Conservapedia - User contributions [en]

Java (programming language)

2009-08-25T04:26:36Z

Canuck: change link to C#

[[Image:322px-Java Logo svg.png|right|thumb|100px|Java logo.]]
'''Java''' is an [[object-oriented]] [[programming language]] developed by [[Sun Microsystems]] in the 1990's. Its syntax is similar to that of C++, but with some modifications. One of the major features which make Java programs easier to write than C++ programs is its support for automatic [[memory management]].

The Java [[compiler]] provided by Sun Microsystems compiles Java code to bytecode, which requires the Java virtual machine to execute. This model was adopted by Microsoft for [[C Sharp | C#]] and other [[.NET]] languages. [[IBM]] and others supply regular Java compilers for those who don't want to use the [[virtual machine]].

Java applications are popular in creating [[applets]] for websites, due to their cross-platform nature. It still has not gained widespread popularity in stand-alone Windows applications, but is used primarily on web servers.

==External Links==
[http://www.java.com/ Official Java Website]
[[Category:Programming Languages]]

C Sharp

2009-08-25T04:24:28Z

Canuck: use a better category

'''C#''' is the name of a computer [[programming language]] first introduced by [[Microsoft]] and standardized through [[ECMA]] as ECMA-334<ref>http://www.ecma-international.org/publications/standards/Ecma-334.htm</ref>. The standard is cross-listed with [[ISO]] as ISO/IEC 23270:2006. C#, pronounced "C sharp", is in the family of the [[C]]/C++ computer languages. Like C++ and [[Java]], it is an [[object-oriented]] language. The Microsoft "dialect" is known as "Visual C# .Net".<ref>http://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/vcsharp/default.aspx</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category: Programming Languages]]

C Sharp

2009-08-25T04:22:50Z

Canuck: categorize

C Sharp

2009-08-25T04:20:11Z

Canuck: start to create a page

Computer science

2009-08-25T04:06:38Z

Canuck: /* Common programming languages in Computer Science */ add c#

'''Computer science''' is the study of various aspects of [[computers]]. It is a common course of study and degrees at the college level and beyond.

Studies can range from the very practical, such as learning [[programming language]]s, to the highly theoretical.

Students who plan to study computer science should take as many [[mathematics]] courses as possible. While not all of computer science is directly mathematical, the mental discipline that comes from studying math is very useful in studying computers.

==Common programming languages in Computer Science==
*[[Java]]
*[[C++|C/C++]]
*[[C#]]
*[[Matlab]]

[[Category:Information technology]]
[[Category:Computer Science]]

Windows (operating system)

2009-08-25T04:00:55Z

Canuck: /* Versions */ add some server versions

'''Microsoft Windows''' is an [[operating system]] produced and maintained by [[Microsoft Corporation]]. It is estimated that as of December 2007 <ref>[http://www.w3schools.com/browsers/browsers_os.asp OS Statistics]. Refsnes Data. Retrieved 29 January, 2008.</ref> the Microsoft Windows family accounted for roughly 88% of operating system usage, with 73.4% belonging to the [[Windows XP]] family. Windows is used both as a desktop operating system and a [[server]]<ref>[http://www.microsoft.com/windowsserver2003/default.mspx Windows Server 2003 R2 Home]. Microsoft Corporation. Retrieved 29 January, 2008.</ref> operating system, and is intended for use with the [[Intel]] x86 family of processors.

Early versions of Windows (98 and earlier) were notoriously unreliable, despite (or maybe because of?) Microsoft's near-monopoly share of the operating system market. They crashed so often that the term "blue screen of death" entered the vocabulary. See also this satire: [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yX8yrOAjfKM&feature=related Matrix Runs on Windows XP]

==Versions==
The following are a list of releases of Microsoft Windows. While initially Windows was merely a graphical user interface extension to [[MS-DOS]] shell<ref>[http://www.microsoft.com/windows/WinHistoryProGraphic.mspx Windows History: Windows Desktop Timeline]. Microsoft Corporation. Retrieved 29 January, 2008.</ref>, it became a full operating system beginning with the release of Windows NT.

* Windows 1.0, 2.x, and 3.0, 3.1, 3.11, 3.11FWG
* Windows NT 3.5 and 4.0
* Windows 95
* Windows 98 and 98SE
* Windows ME
* Windows 2000 Professional, Server, and Advanced Server editions
** Windows Neptune (unreleased)
*[[Windows XP]] Professional, Home, and Media Center editions
* Windows Server 2003
*[[Windows Vista]]
* Windows Server 2008
*[[Windows Seven]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External Links==
[http://www.microsoft.com/windows/default.mspx Microsoft Windows Home Page]

[[Category: Operating Systems]]
[[Category:Microsoft]]

Sunday School

2008-11-15T22:21:31Z

Canuck: categorize

A '''Sunday School''' is traditionally a meeting together of [[Christian]]s within a [[church]] setting for the purpose of receiving instruction about the [[Bible]] or [[God]].

