Conservapedia - User contributions [en]

Swearing in

2010-09-30T04:04:00Z

BrentK: Got evidence for that claim?

'''Swearing in''' in the process of holding witnesses accountable for their official statements, as in a court proceeding such as a criminal or civil trial. While a witness is sworn in, everything they say must be true, or else they can be charged with [[perjury]].

In Christian countries such as the U.S., a witness will place one hand on the Bible and raise the other hand, though the Bible is rarely used in court proceedings today, if ever.{{fact}} A common oath taken is,

:Do you swear to tell the truth, the whole truth and nothing but the truth (so help you God)?

The answer is,

:I do.

Officials are often sworn into office in a similar way.

==Koran controversy==

America's first [[Muslim]] congressman, [[Keith Ellison]] (D - Minn.), said he would carry a Koran to his swearing-in ceremony.<ref> [http://www.csmonitor.com/2006/1207/p01s03-uspo.html At swearing in, congressman wants to carry Koran. Outrage ensues]</ref>

==Notes==
<references />

[[Category:Legal Terms]]

Howard Zinn

2010-09-28T02:10:39Z

BrentK:

[[Howard Zinn]] (August 24, 1922 – January 27, 2010) was a [[Communist]]<ref>[http://www.renewamerica.com/columns/vernon/100809 Howard Zinn: Communist liar]</ref> who is most famous for his book, ''[[A People's History of the United States]]''. The book has sold over a million copies and gives a far-left interpretation of political history (see [[historical revisionism]]). Zinn's work manifests an inability or unwillingness to engage in objective analysis, and lacks contextual considerations, and instead his presentation of history is a polemic for liberal change. Zinn was very popular with liberal elites, and his book was made into a propagandistic film, "The People Speak", which the History Channel carried on cable television.

Historian and author John Fea of Messiah College states that,
{{cquote|Zinn writes well and is quite inspiring, but his book is bad history. In fact, I would not even call it history. A People's History of the United States is a political tract that uses the past to promote a presentist agenda...Zinn's book violates virtually every rule of good historical thinking.<ref>[http://www.philipvickersfithian.com/search/label/Howard%20Zinn Howard Zinn vs. David Barton]</ref>}}

Michael Kazin, Professor in the Department of History at Georgetown University states that
<blockquote>A People's History is bad history, albeit gilded with virtuous intentions. Zinn reduces the past to a Manichean fable", whose failure to adequately explain why most Americans accepted the legitimacy of the capitalist republic "is grounded in a premise better suited to a conspiracy-monger's Web site than to a work of scholarship."<ref>[http://hnn.us/articles/4370.html Michael Kazin, "Howard Zinn's Disappointing History of the United States",] History News Network, 3-30-04</ref></blockquote>

Janie B. Cheaney of [[World Magazine]] notes,
<blockquote>
From the beginning, critics have pointed out the lack of context, sourcing and footnoting, and objectivity in Zinn's work. The author countered that his aim was not objective history, but prescriptive history—not studying the past as a means of understanding the past, but of changing the future.</blockquote>
<blockquote>
When changing the future, one can't start too young. The Zinn Education Project, a nonprofit organization dedicated to "Teaching A People's History" maintains a website of educational resources for getting Zinn's ideas into elementary and even preschool classrooms. A Young People's History of the United States is already available; next up is the comic-book version. The story always begins with friendly Indians paddling blithely into the clutches of European imperialists.
<ref>[http://www.worldmag.com/articles/16402 ''The wilderness of Zinn''] World Magazine, February 27, 2010</ref></blockquote>

According to Zinn,
<blockquote>Objectivity is impossible and it is also undesirable. That is, if it were possible it would be undesirable, because if you have any kind of a social aim, if you think history should serve society in some way; should serve the progress of the human race; should serve justice in some way, then it requires that you make your selection on the basis of what you think will advance causes of humanity.” <ref>Zinn, ''A People's History of the United States'', p. 646</ref></blockquote>

''A People's History of the United States'' does not incorporate the newer theories of history, but provides an energetic heavy-handed attack on conservatives, business, and white men. His book is stuck in 1950, methodologically, and does not appreciate the scholarship of the last 4 decades in the "new" intellectual, political, economic, diplomatic, military, cultural or social history. His "newest" ideas are that the white male "working class" -- as well as blacks, Indians, and women -- are victims of capitalism, a stock notion of 1930s [[Socialism|socialist]] philosophy regarding workers.

Zinn's motivation for his radical point-of-view presentation of history appears to have formally begun with an event at an early age. When he the age of 17 he attended a Times Square political rally where was knocked senseless by police. As a result,, Zinn stated that, "I was no longer a liberal, a believer in the self-correcting character of democracy. I was a radical, believing something was fundamentally wrong with this country."

It has been pointed out that, consistent with the no-contextual analysis Zinn often engages in, he himself could be considered to be a villainous, arbitrary murderer of women and children, as he served in the United States Air Corps during World War II on a bomber crew.

==Communist Party activity==
In response to a [[Freedom of Information Act]] (FOIA) request by Cliff Kincaid, Editor of [[Accuracy in Media]], on July 30, 2010, the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation]] (FBI) released a 423 page file on Howard Zinn.The FBI file reveals that while Zinn denied being a member of the CPUSA, several reliable informants in the party identified Zinn as a member who attended party meetings as many as five times a week.

The FBI first opened a domestic security investigation on Zinn in 1949, which revealed Zinn’s activities in what were called [[Communist]] Front Groups, and received reports from informants that Zinn was an active member of the CPUSA, with one stating that he was "believed to be a CP member as of October, 1956." In the 1960s, the Bureau took another look at Zinn on account of his criticism of the FBI’s civil rights investigations. A 1964 FBI memorandum refers to Zinn as "a professor and writer who has a background of known membership in the Communist Party (CP) and has continued to demonstrate procommunist and anti-United States sympathies." It also reveals that while Zinn had denied membership in the CPUSA, his denial "was not supported by facts" - a reference to the substantial evidence and eyewitness testimony provided by informants in the CPUSA. Further investigation was made when Zinn traveled to North Vietnam with Daniel Berrigan as an anti-war activist. The investigation ended in 1974, and no further investigation into Zinn or his activities was made by the FBI.<ref>[http://foia.fbi.gov/foiaindex/zinn_howard.htm Federal Bureau of Investigation, Howard Zinn]</ref><ref>[http://www.rightsidenews.com/2010073011179/editorial/leftist-qhistorianq-howard-zinn-lied-about-red-ties/print.html Cliff Kincaid, ''Leftist "Historian" Howard Zinn Lied About Red Ties''] Friday, 30 July 2010 </ref>

==References==
{{reflist|small}}

[[Category: Historians]]
[[Category: Liberal Activists]]
[[Category:Socialists]]
[[Category: Lunatics]]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Zinn, Howard}}

Noam Chomsky

2010-09-28T02:10:07Z

BrentK:

[[Image:Chomsky3.gif|right|130px]]
'''Noam Chomsky''' (born December 7, 1928) is an extreme left-wing propagandist and genocide denier<ref>http://www.paulbogdanor.com/chomsky/cambodiacomments.pdf</ref><ref>http://www.jim.com/chomsdis.htm</ref><ref>http://www.paulbogdanor.com/chomsky/labedz.pdf</ref>. He advocates holding America to an absolute standard of ethics in foreign relations, but has not held such a standard elsewhere. He tends to ignore such violations by other countries, even when they have been far worse. Fellow liberal academic, [[Arthur Schlesinger]], once referred to Chomsky as "an intellectual crook." <ref>"He begins as a preacher to the world and ends as an intellectual crook." -- [[Arthur Schlesinger]] - ''Commentary'' magazine, December 1969</ref>

He is an institute professor & professor of [[linguistics]] (Emeritus) at the [[MIT|Massachusetts Institute of Technology]] (MIT) <ref>http://web.mit.edu/linguistics/people/faculty/chomsky/index.html</ref>.
Chomsky is very critical of [[America]]n and [[Israel]]i foreign policy, sympathizes with [[Palestine|Palestinians]] and has shown support for the terrorist organization [[Hezbollah]]<ref>http://www.camera.org/index.asp?x_context=7&x_issue=11&x_article=1151</ref>. He has also been criticized for [[anti-Semitism]], despite having come from a Jewish family and having once spoken and written Hebrew.<ref>http://books.google.com/books?id=RKUbyYPG4mcC&pg=PA7&lpg=PA7&dq=noam+chomsky+%22jewish+heritage%22&source=bl&ots=_DSi5cwxKc&sig=xHoUkX3zV4_dFwO2Gb-xrIxMJbw&hl=en&ei=Bf8iS7-DB5CXlAeXx8zzCQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=6&ved=0CBoQ6AEwBQ#v=snippet&q=chomsky%20jewish%20family&f=false</ref>

== Background ==
Chomsky was born '''Avram Noam Chomsky''' in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, the son of William Chomsky, a [[Russian]] immigrant, and Elsie Simonofsky Chomsky. His parents both practiced Judaism. His father taught [[Hebrew]], and published a scholarly edition of a medieval Hebrew grammar.<ref>http://www.mnsu.edu/emuseum/information/biography/abcde/chomsky_noam.html</ref>. He received his education at the [[University of Pennsylvania]] where he studied linguistics, mathematics, and philosophy, and eventually earned his [[Ph. D.]] in 1955. Since then, he has taught at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. He previously held the Ferrari P. Ward Chair of Modern Language and Linguistics, and is now an Institute Professor.
==Linguistic Works==
Chomsky's work is considered to be the spark of modern linguistic thought. His research deals with questions including the critical analysis of language and grammar, the role of biology in language and language acquisition, and the importance (or lack there of) of structural grammar and formal grammar in language function and development.

Chomsky has argued that the primary role the linguist should play is to decipher a language's grammatical structure. Chomsky has provided the field of linguistics path and policy in describing language as a concept and particular languages, as well as core functions of any particular language.
===Generative Grammar===
Noam Chomsky advocates the view that the human mind has innate ability to generate grammatical sentences, thus, all utterances deemed sensible to the speaker are necessarily grammatical. All humans, he argues, share a core of grammar that explodes into the thousands and thousands of distinct languages spoken by humans over time and place. Generative grammar ultimately suggests that the brain is like an unlabeled map, and a child's role is to assign different "paths" with particular labels.

===Universal Grammar===
Noam Chomsky also proposed the theory that a kind of universal grammar, a grammar that underlies all human languages, is hard-wired in the human brain. Thus all human languages are fundamentally the same, with only superficial differences.
===Criticism===
Both the theory of universal grammar as well as generative grammar have been criticized over time. A primary argument is that the majority of Chomsky's studies are based in English, and do not represent "human language" as a whole. Linguist Geoffrey Sampson suggests that the core of his arguments are not scientifically falsifiable, and therefore hold no more weight than mere opinion or conjecture. Sampson follows that Chomsky does not seem to be able to make predictions of what is possible in a language.
Finally, many of his critics claim that Chomsky's books are riddled with factual inaccuracies <ref>http://www.paulbogdanor.com/200chomskylies.pdf</ref>.

==Political Views==
Chomsky has stated that his "personal visions are fairly traditional anarchist ones, with origins in The Enlightenment and classical liberalism" and he has praised libertarian socialism.

His opponents accuse him of expressing admiration for governmental systems such as the Soviet Union, Chinese and Cambodian governments which are characterized by central control, xenophobia, and rejection of free expression, though he has openly expressed opposition to the Soviet Union and other regimes characterized by authoritarianism, arguing that they are not legitimate forms of socialism.<ref>http://chomsky.info/articles/1986----.htm</ref> He also counters that he is merely pointing out the West's own crimes and not condoning authoritarian governments that the West opposes. His stated justification for this is that criticism of other authoritarian governments will do nothing except give the United States ammunition against other countries, while being able to freely ignore their own crimes, whereas criticism of his own country may bring about what he considers to be positive reform. Chomsky identifies himself as a libertarian socialist who is opposed to both neoliberalism and authoritarianism. <ref>http://www.frontpagemag.com/Articles/ReadArticle.asp?ID=19446</ref>
=== Anti-Semitism ===
Chomsky has been criticized for [[anti-Semitism]].<ref>http://www.jbooks.com/interviews/index/IP_Dershowitz.htm</ref><ref>http://www.frontpagemag.com/Articles/ReadArticle.asp?ID=15381</ref>. In addition to his support for Hezbollah, He has stated that Jews are "the most privileged and influential part of the population", and that "Anti-Semitism is no longer a problem. It's raised, but it's raised because privileged people want to make sure they have total control, not just 98% control"<ref>http://www.variant.randomstate.org/16texts/Chomsky.html</ref>. His statements show striking similarities with classic anti-Semitism.

Chomsky has also been a vocal supporter of controversial author Norman Finkelstein, author of ''The Holocaust Industry'', who has argued that claims of anti-Semitism are used to silence critics of Israel and that the Holocaust is exploited by some Jewish institutions for their own gain.<ref>[http://www.mg.co.za/articlePage.aspx?articleid=311000&area=/breaking_news/breaking_news__international_news University denies tenure to Holocaust academic], ''Mail & Guardian'', 12 June 2007.</ref>

It should be noted that both Finkelstein and Chomsky are from Jewish-American backgrounds <ref>[http://www.normanfinkelstein.com/article.php?pg=11&ar=150]</ref><ref>http://www.tikkun.org/rabbi_lerner/noamchomsky2005</ref>, and that both Chomsky's parents were devout and involved in Jewish scholarship. It is unclear whether Chomsky still practices Judaism.

