] of the day. The Latin word ''sola'' means "alone," "only," or "single" in English. The five solas were what the Reformers believed to be the only things needed in their respective functions in Christian salvation. Listing them as such was also done with a view to excluding other things that hindered salvation. This formulation was intended to distinguish between what were viewed as deviations in the Christian church and the essentials of Christian life and practice.

* ''[[Solus Christus]]'': ''Christ alone''.
:The Protestants characterize the dogma concerning the Pope as Christ's representative head of the Church on earth, the concept of meritorious works, and the Catholic idea of a treasury of the merits of saints, as a denial that Christ is the ''only'' mediator between [[God]] and man.

* ''[[Sola scriptura]]'': ''Scripture alone''.
:Protestants believe that the teachings of the Roman Catholic Church obscure the teachings of the [[Bible]] by convoluting it with church history and doctrine.

* ''[[Sola fide]]'': ''Faith alone''.
:Protestants believe that faith in Christ alone is enough for eternal salvation (as stated in Ephesians 2:8-9), whereas Catholics believe "faith without works is dead" (as stated in [[Epistle of James|James 2:20]]). Protestants believe that practicing good works attests to one's faith in Christ and his teachings.

* ''[[Sola gratia]]'': ''Grace alone''.
:The Roman Catholic view of the means of salvation was believed by the Protestants to be a mixture of reliance upon the grace of God, and confidence in the merits of one's own works, performed in love. The Reformers posited that salvation is entirely comprehended in God's gifts, (i.e. God's act of free grace) dispensed by the Holy Spirit according to the redemptive work of Jesus Christ alone. Consequently, they argued that a sinner is not accepted by God on account of the change wrought in the believer by God's grace, and that the believer is accepted without any regard for the merit of his works — for no one deserves salvation.

* ''[[Soli Deo gloria]]'': ''Glory to God alone''
:All glory is due to God alone, since salvation is accomplished solely through his will and action—not only the gift of the all-sufficient [[atonement]] of [[Jesus]] on [[Christian cross|the cross]] but also the gift of faith in that atonement, created in the heart of the believer by the [[Holy Spirit]]. The reformers believed that human beings—even saints [[canonization|canonized]] by the Roman Catholic Church, the popes, and the ecclesiastical hierarchy—are not worthy of the glory that was accorded them.



On the theological front, the Protestant movement began to coalesce into several distinct branches in the mid-to-late sixteenth century. One of the central points of divergence was controversy over the Lord's Supper.

===Real Presence in the Lord's Supper===
{{main|Real Presence|Lord's Supper}}

Although early Protestants generally rejected the Roman Catholic [[dogma]] of [[transubstantiation]], which teaches that the bread and wine used in the sacrificial rite of the Mass lose their natural substance by being transformed into the Body, Blood, Soul, and Divinity of Christ (see [[Eucharist]]), they disagreed with one another concerning the manner in which Christ ''is'' present in Holy Communion.

*Lutherans hold to the [[Real Presence]] as [[Consubstantiation]] (although some Lutherans disapprove of [[Consubstantiation]] because of misunderstandings, it was [[Philipp Melancthon]]'s term used with Martin Luther's approval), which affirms the physical presence of Christ's true Body & Blood supernaturally "in, with, and under" the Consecrated Bread and Wine. Lutherans point to Jesus' statement, "...This '''IS''' my body...". According to the Lutheran Confessions of Faith the [[Sacramental Union]] takes place at the time of Consecration, when Christ's Word's of Institution are spoken by the celebrant . Lutheran teaching insists that the Consecrated Bread & Wine ARE the truly abiding and adorable Body & Blood of Christ in a [[Sacramental Union]], while also affirming the Lord's Supper ranges along the continuum from Calvin to [[Zwingli]].
*The Reformed closest to Calvin emphasize the ''real presence'', or ''sacramental presence'', of Christ, saying that the sacrament is a means of saving grace through which only the elect believer actually partakes of Christ, but merely WITH the Bread & Wine rather than in the Elements. Calvinists deny the Zwingli assertion that Christ makes himself present to the believer in the elements of the [[sacrament]], but affirm that Christ is united to the believer through faith—toward which the supper is an outward and visible aid, this is often referred to as ''dynamic presence''.
*A Protestant holding a popular simplification of the Zwinglian view, without concern for theological intricacies as hinted at above, may see the Lord's Supper merely as a symbol of the shared faith of the participants, a commemoration of the facts of the crucifixion, and a reminder of their standing together as the Body of Christ (a view referred to somewhat derisively as ''memorialism'').
*[[Anglicans]] (members of the Church of England, the [[Episcopal Church in the United States of America|Episcopal Church]] in the USA, the [[Scottish Episcopal Church]] in [[Scotland]] and other Protestant churches claiming the Anglican heritage) recognize Christ's presence in the Eucharist in a spectrum (according to specific denominational, diocesan, and parochial emphasis) ranging from acceptance of the Roman Catholic doctrine of transubstantiation, through the Lutheran position, to high Calvinistic notions. However, the twenty-eighth and twenty-ninth of the [[39 Articles]] - an Anglican Confession following the [[Augsburg Confession]] - teach that Christ's Body and Blood in the Consecrated Elements are truly present in a spiritual modality.

In Protestant theology, as the bread shares identity with Christ (which he calls "my body"), in an analogous way, the Church shares identity with Him (and also is called "the Body of Christ"). Thus, controversies over the Lord's Supper seem to be only about the nature of the bread and wine, but are ultimately about the nature of salvation and the Church; and indirectly about the nature of Christ.

===Catholicism===
Contrary to how the Protestant reformers were often characterized, the concept of a ''catholic'', or universal, Church was not brushed aside during the Protestant Reformation. To the contrary, the visible unity of the catholic Church was an important and essential doctrine of the Reformation. The Magisterial Reformers, such as [[Martin Luther]], [[John Calvin]], and [[Ulrich Zwingli]], believed that they were reforming a corrupt and heretical Catholic Church. Each of them took very seriously the charges of schism and innovation, denying these charges and maintaining that it was the medieval Roman Catholic Church that had left them. Because of this the fundamental Unity of the Catholic Church remained a very important doctrine in the churches of the Reformation. Dr. James Walker wrote in "The Theology of Theologians of Scotland":

:''The visible church, in the idea of the Scottish theologians, is catholic. You have not an indefinite number of Parochial, or Congregational, or National churches, constituting, as it were, so many ecclesiastical individualities, but one great spiritual republic, of which these various organizations form a part. The visible church is not a genus, so to speak, with so many species under it. It is thus you may think of the State, but the visible church is a totum integrale, it is an empire. The churches of the various nationalities constitute the provinces of this empire; and though they are so far independent of each other, yet they are so one, that membership in one is membership in all, and separation from one is separation from all... This conception of the church, of which, in at least some aspects, we have practically so much lost sight, had a firm hold of the Scottish theologians of the seventeenth century.''<ref>Dr. James Walker in The Theology of Theologians of Scotland. (Edinburgh: Rpt. Knox Press, 1982) Lecture iv. pp.95-6.</ref>

Wherever the Magisterial Reformation, which received support from the ruling authorities, took place, the result was a reformed national church envisioned to be a part of the whole visible Holy Catholic Church described in the creeds, but disagreeing, in certain important points of doctrine and doctrine-linked practice, with what had until then been considered the normative reference point on such matters, namely the See of Rome. The Reformed Churches thus believed in a form of Catholicity, founded on their doctrines of the five solas and a visible [[ecclesiastical]] organization based on the [[14th century|14th]] and [[15th century]] [[Conciliarism|Conciliar movement]], rejecting the [[Papacy]] and [[Papal Infallibility]] in favor of [[Ecumenical council]]s, but rejecting the [[Council of Trent]].