While Sunday School is often thought of being for children, this is not always the case. Sunday School differs from a church service in that the teacher is not usually the main [[pastor]] and the setting is usually more informal and smaller and open to more questions or interaction from those attending. It usually is also broken down by groups, either by age, gender, or marital status.

Many churches have Sunday school classes before or after the main church service.

[[Category:Christianity]]
[[Category:Education]]

Grenada

2008-11-15T22:21:01Z

Canuck: categorize

'''Grenada''' is an [[island]] [[nation]] in the southeastern [[Caribbean Sea]]. Located north of [[Trinidad and Tobago]], it is the second-smallest independent country in the [[Western Hemisphere]].

in 1983<ref>http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/october/25/newsid_3207000/3207509.stm]</ref>, US forces invaded Grenada.

==References==
[[Category: Caribbean Countries]]
[[Category: US Invasions]]

War of 1812

2008-11-15T22:19:21Z

Canuck: categorize

[[Image:FtMcHenry.jpg|right|300px|thumb|Fort McHenry today, flying a replica of the "Star Spangled Banner" that flew over the fort on September 13, 1814]]
The '''War of 1812''' was a war declared by the United States against Great Britain (and its Empire), lasting from June 18, 1812 to February 18, 1815. The causes involved American grievances against Britain for suppressing American trade, impressing (seizing) sailors with U.S. papers, and inciting hostile Indian raids in the west. Britain, tied down by a much larger war with Napoleon's France, acted too late diplomatically to head off the conflict. The war followed a series of failed efforts by the U.S. to use economic pressure through the [[Embargo of 1807]].

The fighting at sea was characterized by a tight British blockade that shut down most American shipping, together with some dramatic naval battles. On land the war was a draw characterized by a series of invasions launched by the U.S. against Canada, and by the British against Washington, New York state, and New Orleans. All the invasions were abject failures. By late 1814, with France and the Indian tribes apparently defeated, the causes for the war had largely vanished, and a treaty was agreed to that left the prewar boundaries unchanged. Although the war was a draw, Americans celebrated a great victory--many called it their Second War of Independence-- and acclaimed General [[Andrew Jackson]] a national hero for his decisive victory at New Orleans. In Canada, anti-American and pro-British elements celebrated the repulse of an American invasion. British had to deal with Napoleon's return and largely ignored the war.

==Origins==
[[Image:7648ruy6g.gif|right|200px|thumb|[[James Madison]], fourth President of the United States]]
With Britain engaged in a life-and-death war with France, the efforts of a small country like the U.S. to remain neutral were futile. The British Royal Navy controlled the seas and stopped American shipments headed to France. Worse, the Royal Navy, needing more men, boarded American merchant ships and "impressed" (seized) 6000 sailors who were American citizens but had been born in Britain. Finally Americans were convinced that the British were using their base in western Canada to supply and encourage Indian raids on American frontier settlements.

When a British warship in June 1807 attacked and disabled [[USS Chesapeake|USS ''Chesapeake'']], and impressed several crewmen, a general wave of indignation rose in which even the maritime interests joined. This was an insult to the flag, but President [[Thomas Jefferson]] decided against war and instead tried to punish Britain by cutting off American trade. This annoyed the British some but outraged New England, where shipping was shut down and the economy badly hurt.<ref> New England started to industrialize to rebuild its economy.</ref>

In the South and west, "war hawks," led by young Republicans such as [[Henry Clay]] and [[John C. Calhoun]], demanded war.

President [[James Madison]] tried to negotiate. Congress passed "Macon's Bill #2" in 1810 that promised if Britain or France allowed American shipping, the U.S. would put an embargo on the other country. [[Napoleon]] tricked the U.S. into believing, falsely, that France had dropped its restrictions. Madison then slapped an embargo on trade to Britain (which was by far the largest trading partner of the U.S.). The British failed to act quickly, and by the time London dropped its restrictions, the U.S. had reached the point of no return. In June 1812, the main cause of the war for the U.S. was defined as the need to protect republican values against British imperialism. Madison sent a war message to Congress on June 1 listing all the complaints against Britain and asking for a declaration of war. With New England vehemently opposed, Congress declared war on June 18.
===Myths of the origins===
Many Canadians falsely believe that a main cause of the war was American expansionism or desire for Canadian land. The topic was much discussed among historians before 1940, but is rarely cited by experts any more.<ref> it was refuted by [http://www.jstor.org/pss/1896211 Warren H. Goodman, "The Origins of the War of 1812: A Survey of Changing Interpretations," ''Mississippi Valley Historical Review'', v 28 (September, 1941), 171-86. in JSTOR].</ref> The myth was propounded after the war by pro-British Canadians who tried to incite anti-Americanism.<ref> W. Arthur Bowler, "Propaganda in Upper Canada in the War of 1812," ''American Review of Canadian Studies'' (1988) 28:11-32; C.P. Stacey, "The War of 1812 in Canadian History" in Morris Zaslow and Wesley B. Turner, eds. ''The Defended Border: Upper Canada and the War of 1812'' (Toronto, 1964)</ref>