===Controversies===
#Chomsky denied the Cambodian Genocide, claiming that the killing had been inflated "by a factor of 100."<ref>http://www.paulbogdanor.com/chomsky/encounter.pdf</ref><ref>http://www.paulbogdanor.com/chomsky/labedz.pdf</ref> He further asserted that the (in reality) 2 to 3 million Cambodians slaughtered by the [[Khmer Rouge]] from 1975 to 1978 were morally comparable to Nazi collaborators during WW2, and that [[Pol Pot]]'s Cambodia was "comparable to France after liberation [from the Nazis]."<ref>http://www.mekong.net/cambodia/chomsky.htm</ref>
#Chomsky recently (1995) claimed, in the wake of overwhelming evidence to the contrary, that the death toll in Cambodia may have been inflated "by a factor of a ''thousand''."<ref>http://www.mekong.net/cambodia/chomsky.htm#fn61</ref> Since he was responding to an estimate of two million dead, his words would imply that the real toll was on the order of two thousand. (Note: Investigators have uncovered and examined the remains of 1.1 million Cambodians found in mass graves near Khmer Rouge execution centers whose cause of death has been determined by the investigators to have been execution by the former Khmer Rouge regime.<ref>http://www.mekong.net/cambodia/deaths.htm</ref><ref>http://www.mekong.net/cambodia/toll.htm</ref><ref>http://welcome.to/dccam</ref> Because no ''more'' than roughly ''half'' of those killed by the Khmer Rouge were executed (the rest having died from other causes like state-created famine, the deliberate withholding of basic necessities by the state, the refusal by the state to allow foreign aid, the abolishing of medicine and hospitals by the state, systematic overwork and slave labor by the state, and brutal mistreatment by the state), the Documentation Center of Cambodia estimates that the former regime killed or otherwise caused the unnecessary deaths of, between 2 and 3 million Cambodians.<ref>http://www.mekong.net/cambodia/deaths.htm</ref> A UN investigation reported 2-3 million dead, while UNICEF estimated 3 million dead.<ref>William Shawcross, The Quality of Mercy: Cambodia, Holocaust, and Modern Conscience (Touchstone, 1985), p115-6</ref> Demographic estimates went as high as 4 million killed by the Khmer Rouge from 1975 to 1978.<ref>http://www.paulbogdanor.com/chomsky/labedz.pdf</ref> Even the Khmer Rouge acknowledged that 2 million had been killed—though they attributed those deaths to a subsequent Vietnamese invasion.<ref>Khieu Samphan, Interview, Time, March 10, 1980</ref>)
#Chomsky has claimed that [[Pearl Harbor]] saved millions of lives and that America and Britain used Nazi armies to attack the [[Soviet Union]] and prolong the [[Holocaust]].<ref>http://www.paulbogdanor.com/chomsky/newyorker1.html</ref>
#Chomsky has stated: “Of course, no one supposed that Mao literally murdered tens of millions of people, or that he ‘intended’ that any die at all.”<ref>“Second Reply to Casey,” ZNet, September 2001: http://www.zmag.org/chomreply2.htm</ref> In fact, a comprehensive analysis by Professor R.J. Rummel concluded that Mao was responsible for the deaths of 76 million Chinese.<ref>http://www.hawaii.edu/powerkills/NOTE1.HTM</ref>
#Chomsky regularly compares the "alleged" genocide in Cambodia to the 21-year occupation of [[East Timor]] by [[Indonesia]]. He wrote: “The harshest critics claim that perhaps 100,000 people have been slaughtered [in Cambodia]… Comparing East Timor with Cambodia, we see that the time frame of alleged atrocities is the same, the numbers allegedly slaughtered are roughly comparable in absolute terms, and five to ten times as high in East Timor relative to population… my own conclusion is that the sources in the [case of] East Timor are more credible…”<ref>Radical Priorities (rev. ed., AK Press, 2003), p80.</ref> Based on the findings of genocide investigators, as mentioned above; at least 2.2 million people were killed by the Khmer Rouge in Cambodia in three years. A Truth Commission found that the Indonesian war in East Timor caused 18,600 violent killings and 75,000-183,000 deaths from hunger and illness.<ref>Final Report of the Commission for Reception, Truth and Reconciliation in East Timor (CAVR), January 30, 2006, part 6, paras. 47, 56-7: http://www.ictj.org/en/news/features/846.html</ref> [[Suharto]] killed far less people in absolute terms over decades in one of the world's most populous countries than Pol Pot killed in three years in a country with under 7 million people, and exponentially less relative to the size of the population.
#Chomsky denied any genocide or mass reprisals in [[Laos]] after the Communist victory, stating that the Pathet Lao "have made some efforts to achieve a reconciliation with the mountain tribesmen who had been organized in the CIA clandestine army."<ref>After the Cataclysm (South End Press, 1979), p122.</ref> Some 100,000 tribespeople had been exterminated in a campaign of genocide at the time.<ref>Forced Back and Forgotten (Lawyers’ Committee for Human Rights, 1989), p8 (estimate); Jane Hamilton-Merritt, Tragic Mountains: The Hmong, the Americans, and the Secret Wars for Laos, 1942-1992 (Indiana Uniersity Press, 1999), pp337-460 (atrocities).</ref>
#Chomsky once wrote: “At the end of 1978 Cambodia [under the Khmer Rouge] was the only country in Indochina that had succeeded at all in overcoming the agricultural crisis that was left by the American destruction.”<ref>Language and Politics (AK Press, 2004), pp245-6. Cf.: “it was a condition of survival to turn (or return) the populations to productive work. The victors in Cambodia undertook drastic and often brutal measures to accomplish this task… At a heavy cost, these measures appear to have overcome the dire and destructive consequences of the US war by 1978,” After the Cataclysm (South End Press, 1979), pviii.</ref> By late 1979, UN and Red Cross officials were warning that another 2.25 million Cambodians faced death by starvation due to “the near destruction of Cambodian society under the regime of ousted Prime Minister Pol Pot,”<ref>New York Times, August 8, 1979.</ref><ref>http://www.time.com/time/magazine/printout/0,8816,912511,00.html</ref> who were saved by American and international aid. The Cambodian communists' economic plans were, at times, utterly surreal. Scholar David Chandler notes that, in a Democratic Kampuchea report on General Political Tasks of 1976, there are three lines devoted to education, and six devoted to urine. The document states that, regarding human urine, "We collect thirty per cent. That leaves a surplus of 70%." These were indicative of the types of policies that Chomsky and his co-writer, Edward Herman, claimed had lifted Cambodia out of the ashes of war.
#Chomsky openly claimed in 1977 that Pol Pot had saved more than one million lives.<ref>http://www.paulbogdanor.com/chomsky/cambodiacomments.pdf</ref> He did so by citing a Nixon administration statement that US aid to Cambodia should continue because the Khmer Rouge would likely kill more than one million people if they took over, and then falsely restating it to imply that more than one million Cambodians would starve to death if aid was cut off. At the time of this essay, the Khmer Rouge had probably already killed more than one million people, but Chomsky was still claiming that "executions numbered at most in the thousands," that Khmer Rouge atrocities had been "inflated by a factor of 100" and that those the Khmer Rouge had allegedly refrained from killing were actually saved by the Khmer Rouge. One million people had not died since aid was terminated, he said, therefore one million lives had been saved from starvation by the Khmer Rouge's ingenious economic policies. (Chomsky is also implying that the US cut off aid to Cambodia, when it actually had an unconditional offer to supply aid to it. Aid was terminated ''by the Khmer Rouge'').
#Chomsky has praised Imperial Japan for allegedly "saving maybe tens of millions of lives."<ref>Interview, International Socialist Review, September-October 2002.</ref>
#Chomsky has expressed support for the former Communist dictatorship of [[Angola]]: “The defense of Angola was one of Cuba’s most significant contributions to the liberation of Africa.”<ref>Hegemony or Survival (Penguin, 2004), p94.</ref> Cuban military intervention in support of the communist MPLA dictatorship in Angola led to decades of civil war that cost 1 million lives. Other Cuban “contributions to the liberation of Africa” include fighting for the communist dictatorship in Ethiopia, which killed 1.25 million people by massacre and forced starvation.<ref>Médecins Sans Frontières, “Angola: An Alarming Nutritional Situation,” August 1999 (Angola death toll); Washington Post, March 18, 1978 (Ethiopia intervention); New York Times, December 14, 1994(Ethiopia death toll).</ref>
#Chomsky has repeatedly denied that the former Sandinista regime in [[Nicaragua]] committed any human rights violations at all.<ref>The Culture of Terrorism (South End Press, 1988), p137.</ref> According to the Nicaraguan Commission of Jurists, the regime carried out some 8,000 political murders within its first three years in power.
#Chomsky also strongly approved of the Sandinista's economic policies, writing that “the crime of the Sandinistas was to carry out successful development… they immediately began to divert resources to the poor part of the population.”<ref>Latin America: From Colonization to Globalization (Ocean Press, 1999), p57.</ref> Within a few years of Sandinista rule, wages had been fixed below poverty level and there was mass unemployment. There were shortages of nearly all basic goods, with inflation at 30,000%. Government studies found that three-quarters of schoolchildren suffered from malnutrition, while living standards were lower than Haiti. The World Bank found that Nicaragua was on the economic level of Somalia.<ref>Roger Miranda and William Ratliff, The Civil War in Nicaragua (Transaction, 1993), pp183-4.</ref>
#Chomsky referred to 22 Israeli schoolchildren murdered by Palestinian terrorists as "members of a paramilitary youth group."<ref>Pirates and Emperors, Old and New (rev. ed., Pluto Press, 2002), p65.</ref> He falsely claimed there had been "an exchange of fire" between the schoolchildren and the terrorists.
#Chomsky claimed after the [[9/11]] attacks that “Western civilization is anticipating the slaughter of, well do the arithmetic, 3-4 million people or something like that [in Afghanistan]… Looks like what’s happening is some sort of silent genocide… we are in the midst of apparently trying to murder 3 or 4 million people…”<ref>“The New War Against Terror,” Lecture, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, October 18, 2001.</ref> Far from killing millions, the American intervention saved lives. UNICEF figures indicate that the deaths of 112,000 children and 7,500 pregnant women have been prevented every year since as a result.<ref>New York Times, February 1, 2002.</ref> The US invasion ''saved'' millions of Afghans from starvation.<ref>http://www.washingtonpost.com/ac2/wp-dyn/A42858-2001Dec30?language=printer</ref><ref>http://archive.frontpagemag.com/readArticle.aspx?ARTID=24019</ref> Chomsky responded by claiming in 2002 that it was still possible that millions might starve to death, but that the Americans and the media could cover it up: "What the effects will be, we will never know. Starvation is not something that kills people instantly. People eat roots and leaves and they drag on for a while. And the effects of starvation may be the death of children born from malnourished mothers a year or two from now, and all sorts of consequences. Furthermore, nobody’s going to look because the West is not interested in such things and others don’t have the resources."<ref>http://www.leftwatch.com/articles/2004/chomsky-backpedals-on-silent-genocide-in-afghanistan/</ref>
#Chomsky believes that there are “no anti-Semitic implications in denial of the existence of gas chambers, or even denial of the Holocaust.”<ref>Quoted in W.D. Rubinstein, “Chomsky and the Neo-Nazis,” Quadrant, October 1981.</ref>
#Chomsky has repeatedly claimed that there has never been so much as a misplaced comma in any of his writings and that no valid criticism of any of his statements or ideas has ever been published by anyone.<ref>http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XKPtwYzehYM</ref>

===Chomsky's Criticisms of the West===
Chomsky is one of the most vocal critics of the [[United States]] foreign policy. Some of his criticisms are:
#The overthrow of democratic and secular leader [[Mohammed Mossadegh]] in Iran and replacement with the Shah, a brutal dictator in 1953 (Done by the US and the UK)
#The overthrow of social democrat Jacobo Arbenz in [[Guatemala]] in 1954
#The overthrow of democratic socialist Salvador Allende in Chile on 9/11 in 1973
#The Dirty War against the Sandinista government in [[Nicaragua]] in the 1980s
#The backing of a brutal military dictatorship in [[El Salvador]] during the same time period
#Selling weapons to a terror-state ([[Iran]]) to fund another terrorist group (The Contras). (See [[Iran-Contra Affair]])
#Supporting [[Saddam Hussein]] during the Iran-Iraq war.
#Supporting the mujahideen which later became al Qaeda and the Taliban in Afghanistan in the 1980s
#Invading [[Iraq]] in 2003 despite lack of support from the [[UN]]
#Blatant Support of [[Israel]] which Chomsky believes is a terror state despite his [[Jew]]ish ethnicity
(Source: Hegemony or Survival)

== External links ==
*[http://web.mit.edu/linguistics/people/faculty/chomsky/publications.html List of Chomsky's Publications]
*[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mk8pxyAWTBk Chomsky Speaks about American Politics] Chomsky believes the Democrats and Republicans are a single entity
*[http://www.memritv.org/search.asp?ACT=S9&P1=1136# Video of Noam Chomsky with Hezbollah Leaders in Lebanon]
*[http://www.paulbogdanor.com/chomskyhoax.html The Chomsky Hoax] by Paul Bogdanor
*[http://www.grsampson.net/AGwg.html Grammar Without Grammaticality] by Geoffrey Sampson
*[http://www.frontpagemag.com/Articles/ReadArticle.asp?ID=23543 Chomsky's New Blood Libel] by Alan Dershowitz
*[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SXMZZCvFtlw Chomsky on Middle East Television] Chomsky speaks about American "imperialism."

==References==
<references/>
{{DEFAULTSORT:Chomsky, Noam}}
[[category:Scientists]]
[[Category:Linguists]]
[[category:Authors]]
[[Category:Socialists]]
[[Category: Lunatics]]

Kim Jong Il

2010-09-28T02:08:30Z

BrentK:

[[Image:Bvdy76.jpg|right|thumb]]
'''Kim Jong Il''' ([[Hangul]]:김정일; [[Hanja]]:金正日) (born February 16, 1941 in Vyatskoye, Russia) has been the dictator of [[North Korea]] since coming to power in 1994. He is also the leader of the [[Communist Party]] of North Korea. He has been criticized for extensive [[human rights]] abuses in North Korea. Over one million people in North Korea starved to death as a result of a state-imposed famine.

He came into power in 1994, after his father [[Kim Il Sung]] died, and has remained the North Korean leader ever since. He is an intense persecutor of [[Christians]] and other organized religions. He is in conflict with the world community over the building of nuclear weapons, but seems to relish the attention. Kim claims North Korea has built a nuclear weapon.

Kim is only 5 feet 3 inches tall,<ref>http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/1907197.stm</ref> but styles his hair in an exaggerated fashion to appear to be taller leading some to speculate he has a [[Napoleon Complex]].

Kim Jong Il is also thought to be a hypochondriac, and is famous also for his lavish lifestyle. He is also known to have at one time abducted a Japanese sushi chef for the sole purpose of making sushi for his "high exaltedness".{{fact}}

== Also See ==
* [[Kim Il Sung]]

== References==
<references/>

== Links ==
[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/1907197.stm BBC Profile]

[[Category:Mass Murderers]]
[[Category:Dictators]]
[[Category:Communists]]
[[Category:Korea]]
[[Category:Atheists]]
[[Category: Lunatics]]

Communism

2010-09-28T02:07:15Z

BrentK:

[[Image:Captive-nations-01b----07-19-06.jpg|thumbnail|180px|right|A monument to the Captive Nations stands at the Victims of Communism Memorial Foundation in [[Washington, D.C.]]]]
'''Communism''' is a materialistic and militantly atheistic ideology created to justify the overthrow of [[Capitalism]], replacing [[free market]] economics and [[democracy]] with a "[[dictatorship of the proletariat]]". Under Communism, the [[political]] system replaces the [[private property|private ownership]] of the [[means of production]] with "[[collective ownership]]" of the economy, this is to be accomplished through direct democratic control by the workers.<ref>http://www.marxists.org/archive/mandel/1968/11/workersdem.htm</ref>
Twentieth century Communism was based on [[Karl Marx]]'s manifesto which proposed to establishment of a "[[classless society]]." However, all Communist societies have had a [[class structure]], notably the [[USSR]], which was dominated by a self appointed ''[[Nomenklatura]]''.