Today there is a growing movement of Protestants, especially of the [[Calvinist|Reformed]] tradition, that reject the designation "Protestant" because of its negative "anti-catholic" connotations, preferring the designation "Reformed," "Evangelical" or even "Reformed Catholic" expressive of what they call a "Reformed Catholicity" [http://www.reformedcatholicism.com/?p=424] and defending their arguments from the traditional Protestant [[Confession of Faith|Confessions]]. <ref>The Canadian Reformed Magazine 18 (Sept. 20-27, Oct. 4-11, 18, Nov. 1, 8, 1969) - http://spindleworks.com/library/faber/008_theca.htm</ref>

===Radical Reformation===
Unlike mainstream Evangelical ([[Lutheran]]), Reformed ([[Huldrych Zwingli|Zwinglian]] and [[Calvinist]]) Protestant movements, the [[Radical Reformation]], which had no state sponsorship, generally abandoned the idea of the "Church Visible" as distinct from the "Church Invisible." For them, the Church only consisted of the tiny community of believers, who accepted Jesus Christ by adult baptism, called [[Believers Baptism|"believer's baptism"]]. Others believed that the Church could not be defined as anything more than a single congregation meeting together for worship at one time in a single place. The Radical Reformation thus did not believe that the Magisterial Reformation had gone far enough. For example, radical reformer Andreas von Bodenstein Karlstadt referred to the Lutheran theologians at Wittenberg as the 'new papists.'<ref>The Magisterial Reformation - http://www.reformationhappens.com/movements/magisterial/</ref> It was exactly because the Reformation still strongly defended the visible unity of the Catholic Church that they were criticized by the Radical Reformers and vice versa.

===Authority===
{{Section-stub}}
''See the articles [[Laity|Lay]], [[Holy orders|Ordained]] and [[Priesthood of all believers]]''

Whereas Catholics look to the Church for authority, Protestants look to the Bible for authority.

====Within the Church====
Many Protestant churches practice similar rituals to [[Catholicism]]—chiefly [[baptism]], [[Eucharist|communion]], and [[matrimony]]—frequently varying or de-formalizing the rites (although this is not the case in some Lutheran and Anglican parishes).

====Secular authority====
*Lutheran - [[doctrine of the two kingdoms]]
*Reformed
*Anglican
Radical - [[Anabaptist]] and peace churches

==Later development==
{{Section-stub}}

Protestants can be differentiated according to how they have been influenced by important movements since the magisterial Reformation and the Puritan Reformation in England. Some of these movements have a common lineage, sometimes directly spawning later movements in the same groups.

===Pietism and Methodist movement===
{{main|Pietism|Methodism}}

The German [[Pietism|Pietist]] movement, together with the influence of the [[Puritan]] Reformation in England in the seventeenth century, were important influences upon [[John Wesley]] and Methodism, as well as through smaller, new groups such as the [[Religious Society of Friends]] ("Quakers") and the [[Moravian]] Brethren from [[Herrnhut]], [[Saxony]], [[Germany]].

The practice of a spiritual life, typically combined with social engagement, predominates in classical Pietism, which was a protest against the doctrine-centeredness ''Protestant Orthodoxy'' of the times, in favor of depth of religious experience. Many of the more conservative Methodists went on to form the [[Holiness movement]], which emphasized a rigorous experience of holiness in practical, daily life.

===Evangelicalism===
{{main|Evangelicalism}}

Beginning at the end of eighteenth century, several international revivals of Pietism (such as the [[Great Awakening]] and the [[Second Great Awakening]]) took place across denominational lines, which are referred to generally as the Evangelical movement. The chief emphases of this movement were individual conversion, personal piety and Bible study, [[public morality]] often including [[Temperance (virtue)|Temperance]] and [[Abolitionism]], de-emphasis of formalism in worship and in doctrine, a broadened role for laity (including women) in worship, evangelism and teaching, and cooperation in evangelism across denominational lines.

===Pentecostalism===
{{main|Pentecostalism}}

Pentecostalism, as a movement, began in the United States early in the twentieth century, starting especially within the Holiness movement. Seeking a return to the operation of New Testament gifts of the Holy Spirit, speaking in tongues as evidence of the "baptism of the Holy Ghost" or to make the unbeliever believe became the leading feature. Divine healing and miracles were also emphasized. Pentecostalism swept through much of the Holiness movement, and eventually spawned hundreds of new denominations in the United States. A later [[Charismatic movement|"charismatic"]] movement also stressed the gifts of the Spirit, but often operated within existing denominations, rather than by coming out of them.

===Modernism===
{{main|Liberal Christianity}}
{{Section-stub}}

Modernism, or Liberalism, does not constitute a rigorous and well-defined school of theology, but is rather an inclination by some writers and teachers to integrate Christian thought into the spirit of the [[Age of Enlightenment]]. New understandings of history and the natural sciences of the day led directly to new approaches to theology. Though, the Protestants refer more to the newer bible.

===Fundamentalism===
{{main|Christian fundamentalism}}

In reaction to liberal Bible critique, [[Fundamentalism]] arose in the twentieth century, primarily in the United States and Canada, among those denominations most affected by Evangelicalism. Fundamentalism placed primary emphasis on the authority and sufficiency of the Bible, and typically advised separation from error and cultural conservatism as an important aspect of the Christian life.

===Neo-orthodoxy===
{{main|Neo-orthodoxy}}

A non-fundamentalist rejection of liberal Christianity, associated primarily with [[Karl Barth]], neo-orthodoxy sought to counter-act the tendency of liberal theology to make theological accommodations to modern scientific perspectives. Sometimes called "Crisis theology", according to the influence of philosophical [[existentialism]] on some important segments of the movement; also, somewhat confusingly, sometimes called ''neo-evangelicalism''.

===Neo-evangelicalism===
{{main|Neo-evangelicalism}}

Neo-evangelicalism is a movement from the middle of the twentieth century, that reacted to perceived excesses of Fundamentalism, adding to concern for biblical authority, an emphasis on liberal arts, cooperation among churches, Christian [[Apologetics]], and non-denominational evangelization.

===Paleo-Orthodoxy===
{{main|Paleo-orthodoxy}}

Paleo-orthodoxy is a movement similar in some respects to Neo-evangelicalism but emphasising the ancient Christian consensus of the undivided Church of the first millennium AD, including in particular the early Creeds and councils of the church as a means of properly understanding the Scriptures. This movement is cross-denominational and the theological giant of the movement is [[United Methodist]] theologian [[Thomas Oden]].

===Ecumenism===
{{main|Christian ecumenism}}

The ecumenical movement has had an influence on [[mainline]] churches, beginning at least in 1910 with the [[Edinburgh Missionary Conference]]. Its origins lay in the recognition of the need for cooperation on the mission field in [[Africa]], [[Asia]] and [[Oceania]]. Since 1948, the [[World Council of Churches]] has been influential. There are also ecumenical bodies at regional, national and local levels across the globe. One, but not the only expression of the ecumenical movement, has been the move to form united churches, such as the [[Church of South India]], the [[Church of North India]], The US-based [[United Church of Christ]], The [[United Church of Canada]] and the [[Uniting Church in Australia]]. There has been a strong engagement of [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Orthodox]] churches in the ecumenical movement.