Madison and his advisors did believe that conquest of Canada would be easy and that economic coercion would force the British to come to terms by cutting off the food supply for their West Indies colonies. Furthermore, possession of Canada would be a valuable bargaining chip. Frontiersmen demanded the seizure of Canada not because they wanted the land (they had plenty), but because the British were thought to be arming the Indians and thereby blocking settlement of the west. <ref>Stagg (1983)</ref> As Horsman concludes, "The idea of conquering Canada had been present since at least 1807 as a means of forcing England to change her policy at sea. The conquest of Canada was primarily a means of waging war, not a reason for starting it."<ref>Horsman (1962) p. 267 </ref> Hickey flatly states, "The desire to annex Canada did not bring on the war." <ref> Hickey (1990) p. 72. Likewise Brown (1964) concludes, "The purpose of the Canadian expedition was to serve negotiation not to annex Canada." Roger H. Brown, ''The Republic in Peril: 1812'' (1964) p. 128. Burt, a leading Canadian scholar, agrees completely, noting that Foster, the British minister to Washington, also rejected the argument that annexation of Canada was a war goal. Alfred L. Burt ''The United States, Great Britain, and British North America from the Revolution to the Establishment of Peace after the War of 1812'' (1940) pp 305-10. </ref>

==The Opposing Forces==
At the outbreak of the war, the United States had a total population of about 7.7 million people and was very unprepared for war. A series of border forts garrisoned by very small Regular Army detachments stretched along the Canadian boundary: Fort Mackinac, on the straits between Lake Michigan and Lake Huron; Fort Dearborn, on the site of what is now Chicago; Fort Detroit; and Fort Niagara, at the mouth of the Niagara River on Lake Ontario. The actual strength of the Regular Army in June 1812 totaled 11,744 officers and men, including an estimated 5,000 recruits enlisted for the additional force authorized the preceding January, in contrast to an overall authorized strength of 35,600. The weak U.S. Navy consisted of 20 vessels: the 3 large 44-gun frigates such as [[USS Constitution|USS ''Constitution'']], 3 smaller frigates of the [[USS Constellation|''Constellation'']] class rated at 38 guns, and 14 others. Jefferson's policy had been to build large numbers of small gunboats which could defend American harbors but which could not sail long distances and thus could not be an offensive weapon. The gunboats were a total failure and historians have been highly critical of Jefferson's policy.<ref>Merrill D. Peterson, ''Thomas Jefferson and the New Nation: A Biography'' (1975) pp 836-39.</ref>

The war hawks in Congress hurriedly tried to remedy years of neglecting the military. In March 1812 it had tried to place the Army’s supply system on a more adequate footing by establishing a Quartermaster Department on the military staff in place of the inefficient and costly military agent system. At the same time Congress created the Office of the Commissary General of Purchases in the War Department, and for the first time since the Revolution the Army’s supply system was placed under the exclusive control of the Secretary of War. In May Congress had made provision for an Ordnance Department responsible for the inspection and testing of all ordnance, cannon balls, shells, and shot; the construction of gun carriages and ammunition wagons; and the preparation and inspection of the "public powder." It enlarged the Corps of Engineers by adding a company of bombardiers, sappers, and miners and expanded and reorganized the Military Academy at West Point. In addition to increasing the Regular Army, Congress had authorized the President to accept volunteer forces and to call upon the states for militia. The difficulty was not planning for an army, but raising one.

The main flaw in the American strategy was the false assumption that inexpensive amateur militia units could fight a war with a very well trained professional army. The war revealed that the militia units sometimes did fight well, if under strong leadership like that of Andrew Jackson. The militia did very poorly in offensive warfare--refusing at one critical point to cross the border into Canada when a battle was raging. The U.S. lost that battle. [[John C. Calhoun]] learned the lesson well. After the war he became Secretary of War and built a professional army under the leadership of very good generals, especially [[Winfield Scott]].

One of the world’s major powers was ranged against the United States; but on the basis of available resources, the two belligerents were rather evenly matched. Most of Britain’s forces were tied up in the war against Napoleon, and for the time being very little military and naval assistance could be spared for the defense of Canada. At the outbreak of the war, there were about 7,000 British and Canadian regulars in Upper and Lower Canada (now the provinces of Ontario and Quebec). With a total white population of only half a million, Canada itself had only a small reservoir of militia to draw upon. When the war began, Maj. Gen. Isaac Brock, the military commander and civil governor of Upper Canada, had 800 militiamen available in addition to his 1,600 regulars. In the course of the war, the two provinces put a total of about 10,000 militiamen in the field; whereas in the United States, probably 450,000 of the militiamen saw active service, though not more than half of them ever got near the front.