In the belief that "people cannot change", governments under the banner of Communism have caused the death of somewhere between 40 million to 260 million human lives.<ref>[http://dspace.dial.pipex.com/finalconflict/fcrevb102.html The Black Book of Communism]</ref><ref>[http://www.fas.harvard.edu/~hpcws/lelivrenoir.htm The Black Book of Communism]</ref><ref>http://www.hawaii.edu/powerkills/COM.ART.HTM</ref><ref>[http://users.erols.com/mwhite28/warstat1.htm Source List and Detailed Death Tolls for the Twentieth Century Hemoclysm]</ref><ref>[http://www.sarasotamagazine.com/blog/template_permalink.asp?id=365 Memory and Ideology]</ref><ref>[http://www.firstthings.com/article.php3?id_article=2526 The Black Book of Communism: Crimes, Terror, Repression]</ref> Dr. R. J. Rummel, professor emeritus of political science at the University of Hawaii, is the scholar who first coined the term [[democide]] (death by government). Dr. R. J. Rummel's mid estimate regarding the loss of life due to communism is that communism caused the death of approximately 110,286,000 people between 1917 and 1987.<ref>http://www.hawaii.edu/powerkills/COM.ART.HTM</ref>

President [[Ronald Reagan]] in an address before the British [[House of Commons]] said,
{{Cquote|What I am describing now is a plan and hope for the long term -- the march of freedom and democracy which will leave [[Marxism-Leninism]] on the ash heap of history as it has left other tyrannies which stifle the freedom and muzzle the self-expression of the people.<ref>President Ronald Reagan [http://www.iri.org/history_ReaganSpeech.asp Speech to the British Parliament], June 8, 1982. Retrieved from International Republican Institute 05/24/07. </ref>}}

Today, communism continues to rule over at least one-fifth of the world's people.<ref>[http://www.victimsofcommunism.org/history_communism.php Victims of Communism Memorial Foundation], Documenting Communism's Crimes Against Humanity.</ref>
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==Communist theory and practice==

[[Image:HammerAndSickle.png|thumb|left|180px|The [[hammer and sickle]], the international symbol of communism, is a revolutionist symbol that stands for the uprising of the peasants (the sickle) and the workers (the hammer).]]
Communism is based upon [[Marxism]], a philosophy which uses [[materialism]] to explain all physical and social phenomena. The theory of [[evolution]] influenced the thinking of the Communists, including Marx, [[Friedrich Engels|Engels]], [[Vladimir Lenin]], and [[Joseph Stalin]].<ref>http://www.icr.org/index.php?module=articles&action=view&ID=276</ref> Marx wrote, "[[Charles Darwin|Darwin]]'s book is very important and serves me as a basis in natural science for the class struggle in history." Marx offered to dedicate the second German edition of his polemic "Das Kapital" to [[Charles Darwin]], but Darwin declined the "honour." <ref>http://www.icr.org/index.php?module=articles&action=view&ID=276</ref> <ref>Karl Marx's Social and Political Thought, Bob Jessop, ISBN 0415193265 (pg 476)</ref>

Economically, communism advocates a [[socialist]] economy in which the government owns the [[means of production]]. In countries where communism has been imposed, the government has taken ownership of farms, factories, stores and so on in the name of the people; see "[[dictatorship of the proletariat]]". This drives all [[free market|market-based]] economic activity underground and leads to inefficiencies and shortages. In both the Soviet Union and Red China, the number of people who starved to death when the government confiscated their farm products (animals and grain) is estimated in the tens of millions.

Even more important, one party controls every organization from the local labor union to the the army to the national government. The party is not elected. Its top officials (the "Politburo") select replacements when there is a vacancy. usually a dictator (like Stalin, Mao or Castro) controls the Politburo, but sometimes power is shared among five or six people. No dissent is allowed--all news media are controlled, and the Internet is heavily censored.

Elites do not disappear. Members of the ruling party (see [[Nomenklatura]]) have special stores in which ordinary people are barred, stores which are allegedly immune to the shortages which the lower class must endure.

Various communist doctrines have evolved or been adapted to the time and place they have been implemented. Marxism, developed by [[Karl Marx]], and its modifications under [[Vladimir Ilyich Lenin| Vladimir Lenin]], [[Joseph Stalin]], and [[Mao Zedong]], advocates the overthrow of the existing order by a revolution of the proletariat, the social group which does not control the means of production. The goal of Marxism is supposedly to create a classless society which would result in no longer the need for any [[government]] (Communism).

The most famous government to label itself "communist" is the former [[USSR]] or the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics; the Communist Party controlled its government from 1918 to 1991. This government was officially [[atheist]] and attempted to suppress all religion until World War II, when it discovered religion was needed to rally the people against the Nazi invaders. Like all authoritarian regimes, it tried to cultivate reverence for the state as a psychological substitute for religion.

Marxist theory is intended to appeal to its adherents with the phrase, "from each according to his abilities, to each according to his needs", which essentially states point blank a worker does not get paid according to his abilities, and there is no [[incentive]] within the economic theory. Another quote by Marx was, "The theory of the Communism may be summed up in the single sentence: Abolition of private property," or as some have phrased it, legalized theft.

== Communism and militant atheism ==

[[Karl Marx]] established [[atheism]] as a key part of communism. He famously said, "Religion ... is the opium of the masses."<ref>Marx, K. [http://www.quotationspage.com/quote/31765.html Introduction to A Contribution to the Critique of Hegel's Philosophy of Right] (Classic Quotations) (Standard translation from the original German).</ref> He believed it was part of the "superstructure," a false culture built to maintain the status quo. Thus he denigrated Christianity as a fictional religion. Instead, Marx was an avowed atheist, as he wrote, "Communism begins from the outset with [[atheism]]; but atheism is at first far from being communism; indeed, that atheism is still mostly an abstraction."<ref>Marx, Karl, [http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1844/manuscripts/comm.htm Private Property and Communism], 1944.</ref>

[[Vladimir Lenin]] similarly wrote: "A Marxist must be a materialist, i. e., an enemy of religion, but a dialectical materialist, i. e., one who treats the struggle against religion not in an abstract way, not on the basis of remote, purely theoretical, never varying preaching, but in a concrete way, on the basis of the class struggle which is going on ''in practice'' and is educating the masses more and better than anything else could."<ref>Lenin, Vladimir Ilyich, ''Proletary'', No. 45, May 13 (26), 1909, translated by Andrew Rothstein and Bernard Issacs, quote from [http://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1909/may/13.htm].</ref>

In 1955, [[China|Chinese]] communist leader Chou En-lai declared, "We Communists are atheists".<ref>Noebel, David, The Battle for Truth, Harvest House, 2001.</ref>

The [[atheism]] in communist regimes has been and continues to be [[militant atheism]] and various acts of repression including the razing of thousands of religious buildings and the killing, imprisoning, and oppression of religious leaders and believers.<ref>http://www.academia.org/campus_reports/2000/March_2000_4.html</ref><ref>http://www.orthodoxinfo.com/ecumenism/frroman1.aspx</ref><ref>http://www.nysun.com/article/23082?page_no=1</ref><ref>http://www.newsmax.com/archives/articles/2003/5/7/120250.shtml</ref><ref>http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1058/is_26_116/ai_56249447</ref><ref>http://www.worldnetdaily.com/news/article.asp?ARTICLE_ID=35818</ref><ref>http://theworldnow.wordpress.com/tag/around-the-world/asia/china/</ref>

Marxists justification for its persecution of the Russian Orthodox Church was based upon the claim that the Church was a "willing tool of Tsarism."<ref>http://www.marxist.com/religion-soviet-union170406-6.htm</ref>

The clergy openly stated its support for the counter-revolution (White Revolution). Lenin proclaimed that a communist regime must show itself to be merciless toward the question of religion. There was no place for the church in Lenin's regime. This led to anti-religious decrees and propaganda. All church property was expropriated by the new Soviet government. <ref>http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-42047/Union-of-Soviet-Socialist-Republics#277888.hook</ref>

During the late 1930's and later 1940's the restrictions on church activity were loosened as Stalin needed all the support he could get for the war. This doctrine of co-operation between the church and state continued through out the existence of the Soviet republics and the other Warszawa pact nations. Though never going as far as a leader of the Soviet Union asking [http://commentisfree.guardian.co.uk/simon_barrow/2007/03/hiding_behind_god.html god to bless the country] the clause in the Soviet Unions constitution addressing the separation of church and state was rendered useless.

Dr. [[Martin Luther King]] said, "for the Communist there is no divine government, no absolute moral order, there are no fixed, immutable principles; consequently almost anything - force, violence, murder, lying - is a justifiable means." <ref>''Stride Toward Freedom : The Montgomery Story'', Martin Luther King, Jr., Harper and Rowe, New York, 1958, p. 92.</ref>

== Atrocities and Repression ==
[[File:Stalin-kill.jpg|thumb|300px|left|Exhumed skeletons of [[class war]] victims murdered by communists.<ref>[http://www.mega.nu/ampp/rummel/rm1.stalin.kill.htm.</ref> Apologists maintain communism has never really been tried. ]]
Communist regimes have engaged in mass killings on a scale of millions of individuals.<ref>http://www.gmu.edu/departments/economics/bcaplan/museum/comfaq.htm#part3</ref> A work entitled ''[[The Black Book of Communism]]'' published by the [[Harvard]] Press focuses on the crimes, terror, and repression of modern communist regimes over a 70 year period.<ref>http://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog/COUBLA.html</ref> This book is fairly controversial partly due to the various estimates regarding the millions of people who died under communist regimes.<ref>http://dspace.dial.pipex.com/finalconflict/fcrevb102.html</ref><ref>http://www.fas.harvard.edu/~hpcws/lelivrenoir.htm</ref><ref>http://users.erols.com/mwhite28/warstat1.htm</ref>
<ref>http://www.sarasotamagazine.com/blog/template_permalink.asp?id=365</ref><ref>http://www.firstthings.com/article.php3?id_article=2526</ref>

Similarly, a influential book which concerns itself with Russian communist torture, repression and atrocities is [[Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn]]'s ''[[The Gulag Archipelago]]'' which won Solzhenitsyn a [[Nobel Prize]].<ref>http://www.nytimes.com/books/98/03/01/home/solz-gulag.html</ref> In 1983, Alexander Solzhenitsyn in which he gave his explanation of the cause of why millions of people died under Russian communism:

<blockquote style="background: #F9F9F9; border: 1px solid #AAAAAA; padding: .3em;">
"Over a half century ago, while I was still a child, I recall hearing a number of old people offer the following explanation for the great disasters that had befallen Russia: "Men have forgotten God; that's why all this has happened. Since then I have spent well-nigh 50 years working on the history of our revolution; in the process I have read hundreds of books, collected hundreds of personal testimonies, and have already contributed eight volumes of my own toward the effort of clearing away the rubble left by that upheaval. But if I were asked today to formulate as concisely as possible the main cause of the ruinous revolution that swallowed up some 60 million of our people, I could not put it more accurately than to repeat: "Men have forgotten God; that's why all this has happened."<ref>http://www.icr.org/index.php?module=articles&action=view&ID=276</ref>
</blockquote>

In communist [[North Korea]], abuse and killing in prison camps is occurring today.<ref>http://www.frontpagemag.com/Articles/ReadArticle.asp?ID=5596</ref><ref>http://www.kimsoft.com/korea/nkdefec3.htm</ref> In addition, the North Korean government practices brutal repression and atrocities against North Korean Christians.<ref>http://www.nysun.com/article/23082?page_no=1</ref><ref>http://www.newsmax.com/archives/articles/2003/5/7/120250.shtml</ref>

In 1999, the publication [[Christian Century]] reported that "China has persecuted religious believers by means of "harassment, prolonged detention, and incarceration in prison or `reform-through-labor' camps and police closure of places of worship."<ref>http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1058/is_26_116/ai_56249447</ref> In 2003, owners of Bibles in China were sent to prison camps and 125 Chinese churches were closed.<ref>http://www.worldnetdaily.com/news/article.asp?ARTICLE_ID=35818</ref> China continues to practice religious oppression today.<ref>http://theworldnow.wordpress.com/tag/around-the-world/asia/china/</ref>

==Communists cite scripture==

Some Communist ideology has made its way into the Church as a [[Social Gospel]], interpreting the Gospel as less redemptive of sin and more of a public works campaign and activism. They often cite Jesus feeding the masses and warnings to the wealthy who believed self-seeking is all this world has to offer. Communists often cite the Acts of the Apostles, as early Christians practicing some form of sharing for the common good:

:And all that believed were together, and had all things common; And sold their possessions and goods, and parted them to all men, as every man had need. (Acts 2:44-45, KJV)

:Neither was there any among them that lacked: for as many as were possessors of lands or houses sold them, and brought the prices of the things that were sold,

:And laid them down at the apostles' feet: and distribution was made unto every man according as he had need.

:And Joses, who by the apostles was surnamed Barnabas, (which is, being interpreted, The son of consolation,) a Levite, and of the country of Cyprus,

:Having land, sold it, and brought the money, and laid it at the apostles' feet.(Acts 4:34-7, KJV)

But as Arnold Toynbee has pointed out, this Marxist view denies the most crucial points,

:The passage in the Acts represents the philanthropy of the primitive Christian Society as flowing from a God-given grace which was the fruit of a belief in the divinity of Jesus. In other words, the charity which is here depicted as moving the primitive Christians to go—in their mutual concern for one another's welfare—to the extreme length of sharing all their worldly goods is not a mere love of Man for Man (which is the limited literal meaning of the word ‘philanthropy’), but is a spiritual relation to which God is a party as well as His human creatures. In fact, this Christian Socialism is a practical application, on the economic surface of life, of the fundamental religious truth that the brotherhood of man is a consequence of the fatherhood of God - a truth which is driven home with special force by a religion which teaches that God is not only the Father and Creator of man, but also his Savior, Who has been incarnate in human shape and has suffered, and triumphed over, death.<ref>Arnold Toynbee, ''A Study of History'', Annex II to Vol. V, Part C (i) (c) 2, p. 585, ''Marxism, Socialism, and Christianity''.</ref>

==Cummunisms shared totalitarian ideals with facism and nazism==

[[Adolf Hitler]] noted that Communists made excellent converts to Nazism, because the same personality type was attracted to both. "[T]here is more that binds us to [[Bolshevik|Bolshevism]] than separates us from it. There is, above all, genuine, revolutionary feeling, which is alive everywhere in Russia except where there are Jewish Marxists. I have always made allowance for this circumstance, and given orders that former Communists are to be admitted to the party at once. The petit bourgeois [[Social democracy|Social-Democrat]] and the trade-union boss will never make a [[National Socialist]], but the Communists always will."<ref>quoted in Hermann Rauschning, ''Hitler Speaks''</ref> [[Josef Stalin]] also recognized that ex-Nazis and ex-[[fascist]]s were natural recruits for post-war Communist regimes. As Stanley Payne notes in his ''A History of Fascism: 1914-1945'', "All over Soviet-occupied eastern Europe, most rank-and-file former fascist party members, together with many lower-level leaders, were welcomed to fill the ranks of the initially exiguous local Communist parties. The psychological transition seems to have been an easy one, for obvious reasons."<ref>http://www.lietuvos.org/istorija/communism/</ref>

==Cuban communism==
[[Cuba]] remains a communist state controlled by the Castro brothers since 1960 and under U.S economic sanctions.

==Asian communism==
The [[CCP]] in China retains an autocratic regime controlled by the Communist party, which allows no democracy or dissent. However it does allow capitalism, and has experienced a very rapid growth of the private sector and the middle class. Observers expect that the regime's efforts to control public opinion and forestall the will of the people will be more and more difficult.

[[North Korea]] remains a brutal dictatorship controlled by the same family. [[Laos]], and [[Vietnam]] are also run by the old Communist cliques.

==Collapse of the Soviet bloc==

The shooting down by the Soviets on Sept. 1, 1983 of [[Korean Airlines Flight 007]] may have been a contributing factor for the downfall of the Soviet Union as well as for the whole Soviet block. It being a catalyst for the collapse of the Soviet Union may be inferred from the fact that NATO had decided, under the impetus of the U.S. administration, to deploy Pershing II and cruise missiles in Europe, primarily West Germany. This deployment would have placed missiles just 6-10 minutes striking distance from Moscow. But support for the deployment was wavering and many doubted that the missile deployment would find enough support to effect it. When the Soviet Union shot down Flight 007 with 269 people aboard, including conservative Democratic Congressman [[Larry McDonald]] —an act which U.S. President Ronald Reagan characterized as a "massacre"—enough support was galvanized for the deployment. The deployment caused great resources of the Soviet Union to be diverted from inner economic use to military expenditures to counter the U.S. and NATO missile deployment.
Between 1989 and 1991, many communist governments fell. The [[Berlin Wall]] in [[Germany]], which had become a symbol for the division between the West and communist states, was torn down largely in response to Ronald Reagan in 1989, and there was also a large revolution against Romanian dictator [[Nicolaie Ceausescu]]. In 1991, the USSR broke up into several countries - each which reformed to capitalism. Some of these remained under autocratic governments, but some have embraced democracy. With the collapse the remnants of Communist parties have dropped their old names and ideologies, but still operate on the left of the political spectrum.