In 1999, the representatives of [[Lutheran World Federation]] and Roman Catholic Church signed The [[Joint Declaration on the Doctrine of Justification]], apparently resolving the conflict over the nature of [[Justification]] which was at the root of the [[Protestant Reformation]], although some [[conservative Lutheran]]s did not agree to this resolution. On July 18, 2006 Delegates to the World Methodist Conference voted unanimously to adopt the Joint Declaration. [http://www.umc.org/site/c.gjJTJbMUIuE/b.1863123/k.FF49/World_Methodists_approve_further_ecumenical_dialogue.htm] [http://www.catholicnews.com/data/stories/cns/0604186.htm]

==[[List_of_Christian_Denominations#Protestant|Denominations]]==
Protestants often refer to specific Protestant churches and groups as denominations to imply that they are differently named parts of the whole church. This "invisible unity" is assumed to be imperfectly displayed, visibly: some denominations are less accepting of others, and the basic orthodoxy of some is questioned by most of the others. Individual denominations also have formed over very subtle theological differences. Other denominations are simply regional or ethnic expressions of the same beliefs. The actual number of distinct denominations is hard to calculate, but has been estimated to be over thirty thousand. Various [[Christian ecumenism|ecumenical movements]] have attempted cooperation or reorganization of Protestant churches, according to various models of union, but divisions continue to outpace unions. Most denominations share common beliefs in the major aspects of the Christian faith, while differing in many secondary doctrines. There are "over 33,000 denominations in 238 countries" and every year there is a net increase of around 270 to 300 denominations.<ref> World Christian Encyclopedia (2nd edition). [[David V. Barrett|David Barrett]], George Kurian and Todd Johnson. New York: Oxford University Press, 2001</ref> According to David Barrett's study (1970), there are 8,196 denominations within Protestantism.

===Families of denominations===
Only general '''families''' are listed here (due to the above-stated mulititude of [[List of Christian denominations|denominations]]); some of these groups do not consider themselves as part of the Protestant movement, but are generally viewed as such by scholars and the public at large:

*[[Anabaptist]]
*[[Anglicanism|Anglican / Episcopalian]]
*[[African Methodist Episcopal]]
*[[Baptist]]<ref name="Baptist" />
*[[Christian and Missionary Alliance]]
*[[Evangelicalism]]
*[[Lutheranism|Lutheran]]
*[[Methodism|Methodist / Wesleyan]] and the [[Holiness movement]]
*[[Pentecostalism|Pentecostal]] and [[Charismatic (movement)|Charismatic]]
*[[Religious Society of Friends|Quakerism]]
*[[Reformed churches|Reformed]]/[[Congregational church|Congregational]] /[[Presbyterian Church|Presbyterian]]
*[[Restoration Movement|Restoration movement]]
*[[Adventists]]
*[[Non-denominational]]
*[[Waldensians]]

==Number of Protestants==
{{main|Protestants by country}}
There are about 590 million Protestants worldwide. These include 170 million in North America, 160 million in Africa, 120 million in Europe, 70 million in Latin America, 60 million in Asia, and 10 million in Oceania. Nearly 27% of all Christians (2.1 billion) today are Protestants.{{Fact|date=February 2007}}

==Notable Protestant religious figures==
(in alphabetical order by century.)

===Fifteenth century===
*[[Jan Hus]], Czech reformist/dissident; burned to death by Roman Catholic Church authorities for unrepentant and persistent heresy.

===Sixteenth century===
*[[Jacobus Arminius]], Dutch theologian, founder of school of thought known as [[Arminianism]]
*[[Heinrich Bullinger]], successor of Zwingli, leading reformed theologian
*[[John Calvin]], French theologian, [[Protestant Reformation|Reformer]] and resident of [[Geneva, Switzerland]], he founded the school of theology known as Calvinism
*[[Elizabeth I]], [[England|English]] Queen known for reforming the national religion of England
*[[Abraomas Kulvietis]], jurist and a professor at Königsberg Albertina University, as well as a Reformer of the Lithuanian church.
*[[John Knox]], Scottish Calvinist reformer,
*[[Martin Luther]], German religious reformer, theologian, founder of the Lutheran church in Germany, founder of Lutheranism
*[[Philipp Melanchthon]], early Lutheran leader
*[[Menno Simons]], founder of [[Mennonitism]]
*[[Huldrych Zwingli]], founder of Swiss reformed tradition
*[[John Smyth (1570-1612)|John Smyth]], founder of the [[Baptist]] denomination
*[[Martynas Mažvydas]] was the author and the editor of the first printed book in the Lithuanian language. First Lithuanian Protestant Archdeacon of Ragainė.

===Seventeenth - nineteenth centuries===
*[[Jacob Albright]], founder of the Evangelical Church
*[[Jacob Amman]], founder of the [[Amish]] church
*[[Francis Asbury]], early bishop of American Methodism
*[[Jonathan Edwards (theology)|Jonathan Edwards]], American Puritan theologian, Great Awakening reformist preacher, Calvinist
*[[George Fox]], Founder of the Religious Society of Friends
*[[William Penn]], Founder of [[Pennsylvania]]
*[[William Laud]], [[Archbishop of Canterbury]] under [[Charles I of England]]
*[[Friedrich Schleiermacher]], German theologian considered founder of [[Liberal Christianity]]
*[[Søren Kierkegaard]], Danish philosopher considered the "Father of Existentialism" and influenced [[Karl Barth]] and neo-orthodoxy theology.
*[[Philipp Jakob Spener]], "father" of the Pietist movement
*[[Charles Wesley]], Anglican priest, Methodist leader, poet, & hymn writer
*[[John Wesley]], Anglican priest, founder of the Methodist movement
*[[George Whitefield]], Great Awakening reformist preacher
*[[William Booth]], founder of the [[Salvation Army]], renowned for his treatise ''In Darkest England and the Way Out''
*[[Edward Irving]], Scottish clergyman, generally (but wrongly) regarded as the founder of the [[Catholic Apostolic Church]]
*[[Ellen G. White]], [[James Springer White|James White]], [[Joseph Bates (Adventist)|Joseph Bates]], [[Uriah Smith]], [[John Harvey Kellogg|Dr. John Kellogg]] Pioneers of Seventh-day Adventism
*[[Charles Taze Russel]], [[Judge Rutherford]] founders of the Watch Tower Bible and tract society, more commonly known as Jehovah's Witnesses.
* Mme. Henriette Feller, missionary to Quebec and founder of [[Feller College]].
* Nikolaus Ludwig, Count von [[Zinzendorf]], Founder and Bishop of the Moravians
* [[August Gottlieb Spangenberg]], Leader of American Moravian missions, Bishop, German theologian
* [[Charles P. Chiniquy]], Catholic Priest converted to Presbyterian Preacher, Quebec and Illinois
* [[Gustav II Adolf]], King of Sweden during the [[Thirty Years War]]

===Twentieth century===
*[[Karl Barth]], Swiss theologian along with [[Emil Brunner]] known for [[Neo-orthodoxy|Neo-orthodox theology]] also known as "Dialectical theology" and "Crisis theology"
*[[Cornelius Van Til]], American theologian known for his development of pre-suppositional apologetics
*[[Dietrich Bonhoeffer]], German theologian, involved in the resistance against Nazism and executed shortly before the end of [[World War II]]
*[[Jerry Falwell]], American evangelist and political activist
*[[Austin Farrer]], Anglican theologian, preacher, and philosopher
*[[Billy Graham]], American evangelist
*[[John Stott]], Anglican Minister, preacher and author
*[[Nicky Gumbel]], Anglican British evangelist
*[[Martin Luther King, Jr.]],American Minister, peace and civil rights activist
*[[C. S. Lewis]], Anglican novelist, literary scholar, and lay theologian
*[[Aimee Semple McPherson]] American founder of the [[Foursquare Church]]
*[[Reinhold Niebuhr]], American theologian and ethicist
*[[H. Richard Niebuhr]], American theologian and ethicist
*[[Pat Robertson]], American charismatic/evangelical leader
*[[Francis A. Schaeffer]], Christian apologist
*[[Billy Sunday]], American Evangelist
*[[Paul Tillich]], Lutheran existentialist theologian
*[[John Howard Yoder]], Mennonite theologian and ethicist
*[[James Dobson]], American psychologist and conservative activist, founder of Focus on the Family Ministry
*[[Charles Swindoll]], American theologian, author, pastor, founder of Insight for Living

===Twenty first century===
*[[Marcus Borg]], American Episcopal theologian (Lutheran background)
*[[John B. Cobb]], theologian, involved in [[Process theology|Process Theology]]
*[[Franklin Graham]], American evangelist (son of Billy Graham)
*[[Stanley Hauerwas]], American Christian theologian and ethicist
*[[Ian Paisley]], Moderator of the [[Free Presbyterian Church of Ulster]] also a senior politician in [[Northern Ireland]], UK
*[[John Shelby Spong]], Retired (Episcopal) Bishop of Newark, New Jersey
*[[N.T. Wright]], Anglican Bishop of Durham and New Testament scholar
*[[Thomas C. Oden]], United Methodist presbyter and theologian
*[[Brian McLaren]], "emergent church" guru
*[[William Willimon]], United Methodist Bishop and theologian
*[[Edir Macedo]], founder of the Universal Church of the Kingdom of God theology of the prosperity.
*[[T. D. Jakes]], American televangelist. The Potter's House.