The support of Indian tribes gave Canada one source of manpower that the United States lacked. After the [[Battle of Tippecanoe]], [[Tecumseh]], the [[Shawnee]] chief, had led his warriors across the border into Canada. There, along with the Canadian Indians, they joined the forces opposing the Americans. Perhaps 3,500 Indians were serving in the Canadian forces during the Thames River campaign in the fall of 1813, probably the largest number that took the field at any one time during the war.

The bulk of the British Navy was also fighting in the war against Napoleon. In September 1812, three months after the outbreak of war with the United States, Britain had no more than eleven ships of the line, thirty-four frigates, and about an equal number of smaller naval vessels in the western Atlantic. These were all that could be spared for operations in American waters, which involved the tremendous tasks of escorting British merchant shipping, protecting the St. Lawrence River, blockading American ports, and at the same time hunting down American frigates.

A significant weakness in the American position was the disunity of the country. In the New England states, public opinion ranged from mere apathy to actively expressed opposition to the war. A good many Massachusetts and Connecticut ship owners outfitted [[privateers]] (privately owned and armed vessels that were commissioned to take enemy ships), but how much of this was a result of patriotism and how much was hope for profit remains a matter of conjecture. Many New Englanders went so far as to sell grain and provisions to the British. Throughout the war, there were serious problems in raising and sustaining the militia from New England. Nevertheless, several of those states spent hundreds of thousands of dollars on local defense even if they contributed little directly to the federal effort. And despite the regional disaffection with the war, New England was second only to the Mid-Atlantic States in providing regular units: New England raised thirteen regiments of soldiers, whereas New York, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania combined provided fifteen.

Canada was not faced with the same degree of public opinion challenges. Nevertheless, many inhabitants of Upper Canada were recent immigrants from the United States who had no great desire to take up arms against their former homeland. Other Canadians thought that the superiority of the United States in men and material made any defense hopeless. That General Brock was able to overcome this spirit of defeatism and obtain the degree of support he needed to defend Canada is a lasting tribute to the quality of his leadership.

==The Strategic Pattern==
The fundamental military strategy of the United States was simple enough. The primary undertaking would be the conquest of Canada. The United States also planned an immediate naval offensive, whereby a swarm of privateers and the small Navy would be set loose on the high seas to destroy British commerce. The old invasion route into Canada by way of Lake Champlain and the Richelieu River led directly to the most populous and most important part of the enemy’s territory. The capture of Montreal would cut the line of communications upon which the British defense of Upper Canada depended, making the fall of that province inevitable. But this invasion route was near the center of disaffection in the United States from which little local support could be expected. The places where enthusiasm for the war ran high and where the Canadian forces were weak offered a safer theater of operations, though one with fewer strategic opportunities. Thus, in violation of the principles of objective and economy of force, the first assaults were delivered across the Detroit River and across the Niagara River between Lake Erie and Lake Ontario rather than along the Hudson–Lake Champlain–Montreal line of advance.

The war progressed through three distinct stages. In the first, lasting until the spring of 1813, England was so hard pressed in Europe that it could spare neither men nor ships in any great number for the conflict in North America. The United States was free to take the initiative, to invade Canada, and to send out cruisers and privateers against enemy shipping. During the second stage, lasting from early 1813 to the beginning of 1814, Britain was able to establish a tight blockade but still could not materially reinforce the troops in Canada. During this stage the American Army, having gained experience, won its first successes. The third stage, in 1814, was marked by the constant arrival in North America of British regulars and naval reinforcements, which enabled the enemy to raid the North American coast almost at will and to take the offensive in several quarters. At the same time, in this final stage of the war American forces fought their best fights and won their most brilliant victories.

==The First Campaigns==
The first blows of the war were struck in the [[Detroit]] area and at Fort Mackinac. President Madison gave Brig. Gen. William Hull, Governor of the Michigan Territory, command of operations in that area. Hull arrived at Fort Detroit on July 5, 1812, with a force of about 1,500 Ohio militiamen and 300 regulars, which he led across the river into Canada a week later. At that time the whole enemy force on the Detroit frontier amounted to about 150 British regulars, 300 Canadian militiamen, and some 250 Indians led by Tecumseh. Most of the enemy forces were at Fort Malden, about twenty miles south of Detroit, on the Canadian side of the river. General Hull had been a dashing young officer in the Revolution, but by this time age and its infirmities had made him cautious and timid. Instead of moving directly against Fort Malden, Hull issued a bombastic proclamation to the people of Canada announcing their imminent liberation from "tyranny and oppression"; but he stayed at the river landing almost opposite Detroit. He sent out several small raiding detachments along the Thames and Detroit Rivers, one of which returned after skirmishing with the British outposts near Fort Malden.