==American communism==
:''Main article : [[Committees of Correspondence]]''
With the collapse of Soviet communism and the conversion of Chinese communism to "state run capitalism," the spiritual and ideological center of world of communism and the [[Marxist-Leninist]] tradition shifted to the [[United States]]. Several prominent American communists, rudderless without [[Moscow]] direction, formed a new organization in 1992 called the [[Committees of Correspondence for Democratic Socialism]].

The initial organizational conference was held in [[Berkeley]], [[California]], July 17-19, 1992. Charlene Mitchell, a former leader of the California Communist Party, speaking at the conference said, "the collapse of [[socialism]] in [[Eastern Europe]] left the [[United States]] in a near unchallenged position of world leadership." Mitchell continued,
{{Cquote|What began as a moment to take stock and ponder where to go from there has now become a very different entity. People from the Communist Party, from CrossRoads, from the [[Democratic Socialists of America]], from NCIPA [National Committee for Independent Political Action], from Solidarity, from the Socialist Organizing Network and many others, including independent leftists and independent socialists, have come together here in Berkeley.}}
Criticizing U.S. actions in the [[First Gulf War]], Mitchell stated,
{{Cquote|[[progressive]] forces were nearly powerless in the face of an onslaught of demagogic, [[patriotic]] [[jingoism]] and yellow ribbons. This war, fought for no legitimate reason, was the crowning height of [[George H.W. Bush|President [George H.W.] Bush]]'s [[New World Order]]. Previously, the Soviet Union helped to provide a certain balance to rein in the crazies in this country. Now, that balance is no longer there. It is now up to us, the American people, to rein in our own crazies. The [[left]] must take a major responsibility in organizing this task.}}

==Notorious communists==

Well known communists include:
*[[William Ayers]]
*[[Fidel Castro]]
*[[Hugo Chavez]]
*[[Carl Davidson]]
*[[Frank Marshall Davis]]
*[[Bernardine Dohrn]]
*[[Friedrich Engels]]
*[[Che Guevara]]
*[[Van Jones]]
*[[Kim Jong Il]]
*[[Lazar Kaganovich]]
*[[Vladimir Lenin]]
*[[Mao Zedong]]
*[[Karl Marx]]
*[[Ho Chi Minh]]
*[[Pol Pot]]
*[[Paul Robeson]]
*[[Joseph Stalin]]
*[[Yakov Sverdlov]]
*[[Leon Trotsky]]
*[[Genrikh Yagoda]]
*[[Yakov Yurovsky]]
*[[Salvador Allende]]

==Further reading==
* Pipes, Richard. ''Communism: A History'' (2003), by a leading conservative historian
** Pipes, Richard. ''History of Communism: A Brief History'' (2002)
* Priestland, David. ''The Red Flag: A History of Communism'' (2009)
*[http://www.archive.org/stream/100thingsyoushou1949unit#page/n3/mode/2up 100 Things You Should Know About Communism'']

==See also==
*[[Communist Party of the United States of America]]
*[[Cold War]]
*[[Capitalism]]
*[[Iron Curtain]]
*[[Progressives for Obama]]
*[[Socialism]]
*[[Social Effects of the Theory of Evolution]]
*[[Korean Airlines Flight 007]] for the connection of the shootdown by the Soviets of KAL 007, with 269 people aboard, on Sept. 1, 1983 with the heightened U.S./Soviet confrontations of 1983-4.

==Notes and references==
{{reflist|2}}

==External links==
*[http://www.memorialsighet.ro/en/colectie.asp?id=3 Memorial to the Victims of Communism and the Resistance]
*[http://www.aim.org/wls/category/communism/ What Liberals Say - Category: Communism], [[Accuracy In Media]]

[[Category:Communism]]
[[Category:Marxist terminology]]
[[Category:Forms of Government]]

Quebec

2010-09-28T02:04:17Z

BrentK:

'''Quebec''' ('''Québec''' in the French language) is the largest [[province]] in [[Canada]] geographically, and the second most populous after [[Ontario]]. The capital is [[Québec City]] and the largest city is [[Montreal]]. Quebec entered Confederation in 1867 and has a total area of 1,540,680 km2. The population of Quebec was 7,546,131 in 2006, approximately 23.4% of the national total.<ref>[http://canadaonline.about.com/cs/provinces/p/quebecfacts.htm Canadaonline]</ref>

Quebec traces its roots to French colonization of North America prior to the British conquest of Canada in 1760 during the [[French and Indian Wars]]. Quebec still retains a unique French-language culture, although it has had little connection with France since the conquest. The "[[Quiet Revolution]]" of the 1960s dramatically changed the province; it modernized rapidly and the Catholic Church lost much of its innfluence, along with a large portion of its membership. A new sense of French nationalism emerged, calling for an independent nation, and meanwhile forcing out most of the great business and banking corporations that were run by English Canadians (they moved to [[Toronto]]).

The official language of the province is [[French]], although many residents are bilingual, speaking both French and [[English]]. Laws and regulations must be written in both English and French as per the Constitution Act of 1867. The provincial government has severely restricted the use of English in public documents, signage and schools. The French-only provincial laws enacted in 1974 and 1977 were thought to violate the Canadian government's bilingual policy, a major tradition in the country's history of the Francophone (or French-speaking) presence, for all its' 10 provinces and territories to be equally printed in English and French.

==Economy==
The per capita provincial income in 2001 was $28,756 (Cdn).<ref>[http://www.dec-ced.gc.ca/Complements/Publications/ADT2003/en/2.html The Economy of Quebec and its Regions]</ref>. This has lagged behind the overall growth of Canada, in part because of the successive separatist governments who did not create a stable environment and their policies of large government intervention. The economy has a large aerospace and manufacturing sector, however mineral extraction and forestry also play a large role.

==Recent history since 2000==
The separatist movement has waned recently, and since 2003 Québec has been governed by a pro-federalist party. On March 26, 2007, the Liberal Party of Québec, led by [[Jean Charest]], was elected to a minority government, with Mario Dumont's Action Démocratique Québec forming the official opposition. The former official opposition, the Parti Québecois led by André Boisclair, finished the election in third place.

==History==
The '''history of Quebec''' stretches from the French explorers and settlers of the 17th century to a modern secular province of Canada in the 21st century that stresses a commitment to the French language and asks whether it should be independence of [[Canada]]. The official name is "Quebec" since Confederation in 1867; previous names include "[[New France]]," (1534 to 1763), "Province of Quebec" (1763-91), "Lower Canada" (1791-1841), and "Canada East" in the Province of Canada (1841-67). From 1783 to 1867 it was part of the [[British Empire]] informally called '''British North America.'''<ref> Along with Nova Scotia, Cape Breton (annexed to Nova Scotia in 1820), Upper Canada (Ontario), St John's Island (Prince Edward Island), Newfoundland, the Hudson's Bay Company Territories, and some land belonging directly to the Crown.</ref>

===New France===
For a history of Quebec prior to 1763, see [[New France]].

===British Colonial rule===
The Anglo-French imperial rivalry, particularly the [[French and Indian War]] of 1754-1763, (the [[Seven Years War]]) found France and and Britain at war yet again. The key to control of North America was the fortress at Quebec, which the British were determined to capture. In 1759 Major General James Wolfe, exploiting Britain's superior navy, seized Quebec City after a long and destructive siege. Montreal surrendered in 1760, and three years later the Treaty of Paris transferred New France to British control.

The British renamed the colony the Province of Quebec as British officials replaced royal officials who returned to France. Otherwise there was little change. Merchants prospered in the towns, while the seigneurs as a class declined slightly. The habitants prospered for they had a hungry new market for their wheat in London. A few sent sent their sons to the seminaries in Quebec and Montreal or to the collèges classiques. These private schools, established after 1800, prepared young men for careers as priests, teachers, lawyers, and doctors, thereby creating for the first time an intellectual class that proved central to Quebec's political development. Some French Canadians took minor government posts; most remained in agriculture. Entrepreneurial immigrants from America and England came to monopolize trade and commerce, which centered in Quebec City and Montreal.

London's plan was to assimilate the 80,000 or so French-speaking Canadiens, attract English settlers from America, introduce English laws and procedures, create freehold tenure (by which farmers would own land not merely rent it), impose anti-Catholic oaths, and set up an elected legislature. But the Americans did not arrive and the French wanted no part of British legal or political forms. The first governor, Sir James Murray, recognized reality, allowed Mgr Jean-Olivier Briand to become the Catholic bishop (1766) and provided lower courts where Canadiens could be jurors and lawyers.

A central theme in French Canadian historiography, especially as developed by the scholar Abbe [[Lionel Groulx]] in the mid-20th century, was the British Conquest of 1759. France abandoned Quebec, and rejected its own past by its anti-Catholic [[French Revolution]]. The Quebeckers became victims of British oppression and were targeted for assimilation. The short and long range goals of the people became simply "La Survivance", the survival of the nation. Groulx argues the energies of the people had to be fully mobilized for this struggle, with the Church taking the lead as an anti-colonial and passive resistance movement dedicated to the preservation of the true religion in North America.<ref> See Ronald Rudin, ''Making History in Twentieth-Century Quebec.'' (1997). ch 1</ref>

====Quebec Act, 1774====
{{main|Quebec Act}}

In 1774 the British Parliament, threatened by restless American colonies, sought Canadiens' loyalty by passing the [[Quebec Act]]. It became the Magna Carta of French-Canadian liberties, for it guaranteed basic rights, with an oath of loyalty to the Crown replacing the anti-Catholic oaths. The Roman Catholic Church gained official recognition, and the the Act enabled it legally to collect the tithe (a 10% tax on farm produce). Government was vested in a governor and a legislative council, which had full power of internal legislation and taxation. The French civil law was restored in place of English common law, although English criminal law was retained. In addition, the French language received official approval. Finally, the boundaries of Quebec were extended to the Ohio and Mississippi rivers. British concessions strengthened conservative Canadiens and made them loyal to the British Crown at the moment when revolution was sweeping the American colonies. Indeed, the Americans were especially angry with the Quebec Act because it gave Catholics generous new rights while Britain was cutting back on the rights of Americans.

When the Americans went to war with Britain in 1775 they called upon Canadians to revolt, and sent small armies in 1775-76 to remove British power. Many habitants sympathized with the Americans and formed regiments that fought under [[George Washington]]. Others supported the British; most remained neutral. The British repulsed the Americans, who retreated home. Quebec then became a base for the invasion of New York that was decisively defeated with the surrender of the main British army at Saratoga in 1777.

====Loyalists settle the Eastern townships====
After the victory of the American Revolution, 50,000 or so [[Loyalists]] (American colonists loyal to the British Crown), migrated north to Canada. They brought along several thousand black slaves, for slavery was legal until 1833. Most Loyalists went to Nova Scotia and New Brunswick, but about 6,000 arrived in Quebec, especially in the "Eastern townships" south of Montreal.<ref> See article in [http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com/index.cfm?PgNm=TCE&Params=A1ARTA0002491 ''Canadian Encyclopedia'' (2008)]</ref> Their demands for a separate colony and English law led to the division of 1791, with ''Upper Canada" (later Ontario) separated from Quebec, which became '''Lower Canada'''.

The Anglican Church launched a well-funded initiative to build churches and support missionaries in the Eastern townships, thereby building loyalty to the Empire. The are enjoys abundant rainfall, numerous water mill sites, accessible conifer forests, plentiful supplies of fire wood, good grazing land, and rich mineral deposits. However, the growing season for crops is short, and much of the soil is also generally thin and rocky. Most of the best land fell into the hands of absentee proprietors by 1800, and they fought incessantly with squatters. Outside markets were relatively inaccessible before the arrival of the railway around 1850. The English-speaking agricultural and entrepreneurial elite began to transfer its capital and skills westward, replaced by French speaking farmers and Irish Catholics fleeing the Potato Famine in the 1840s. The "bonne entente theory" of sociologist Leon Gerin argues that the new Francophone arrivals were influenced by their enterprising and independent-minded Yankee neighbours. By 1870 Anglophones were a majority in Quebec alike the rest of Canada (only one million Francophones in the dominion when it was formed in 1867), and by the 21st century only 10% of Quebecers are Anglophone (and most of them are Irish). In the 1840s, school reforms required compromise with the strong localist traditions of the Eastern Townships region. The inhabitants displayed strong lingering American traditions. Local fund-raising for schools was a hotly contested issue throughout the 1840s, with many prominent citizens actively opposing levying taxes for that purpose. School taxes diminished the role of affluent individuals who supported local schools and made possible the subsidization of poorer, neighbouring schools. Educational control remained local despite legislation enacted in 1846, which repealed prior acts and required school commissioners to assess property.<ref> J. I. Little, ''State and Society in Transition: The Politics of Institutional Reform in the Eastern Townships 1832-1852.'' (1997)</ref> In the late 1840s Yankees felt that union with the United States would end their economic isolation and stagnation as well as remove them from the growing threat of French-Canadian political domination. Leading proponents of this genuinely bipartisan movement were careful not to appear disloyal to Britain, however, and they actively discouraged popular protest at the local level. Fearful of American-style democracy, the local elite also expressed revulsion toward American slavery and militaristic expansionism. Consequently, the movement died out in the Eastern Townships as it did in Montreal after Britain expressed its official disapproval and trade with the United States began to increase thanks to the opening of the [[Grand Trunk Railway]].<ref>J. I. Little, "The Short Life of a Local Protest Movement: the Annexation Crisis of 1849-50 in the Eastern Townships." ''Journal of the Canadian Historical Association'' 1992 3: 45-67. Issn: 0847-4478 [http://www.erudit.org/revue/jcha/1992/v3/n1/031044ar.pdf online edition] </ref>

Besides the Eastern townships, the western portions of Quebec (which later became Ontario) were attractive to many thousands of nonpolitical [[Yankees]] from New England. Most French habitants were content with their location along the St. Lawrence, and few moved west throughout the country. French-Canadian emigration to the USA occurred in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, with over 500,000 French Canadians moved south into New England, Midwest and Northern states. They were employed as miners, timbermen, factory workers, truck drivers and farmers whom sought a better life in the United States.