==References==

<references/>

==See also==
*[[Anglicanism]]
*[[Anti-Catholicism]]
*[[Anti-Protestantism]]
*[[Arminianism]]
*[[Black Legend]]
*[[Catholic Evangelical]]
*[[Calvinism]]
*[[Christianity]]
*[[Christian eschatology]]
*[[Christian Flag]]
*[[Christian humanism]]
*[[Detailed Christian timeline#Renaissance and Reformation|Christian timeline for Renaissance & Reformation]]
*[[Feller College]]
*[[Forgiveness]]
*[[History of Protestantism]]
*[[International Museum of the Reformation]]
*[[List of former Protestants]]
*[[List of Protestant churches]]
*[[Persecution of Christians]]
*[[Protestant Reformation]]
*[[Protestant work ethic]]
*[[Proto-Protestants]]
*[[Southern United States]]
*[[Waldensians]]

==External links==
===Supporting===
*[http://www.ccir.ed.ac.uk/~jad/glb_sola.html "Is Sola Scriptura a Protestant Concoction?"] by [[Greg Bahnsen]]
*[http://www.firstthings.com/ftissues/ft9508/opinion/leithart.html "Why Protestants Still Protest"] by [[Peter J. Leithart]] from ''[[First Things]]''

===Critical===
*[http://homepages.paradise.net.nz/mischedj/ct1_solascript.html Catholic websites on ''sola scriptura'']
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/12495a.htm "Protestantism"] from the 1917 ''[[Catholic Encyclopedia]]''
*[http://catholiceducation.org/articles/apologetics/ap0097.html "Why Only Catholicism Can Make Protestantism Work"] by Mark Brumley

===Miscellaneous===
*[http://catalystresources.org/issues/303balmer.html The Future of American Protestantism] from ''Catalyst'' ([[United Methodist Church|United Methodist perspective]])
*[http://protestant.christianityinview.com/ Protestantism - Christianity in View]

[[Category:Protestantism| ]]
[[Category:Christianity]]
[[Category:Christian theology| ]]
[[Category:Christianity in Europe]]

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Old Testament

2007-07-12T04:32:39Z

BounceWiggleBounce:

{{Books of the Old Testament}}
{{dablink|Note: [[Judaism]] commonly uses the term [[Tanakh]] to refer to its canon, which corresponds to the Protestant Old Testament. In academic circles, terms such as [[Hebrew Bible]] are commonly used to refer to the Tanakh.}}

The '''Old Testament''' is the first section of the two-part [[Christianity|Christian]] [[Bible|Biblical]] [[canon]], which includes the books of the [[Hebrew Bible]] as well as several [[Deuterocanonical books]]. Its exact contents differ in the various Christian denominations.

The [[Protestantism|Protestant]] Old Testament is, for the most part, identical with the Hebrew Bible. The differences between the Hebrew Bible and the Protestant Old Testament are minor, dealing only with the arrangement and number of the books. For example, while the Hebrew Bible considers [[Books of Kings|Kings]] to be a unified text, the Protestant Old Testament divides it into two books. Similarly, [[Book of Ezra|Ezra]] and [[Book of Nehemiah|Nehemiah]] are considered to be one book in the Hebrew Bible.

The differences between the Hebrew Bible and other versions of the Old Testament such as the [[Samaritan Pentateuch]], the [[Peshitta|Syriac]], [[Vulgate|Latin]], [[Septuagint|Greek]] and other canons, are greater. Many of these canons include books and even sections of books that the others do not. For a full discussion of these differences, see [[Books of the Bible]]. An important difference, as well, can lie in the translations of various words from the original [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]].

There is abundant and reliable evidence{{Fact|date=July 2007}} that these books were written before the birth of [[Jesus]] of Nazareth, whose teaching and immediate disciples' deeds and teachings are the subject of the subsequent writings of [[Christianity|Christian]] [[New Testament]]. The scriptures used by Jesus were according to {{bibleverse||Luke|24:44–49}}: "the [[Torah|law of Moses]], and in the [[Neviim|prophets]], and in the [[psalms]] ... the scriptures". According to most Bible scholars, the Old Testament was composed between the 5th century BC and the 2nd century BC, though parts of it, such as parts of the [[Torah]], and the [[Song of Deborah]] (Judges 5), probably date back much earlier.

==Canon of the Old Testament==
:''Main article: [[Biblical canon]]''
Following [[Jerome]]'s ''Veritas Hebraica'', the [[Protestant]] Old Testament consists of the same books as the [[Hebrew Bible]], but the order and numbering of the books are different. Protestants number the Old Testament books at 39, while the Jews number the same books as 24. This is because the Jews consider [[Books of Samuel|Samuel]], [[Books of Kings|Kings]], and [[Books of Chronicles|Chronicles]] to form one book each, group the 12 [[minor prophets]] into one book, and also consider [[Book of Ezra|Ezra]] and [[Book of Nehemiah|Nehemiah]] a single book. The [[Roman Catholic]], [[Oriental Orthodox]] and [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Eastern Orthodox]] include books removed by [[Martin Luther]], called the [[deuterocanonical books]], which Protestants exclude as [[apocrypha]]l. The basis for these books is found in the early [[Koine Greek]] [[Septuagint]] translation of the Hebrew Bible. This translation was widely used by the [[Early Christians]] and is the one most often quoted (300 of 350 quotations including many of Jesus' own words) in the [[New Testament]] when it says the same things as in the Old Testament.

''See also: '' [[Books of the Bible]], for a side-by-side comparison of the various canons of the Hebrew Bible.

==Historicity of the Old Testament==
{{see also|Biblical archaeology|The Bible and history}}

Current debate concerning the historicity of the Old Testament can be divided into several camps. One group has been labeled "biblical minimalists" by its critics. Minimalists (e.g., Philip Davies, Thompson, Seters) see very little reliable history in any of the Old Testament. Conservative Old Testament scholars, "biblical maximalists," generally accept the historicity of most Old Testament narratives (save the accounts in Gen 1–11) on confessional grounds, and noted [[Egyptology|Egyptologists]] (e.g., [[Kenneth Kitchen]]) argue that such a belief is not incompatible with the external evidence. Other scholars (e.g., [[William G. Dever|William Dever]]) are somewhere in between: they see clear signs of evidence for the monarchy and much of Israel's later history, though they doubt the Exodus and Conquest. The vast majority of scholars at American universities are somewhere between biblical minimalism and maximalism; there are still many maximalists at conservative/evangelical seminaries, while there are very few biblical minimalists at any American universities. Interestingly, both Kitchen and archaeologist [[Israel Finkelstein]] of [[Tel Aviv University]] are not the only scholars from the maximalist and minimalist camps who are sufficiently trained to address these questions with the necessary sophistication but both are experts in their fields — and both come to different conclusions.