In the meantime General Brock, who was both energetic and daring, sent a small party of British regulars, Canadians, and Indians across the river from Malden to cut General Hull’s communications with Ohio. By that time Hull was discouraged by the loss of Fort Mackinac, whose sixty defenders had quietly surrendered on July 17 to a small group of British regulars supported by a motley force of fur traders and Indians who at Brock’s suggestion had swiftly marched from St. Joseph Island, forty miles to the north. Hull also knew that the enemy in Fort Malden had received reinforcements (which he overestimated tenfold) and feared that Detroit would be completely cut off from its base of supplies. Taking counsel of his fears, on August 7 he began to withdraw his force across the river into Fort Detroit. The last American had scarcely returned before the first men of Brock’s force appeared and began setting up artillery opposite Detroit. By August 15 five guns were in position and opened fire on the fort, and the next morning Brock led his troops across the river. Before Brock could launch his assault, the Americans surrendered. Militiamen were released under parole; Hull and the regulars were sent as prisoners to Montreal. Later paroled, Hull returned to face a court-martial for his poor conduct during the campaign, was sentenced to be shot, and was immediately pardoned.

On August 15, the day before the surrender, the small garrison at distant Fort Dearborn, acting on orders from Hull, had evacuated the post and started out for Detroit. The column was almost instantly attacked by a band of Indians who massacred the Americans before returning to destroy the fort. With the fall of Mackinac, Detroit, and Dearborn, the entire territory north and west of Ohio fell under enemy control. The settlements in Indiana lay open to attack, the neighboring Indian tribes hastened to join the winning side, and the Canadians in the upper province lost some of the spirit of defeatism with which they had entered the war.

Immediately after taking Detroit, Brock transferred most of his troops to the Niagara frontier, where he faced an American invasion force of 6,500 men. Maj. Gen. Stephen van Rensselaer, the senior American commander and a New York militiaman, was camped at Lewiston with a force of 900 regulars and about 2,300 militiamen. Van Rensselaer owed his appointment not to any active military experience, for he had none, but to his family’s position in New York. Inexperienced as he was in military art, van Rensselaer at least fought the enemy, which was more than could be said of the Regular Army commander in the theater, Brig. Gen. Alexander Smyth. Smyth and his 1,650 regulars and nearly 400 militiamen were located at Buffalo. The rest of the American force, about 1,300 regulars, was stationed at Fort Niagara.

Van Rensselaer planned to cross the narrow Niagara River and capture Queenston and its heights, a towering escarpment that ran perpendicular to the river south of the town. From this vantage point, he hoped to command the area and eventually drive the British out of the Niagara peninsula. Smyth, on the other hand, wanted to attack above the falls, where the banks were low and the current less swift; and he refused to cooperate with the militia general. With a force ten times that of the British opposite him, van Rensselaer decided to attack alone. After one attempt had been called off for lack of oars for the boats, van Rensselaer finally ordered an attack for the morning of October 13. The assault force numbered 600 men, roughly half of them New York militiamen. The attack did not go well. Several boats drifted beyond the landing area; and the first echelon of troops to land, numbering far fewer than 500, was pinned down for a time on the riverbank below the heights. The men eventually found an unguarded path, clambered to the summit, and, surprising the enemy, overwhelmed his fortified battery and drove him down into Queenston.

Later in the morning the Americans repelled a hastily formed counterattack, during which General Brock was killed. This, however, was the high point of van Rensselaer’s fortunes. Although 1,300 men were successfully ferried across the river under persistent British fire from a fortified battery north of town, less than half of them ever reached the American line on the heights. Most of the militiamen refused to cross the river, insisting on their legal right to remain on American soil; and General Smyth ignored van Rensselaer’s request for regulars. Meanwhile, British and Canadian reinforcements arrived in Queenston, and Maj. Gen. Roger Sheave, General Brock’s successor, began to advance on the American position with a force of 800 troops and 300 Indian skirmishers. Van Rensselaer’s men, tired and outnumbered, put up a stiff resistance on the heights but in the end were defeated, with 300 Americans killed or wounded and nearly 1,000 captured.

After the defeat at Queenston, van Rensselaer resigned and was succeeded by the unreliable Smyth, who spent his time composing windy proclamations. Disgusted at being marched down to the river on several occasions only to be marched back to camp again, the new army that had assembled after the battle of Queenston gradually melted away. The men who remained lost all sense of discipline, and finally at the end of November the volunteers were ordered home and the regulars were sent into winter quarters. General Smyth’s request for leave was hastily granted, and three months later his name was quietly dropped from the Army rolls.