====Catholic Church====
Hardy (2007) examines the period from 1760 to 1840, showing the Catholic Church at all times exerted considerable influence in parishes and that Catholic habitants were respectful of the demands of their faith. By 1800 the Church adopted new ways to transform religious practice. It received the state's support, and after 1840 it benefited from the support of elites that emerged from the failed rebellions. From that date forward, the Church was given responsibility for the public education system. Consequently, the school became the most effective way to indoctrinate the populace, disseminate Catholic values, and transmit the Church's new directions in religious practices. The religious culture that gradually emerged from this vast acculturation offensive was a direct result of the continuation and outcome of actions undertaken by the clergy during the first half of the 19th century. The new religious culture was defined by the respect of mandatory religious practices; the enticement of indulgences used to soften the fires of purgatory; the wealth of devotion and religious ceremonies, which now covered the entire year and dictated a rhythm to the social calendar; and the manifestation of faith through processions, pilgrimages, actions, postures, and behaviors, which were visible testimonies of faith. This behavioral model quickly became the norm during the second half of the 19th century, and any deviation from it brought the community's sharp disapproval.<ref>René Hardy, "Regards sur la Construction de la Culture Catholique Quebecoise au XIX Siecle," ''Canadian Historical Review'' 2007 88(1): 7-40. Issn: 0008-3755 Fulltext: [[Ebsco]] </ref>

===Province within Canada===
Ignace Bourget, Bishop of Montreal from 1840 to 1876, played a central role in strengthening French Canadian culture once Quebec became part of the English-dominated Canadian Federation, at the same time assuring the Catholic Church a dominant position in French Canadian cultural identity.<ref> See [http://www.biographi.ca/EN/ShowBio.asp?BioId=39507&query=Bourget ''Dictionary of Canadian Biography''] </ref> Deliberately drawing on Rome rather than France for inspiration, he presided over the expansion of the Church's activities in Quebec, seeking to make religion more accessible to the people through an emotional appeal. By helping to create a network of religious, social, and even economic institutions for the Quebecois, Bourget contributed to the emergence of a traditional culture in a modern, urban space which would define French Canadian identity until the Quiet Revolution at the end of the 1960s.<ref>Roberto Perin, "L'eglise et L'edification D'une Culture Publique au Quebec," ''Etudes D'histoire Religieuse: Société Canadienne D'histoire De L'eglise Catholique'' 2001 67: 261-270. Issn: 0318-6172 </ref>

====Political culture====
From 1840 to 1873 Montreal politics were dominated by wealthy English Protestants who also participated in provincial and federal politics. From 1873 to 1914 was a transition period with French Canadians generally in the majority in the city council, and with the mayors drawn from a wider variety of backgrounds. A new political type emerged after 1914, his power based on popularity rather than wealth, on social appeal rather than status, who views politics as a career.<ref> Guy Bourassa, "Les Elites Politiques de Montreal: De L'Aristocratie a la Democratie," ''The Canadian Journal of Economics and Political Science'' Vol. 31, No. 1. (Feb., 1965), pp. 35-51. [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0315-4890%28196502%2931%3A1%3C35%3ALEPDMD%3E2.0.CO%3B2-R in JSTOR]</ref>

From 1867 to 1940, the Catholic Church played the primary role in Quebec in the development of both public education and family assistance, and the church actively promoted a virulent form of antistatism that opposed any government involvement in social affairs. A theological justification for antistatism explained that only the father, as head of his family, should be directly concerned with his family's welfare and with his children's education, which was controlled by the Catholic Church. Conservative politicians were content to ally themselves with the Church against any forms of liberal social interventionism. While there were some exceptions to the rule - primarily the social legislation passed by the Liberal government of Adélard Godbout during World War II - the role of the state did not really begin to change until 1945, when the national government of [[William Lyon Mackenzie King]] passed family assistance legislation.<ref> Ralph Heintzman, "The Political Culture of Quebec, 1840-1960," ''Canadian Journal of Political Science'' Vol. 16, No. 1. (Mar., 1983), pp. 3-59. </ref>

===Progressivism===
While scholars often emphasize traditionalism, ruralism, and antistatism as the dominant factors of Quebec's political culture prior to the 1960s, some Quebecois embraced progressivism early in the 20th century. Municipal government reform, one of the hallmarks of the progressive movement, cropped up in Canada's largest city, Montreal. It was led by Anglophones and remnants of Quebec's Parti Rouges, but support for reform came from a wide section of Montreal's French-speaking population.<ref> Alan Gordon, "Ward Heelers and Honest Men: Urban Quebecois Political Culture and the Montreal Reform of 1909." ''Urban History Review'' 1995 23(2): 20-32. Issn: 0703-0428 </ref>
===Urbanization===
The first decades of the 20th century saw an accelerated urbanization, which made anonymity possible and facilitated an escape from social constraints for those individuals who so wished. Emigration to New England also offered a safety valve, as hundreds of thousands moved there permanently, finding work in the textile factories. This freedom from religious retribution and constraints played an important role and became a mitigating factor in the decline of the religious culture, a culture that slowly unraveled before being swept away by the Quiet Revolution.
===Verge of civil war===
[[Quebec City]], and indeed the entire province--was on the verge of civil war in 1918, as shown by the violent Easter Riots in Quebec City between 28 March and 1 April 1918. The riots demonstrated French-Canadian anger with the national war effort in [[World War I]] and the introduction of conscription. The French of Quebec refused to join the army and rejected the draft. The riots raised nationwide fears that a state of rebellion existed in the French-speaking province of Quebec. The Canadian government's reaction was immediate and firm; martial law was proclaimed, habeas corpus was suspended, and over six thousand English-speaking soldiers were deployed to Quebec during and after the riots to maintain order and enforce conscription, the last of these troops leaving the province in early 1919. The Easter Riots were extremely violent, causing important destruction of property and over 150 civilian and military casualties, including at least four dead when soldiers opened fire on rioters.<ref> Martin F. Auger, "On the Brink of Civil War: The Canadian Government and the Suppression of the 1918 Quebec Easter Riots," ''Canadian Historical Review'' 2008 89(4): 503-540</ref>

====Duplessis era====
[[Maurice Duplessis]]<ref> See [http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com/index.cfm?PgNm=TCE&Params=A1ARTA0002468 biography at ''Canadian Encyclopedia'' (2000)]]</ref> was premier of Quebec during 1936-39 and 1944-59 and leader of the National Union Party (UN). Until his death in 1959 he ran an authoritarianism government, with antilabor policies. He feared communism, cared little for industry, and promoted agriculture, which he considered a panacea for industrial evils. A Catholic and a French Canadian nationalist, he was a provincial conservative.

The most prominent nationalist spokesman in the era was Lionel Groulx (1878-1967), a Catholic priest whose histories of Quebec presented a conservative mission for the province.<ref> See Susan Mann Trofimenkoff, "Lionel Groulx," in [http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com/PrinterFriendly.cfm?Params=A1ARTA0003472 ''Canadian Encyclopedia'' (2008)]</ref> As professor of Canadian history at the Université de Montréal (1915-1949) he directly influenced the intellectual leaders of the era. The true Quebec, he argued, was based on the supremacy of the Church and family that challenged liberalism at all points. His organicist concept of the nation, in which the nation is understood as a "collective individual" with structured thought, brought Groulx to treat the individual as subordinate to the societal group. From this outlook, Groulx defended tradition and promoted a conception of education that aimed to foster the development of the national feeling of belonging. His conception of the state was also antiliberal, particularly because it rejected the distinction between the political and religious spheres. Groulx found Duplessis distasteful, and welcomed the economic developments of the Quiet Revolution, realizing too late that it would destroy the Church's central role.

In the 1940's, the Catholic-dominated provincial government went after a small growing religious sect, [[Jehovah's Witness]]ess for their political neutrality during [[World War II]]. Peaked in 1943, about thousands of members in Quebec were jailed, tried in court or placed into military internment camps. Jehovah's Witnesses were nearly banned in the province until a Canadian court hearing in 1944 declared it was a violation of religious freedom and civil rights, even though the sect doesn't hold their allegiance to political rulers during wartime. Within a decade (1954), the national concern of retaining a degree of separation of church and state from the Jehovah's Witnesses of Quebec case brought a formal end to Quebec's 350-year old religious laws, and soon, Roman Catholicism was no longer the state church of Quebec.

===The Quiet Revolution of the 1960s===
The Quiet Revolution (Révolution Tranquille) of the 1960s saw a radical nonviolent transformation in the politics, society and economy of Quebec. A traditional people modernized the economy and the social structure, threw off Church control, rejected Anglo control of Quebec's economy, and finally sought, but failed, to gain independence from Canada. The Revolution was strongly promoted by the governments of Liberal Premier [[Jean Lesage]] (1960-66) and Premier [[Daniel Johnson]] (1966-68) of the opposition Union Nationale party. Other more militant or outspoken leaders like [[Rene Levisque]] came to the scene in the early 1970s, he later became the leader of the Bloc Quebecois founded in 1974.

Many French-Canadian leaders and Quebec separatists were war veterans and well-established civic leaders, despite they preached ethnic loyality as Francophones or Quebecois not Canadians, and their reaction of English being the "lingua franca" in the professions will destroy the Quebecois/French cultural integrity. Interestingly, many thousands of French-Canadian draft dodgers fled to the USA during World War II, whom felt the war was against Francophone interests, and brought an end to the country's military conscription in 1942. Quebec has a history of opposition and resistance to the national military draft in the Boer War of 1890's and the first World War in the 1910's.

With an increased involvement of the Francophone majority's political affairs, the Canadian government nationalized hydroelectric utilities, created crown corporations whom were owned by Quebecois businessmen of French not British descent, and undertook to provide the educational, health care, and social services formerly under Church control. The provincial government began to make further demands as a "nation" not a province of being a culturally separate people, and that all of the provincial economy should be under the Francophone/Quebecois people's control. The Quiet Revolution has resulted in the ascendency of an enormous civil service in Quebec that is directed by a middle class technocracy allied with business interests to insure control of the state.

=====Political upheaval=====
In the 1950s Duplessis came under attack from a small but influential group of well-educated young French Canadian reformers, who took over and revived the Quebec Liberal Party.

In 1960 reformers defeated the Union Nationale and formed a government under Liberal [[Jean Lesage]]<ref> See [http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com/index.cfm?PgNm=TCE&Params=A1ARTA0004642 biography at ''Canadian Encyclopedia'' (2000)]]</ref> with the slogan "Maitres chez nous" (Masters in Our Own Home). Reelected in 1962 by promising to nationalize the giant hydro-electricity industry, the Quebec Liberals initiated the '''Quiet Revolution'''--a program of economic, political, and educational reforms aimed at both modernizing the province and intensifying its French characteristics. In response to their demands for greater autonomy, Ottawa conceded an "opting-out" formula whereby Quebec was not required to participate in such federal welfare programs as the Canada Pension Plan,<ref> See [http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com/index.cfm?PgNm=TCE&Params=A1ARTA0001236 article at ''Canadian Encyclopedia'' (2000)]]</ref> but could instead receive an amount of federal money equal to that which would have been spent in the province under the Pension Plan. This "special status" for Quebec irritated many English-speaking Canadians, although it fell far short of satisfying the rapidly growing French Canadian separatist movement, which advocated complete independence for Quebec. Some separatist leaders began to resort to terrorism, and in 1963 there was a series of bombings in the English-speaking districts of Montreal.

Faced with a serious crisis, the national government of Prime Minister [[Lester Pearson]] appointed a royal commission to investigate the problems of bilingualism and biculturalism in Canada. The commission's report documented the economic disadvantages suffered by French Canadians and recommended full recognition of both French and English as equal official languages at the federal level and in the provinces of Quebec, New Brunswick, and Ontario. Further bilingualism policies were adapted in more conservative Manitoba, Saskatchewan and Alberta. In administrative policy the Pearson government favored "cooperative federalism," meaning continuous consultation between federal and provincial departments of government, as well as fairly frequent full-scale federal-provincial conferences.

In 1966 the Lesage government in Quebec was defeated by the Union Nationale under Daniel Johnson,<ref> See [http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com/index.cfm?PgNm=TCE&Params=A1ARTA0004149 biography at ''Canadian Encyclopedia'' (2000)]</ref> which claimed to be even more vigorously nationalist than its opponents.<ref> Lesage's party won 47% of the vote to Johnson's 41%, but the Union Nationale won 56 seats vs 51 because its vote was concentrated in rural constituencies which were overrepresented. Claude Ryan, "Quebec Changes Governments". ''Foreign Affairs'' 1966 45(1): 148-161. Issn: 0015-7120 Fulltext: [[Ebsco]]</ref> Meanwhile, the Liberal government in Ottawa, which had been reelected in 1965, secured the final adoption of a distinctive national flag featuring the maple leaf as the nation's symbol. Another important piece of legislation was the National Medicare Act, which provided for joint federal-provincial financing of universal health care insurance.

Quebec's "psychological secession" from Canada came in five stages: the Quiet Revolution of 1960, the 1980 sovereignty-association vote, the constitutional process of 1980-82, the Meech Lake Accord process of 1987-90, and the 1992 Charlottetown Accord referendum. The 1995 referendum for independence, saw the narrow victory for the "no" side. Liberal Prime Minister Jean Chrétien<ref> See [http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com/index.cfm?PgNm=TCE&Params=A1ARTA0001606 biography at ''Canadian Encyclopedia'' (2000)]</ref> announced three policy initiatives that promised to change unemployment insurance, to recognize Quebec as a distinct society, and to empower Quebec and certain other Canadian regions to veto changes to the federal constitution. French-speaking Quebecois gradually replaced ethnic consciousness by allegiance to a "national state" on the territory of the province of Quebec. The '''Parti Québécois''' (PQ) emerged as a dominant nationalist party, formed in 1968.<ref> See [http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com/index.cfm?PgNm=TCE&Params=A1ARTA0006123 article in ''Canada Encyclopedia'' (2000)]</ref> PQ succeeded in passing two important charters, the Québec Charter of Human Rights and Freedoms (1975)<ref> See [http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com/index.cfm?PgNm=TCE&Params=A1ARTA0009340 article at ''Canadian Encyclopedia'' (2000)]</ref>, and Bill 101, Charte de la langue française (1977)<ref> See [http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com/index.cfm?PgNm=TCE&Params=A1ARTA0000744 article at ''Canadian Encyclopedia'' (2000)]</ref>, marked this significant evolution of Quebecois collective identity. Bill 101 made French the official language of the government and of the courts in Quebec; more controversially it made French the normal language of the workplace, of instruction, of communications, of commerce and of business. Education in French became compulsory for immigrants, even those from other Canadian provinces. The failure of the 1980 referendum on independence, and the 1982 economic crisis, led to the return to power of Robert Bourassa's Liberals in 1986.

The national government in Ottawa refused to countenance independence. Under the leadership of Prime Minister [[Pierre Trudeau]]<ref> See [http://www.biographi.ca/EN/ShowBio.asp?BioId=42553&query=quebec ''Dictionary of Canadian Biography''] </ref>, himself a leader in the Quiet Revolution, Ottawa countered with the concept of a single Canadian nation. Trudeau's actions culminated with the 1982 Constitution and the national Charter of Rights and Freedoms, which Quebec never endorsed and still is considered illegitimate by many Quebecers. The root problem is that Canada, as it is conceived by Anglophone Canadians, does not seem compatible with an enduring Quebec identity.<ref> Louis Balthazar, "Canada in the Setting of the New Nationalism
Quebec and the Ideal of Federalism," ''Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science,'' Vol. 538, Being and Becoming Canada. (Mar., 1995), pp. 40-53. [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0002-7162%28199503%29538%3C40%3AQATIOF%3E2.0.CO%3B2-N in JSTOR]</ref>

====Quiet Revolution: Social upheaval====
In social terms, the [[Quiet Revolution]] undercut the authority of the Catholic Church in taking away the schools and indeed the unquestioned authority of parish priests. The Union Nationale, the political party of Duplessis, together with the Catholic clergy, had actively propagated an ideology of conservatism: the Quebecois were destined to be peasants, to guarantee the survival of the Catholic religion and of the French language in North America. Gauvreau (2005) however reveals also a positive role that minority elements of the Church played in the origins of Quebec's Quiet Revolution. He argues that Catholic youth movements played a major positive role in the origin of the most profound of Quebec's multiple "quiet revolutions," beginning with the Catholic youth movements in the 1930s. They introduced "personalism", a philosophical movement from France that was a kind of neo-Thomism. In creating an active youth movement reformers inside the Church in effect repudiated much of the historic traditionalism of a peasant society, such as patriarchal families and sexuality focused solely on producing large families rather than companionate marriages.<ref> Michael Gauvreau, "From Rechristianization to Contestation: Catholic Values and Quebec Society, 1931-1970," ''Church History,'' Vol. 69, No. 4. (Dec., 2000), pp. 803-833 [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0009-6407%28200012%2969%3A4%3C803%3AFRTCCV%3E2.0.CO%3B2-Q in JSTOR]; </ref>

The exodus from Catholicism began by 1960, with church attendance in Montreal plunging in half in the decade of the 1960s, with even faster declines in rural parishes. Young couples rejected the Church's renewed opposition to birth control. The Quebec independence movement focused on language and culture, and no longer saw Quebec as the stronghold of Catholicism. Once having the developed world's highest birth rate in the 20th century, Francophones of Quebec now have a birth rate akin to Anglophones and other "slow/low or no growth" Western countries.