Some contemporary Israeli archaeologists have now rejected much of the Deuteronomistic history of the Old Testament. Notably, Finkelstein and Neal Asher Silberman have written popular books detailing their view that many of the best-known Biblical stories are incompatible with the archaeology of the region. Conversely, in 2003 Kenneth A. Kitchen published the 662 page book ''On the Reliability of the Old Testament'', which defended the Bible's reliability throughout. Although some archeologists have argued that many Biblical accounts should be rejected due to a lack of corroborating archaeological evidence, opponents point out that this is a return to the 19th century idea that anything not confirmed by current archaeology should be dismissed, a methodology that had once led some to question the existence of major empires such as Assyria.

[[Julius Wellhausen]], using [[source criticism]], claimed to have isolated four strands of tradition behind the [[Pentateuch]] (JEDP)(see the [[documentary hypothesis]]). The Wellhausen School assigned dates for these strands (and their later editing) from the 10th–5th centuries BC.

Because the composition of the Pentateuch according to Wellhausen was so much later than the events it described, some who accept Wellhausen's documentary hypothesis tend to regard the narratives of the Pentateuch as largely fictional, while others argue that Wellhausen's method is not valid given that so many of our surviving copies of historical documents date from a much later time period: e.g., the earliest extant copies of Julius Caesar's famous "Commentaries on the Gallic War" are medieval copies dating from the 9th century, nearly a thousand years after Caesar wrote the original.

The most important issue would seem to be the length of the period between the actual events and the setting of them down in writing. Internal evidence in the books themselves suggests that events of the Hebrew monarchies period were set down by royal scribes soon after they happened, and the writer(s) of the Book of Kings had direct access to these writings and quoted extensively from them — whereas earlier events, such as the Exodus and the Conquest, might have spent centuries as oral traditions before a written account of them was set down, which might make the written account considerably different from any actual events that gave the original basis to the tradition.

[[Umberto Cassuto]] wrote The Documentary Hypothesis, challenging Wellhausen's theory.

== Naming of the Old Testament ==
[[Tertullian]], in the 2nd century, was the first to use the terms ''novum testamentum/new testament'' and ''vetus testamentum/old testament''. For example, in ''Against [[Marcion]]''
[http://earlychristianwritings.com/text/tertullian123.html book 3], chapter 14, he wrote:
<blockquote>
This may be understood to be the Divine Word, who is doubly edged with the two testaments of the [[Torah|law]] and the [[gospel]]
</blockquote>
And in [http://earlychristianwritings.com/text/tertullian124.html book 4], chapter 6, he wrote:
<blockquote>
For it is certain that the whole aim at which he has strenuously laboured even in the drawing up of his [[Antitheses]], centres in this, that he may establish a diversity between the Old and the New Testaments, so that his own [[Christ]] may be separate from the [[Creator God|Creator]], as belonging to this rival god, and as alien from the law and the [[Neviim|prophets]].
</blockquote>
[[Lactantius]], in the 3rd century, in his ''Divine Institutes'', book 4, chapter 20 [http://www.ccel.org/fathers2/ANF-07/anf07-07.htm#P1533_624437], wrote:
<blockquote>
But all Scripture is divided into two Testaments. That which preceded the advent and passion of Christ — that is, the [[Torah|law]] and the [[Neviim|prophets]] — is called the Old; but those things which were written after His resurrection are named the New Testament. The Jews make use of the Old, we of the New: but yet they are not discordant, for the New is the fulfilling of the Old, and in both there is the same testator, even Christ, who, having suffered death for us, made us heirs of His everlasting kingdom, the people of the Jews being deprived and disinherited. As the prophet Jeremiah testifies when he speaks such things: [Jer 31:31–32] "Behold, the days come, saith the Lord, that I will make a new testament to the house of Israel and the house of Judah, not according to the testament which I made to their fathers, in the day that I took them by the hand to bring them out of the land of Egypt; for they continued not in my testament, and I disregarded them, saith the Lord." ... For that which He said above, that He would make a new testament to the house of Judah, shows that the old testament which was given by Moses was not perfect; but that that which was to be given by Christ would be complete.
</blockquote>
The [[Vulgate]] translation, in the 5th century, used ''testamentum'' in 2 Corinthians 3 [http://www.latinvulgate.com/verse.aspx?t=1&b=8&c=3]:
<blockquote>
(6) Who also hath made us fit ministers of the new testament, not in the letter but in the spirit. For the letter killeth: but the spirit quickeneth. ([[Douay-Rheims]])
<br>
(14) But their senses were made dull. For, until this present day, the selfsame veil, in the reading of the old testament, remaineth not taken away (because in Christ it is made void). ([[Douay-Rheims]])
</blockquote>
However, the more modern [[New Revised Standard Version]] translates these verses from the [[Koine Greek]] as such:
<blockquote>
(6) Who has made us competent to be ministers of a new covenant, not of letter but of spirit; for the letter kills, but the Spirit gives life.
<br>
(14) But their minds were hardened. Indeed, to this very day, when they hear the reading of the old covenant, that same veil is still there, since only in Christ is it set aside.
</blockquote>
The term "Old Testament" is a translation of the [[Latin]] ''[[Vetus Testamentum]]'', which translates the [[Koine Greek|Greek]] η Παλαια Διαθηκη, ''hē Palaia Diathēkē'', meaning "The Old Covenant (or Testament)". Some believe Christians came to call this group of books the Old Testament because of a belief taught in the [[Epistle to the Hebrews]] and based on Jeremiah 31:31–34 that [[Jesus]] of Nazareth established a [[New Covenant]] or testament between [[God]] and mankind. This new covenant is said to be in contrast with the covenant made through Moses during the Exodus (Heb 8:9; Jer 31:32), see also [[Expounding of the Law#Antithesis of the Law]]. Books written after Jesus established this new covenant or testament are thus called the books of the new covenant/testament, or simply the New Testament. The earlier books are then called the books of the Old Testament in contrast. This is due to a level of ambiguity concerning the translation of ''diatheke'' — literally, "by the bag," a foreswearing of faithful trust — which can be read as either testament or covenant. Also, though not a commonly held view, not all Christians believe there is a contrast, first proposed by [[Marcion of Sinope]], between the Old and New Testaments.

Most Jews accept as Scripture the same books as those found in the Protestant Old Testament, though the ordering of the books in the Jewish Bible differs from that of the Protestant English Old Testament. However, because Judaism does not accept the books of the [[New Testament]] as Scripture, they do not label their Bible "the Old Testament;" for them, the books of the Protestant Old Testament are the complete "Bible." Since the books of the Jewish Bible were written primarily in Hebrew (with some Aramaic), the Bible of Judaism is also often called "the [[Hebrew Bible]]". The term "[[Hebrew Bible]]" is an attempt at a theologically neutral term, as opposed to the term "Old Testament", which is distinctively Christian. Another Jewish term for the Hebrew Bible/Old Testament is [[Tanakh]], which is short for '''''T'''orah'', '''''N'''evi'im'', and '''''K'''etubim'', or "Law," "Prophets" and "Writings" – the three major divisions of the Hebrew Bible.

Twenty-first-century [[Christian theology|Christian theologian]] [[Marva Dawn]] has advocated calling the Old Testament the ''First Testament'', freeing the writings from any trace of irrelevancy associated with aging in western culture.{{Fact|date=February 2007}} However, Dawn's label has not yet gained much popularity, although teachers of religious education in the [[United Kingdom]] have been advised to avoid using "Old Testament" because of the same reasons [http://education.guardian.co.uk/faithschools/story/0,13882,1457028,00.html].

==Christian view of the Law==
[[Image:Bloch-SermonOnTheMount.jpg|thumb|250px|right|[[Christians]] believe that '''[[Jesus]]''' is the mediator of the [[New Covenant]] (see [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?book_id=65&chapter=8&version=47 Hebrews 8:6]). Depicted is his famous [[Sermon on the Mount]] in which he [[Expounding of the Law|commented on the Law]].]]
[[Image:Ten Commandments Monument.jpg|thumb|right|150px|The [[Ten Commandments]] on a monument on the grounds of the Texas State Capitol]]
{{Christianity}}
{{seealso|Sermon on the Mount#Interpretation|Law and Gospel}}

Traditional [[Christianity]] affirms that the [[Mosaic Law]] of the Old Testament (known as ''[[Torah]]'' in [[Judaism]]) is fully inspired by God. However, much of Christian tradition has historically denied that all of the laws of the [[Pentateuch]] apply directly to Christians. There are several different explanations within Christianity that endeavor to explain if and how the laws given by God through Moses apply to Christians.