Except for minor raids across the frozen St. Lawrence, there was no further fighting along the New York frontier until the following spring. During the Niagara campaign the largest force then under arms, commanded by Maj. Gen. Henry Dearborn, had been held in the neighborhood of Albany, more than two hundred and fifty miles from the scene of operations. Dearborn had a good record in the Revolutionary War and had served as President Jefferson’s Secretary of War. Persuaded to accept the command of the northern theater, except for Hull’s forces, he was in doubt for some time about the extent of his authority over the Niagara front. When it was clarified, he was reluctant to exercise it. Proposing to move his army, which included seven regiments of regulars with artillery and dragoons, against Montreal in conjunction with a simultaneous operation across the Niagara River, Dearborn was content to wait for his subordinates to make the first move. When van Rensselaer made his attempt against Queenston, Dearborn, still in the vicinity of Albany, showed no sign of marching toward Canada. At the beginning of November he sent a large force north to Plattsburg and announced that he would personally lead the army into Montreal, but most of his force got no farther than the border. When his advance guard was driven back to the village of Champlain by Canadian militiamen and Indians and his Vermont and New York volunteers flatly refused to cross the border, Dearborn quietly turned around and marched back to Plattsburg, where he went into winter quarters.
[[Image:Cornepainting.jpg|right|300px|thumb|''In Action'', depicting the battle between USS ''Constitution'' and HMS ''Guerriere'', by Michel Felice Corne (1812)]]
If the land campaigns of 1812 reflected little credit on the Army, the war at sea brought lasting glory to the infant Navy. Until the end of the year the American frigates, brigs of war, and privateers were able to slip in and out of harbors and cruise almost at will; in this period they won their most brilliant victories: USS ''Constitution'' would claim HMS ''Guerierre'' off New England and HMS ''Java'' off Brazil; [[USS United States|USS ''United States'']] would capture HMS ''Macedonian''; the sloops USS ''Hornet'' and USS ''Wasp'' would wreak havoc off England itself; and USS ''Essex'' would decimate the British whaling fleet in the Pacific. At the same time, American privateers were picking off English merchant vessels by the hundreds. Having need of American foodstuffs, Britain was at first willing to take advantage of New England’s opposition to the war by not extending the blockade to the New England coast; but by the beginning of 1814 it was effectively blockading the whole coast and had driven most American naval vessels and privateers off the high seas.

==The Second Year, 1813==
On land, the objects of the American plan of campaign for 1813 were the recapture of Detroit and an attack on Canada across Lake Ontario. For the Detroit campaign, Madison picked Brig. Gen. William Henry Harrison, governor of the Indian Territory and hero of Tippecanoe. The difficulties of a winter campaign were tremendous, but the country demanded action. Harrison therefore started north toward Lake Erie at the end of October 1812 with about 6,500 men. In January 1813 a sizable detachment of around 1,000 men pushed on to Frenchtown, a small Canadian outpost on the Raisin River, twenty-six miles south of Detroit. There, the American commander, Brig. Gen. James Winchester, positioned his men, their backs to the river with scant natural protection and their movements severely hampered by deep snow. A slightly larger force of British regulars, militiamen, and Indians under Col. Henry Proctor soundly defeated the Americans, killing over 100 Kentucky riflemen and capturing about 500. The brutal massacre of wounded American prisoners by their Indian guards made "Remember the Raisin" the rallying cry of the Northwestern Army, but any plans for revenge had to be postponed, for Harrison had decided to suspend operations for the winter. He built Forts Meigs and Stephenson and posted his army near the Michigan border at the western end of Lake Erie.

The Ontario campaign was entrusted to General Dearborn, who was ordered to move his army from Plattsburg to Sacket’s Harbor, where Commodore Isaac Chauncey had been assembling a fleet. Dearborn was to move across the lake to capture Kingston and destroy the British flotilla there, then proceed to York (now Toronto), the capital of Upper Canada, to capture military stores. Finally, he was to cooperate with a force from Buffalo in seizing the forts on the Canadian side of the Niagara River.

The American strategy was basically sound. The capture of Kingston, the only tenable site for a naval station on the Canadian side of Lake Ontario, would give the United States control of the lake and, by cutting the British lines of communications, frustrate enemy plans for operations in the west. After the fall of Kingston, the operations against York and the Niagara forts would be simple mopping-up exercises. When the time came to move, however, Dearborn and Chauncey, hearing a rumor that the British forces in Kingston had been reinforced, decided to bypass that objective and attack York first. About 1,700 men sailed up Lake Ontario without incident, arriving off York before daybreak on April 27. Dearborn, who was in poor health, turned over the command of the assault to Brig. Gen. Zebulon Pike, the explorer of the Southwest. The landing, about four miles west of the town, was virtually unopposed. The British garrison of 600 men, occupying a fortification about halfway between the town and the landing, was overwhelmed after sharp resistance; but just as the Americans were pushing through the fort toward the town, a powder magazine exploded, killing or disabling many Americans and a number of British soldiers. Among those killed was General Pike. Remnants of the garrison fled toward Kingston, 150 miles to the east. The losses were heavy on both sides—almost 20 percent of Dearborn’s forces had been killed or wounded. With General Dearborn incapacitated and General Pike dead, the troops apparently got out of hand. They looted and burned the public buildings and destroyed the provincial records. After holding the town for about a week, they recrossed the lake to Niagara to join an attack against the forts on the Canadian side of the Niagara River.