The Parent Report on education in the province of Quebec (1963-66) was a key part of the Quiet Revolution that modernized and democratized education in Quebec. The report's attempt at democratizing manifested itself through its recommendations to open access to all levels of education; to create the Ministry of Education as a central authority responsible for all aspects of education; to replace local, religion-based educational authorities with local and regional authorities whose members would be elected directly by the parents rather than the general public; and to reorganize education finance in order to make it more equal. The article assesses the degree to which these recommendations were implemented.

The Quiet Revolution moved the socialization of youth from private and social milieus, primarily the Church and family, to the public sphere, shaped by government policy, resulting in a more self-conscious socialization process. This process includes an emphasis on a shared francophone history and culture and on the importance of the French language to that culture. With new challenges to the institutionalization of the société distincte the state increasingly operates as a key agent of socialization.

====FLQ====
see also [[FLQ]]
The most dramatic episode was the "October Crisis" in 1970 as Canada faced down a home grown terrorist threat of the [[FLQ]] (Front de Liberation du Québec). For several years separatist desires were rising in the predominantly French-speaking province, and the FLQ tried to remove Quebec from Canada by force. In October 1970, Trudeau invoked the War Measures Act. This gave the state broad powers of arrest and detention in a time of crisis. When asked how far and how long he would take the measures, Trudeau famously replied "Just watch me".

On 16 October 1970 the Trudeau Cabinet passed the War Measures Act and Regulations (WMA) which immediately sent the Canadian army into Montreal. The army summarily dragged 497 people out of their beds and into jail. Of these, 435 were released within two days, while 62 were charged and 32 held without bail. There was near-unanimous public support for these drastic measures at the time.

Although the FLQ kidnappings would end with the death of Quebec cabinet minister Pierre Laporte, the FLQ had its back broken by military presence in the province who arrested a handful of radicals. The general public overwhelmingly supported the emergency powers and the presence of the military in Quebec. When the crisis was over, Trudeau revoked the powers of the War Measures Act.

====Politics====
Quebec's proposed secession from Canada was successfully thwarted by anti-separatist Francophone politicans, such as prime minister [[Pierre Trudeau]] born and raised in Montreal in a family known to been part of the city's elite assumed to be Anglophone, but Trudeau is a French-Canadian and was raised to be bilingual. Attempts for Quebec to secede was blocked by Trudeau and the parliament during the 1970's when the separtists movement in Quebec was in its peak.

On May 20th, 1980 a separatist government held a referendum on declaring independence from Canada. This was defeated by a 60% to 40% vote. A second referendum was held on October 31st, 1995 and saw the separatist side lose again, but by less than two percentage points (49% vs. 51%, a very close margin) identicated how far the Quebec separatist cause has nearly ended the 128-year old dominion of Canada.

In the 1993 national elections the Progressive Conservative Party collapsed and the official opposition became the avowedly separatist '''Bloc Québécois''', a new party formed in 1991 for the national parliament.<ref> See [http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com/index.cfm?PgNm=TCE&Params=A1ARTA0000829 article at ''Canadian Encyclopedia'' (2000)]</ref> Inside Quebec the PQ regained power in 1994 under the resolutely nationalist leader Jacques Parizeau, and called for a referendum in 1995 it was convinced would lead to immediate independence. Preparations were made for diplomatic recognition and an army, but the "no" votes prevailed by 1%, largely because of the intense opposition of non-Francophones.<ref> See [http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com/index.cfm?PgNm=TCE&Params=A1ARTA0010730 article at ''Canadian Encyclopedia'' (2000)], and Gregory S. Mahler, "Canadian Federalism and the 1995 Referendum: a Perspective from Outside of Quebec." ''American Review of Canadian Studies'' 1995 25(4): 449-476. Issn: 0272-2011 </ref>

The separatists were narrowly defeated in the 30 October 1995 referendum by 53,500 votes. Anglophones (English-speakers) and immigrants voted "no" as they vigorously sought to maintain Quebec's allegiance to the Canadian government. Francophones, using language with racial undertones, continue to foster the cause of an independent Quebec. Led by charismatic Lucien Bouchard, the separatists displayed an insensitivity toward those outside their ethnic group and ignored the difficulties independence would place on the debt-ridden, economically depressed province.<ref> J. A. S. Evans, "The Present State of Canada." ''Virginia Quarterly Review'' 1996 72(2): 213-225. Issn: 0042-675x Fulltext: [[Ebsco]]</ref>

===Economy===
Before the 1960s the business and banking of Montreal and smaller cites was Anglophones; but by 2000 the business community was largely Francophone, particularly in management and the elite. Some large corporations relocated their headquarters to Toronto and retained their Anglophone character. Globalization strengthened the use of French. Foreign investment in new business increased, but the majority of foreign investment was in existing businesses. The provincial government implemented policies that supported successful exporting as well as other measures to stimulate an entrepreneurial business class. The Quebec government established offices across the U.S. to promote trade, direct investment and tourism. The Parti Québécois has always experienced a lack of American support in its struggle for sovereignty, especially during the [[Bill Clinton]] administration in the 1990s. Agriculture, mining, and forestry declined, however.<ref> Joseph Lemay, "The Impact of the Quiet Revolution: the Business Environment of Smaller Cities and Regions of Quebec 1960-2000." ''Québec Studies'' 2002-03 (34): 19-30. Issn: 0737-3759; William F. Averyt, "Quebec's Economic Development Policies, 1960-1987: Between Étatisme and Privatisation." ''American Review of Canadian Studies'' 1989 19(2): 159-175. Issn: 0272-2011 </ref>

== Current situation ==
The Quebec secession issue and how the Canadian parliament made deals to keep Quebec intact with bribery and corruption, was part of the country's 2006 parliamentary crisis rocked Canada's core on being the most stable democracy in the world, leading the resignation of the entire parliament and several hundreds of politicial officals. The Parti Quebecois continued to speak of threats of secession with less public support in the last 5 years and declines well in the 2010's.

Most Quebecers and Francophones in Canada no longer support any idea of an independent Quebec from Canada, with the majority suggest special autonomous status similar to the establishment of the Inuit majority territory of [[Nunavut]] in 1999. The Canadian government promotes an idea of multiculturalism and preserved diversity known as the "cultural mosaic" of anyone can preserve their own cultural, ethnic and racial distinction. When applied, that means Francophones will remain a "separate but equal" as well a not-so-assimilated and perhaps back to being a marginalized minority within an Anglo/British descent-dominant society.

Quebec's urban core, Montreal is no longer a mostly Francophone, nor bilingual city, it is now home to a high percentage of immigrants from around the world and ethnic groups of European descent, whom oppose Quebec separatist causes and policies. It is believed separatists such as leader Rene Levisque hold racist, nativist or xenophobe tendencies, such as incidents and acts of Anti-semitism towards the province's sizable Jewish population, and the obsession with ethnocultural purity of French-Canadian "blood" (or references from Quebecois militants of their people belong to a "Nordique"/"Gaullique"/"Latine" race) falls in the line of racial nationalism, has lost credibility and respect among politically active Francophones and Quebecers alike.

==Bibliography==
===Surveys===
* [http://www.biographi.ca/EN/ ''The Dictionary of Canadian Biography''] (1966-2006), thousands of scholarly biographies of notables who died by 1930
* [http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com/index.cfm?PgNm=TCESubjects&Params=A1 ''Canadian Encyclopedia'' (2008)] reliable detailed encyclopedia, on-line free
* Armstrong, Robert. ''Structure and Change: An Economic History of Québec'' (1984)
* Dickinson, John Alexander, and Brian Young. ''A Short History of Quebec'' (2003) [http://www.amazon.com/Short-History-Quebec-Alexander-Dickinson/dp/0773524509/ref=pd_bbs_7?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1199373095&sr=8-7 excerpt and text search]
* Eccles, W. J. ''The Canadian Frontier, 1534-1760'' (1983) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=10657323 online edition]
* Heintzman, Ralph. "The Political Culture of Quebec, 1840-1960," ''Canadian Journal of Political Science / Revue canadienne de science politique,'' Vol. 16, No. 1. (Mar., 1983), pp. 3-59. [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0008-4239%28198303%2916%3A1%3C3%3ATPCOQ1%3E2.0.CO%3B2-M in JSTOR]
* Lanctot, Gustave. ''A History of Canada'' 3 vol Toronto. 1963. [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=3115015 Volume One: From its Origins to the Royal Régime, 1663; online], [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=98311761 Volume Two: From the Royal Régime to the Treaty of Utrecht, 1663-1713, online]
* Linteau, Paul-André, René Durocher, Jean-Claude Robert, and Robert Chodos. ''Quebec: A History 1867-1929'' (1983) ''Quebec Since 1930'' (1991), standard 2 vol textbook.
* Moogk, Peter. ''La Nouvelle France: The Making of French Canada a Cultural History'' (2000) to 1763 [http://www.questia.com/library/book/la-nouvelle-france-the-making-of-french-canada-a-cultural-history-by-peter-moogk.jsp online edition]
* Trofimenkoff, Susan Mann. ''Dream of Nation: A Social and Intellectual History of Quebec'' (1982)
** Mann, Susan Mann. ''Dream of Nation: A Social and Intellectual History of Quebec'' (2nd ed, 2009)
* Wade, Mason. ''The French Canadians, 1760-1945'' (1955), standard history, 1136pp [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=8474052 online edition]
* Young, Brian and Dickinson, John A. ''A Short History of Quebec: A Socio-Economic Perspective.'' (3rd ed. 2002. 238 pp.

===Before 1867===
* Brecher, Frank W. ''Losing a Continent: France's North American Policy, 1753-1763'' (1998) [http://www.amazon.com/Losing-Continent-American-1753-1763-Contributions/dp/0313307865/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1205993021&sr=1-1 excerpt and text search]
* Creighton, Donald G. ''The Commercial Empire of the St. Lawrence, 1760-1850'' (1937) [http://www.questia.com/read/96753630?title=The%20Commercial%20Empire%20of%20the%20St.%20Lawrence%2c%201760-1850 online edition]
* Dechêne, Louise. ''Habitants and Merchants in Seventeenth-Century Montreal'' (1974; English ed. 2003), highly influential study from [[Annales School]]
* Egnal, Marc. ''Divergent Paths: How Culture and Institutions Have Shaped North American Growth.'' (1996). 304 pp. economic historian compares Quebec to U.S. 1750-1850
* Gossage, Peter. ''Families in Transition: Industry and Population in Nineteenth-Century Saint-Hyacinthe.'' (1999). 299 pp.
* Greer, Allan ''The people of New France'' (1997)
* Greer, Allan. ''The patriots and the people: the rebellion of 1837 in rural Lower Canada'' (1993)
* Greer, Allan. ''Peasant, Lord and Merchant: Rural Society in Three Quebec Parishes, 1740- 1840.'' (1985)
* Innis, Harold A. ''The Fur Trade in Canada'' (1930)
* Jaenen, Cornelius. ''Friend and Foe'' (1976) brief survey of French-Indian relations in the 16th & 17th centuries.
* Manning, Helen Taft; ''The Revolt of French Canada, 1800-1835: A Chapter of the History of the British Commonwealth'' (1962) [http://www.questia.com/library/book/the-revolt-of-french-canada-1800-1835-a-chapter-of-the-history-of-the-british-commonwealth-by-helen-taft-manning.jsp online edition]
* Miquelon, Dale. ''New France, 1701-1744: A Supplement to Europe'' (1989)
* Moogk, Peter. ''La Nouvelle France: The Making of French Canada a Cultural History'' (2000) to 1763 [http://www.questia.com/library/book/la-nouvelle-france-the-making-of-french-canada-a-cultural-history-by-peter-moogk.jsp online edition]
* Ouellet, Fernand. ''Lower Canada, 1791-1840: Social Change and Nationalism'' (1980), synthesis by leading scholar
* Pritchard, James. ''In Search of Empire: The French in the Americas, 1670-1730.'' (2004). 484 pp. includes Louisiana, the Caribbean, etc.
* Trudel, Marcel. ''The Beginnings of New France 1524-1663'' (1973)
* Wrong, George McKinnon. ''The Fall of Canada: A Chapter in the History of the Seven Years' War'' (1914), 272pp [http://books.google.com/books?id=KfJBAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=intitle:history+intitle:canada&lr=&num=30&as_brr=1 full text online]
* Young, Brian, ''George-Etienne Cartier: Montreal bourgeois'' (1981)

===Since 1867===
* Armstrong, Elizabeth H. ''The Crisis of Quebec, 1914-1918'' (1937)
* Betcherman, Lita-rose ''Ernest Lapointe: Mackenzie King's Great Quebec Lieutenant'' (2002) 438pp
* Behiels, Michael D. ''Prelude to Quebec's Quiet Revolution: Liberalism Versus Neo-Nationalism, 1945-1960'' (1985)
* Black, Conrad. ''Duplessis.'' (1977). 743 pp.
* Bothwell, Robert. ''Canada and Quebec: One Country, Two Histories.'' (1995). 269 pp.
* Clarkson, Stephen, and Christina McCall. ''Trudeau and our times'' (2v., 1990–94)
* Cohen, Andrew, and J. L. Granatstein, eds. ''Trudeau's shadow: the life and legacy of Pierre Elliott Trudeau''. (1999).
* Couture, Claude, and Vivien Bosley. ''Paddling with the Current: Pierre Elliott Trudeau, Etienne Parent, Liberalism, and Nationalism in Canada'' (1998)
* Gagnon, Alain-G., ed. ''Quebec, State and Society'' (3rd ed. 2004) 500pp; readings by experts
* Gagnon, Alain-G. and Montcalm, Mary Beth. ''Quebec beyond the Quiet Revolution.'' (2000) 221 pp.
* Gauvreau, Michael. ''The Catholic Origins of Quebec's Quiet Revolution, 1931-1970'' (2005)
* Grace, Robert J. ''The Irish in Quebec: An Introduction to the Historiography.'' (1992)
* Langlois, Simon, ed. ''Recent Social Trends in Quebec, 1960-1990.'' (1992). 606 pp.
* McRoberts, Kenneth. ''Quebec: Social Change and Political Crisis.'' (1988).
* Neatby, H. Blair. ''Laurier and a Liberal Quebec: A Study in Political Management'' (1973) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=8104462 online edition]
* Quinn, Herbert F. ''The Union Nationale: A Study in Quebec Nationalism'' (1963) 254 pgs. [http://www.questia.com/read/2983146?title=The%20Union%20Nationale%3a%20A%20Study%20in%20Quebec%20Nationalism online edition]
* Robinson, Gertrude. ''Constructing the Quebec Referendum: French and English Media Voices.'' (1998). 262 pp.
* Saywell, John. ''The Rise of the Parti Québécois 1967-76'' (1977) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=1347933 online edition]
* Stevenson, Garth. ''Community Besieged: The Anglophone Minority and the Politics of Quebec.'' (1999). 363 pp.
* Thomson, Dale C. ''Jean Lesage and the Quiet Revolution.'' (1984). 501 pp.
* Young, Robert A. ''The Struggle for Quebec: From Referendum to Referendum?'' (1999). 210 pp.

===Montreal===
see also [[Montreal]]

* Atherton, William Henry. ''Montreal, 1535-1914'' (1914) [http://books.google.com/books?id=RT1KUs2ax0sC&dq=intitle:montreal+date:1900-1922&lr=&num=30&as_brr=1&source=gbs_summary_s&cad=0 complete text online]
* Baillargeon, Denyse. ''Making Do: Women, Family and Home in Montreal during the Great Depression.'' (1999). 232 pp.
* Germain, Annick and Damaris, Rose. ''Montréal: The Quest for a Metropolis'' (2000). 306 pp.