The New Testament indicates that Jesus Christ established a [[New Covenant|new covenant]] relationship between God and his people ({{bibleverse||Jeremiah|31:31–31:34}}; {{bibleverse||Luke|22:20}}; {{bibleverse||2Cor|2-3}}; {{bibleverse||Heb|8-9}}). Christianity, almost without exception, understands this new covenant to be the instrument through which God offers mercy and atonement to mankind. However, the various views of the Old Testament Law in Christianity result from very different interpretations of what exactly this new covenant is and how it affects the validity of the Mosaic Law. These differences mainly result from attempts to harmonize Biblical statements that say that the Law is eternal with New Testament statements that suggest that it [[Antinomianism#Antinomianism in the New Testament|does not now apply at all]], or at least [[Cafeteria Christianity|does not fully apply]]. Most Biblical scholars admit the issue of the Law can be confusing and the topic of [[Paul of Tarsus|Paul]] and the Law is still frequently debated among New Testament scholars<ref>Gundry, ed., ''Five Views on Law and Gospel''. (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1993).</ref> (for example, see [[New Perspective on Paul]], [[Pauline Christianity]]); hence the various views.

Some conclude that none is applicable, some conclude that only parts are applicable, and some conclude that all is still applicable to believers in Jesus.

=== The Catholic view ===
[[Catholic]] theologian [[Thomas Aquinas]] explained that there is a threefold division in the Law: moral, ceremonial, and judicial. God’s commands were “ordained for a double purpose; the worship of God, and the foreshadowing of Christ.” Upon the advent of Christ, the purpose of all the ceremonial and judicial commands, which was to pre-figure Christ, was fulfilled, causing them to be “annulled” and “dead.”<ref>Aquinas, Thomas. "Summa Theologica (Prima Secundae Partis)"[http://www.newadvent.org/summa/2.htm]</ref> The moral commands remain for the worship of God, summed up in the Ten Commandments. ''The Catechism of the Catholic Church: Part 3, Life in Christ: Section 2, The Ten Commandments: "Teacher, what must I do . . .?"'' states:

:"2068 The [[Council of Trent]] teaches that the Ten Commandments are obligatory for Christians and that the justified man is still bound to keep them; the Second Vatican Council confirms: 'The bishops, successors of the apostles, receive from the Lord . . . the mission of teaching all peoples, and of preaching the Gospel to every creature, so that all men may attain salvation through faith, Baptism and the observance of the Commandments.'"
:"2076 By his life and by his preaching Jesus attested to the permanent validity of the Decalogue."<ref>[http://www.va/archive/catechism/p3s2.htm Catechism of the Catholic Church]</ref>

While upholding the [[Ten Commandments]], the Catholic Church teaches that the Apostles <ref>[http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/john_paul_ii/apost_letters/documents/hf_jp-ii_apl_05071998_dies-domini_en.html Apostolic Letter ''Dies Domini'' of the Holy Father John Paul II]</ref><sup>,</sup><ref>[http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/romancat.html The Catechism of the Council of Trent]</ref> instituted the observance of [[Sabbath in Christianity|Sunday]] instead of the [[Shabbat|Saturday]], and applies the Third Commandment to Sunday as the day to be kept holy as the Lord's Day. It also [[Ten Commandments|numbers the commandments]] according to the numbering preferred by [[Augustine of Hippo|St. Augustine]], which is different from the traditional Protestant numbering, derived from [[Origen]]. The Commandments are often abbreviated for easy [[catechetical]] use. [http://www.vatican.va/archive/ccc_css/archive/catechism/command.htm]

According to Aquinas, not only do the ceremonial portions of the Law not apply now, but it is actually a “mortal sin” to keep these observances after the events of Christ’s Passion. Ceremonial laws, in this view, include the regulations pertaining to ceremonial cleanliness, festivals, diet, and the Levitical priesthood.

Those in disagreement with the Catholic view point out that nowhere is a division of the Law mentioned in the Bible, but rather there is evidence that it is indivisible, and it would be practically impossible to sort commands by these types. Others in disagreement point out that the Law is described in various places as “everlasting” and none of it can terminate or expire; nor could anything that an unchanging God called “righteous” and “good” now have become “sin.”

=== The Reformed/Covenant Theology view ===
The [[Reformed churches|Reformed]], or [[Covenant Theology]] view is similar to the Catholic view. It holds that under the new covenant, the Mosaic Law fundamentally continues, but that parts of it have "expired" and are no longer applicable.<ref>Bahnsen, et al., ''Five Views on Law and Gospel''. (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1993).</ref> The [[Westminster Confession of Faith]] (1646) divides the Mosaic laws into three categories: moral, civil, and ceremonial. In the view of the Westminster divines, only the moral laws of the Mosaic Law, which include the Ten Commandments and the commands repeated in the New Testament, directly apply to Christians today.<ref>[http://www.reformed.org/documents/wcf_with_proofs/index.html?body=/documents/wcf_with_proofs/ch_XIX.html WCF: Chapter XIX]</ref> Ceremonial laws, in this view, include the regulations pertaining to ceremonial cleanliness, festivals, diet, and the Levitical priesthood.

While the view affirms the Sabbath like the Catholic view, some advocates hold that the Commandment concerning the Sabbath was redefined by Jesus ({{bibleverse||Matthew|12:1–13}}, {{bibleverse||Luke|13:10–17}}).<ref>Vangemeren, et al., ''Five Views on Law and Gospel''. (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1993).</ref>

In a revival of ideas established in the Puritan period, starting in the 1970s and 1980s, a branch of Reformed theology known as [[Christian Reconstructionism]] argued that the civil laws as well as the moral laws should be applied in today's society (a position called [[Theonomy]]) as part of establishing a modern theonomic state.<ref>Bahnsen, et al., ''Five Views on Law and Gospel''. (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1993).</ref>

Advocates of this Reformed view hold that, while not always easy to do and overlap between categories does occur, the divisions they make are possible and supported based on information contained in the commands themselves; specifically to whom they are addressed, whom or what they speak about, and their content. For example, a ceremonial law might be addressed to the Levites, speak of purification or holiness and have content which could be considered as a foreshadowing of some aspect of Christ's life or ministry. In keeping with this, most advocates also hold that when the Law is spoken of as everlasting, it is in reference to certain divisions of the Law. Some advocates, usually Theonomists, go further and embrace that idea that the whole Law continues to function, contending that the way in which Christians observe some commands has changed but not the content or meaning of the commands. (For example, they would say that the commands regarding Passover were looking forward to Christ's sacrifical death and the Communion mandate is looking back on it, the former is given to the [[Kohen|Levitical priesthood]] and the latter is given to the [[priesthood of all believers]], but both have the same content and meaning.)<ref>Rousas John Rushdoony, ''The Institutes of Biblical Law''. (Nutley, NJ: Presbyterian & Reformed Pub. Co., 1973).</ref> <ref>Greg L. Bahnsen, ''Theonomy in Christian Ethics''. (Nacogdoches, TX: Covenant Media Press, 1977).</ref> <ref>Gary North, Gary DeMar, ''Christian Reconstruction: What It Is, What It Isn't.'' (Tyler, TX: Institute for Christian Economics, 1991).</ref> <ref>Greg L. Bahnsen, ''No Other Standard: Theonomy and Its Critics''. (Tyler, TX: Institute for Christian Economics, 1991).</ref>

Those in disagreement with this view claim that nowhere is a division of the Law mentioned in the Bible, but rather there is evidence that it is indivisible, and it would be practically impossible to sort commands by these types. Others in disagreement claim that the Law is described in various places as "everlasting" and none of it can terminate or expire.