Meanwhile, Sacket’s Harbor had been almost stripped of troops for the raid on York and for reinforcing the army at Fort Niagara. At Kingston, across the lake, Sir George Prevost, the Governor General of Canada, had assembled a force of 800 British regulars in addition to militia. Taking advantage of the absence of Chauncey’s fleet, which was at the other end of the lake, Prevost launched an attack on Sacket’s Harbor with his entire force of regulars on the night of May 26. The town was defended by about 400 regulars and approximately 750 militiamen under the command of Brig. Gen. Jacob Brown of the New York militia. Brown posted his men in two lines in front of a fortified battery to cover a possible landing. Coming ashore under heavy fire, the British nevertheless pressed rapidly forward, routed the first line, and pushed the second back into the prepared defenses. There, the Americans held. The British then tried two frontal assaults but were repulsed with heavy losses. While they were re-forming for a third attack, General Brown rallied the militia and sent it toward the rear of the enemy’s right flank. This was the turning point. Having suffered serious losses and in danger of being cut off, the British hurriedly withdrew to their ships.
[[Image:BattleofLakeErie.jpg|thumb|300px|right|''Battle of Lake Erie'', by William Henry Powell, 1873.]]
On the same day Prevost sailed against Sacket’s Harbor, General Dearborn at the western end of Lake Ontario was invading Canada with an army of 4,000 men. The operation began with a well-executed and stubbornly resisted amphibious assault led by Col. Winfield Scott and Comdr. [[Oliver Hazard Perry]], U.S. Navy, with Chauncey’s fleet providing fire support. Outnumbered by more than two to one, the British retreated, abandoning Fort George and Queenston to the Americans. An immediate pursuit might have sealed the victory; but Dearborn, after occupying Fort George, waited several days and then sent about 2,000 men after the enemy. The detachment advanced to within ten miles of the British and camped for the night with slight regard for security and even less for the enemy’s audacity. During the night a force of about 700 British soldiers attacked the camp and thoroughly routed the Americans. Dearborn withdrew his entire army to Fort George. About two weeks later, a 500-man detachment ventured fifteen miles outside the fort and, when attacked, surrendered to a force of British and Indians that was half as large. After these reverses there was no further action of consequence on the Niagara front for the remainder of the year. Dearborn, again incapacitated by illness, resigned his commission in early July. Both armies were hard hit by disease, and the American forces were further reduced by the renewal of the war in the west and by an attempt against Montreal.

Hull’s disaster at Detroit in 1812 and Harrison’s unsuccessful winter campaign had clearly shown that any offensive action in that quarter depended upon first gaining control of Lake Erie. Commander Perry had been assigned the task of building a fleet and seizing control of the lake. Throughout the spring and summer of 1813, except for the time he had joined Dearborn’s force, the 27-year-old Perry had been busy at Presque Isle assembling his fleet, guns, and crews. By the beginning of August his force was superior to that of the British in every respect except long-range armament. Sailing up the lake, he anchored in Put-in-Bay, near the line still held by General Harrison in the vicinity of Forts Meigs and Stephenson. There, on September 10 Perry met the British Fleet, defeated it, and gained control of Lake Erie.

As soon as the damage to Perry’s ships and the captured British vessels had been repaired, Harrison embarked his army and sailed against Fort Malden. A regiment of mounted Kentucky rifl emen under Col. Richard M. Johnson moved along the shore of the lake toward Detroit. Vastly outnumbered on land and now open to attack from the water, the British abandoned both Forts Malden and Detroit and retreated eastward. Leaving a detachment to garrison the forts, Harrison set out after the enemy with the Kentucky cavalry regiments, five brigades of Kentucky volunteers, and a part of the 27th Infantry, a force of about 3,500 men. On October 5 he made contact with the British on the banks of the Thames River about eighty-five miles from Malden. The enemy numbered about 2,900, of whom about 900 were British regulars and the remainder Indians under Tecumseh. Instead of attacking with infantry in the traditional line-against-line fashion, Harrison ordered a mounted attack. The maneuver succeeded completely. Unable to withstand the charging Kentuckians, the British surrendered in droves. The Indians were routed; Tecumseh, who had brought so much trouble to the western frontier, was killed. Among those who distinguished themselves that day was Commander Perry, who rode in the front rank of Johnson’s charge.

As a result of the victory, which illustrated successful employment of the principles of offensive and mass and highlighted the importance of combined land-sea operations, Lake Erie became an American lake. The Indian confederacy was shattered. The American position on the Detroit frontier was reestablished, a portion of Canadian territory was brought under American control, and the enemy threat in that sector was eliminated. There was no further fighting here for the rest of the war. It was a decisive victory.

The small remnant of the British force that had escaped capture at the Thames—no more than 250 soldiers and a few Indians—made its way overland to the head of Lake Ontario. Harrison, after discharging his Kentucky volunteers and arranging for the defenses of the Michigan Territory, sailed after it with the remainder of his army. He arrived at the Niagara frontier at an opportune time, since the American forces in that theater were being called upon to support a two-pronged drive against Montreal.