===Historiography===
* Gagnon, Serge. ''Quebec and Its Historians, 1840-1920.'' (1982). 161 pp.
* Havard, Gilles, and Cécile Vidal, "Making New France New Again: French historians rediscover their American past," ''Common-Place'' (July 2007) v 7 #4 [http://www.common-place.org/vol-07/no-04/harvard/ online version]
* Ouellet, Fernand. ''Economy, class & nation in Quebec: Interpretive essays'' (1991), historiography
* Rudin, Ronald. ''Making History in Twentieth-Century Quebec'' (1997) [http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=Bh5dDMnmFdQC&oi=fnd&pg=PR9&dq=historiography+quebec&ots=qc1xuagw7u&sig=jy5eKg_vKpxz_0NKEdvWnGQ8EKM excerpts and text search]
* Vidal, Cécile. "The Reluctance of French Historians to Address Atlantic History," ''The Southern Quarterly'' 43:4 (2006): 153-189;

===Primary sources===
* Cameron, David R., ed. ''The Referendum Papers: Essays on Secession and National Unity.'' (1999). 430 pp
* Cook, Ramsay, ed. ''French-Canadian Nationalism: An Anthology'' (1969)
* Lamonde, Yvan and Corbo, Claude, eds. ''Le Rouge et le Bleu: Une Anthologie de la Pensée Politique au Québec de la Conquête à la Révolution Tranquille'' (1999). 576 pp.
* Lévesque, René. "For an Independent Quebec." ''Foreign Affairs'' 1976 54(4): 734-744. The author was president of the Parti Québécois. Issn: 0015-7120 Fulltext: [[Ebsco]]
* [http://faculty.marianopolis.edu/c.belanger/quebechistory/docs/index.htm Primary sources--texts]
* [http://faculty.marianopolis.edu/c.belanger/quebechistory/stats/index.htm Primary sources--statistics]]
== External Links ==
* [http://www.bonjourquebec.com/ Quebec Tourism]

====Notes====
<References/>

[[Category:Canadian Provinces]]
[[Category:Canadian History]]
[[category:Quebec]]
[[category:Canada]]

William Lyon Mackenzie King

2010-09-28T02:02:46Z

BrentK: /* Postwar */

For the former U.S. Vice President, see [[William King]].
[[File:Mackenzie King.jpg|thumb|Mackenzie King]]

'''William Lyon Mackenzie King''' (1874-1950), prime minister of [[Canada]], whose 21 years in office are the longest of any prime minister in the English-speaking world. As leader of the Liberal Party<ref> Although Canada had both a Liberal and a Conservative party, the names do not correspond to American usage of the terms. Both parties combined what Americans would call "liberal" and "conservative" policies.</ref> he was the dominant political figure from the 1920s through the 1940s, leading Canada through prosperity, depression and war. His surname was "King" but he was usually styled "Mackenzie King."

Mackenzie King lacked the typical personal attributes of great leaders, especially in comparison with [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] of the U.S., [[Winston Churchill]] of Britain, [[Charles de Gaulle]] of France, or even Joey Smallwood of [[Newfoundland]]. Voters did not love him. He lacked charisma, a commanding presence or oratorical skills; he did not shine on radio or in newsreels. His best writing was academic. Cold and tactless in human relations, he had allies but no close personal friends; he never married and lacked a hostess whose charm could substitute for his chill. His allies were annoyed by his constant intrigues. He kept secret his beliefs in spiritualism and use of mediums to stay in contact with departed associates and particularly with his mother, and allowed his intense spirituality to distort his understanding of Adolf Hitler.

Mackenzie King remained so long in power because he had remarkable skills that were exactly appropriate to Canada's needs. He was keenly sensitive to the nuances of public policy; he was a workaholic with a shrewd and penetrating intelligence and a profound understanding of how society and the economy worked. He understood labour and capital. He had a pitch-perfect ear for the Canadian temperament and mentality, and was a master of timing. A modernizing technocrat who regarded managerial mediation as essential to an industrial society, he wanted his Liberal party to represent liberal corporatism to create social harmony. Mackenzie King worked tirelessly and successfully to bring compromise and harmony to many competing and feuding elements, using politics and government action as his great instrument. He conducted the Liberal party over 29 years, and established Canada's international reputation as a middle power fully committed to world order.

==Career==
He was born on Dec. 17, 1874, at Berlin (now Kitchener), Ontario, the eldest son of John King and Isabel Grace Mackenzie, daughter of [[William Lyon Mackenzie]], Scotch-Canadian political reformer and one of the leaders of the failed [[Rebellion of 1837]]. The father was a lawyer with a struggling practice in a small city, and never enjoyed financial security; his parents lived a life of shabby gentility, employing servants they could scarcely afford. The son became a life-long practising Presbyterian with a dedication to applying Christian virtues to social issues in the style of the [[Social Gospel]]. He never favoured socialism.

Mackenzie King graduated college with honours in political science, and then finished law school in one year at the [[University of Toronto]] (B.A. 1895, LL. B. 1896). He played a central role in fomenting a students' strike at the university in 1895. He was in close touch, behind the scenes, with Vice-Chancellor William Mulock, for whom the strike provided a chance to embarrass his rivals Chancellor Blake and President Loudon. King failed to gain his immediate objective, a teaching position at the University, but earned political credit with the man who would invite him to Ottawa and make him a deputy minister only five years later.<ref> Robert H. Blackburn, "Mackenzie King, William Mulock, James Mavor, and the University of Toronto Students' Revolt of 1895." ''Canadian Historical Review'' 1988 69(4): 490-503. Issn: 0008-3755 </ref>

He now took the name "Mackenzie King" to replace his childhood nickname of Willie, and to boast his self-image in terms of his famous grandfather. He never practiced law. Instead of attending Oxbridge, he took advanced degrees in the United States at the [[University of Chicago]] (M.A. 1897), and [[Harvard University]] (M.A. 1897). For a few months he lived at [[Hull House]] in Chicago, coming under the spell of [[Jane Addams]]. His unfinished Harvard PhD thesis compared sweatshop conditions in the clothing industry in the U.S., Britain and Germany. In 1900 became deputy minister of the new formed Department of Labour; he edited the government's ''Labour Gazette.'' The only close friend he ever had died in a a drowning accident in 1901. As a civil servant Mackenzie King was a well-regarded impartial negotiator who helped settle strikes and lockouts. He designed new labour legislation, especially the "Industrial Disputes Investigation Act" of 1907, creating a plan of a cooling off period and a method of government-supervised voluntary conciliation in labour disputes.

In 1909 he began a political career, winning election from the Berlin district to the House of Commons as a Liberal. Prime Minister Sir [[Wilfrid Laurier]] appointed him minister of labour, with cabinet rank. During his term of office he initiated legislation empowering the government to investigate combines, trusts, and cartels. In the election campaign of 1911 he enthusiastically supported the Laurier's policy of commercial reciprocity between Canada and the United States; the Conservatives rode anti-Americanism to victory nationwide, and Mackenzie King lost his seat.

From 1911 to 1921 Mackenzie King was employed as a political organizer, journalist, and labour relations expert, primarily in the United States. From 1914-1918 he was the research director for the [[Rockefeller Foundation]], and served as labour relations adviser to John D. Rockefeller, whose image was tarnished by a bloody strike in Colorado. His solution was a company union that ended the conflicts at the Colorado Coal and Iron Company. Other American corporations hired Mackenzie King as a labour relations consultant. His book, ''Industry and Humanity'' (1918), explained his views on the social service state, and notably on labour relations, including the idea that capital and labour were natural allies, not foes, and that the community at large (represented by the government) should be the third and decisive party in industrial disputes.<ref> Barry Cooper, "On Reading ''Industry and Humanity'': a Study in the Rhetoric Underlying Liberal Management." ''Journal of Canadian Studies'' 1978-1979 13(4): 28-39. Issn: 0021-9495 </ref>

==First World War==
Mackenzie King was defeated in trying to regain his parliamentary seat in 1913. In 1917 Canada was in crisis; he supported Laurier in his opposition to conscription, which was violently opposed in Quebec. The Liberal party became deeply split, with most Anglophones joining in the Union government, a coalition controlled by the Conservatives under Prime Minister [[Robert Borden]]. Facing a landslide against him, Mackenzie King lost in the constituency of North York, which his grandfather had once represented. He was Laurier's chosen successor as leader of the Liberal Party, but it was deeply divided by Quebec's total opposition to conscription and the agrarian revolt in Ontario and the Prairies. When Laurier died in 1919, Mackenzie King was elected leader thanks to the critical support of the Quebec bloc, organized by his long-time lieutenant in Quebec, Ernest Lapointe (1876–1941). Mackenzie King could not speak French and had minimal interest in Quebec, but election after election (save for 1930) Lapointe produced the critical seats to give the Liberals a majority in Commons.<ref>Lita-Rose Betcherman, ''Ernest Lapointe: Mackenzie King's Great Quebec Lieutenant.'' (2002)</ref> In the election of 1921 Liberals won a bare majority of seats; Mackenzie King became prime minister.

Once he became the Liberal leader in 1919 he paid attention to the Prairies. With a highly romanticized view he envisioned the pioneers as morally sound, hardworking individuals who lived close to nature and to God. The reform ferment in the region meshed with his self-image as a social reformer and fighter for the "people" against the "interests." Viewing a glorious sunrise in Alberta in 1920, he wrote in his diary, "I thought of the New Day, the New Social Order. It seems like Heaven's prophecy of the dawn of a new era, revealed to me."<ref> See original text at [http://king.collectionscanada.ca/EN/GetImage/GetImage.asp?MKDTHView=0&ID=3469657&ZyNetId={33D7F4F1-E177-4ABA-9BD2-1F39CF183B74}&ext=.pdf]</ref> Realism played a role too, since his party depended for its survival on the votes of Progressive party members of parliament who represented farmers in Ontario and the Prairies. His convinced many Progressives to return to the Liberal fold. <ref> Robert A. Wardhaugh, ''Mackenzie King and the Prairie West'' (2000)</ref>

==Prime Minister==
During his first term of office, from 1921 to 1925, Mackenzie King pursued a conservative domestic policy with the object of lowering wartime taxes and, especially, wartime ethnic tensions, as well as defusing postwar labour conflicts. "The War is over," he argued, "and for a long time to come it is going to take all that the energies of man can do to bridge the chasm and heal the wounds which the War has made in our social life."<ref> Letter of May 5, 1919, in Robert Macgregor Dawson, ''William Lyon Mackenzie King'' (1958) p. 294. </ref> He sought an Canadian voice independent of London in foreign affairs. In 1923 the British prime minister, [[David Lloyd George]], appealed to Mackenzie King for support in the British quarrel with Turkey. Mackenzie King instead said the Canadian Parliament would decide what the policy to follow, making clear it would not be bound by London's suggestions; the episode led to the downfall of Lloyd George.

===The constitutional crisis of 1926===
In the election of 1925 the Liberal Party lost seats, as Mackenzie King struggled to retain office. Charges of corruption in the Customs Department, however, led to the government's defeat in the Commons. Mackenzie King advised the governor-general, Lord Byng, to dissolve Parliament and call another election, but Lord Byng refused the advice and called upon the Conservative Party leader, [[Arthur Meighen]], to form a government. Meighen was unable to obtain a majority in the Commons and he, too, advised dissolution, which this time was accepted. In the ensuing election of 1926, Mackenzie King appealed for public support of the constitutional principle that the governor-general must accept the advice of his ministers, though this principle was at most only customary. The Liberals argued that the governor-general had interfered in politics and shown favor to one party over another. Mackenzie King and his party won the election and a clear majority in the Commons.<ref>For primary documents see Bruce Ricketts, "The King-Byng Affair - Canada's Government in Minority" (2007) [http://www.mysteriesofcanada.com/Canadian_Political_System/king_byng%20affair.htm online version]</ref>

The crisis of 1926 provoked a consideration of the constitutional relations between the self-governing dominions and the British government. During the next five years the position of the governor-general of a dominion was clarified; he ceased to be a representative of the British government and became a personal representative of the British crown. The independent position of the dominions in the Commonwealth and in the international community was put on a firm legal foundation by the [[Statute of Westminster]] (1931). In domestic affairs Mackenzie King strengthened the Liberal policy of increasing the powers of the provincial governments by transferring to the governments of Manitoba, Alberta, and Saskatchewan the ownership of the crown lands within those provinces, as well as the subsoil rights. In collaboration with the provincial governments he inaugurated a system of old-age pensions based on need.
===Great Depression===
The [[Great Depression]] began in Canada in 1929 and hit very hard; it led to a Liberal defeat in the 1930 elections. In opposition, it was Mackenzie King's policy to refrain from offering advice and to let the Conservative government under [[R.B. Bennett]] make its mistakes; Mackenzie King's policy preferences were not radically different. Though he gave the impression of sympathy with progressive and liberal causes, he had no enthusiasm for the [[New Deal]] of American President [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] (which Bennett tried to emulate), and he never advocated massive government action to alleviate depression in Canada.

In 1935 the Liberals used the slogan "King or Chaos" to win a landslide. Promosing a much-desired trade treaty with the U.S., the Mackenzie King government passed the 1935 Reciprocal Trade Agreement. It marked the turning point in Canadian-American economic relations, reversing the disastrous trade war of 1930-31, lowing tariffs, and yielding a dramatic increase in trade; more subtly, it revealed to the prime minister and the president that they could work together well.<ref> Marc T. Boucher, "The Politics of Economic Depression: Canadian-American Relations in the Mid-1930s." ''International Journal'' 1985-1986 41(1): 3-36. Issn: 0020-7020; H. Blair Neatby, ''William Lyon Mackenzie King: 1932-1939'' (1976) pp 143-48.</ref> After 1936 the prime minister lost patience when westerners preferred radical alternatives such as the CCF (Co-operative Commonwealth Federation) and Social Credit to his middle-of-the-road liberalism. Indeed, he came close to writing off the region with his comment that the prairie dust bowl was "part of the U.S. desert area. I doubt if it will be of any real use again."<ref> Robert A. Wardhaugh, ''Mackenzie King and the Prairie West'' (2000)</ref> Instead he paid more attention to the industrial regions and the needs of Ontario and Quebec regarding the proposed St. Lawrence Seaway project with the United States. As for the unemployed, he was hostile to federal relief and reluctantly accepted a Keynesian solution that involved federal deficit spending, tax cuts and subsidies to the housing market.<ref>H. Blair Neatby, ''The Politics of Chaos: Canada in the Thirties ''(1972) p. 84-6. </ref>

Mackenzie King returned as prime minister, serving until his retirement in 1948. During all but the last two years he was also secretary of state for external affairs, taking personal charge of foreign policy.

===Second World War===
Mackenzie King's last 12 years in office were about the preparation for, the fighting of, and the aftermath of [[World War II, Homefront|the Second World War]]. Not alarmed by the rise of Hitler, Mackenzie King supported the policies of British Prime Minister [[Neville Chamberlain]] with concessions to appease [[Adolf Hitler]] in the hope he would stop threatening his neighbours. Hitler met with Mackenzie King in Berlin in 1937, with mesmerizing effect as the prime minister's spiritualism affected his views of Hitler. Possessing a religious yearning for direct insight into the hidden mysteries of life and the universe, and strongly influenced by the operas of [[Richard Wagner]], Mackenzie King decided Hitler was a akin to mythical Wagnerian heroes within whom good and evil were struggling. He thought that good would eventually triumph and Hitler would redeem his people and lead them to a harmonious, uplifting future. These spiritual attitudes not only guided Canada's relations with Hitler but gave the prime minister the comforting sense of a higher mission, that of helping to lead Hitler to peace.<ref>Robert H. Keyserlingk, "Mackenzie King's Spiritualism and His View of Hitler in 1939." ''Journal of Canadian Studies'' 1985-1986 20(4): 26-44. Issn: 0021-9495; also C. P. Stacey, "The Divine Mission: Mackenzie King and Hitler." ''Canadian Historical Review'' 1980 61(4): 502-512. Issn: 0008-3755 </ref>

To rearm Canada he built the Royal Canadian Air Force as a viable military power, while at the same time keeping it separate from Britain's Royal Air Force. He was instrumental in obtaining the British Commonwealth Air Training Plan Agreement, which was signed in Ottawa in December, 1939, binding Canada, Britain, New Zealand, and Australia to a program that eventually trained half their airmen in the Second World War.