=== The Dispensational view ===
The [[Dispensationalism|Dispensational]] view holds that under the new covenant, the Mosaic Law has fundamentally been terminated, or abolished, because, in this view, Scripture never describes the Law as divisible — it is one unit (James 2:10–11). Therefore, because portions of New Testament Scripture (such as Heb. 8:13) are understood in this view to annul at least parts of the Law, then the whole Law must be terminated.<ref>Strickland, et al., ''Five Views on Law and Gospel''. (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1993).</ref>

Furthermore, this view holds that the Mosaic laws and the penalties attached to the laws were limited to the particular historical and theological setting of the Old Testament, described in this view as a different “dispensation;” a stage of time in which God dealt with humanity in a fundamentally different way than he does now. We are now living in the “dispensation” of the church/grace, which is a “parenthesis” or “intercalation” in history that is outside of God’s over-arching plan for Israel, and thus the Law given to Israel doesn’t now apply.

Replacing the Mosaic Law is the [[The Law of Christ|“Law of Christ”]] ({{bibleverse|1|Cor|9:21}}), which holds definite similarities with the Mosaic Law in moral concerns, but is new and different, replacing the first Law. Despite this difference, Dispensationalists may seek to find moral and religious principles applicable for today in all parts of the Mosaic Law.

Those in disagreement with the Dispensational view point out that nowhere does the Bible define a series of “dispensations” that this theology propones, and point out that God said that he does not change. Furthermore, opponents point out that the Mosaic Law is described in various places as “everlasting” and must fundamentally continue in some form. Others hold that, for this same reason, none at all can terminate or expire.

=== The Torah-submissive view ===
The [[Christian Torah-submission|Torah-submissive view]], (a view held and proponed by both Jews and non-Jews<ref>Lancaster, D. Thomas. ''Restoration''.</ref>), holds that the entire [[Torah]] is an indivisible whole and fundamentally continues to apply to all followers of God under the new covenant. Proponents emphasize the Biblical passages in both Old and New Testaments describing God's entire Law as both “everlasting” <ref>{{bibleverse||Ps|119:152}}; {{bibleverse||Ps|119:160}}; {{bibleverse||Ex|12:24}}; {{bibleverse||Ex|29:9}}; {{bibleverse||Lev|16:29}}, e.g.</ref> and “good”. <ref>{{bibleverse||Neh|9:13}}; {{bibleverse||Ps|119:39}}; {{bibleverse||Rom|7:7–12}}, e.g.</ref> In addition, this view holds that, rather than negating the Torah, part of the new covenant is to have this same Torah written upon the hearts of believers by the Holy Spirit.<ref>{{bibleverse||Jer|31:31–33}}; {{bibleverse||Ez|36:26-27}}</ref> In this view, Jesus, as the sinless son of God and Messiah, could not possibly have transgressed or taught anyone to transgress this God-given Law, but rather Jesus and the New Testament writers reaffirmed all the commands of the Law as a whole (interpreting {{bibleverse||Matthew|5:17–20}}, {{bibleverse||Matthew|23:1–3}}, {{bibleverse||Matthew|23:23}}, etc. to support this stance). In light of these contexts and other Biblical evidence such as prophecy, this view holds different interpretations of the New Testament passages that have traditionally been understood to invalidate parts of the Law. These interpretations are also considered to be based on literary and historical context and examination of the original languages.<ref>Lancaster, D. Thomas. ''Restoration''. Littleton: First Fruits of Zion, 2005. </ref><ref>Berkowitz, Ariel and D'vorah. ''Torah Rediscovered''. 4th ed. Shoreshim Publishing, 2004. </ref>

Because of the belief that the Torah is applicable, commands such as dietary laws (not necessarily "[[kashrut]]" standards), [[Shabbat|seventh day Sabbath]], and [[Jewish holiday|Biblical festival days]] such as [[Passover (Christian holiday)|Passover]] are honored in some way within such segments of Christianity. Not only are they seen as valid commands, but also as valuable teaching tools about Jesus himself and God’s prophetic plan. As with [[Orthodox Judaism]], capital punishment and sacrifice are not practiced because there are strict Biblical conditions on how these are to be properly practiced that are not in place today (although they are supported in principle).

This view affirms that spiritual salvation is by grace through faith in Jesus. It does not hold that any works are a way to achieve justification and hence salvation, but are rather a way of more fully obeying and [[Imitatio dei|imitating God]] as He intended; the same reason for obeying other, traditionally accepted, commands.

Those in disagreement with this view point out the various New Testament scripture passages that seem to negate some or all of the Mosaic Law, suggesting that its “everlasting” nature is subject to modification in some way under the new covenant and that portions of the Mosaic Law were only applicable in a given time and place, for a specific people, or for a limited purpose.

=== Other views ===
As far as the [[Ten Commandments]], some believe Jesus rejected four of the [[Ten Commandments]] and endorsed only Six [http://www.beliefnet.com/story/117/story_11719_2.html], citing {{bibleverse||Mark|10:17–22}} and the parallels {{bibleverse||Matthew|19:16–22}} and {{bibleverse||Luke|18:18–23}}. (cf. [[Cafeteria Christianity]])

While some Christians from time to time have deduced from statements about the law in the writings of the [[apostle]] [[Paul of Tarsus|Paul]] that Christians are under [[Divine grace|grace]] ''to the exclusion of all law'' (see [[antinomianism]], [[hyperdispensationalism]], [[Christian anarchism]]), this is not the usual viewpoint of Christians.

=== Law-related passages with disputed interpretation ===
The Acts of the Apostles in the New Testament describes a conflict among the first Christians as to the necessity of following all the laws of the Torah to the letter, see [[Council of Jerusalem]].

Some have interpreted Mark's statement: "Thus he declared all foods clean" ({{bibleverse||Mark|7:19|NRSV}} [[NRSV]]) to mean that Jesus taught that the [[Kashrut|pentateuchal food laws]] were no longer applicable to his followers, see also [[Antinomianism#Antinomianism in the New Testament|Antinomianism in the New Testament]]. However, the statement is not found in the Matthean parallel {{bibleverse||Matthew|15:15–20}} and is also a disputed translation: the ''Scholars Version''<ref>Miller, Robert J. Editor ''The Complete Gospels'' Polebridge Press 1994 ISBN 0-06-065587-9</ref> has: "This is how everything we eat is purified", Gaus' ''Unvarnished NT''<ref>Gaus, Andy. ''The Unvarnished New Testament'' 1991 ISBN 0-933999-99-2</ref> has: "purging all that is eaten." See also [http://www.blueletterbible.org/cgi-bin/words.pl?word=2511 Strong's G2511].

Others note that Peter had never eaten anything that was not [[kosher]] many years after Acts 2 ([[Pentecost]]). To the heavenly vision he announced: "Not so, Lord; for I have never eaten any thing that is common or unclean." ({{bibleverse||Acts|10:14|KJV}}) Therefore, Peter was unaware that Jesus had changed the Mosaic food laws. In [[Mark 7]], Jesus may have been just referring to a tradition of the [[Pharisees]] about eating with [[Hand washing|unwashed hands]]. For example, the insertion found in many translations concerning his declaration that all foods were clean is not found in the [[King James Version]]: {{bibleverse||Mark|7:19|KJV}}. The expression "purging all meats" may have meant the digestion and elimination of food from the body rather than the declaration that all foods were kosher. The confusion primarily centers around the participle used in the original Greek for "purging". Some scholars believe it agrees with the word for Jesus, which is nearly 40 words away from the participle. If this is the case, then it would mean that Jesus himself is the one doing the purifying. In New Testament Greek, however, the participle is rarely that far away from the noun it modifies, and many scholars agree that it is far more likely that the participle is modifying the digestive process (literally: the latrine), which is only two words away. The writer of Hebrews indicates that the sacrifices and the [[Levitical]] priesthood foreshadowed Jesus Christ's offering of himself as the [[Substitutionary atonement|sacrifice for sin]] on the Cross, and many have interpreted this to mean that once the reality of Christ has come, the shadows of the ritual laws cease to be obligatory (Heb 8:5; 9:23–26; 10:1). On the other hand, the New Testament repeats and applies to Christians a number of Old Testament laws, including "Love your neighbor as yourself" ({{bibleverse||Lev|19:18}}; cf. [[Ethic of reciprocity|Golden Rule]], {{bibleverse||Mark|12:31}}), "Love the LORD your God with all your heart, soul and strength" ({{bibleverse||Deut|6:4–5}}, the [[Shema]], {{bibleverse||Mark|12:29–30}}).

Still others believe a partial list of the commandments was merely an abbreviation that stood for all the commandments because Jesus prefaced his statement to the rich young ruler with the statement: "If you want to enter life, obey the commandments". Some people claim that since Jesus did not qualify his pronouncement, that he meant all the commandments. The rich young ruler asked "which" commandments. Jesus gave him a partial list from the second table. The first set of commandments deal with a relationship to God. The second set of commandments deal with a relationship to men. No doubt Jesus condsidered the relationship to God important, but Jesus may have considered that the young man was perhaps lacking in this second set, which made him obligated to men. (This is inferred by his statement that to be perfect he should sell his goods, give them to the poor and come and follow Jesus — thereby opening to him a place in the coming Kingdom.)

Several times Paul mentioned adhering to "the Law", such as {{bibleverse||Romans|2:12–16}}, {{bibleverse-nb||Romans|3:31}}, {{bibleverse-nb||Romans|7:12}}, {{bibleverse-nb||Romans|8:7–8}}, {{bibleverse||Gal|5:3}}, {{bibleverse||Acts|24:14}}, {{bibleverse-nb||Acts|25:8}} and preached about Ten Commandment topics such as [[idolatry]] ({{bibleverse|1|Cor|5:11}}, {{bibleverse-nb|1|Cor|6:9–10}}, {{bibleverse-nb|1|Cor|10:7}}, {{bibleverse-nb|1|Cor|10:14}}, {{bibleverse||Gal|5:19–21}}, {{bibleverse||Eph|5:5}}, {{bibleverse||Col|3:5}}, {{bibleverse||Acts|17:16–21}}, {{bibleverse-nb||Acts|19:23–41}}). Many Christians believe that the [[Sermon on the Mount]] is a form of commentary on the Ten Commandments. In the [[Expounding of the Law]], Jesus said that he did not come to abolish the Law, but to fulfill it; while in [[Marcion]]'s version of Luke 23:2 we find the extension: "We found this fellow perverting the nation ''and destroying the law and the prophets''".<ref>[http://ccel.org/fathers2/ANF-03/anf03-32.htm#P7077_2049929 Ante-Nicene Fathers: Tertullian: Against Marcion: Dr. Holmes' Note]: "In [Luke 23:2], after the words "perverting the nation," Marcion added, "and destroying the law and the prophets; [http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Ithaca/3827/Gospel6.html#Pilate Gospel of Marcion: Jesus Before Pilate and Herod]</ref> See also [[Expounding of the Law#Adherence to the Law|Adherence to the Law]] and [[Expounding of the Law#Antithesis of the Law|Antithesis of the Law]].

==References==
{{reflist}}

==See also==
* [[Biblical canon]]
* [[Expounding of the Law]]
* [[Antinomianism]]
* [[Books of the Bible]]
* [[Biblical figures]]
* [[Bible]]
* [[Septuagint]]
* [[Quotations from the Old Testament in the New Testament]]
* [[Tanakh]]
* [[Hebrew Bible]]
* [[Lost books of the Old Testament]]
* [[Table of books of Judeo-Christian Scripture]]
*[[Ital]]
*[[Covenant (biblical)]]
*[[Law and Gospel]]

==Further reading==
* Rouvière, Jean-Marc. ''Brèves méditations sur la Création du monde'' Ed. L'Harmattan, Paris, 2006
* Berkowitz, Ariel and D'vorah. ''Torah Rediscovered''. 4th ed. Shoreshim Publishing, 2004. ISBN 0-9752914-0-8
* [[Bernhard Anderson|Anderson, Bernhard]]. ''Understanding the Old Testament''. (ISBN 0-13-948399-3 )
* Dever, William G. ''Who Were the Early Israelites?'' William B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., Grand Rapids, MI, 2003. ISBN 0-8028-0975-8
* Hill, Andrew and John Walton. ''A Survey of the Old Testament.'' 2nd ed. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2000. ISBN 0-310-22903-0 .
* Kuntz, John Kenneth. ''The People of Ancient Israel: an introduction to Old Testament Literature, History, and Thought'', Harper and Row, 1974. ISBN 0-06-043822-3
* Lancaster, D. Thomas. ''Restoration: Returning the Torah of God to the Diciples of Jesus.'' Littleton: First Fruits of Zion, 2005.
* Silberman, Neil A., et al. ''The Bible Unearthed''. Simon and Schuster, New York, 2003. ISBN 0-684-86913-6 (paperback) and ISBN 0-684-86912-8 (hardback)
* Sprinkle, Joe M. ''Biblical Law and Its Relevance: A Christian Understanding and Ethical Application for Today of the Mosaic Regulations.'' Lanham, MD: University Press of America, 2006. ISBN 0-7618-3371-4 (clothbound) and ISBN 0-7618-3372-2 (paperback)
* Bahnsen, Greg, et al, ''Five Views on Law and Gospel''. (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1993).

== External links ==
*[http://www.dinur.org/resources/resourceCategoryDisplay.aspx?categoryID=411&rsid=478 Biblical History] The Jewish History Resource Center — Project of the Dinur Center for Research in Jewish History, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem
* [http://www.gospelhall.org/bible/bible.php?passage=Genesis+1 ''Full Text of the OT'' at GospelHall.org]
*[http://www.hope.edu/academic/religion/bandstra/RTOT/RTOT.HTM Barry L. Bandstra, "Reading the Old Testament : An Introduction to the Hebrew Bible"]
*[http://www.biblegateway.com/ Full text of the Old (and New) Testaments in 42 different languages.]
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/14526a.htm Catholic Encyclopedia: Old Testament]
*[http://www.chabad.org/article.asp?aid=63255 Judaica Press Translation — Online Jewish translation of the Old Testament.] The Tanakh and [[Rashi]]'s entire commentary.
*{{PDFlink|[http://www.iishj.org/images/Bible.pdf Old Testament stories and commentary.]|880 [[Kibibyte|KiB]]}}
*[http://www.propheticmidrash.com Prophetic Midrash: Chronological Summaries, with List of Prophets of the Old Testament]
*[http://evangelicaltextualcriticism.blogspot.com Evangelical Textual Criticism Blog]
* Rev. Dr. [[Gerhard von Rad]]
*[http://www.verselink.org/ Old Testament - King James Version with Hebrew and Encyclopedic links]
*[http://www.wlsessays.net/subjects/O/osubind.htm#Old%20Testament Scholarly articles on the Old Testament from the Wisconsin Lutheran Seminary Library]

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Genetics

2007-07-12T04:24:48Z

BounceWiggleBounce:

==Terms used in genetics==

*[[DNA]] - very long organic molecule, with two strands linked with spokes
*[[RNA]]
*[[chromosome]]
*[[allele]]
*[[gene]]

==Genetics in Evolution==
Genetics, to many, is intertwined with the theory of evolution. Conservapedia compels you to disregard such subjects as they are false and non-Christian in nature.