Canada voluntarily entered the war, after waiting a few days to display its independence, but Mackenzie King--and Canada--were largely ignored by [[Winston Churchill]], despite Canada's major role in supplying food, raw materials, munitions and money to the hard-pressed British economy, training airmen for the Commonwealth, guarding the western half of the North Atlantic against German u-boats, and providing combat troops for the invasions of Italy, France and Germany in 1943-45. Mackenzie King linked Canada more and more closely to the United States, signing a private agreement with Roosevelt at Ogdensburg, New York, in August 1940 that provided for the close cooperation of Canadian and American forces. The Americans virtually took control of the Yukon and Newfoundland. Mackenzie King proved high successful in mobilizing the economy for war, with impressive results in industrial and agricultural output. The depression ended and prosperity returned. On the political side, Mackenzie King rejected any notion of a government of national unity.

He raised a million men (and some women) for the military but faced intense resistance in Quebec against conscription for service overseas. He stalled because he did not need conscripted troops until the fighting became heavy in late 1944. By the time he agreed to send a limited number of conscripted men overseas to fight beside the volunteers, the war was ending. He thus avoided the enormous political upheaval of the First World War on the same issue. Meanwhile the army faced with the government's policy of conscripting manpower only for home defense and given their own need for overseas volunteers, used conscripts raised under the National Resources Mobilization Act to meet both purposes.<ref>Daniel Byers, "Mobilising Canada: the National Resources Mobilization Act, the Department of National Defence, and Compulsory Military Service in Canada, 1940-1945." ''Journal of the Canadian Historical Association'' 1996 7: 175-203. Issn: 0847-4478 [http://www.erudit.org/revue/jcha/1996/v7/n1/031107ar.pdf online edition] </ref>

Canada accepted only 5,000 Jewish refugees from Nazism during 1933-48, while Britain took in 70,000, and the United States 200,000. Mackenzie King always sought compromise, and supported restrictive immigration policies. Opposition to immigration was strongest in Quebec, as was anti-Semitism, and King needed the Liberal Party support of that province.<ref> Irving Abella and Harold Troper, ''None Is Too Many: Canada and the Jews of Europe, 1933-1948'' (1982)</ref>

==Postwar==
In his two years of office following the war, Mackenzie King vigorously supported the formation of the [[United Nations]] and downplayed the emerging [[Cold War]]. In domestic policy his government tried to boost the economy with fiscal and monetary measures. In terms of creating the welfare state, his government passed social measures, including unemployment insurance, collective bargaining, and mothers' allowances. Aging rapidly, in late 1948 he turned over the Liberal Party and the prime ministership to [[Louis St. Laurent]], his foreign minister and chief supporter in [[Quebec]]. He died in his country house at Kingsmere, near Ottawa, on July 22, 1950.

==Bibliography==
* Allen, Ralph. ''Ordeal by Fire: Canada, 1910-1945,'' (1961), 492pp [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=11922490 online edition]
* Betcherman, Lita-Rose. ''Ernest Lapointe: Mackenzie King's Great Quebec Lieutenant.'' (2002). 435 pp.
* Creighton, Donald. ''The Forked Road: Canada, 1939-1957'' (1976) standard survey
* Cuff, R. D. and Granatstein, J. L. ''Canadian-American Relations in Wartime: From the Great War to the Cold War.'' (1975). 205 pp.
* Dawson, R.M. ''William Lyon Mackenzie King: A Political Biography''. Vol. 1: 1874-1923, (1958) [http://www.questia.com/read/858772?title=William%20Lyon%20Mackenzie%20King online edition]
* Donaghy, Greg, ed. ''Canada and the Early Cold War, 1943-1957'' (1998) [http://www.dfait-maeci.gc.ca/department/history/coldwar-en.asp online edition]
* Dziuban, Stanley W. ''Military Relations between the United States and Canada, 1939-1945'' (1959) [http://www.questia.com/read/9066133?title=Military%20Relations%20between%20the%20United%20States%20and%20Canada%2c%201939-1945 online edition]
* Eayrs James. ''In Defence of Canada''. 5 vols. 1964- 1983. the standard history of defense policy
* English, John, and J. O. Stubbs, eds. ''Mackenzie King: Widening the Debate,'' (1977), 257pp; 11 essays by scholars
* Esberey, Joy E. ''Knight of the Holy Spirit: A Study of William Lyon Mackenzie King.'' (1980). 245 pp. a psychobiography stressing his spirituality
* Ferns, Henry, Bernard Ostry, and John Meisel. ''The Age of Mackenzie King'' (1976), 396pp; scholarly biography to 1919; [http://www.amazon.com/Age-Mackenzie-King-Henry-Ferns/dp/0888621140/ref=pd_bbs_2?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1206667794&sr=8-2 excerpt and text search]
* Granatstein, J. L. ''Canada's War: The Politics of the Mackenzie King Government, 1939-1945'' (1975)
* Granatstein, J. L. ''Conscription in the Second World War, 1939-1945;: A study in political management'' (1969)
* Granatstein, J. L. ''Mackenzie King: His life and world'' (1977)
* Hou, Charles, and Cynthia Hou, eds. ''Great Canadian Political Cartoons, 1915 to 1945.'' (2002). 244pp
* McGregor, F. A. ''The Fall & Rise of Mackenzie King, 1911-1919'' (1962) [http://www.questia.com/read/77548146?title=The%20Fall%20%26%20Rise%20of%20Mackenzie%20King%2c%201911-1919 online edition]
* Neatby, H. Blair. "King, William Lyon Mackenzie," [http://www.biographi.ca/EN/ShowBio.asp?BioId=42131 ''Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online'']
* Neatby, H. Blair. ''The Politics of Chaos: Canada in the Thirties'' (1972) [http://www.questia.com/read/97626513?title=The%20Politics%20of%20Chaos%3a%20Canada%20in%20the%20Thirties online edition]
* Neatby, H. Blair. ''William Lyon Mackenzie King, 1924-1932: The Lonely Heights'' (1963) standard biography, [[http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=64401314 online edition]
* Neatby, H. Blair. ''William Lyon Mackenzie King: 1932-1939: the Prism of Unity'' (1976)] standard biography [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=42440063 online edition]
* Neatby, H. Blair. "King and the Historians," in John English and J. O. Stubbs, eds. ''Mackenzie King: Widening the Debate,'' (1977)
* Nolan, Brian. ''King's War: Mackenzie King and the Politics of War, 1939-1945.'' (1988). 208 pp.
* Perras, Galen Roger. ''Franklin Roosevelt and the Origins of the Canadian-American Security Alliance, 1933-1945: Necessary, but Not Necessary Enough'' (1998) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=27381179 online edition]
* Stacey, C. P. ''Arms, Men and Governments: The War Policies of Canada, 1939-1945'' (1970) standard survey
* Stacey, C. P. ''A Very Double Life: The Private World of Mackenzie King'' (1985) [http://www.amazon.com/Very-Double-Life-Mackenzie-Biographies/dp/0887801366/ref=pd_bbs_sr_3?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1206667794&sr=8-3 excerpt and text search]
* Stacey, C. P. ''Canada and the Age of Conflict: A History of Canadian External Policies. Vol. 2: 1921-1948, The Mackenzie King Era.'' (1981). 484 pp. the standard history of foreign affairs
* Thompson, John H., and Allan Seager. ''Canada 1922-1939''. (1985). standard survey
* Wardhaugh, Robert A. ''Mackenzie King and the Prairie West.'' (2000). 328 pp.
* Whitaker, Reginald. ''The Government Party: Organizing and Financing the Liberal Party of Canada, 1930-1958'' (1977)
* Whitaker, Reginald. "Political Thought and Political Action in Mackenzie King." ''Journal of Canadian Studies'' 1978-1979 13(4): 40-60. Issn: 0021-9495
1.
===Primary sources===
* ''The Canadian Annual Review of Public Affairs'' (annual, 1901-1938), [http://books.google.com/books?id=OzMhdbbnG2wC&printsec=frontcover&dq=intitle:The+intitle:Canadian+intitle:Annual+intitle:Review&lr=&num=30&as_brr=1 full text for 1920 online and downloadable]
* Mackenzie King, W. L. ''Industry and Humanity: A Study in the Principles Under-Lying Industrial Reconstruction'' (1918) [http://www.questia.com/read/3886991?title=Industry%20and%20Humanity%3a%20A%20Study%20in%20the%20Principles%20Under-Lying%20Industrial%20Reconstruction online edition]; also [http://books.google.com/books?id=RUUAAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=inauthor:mackenzie+inauthor:king&lr=&num=30&as_brr=3 full text online and downloadable]
* [http://king.collectionscanada.ca/ ''The diaries of William Lyon Mackenzie King''], 50,000 pages, typescript; fully searchable
* Pickersgill, J.W., and Donald F. Forster, ''The Mackenzie King Record''. 4 vols. Vol. 1: 1939-1944 and Vol. 2: 1944-1945 (University of Toronto Press, 1960); and [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=1008334 Vol. 3: 1945-1946 online] and [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=65373881 Vol. 4: 1946-1947 online] (University of Toronto Press, 1970). from King's private diary
* Riddell, Walter A. ed; ''Documents on Canadian Foreign Policy, 1917-1939'' Oxford University Press, 1962 806 pages of documents

====notes====
<references/>
[[Category:Canadian Prime Ministers]]
[[Category:Canadian History]]

{{DEFAULTSORT:King, William}}

William Lyon Mackenzie

2010-09-28T02:01:50Z

BrentK:

'''William Lyon Mackenzie''' (1795-1861) was a [[Canada|Canadian]] rebel who led the failed 1837 rebellion in Upper Canada (now [[Ontario]]). A puritan with a mission to bring democracy to Canada, and a tireless journalist, he dominated the political opposition to the hated pro-British Tories. Mackenzie did much to popularize other people’s ideas and expressed with complete sincerity the grievances felt by many Upper Canadians prior to the rebellion. Only a small minority of reformers joined his poorly organized rebellion. The 1837 revolts led to a series of reforms that eventually led to democracy in Canada, but historians debate how much credit he deserves.

Born in Scotland, he immigrated to Canada in 1820, where he soon became a spokesman and an influential leader of the political reform movement that eventually erupted in rebellion. He advocated [[republicanism]] based on the American model. In 1824 he established a newspaper, the ''Colonial Advocate''. He repeatedly attacked the oligarchic rule of the "Family Compact", the elite of Upper Canada. His forthright and forceful crusading journalism gained him widespread popularity. Mackenzie attracted more attention for his opinions than for his information. After moving to the capital at York (Toronto), his readership spread throughout Upper Canada. The government enlisted young toughs to ransack his shop, smash his press and throw his type in the river but he won a lawsuit against them that made his business financially stable. Elected to the assembly in 1828, he was expelled five times by the Tory majority and reelected five times by his constituents. He became the first mayor of Toronto in 1834.

Mackenzie admired American republican institutions and advocated the election of executive officers. The more moderate reformers, led by the Methodist spokesman Egerton Ryerson and the respected Anglican lawyer Robert Baldwin, drew back as Mackenzie and his supporters moved closer to open rebellion

In 1837 spontaneous republican uprisings broke out in both Upper Canada (Ontario), led by Mackenzie, and Lower Canada (Quebec), led by [[Louis Joseph Papineau]]. They were unplanned and disorganized, and British troops and loyal militia quickly scattered the rebels. Mackenzie and Papineau escaped to the United States where they hoped to enlist help to liberate the British provinces. Although sporadic border raids occurred in 1837 and 1838, Washington remained neutral, and the raids merely strengthened Loyalism. Mackenzie was pardoned in 1849 and returned to Toronto. He was elected to Parliament, 1851-58, where he advocated reforms but managed to alienate most of his allies.

His grandson [[William Lyon Mackenzie King]] was long-time prime minister of Canada in the 20th century.

==Further reading==
* Armstrong, Frederick H., and Ronald J. Stagg. "Mackenzie, William Lyon," ''Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online'' (2009), the best place to start. [http://www.biographi.ca/009004-119.01-e.php?&id_nbr=4562&interval=25&&PHPSESSID=k73mb66bgv2u983rma6u7ueav7 online edition]
* Clark, S. D. ''Movements of Political Protest in Canada, 1640–1840'' (1959), sociological perspective
* Flint, David. ''William Lyon Mackenzie: rebel against authority'' (1971), scholarly biography
* Gates, Lillian F. ''After the Rebellion: The Later Years of William Lyon Mackenzie.'' (1988). 413 pp. [http://books.google.com/books?id=IDGHlC0RFdQC&pg=PA344&dq=1837+%22upper+canada%22+intitle:mackenzie&lr=&num=30&as_brr=0&as_pt=ALLTYPES excerpts and text search]
* Gates, Lillian F. "The Decided Policy of William Lyon Mackenzie", "Canadian Historical Review" 40 (1959)
* Greer, Allan. "1837-38: Rebellion Reconsidered". ''Canadian Historical Review'' 1995 76(1): 1-18.
* Kilbourn, William. ''The Firebrand: William Lyon Mackenzie and the Rebellion in Upper Canada'' (1956) [http://www.questia.com/read/99227317?title=The%20Firebrand%3a%20William%20Lyon%20Mackenzie%20and%20the%20Rebellion%20in%20Upper%20Canada online edition]
*[http://www.mhs.mb.ca/docs/transactions/3/rebellion1837.shtml J. Edgar Rea. "Rebellion in Upper Canada, 1837" ''Manitoba Historical Society Transactions'' Series 3, 22 (1965-66) online], historiography
* Lindsey, Charles. ''The life and times of Wm. Lyon Mackenzie'' (1863) [http://books.google.com/books?id=JJctAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA350&dq=1837+%22upper+canada%22+intitle:mackenzie&lr=&num=30&as_brr=0&as_pt=ALLTYPES full text online]
* Read, Colin. ''The Rising in Western Upper Canada, 1837-8: The Duncombe Revolt and After.'' (1982). 327 pp.
* Read, Colin and Stagg, Ronald J., eds. ''The Rebellion of 1837 in Upper Canada.'' (1985), primary sources.
* MacKay, R. A. "The Political Ideas of William Lyon Mackenzie", ''Canadian Journal of Economics and Political Science'' 3 (1937) [http://www.jstor.org/stable/136825 in JSTOR]
* Sewell, John. ''Mackenzie: A Political Biography of William Lyon Mackenzie‎'' (2002) 249 pages; latest scholarly biography [http://books.google.com/books?id=_Dln_PbvYtUC&pg=PA236&dq=1837+%22upper+canada%22+intitle:mackenzie&lr=&num=30&as_brr=0&as_pt=ALLTYPES excerpt and text search]
===Primary sources===
* Mackenzie, William Lyon. ''The Selected Writings of William Lyon Mackenzie, 1824-1837‎,'' ed. by Margaret Fairley (1960) - 383 pages
* Read, Colin, and Ronald Stagg, eds. ''The Rebellion Of 1837 In Upper Canada - A Collection of Ducuments'' (1985), 100pp intro and 370pp of primary sources
[[category:Canadian History]]
{{DEFAULTSORT:Mckenzie, William Lyon}}