The expedition against Montreal in the fall of 1813 was one of the worst fiascoes of the war. It involved a simultaneous drive by two forces: one, an army of about 4,000 men assembled at Plattsburg on Lake Champlain under the command of Brig. Gen. Wade Hampton, and another of about 6,000 men under the command of Maj. Gen. James Wilkinson, which was to attack down the St. Lawrence River from Sacket’s Harbor. Hampton and Wilkinson were scarcely on speaking terms, and there was no one on the spot to command the two of them. Neither had sufficient strength to capture Montreal without the other’s aid; each lacked confidence in the other, and both suspected that the War Department was leaving them in the lurch. At first contact with the British, about halfway down the Chateaugay River, Hampton retreated and, after falling back all the way to Plattsburg, resigned from the Army. Wilkinson, after a detachment of about 2,000 men was severely mauled in an engagement just north of Ogdensburg, also abandoned his part of the operation and followed Hampton into Plattsburg.

In the meantime, during December 1813 the British took advantage of the weakened state of American forces on the Niagara frontier. They recaptured Fort George and crossed the river to take Fort Niagara, which remained in British hands until the end of the war. Before evacuating Fort George, the Americans had burned the town of Newark and part of Queenston. In retaliation the British, after assaulting Fort Niagara with unusual ferocity, loosed their Indian allies on the surrounding countryside and burned the town of Buffalo and the nearby village of Black Rock.

During 1813 a new theater of operations opened in the south. Maj. Gen. (of the Tennessee militia) [[Andrew Jackson]], an ardent expansionist, wrote the Secretary of War that he would "rejoice at the opportunity of placing the American eagle on the ramparts of Mobile, Pensacola, and Fort St. Augustine." For this purpose Tennessee had raised a force of 2,000 men to be under Jackson’s command. Congress, after much debate, approved only an expedition into that part of the gulf coast in dispute between the United States and Spain and refused to entrust the venture to the Tennesseans. Just before he went north to take part in the Montreal expedition, General Wilkinson led his regulars into the disputed part of West Florida and without meeting any resistance occupied Mobile, while the Tennessee army was left cooling its heels in Natchez.

An Indian uprising in that part of the Mississippi Territory soon to become Alabama saved General Jackson’s military career. Inspired by Tecumseh’s earlier successes, the Creek Indians took to the warpath in the summer of 1813 with a series of outrages culminating in the massacre of more than 500 men, women, and children at Fort Mims. Jackson, with characteristic energy, reassembled his army, which had been dismissed after Congress rejected its services for an attack on Florida, and moved into the Mississippi Territory. His own energy added to his problems, for he completely outran his primitive supply system and dangerously extended his line of communications. The hardships of the campaign and one near defeat at the hands of the Indians destroyed any enthusiasm the militia might have had for continuing in service. Jackson was compelled to entrench at Fort Strother on the Coosa River and remain there for several months until the arrival of a regiment of the Regular Army gave him the means to deal with the mutinous militia.

At the end of March 1814 Jackson decided he had sufficient strength for a decisive blow against the Indians, who had gathered a force of about 900 warriors and many women and children in a fortified camp at the Horseshoe Bend of the Tallapoosa River. Jackson had about 2,000 militia and volunteers, nearly 600 regulars, several hundred friendly Indians, and a few pieces of artillery. The attack was completely successful. A bayonet charge led by the regulars routed the Indians, whom Jackson’s forces ruthlessly hunted down and killed all but a hundred or so of the warriors. "I lament that two or three women and children were killed by accident," Jackson later reported. The remaining hostile tribes fled into Spanish territory. As one result of the campaign Jackson was appointed a major general in the Regular Army. The campaign against the Creeks had no other effect on the outcome of the war, but for that matter neither had any of the campaigns in the north up to this point.

Fighting also broke out during 1813 along the east coast, where a British fleet blockaded the Delaware and Chesapeake Bays, bottling up the American frigates ''Constellation'' at Norfolk and ''Adams'' in the Potomac. Opposed only by small American gunboats, the British under Admiral Sir John Warren sought "to chastise the Americans into submission" and at the same time to relieve the pressure on Prevost’s forces in Canada. With a flotilla that at times numbered fifteen ships, Rear Adm. Sir George Cockburn, Warren’s second in command, roamed the Chesapeake during the spring of 1813, burning and looting the prosperous countryside. Reinforced in June by 2,600 regulars, Warren decided to attack Norfolk, its navy yard and the anchored ''Constellation'' providing the tempting targets. Norfolk’s defenses rested chiefly on Craney Island, which guarded the narrow channel of the Elizabeth River. The island had a seven-gun fortification and was manned by 580 regulars and militia in addition to 150 sailors and marines from the ''Constellation''. The British planned to land an 800-man force on the mainland and, when low tide permitted, to march onto the island in a flanking movement. As the tide rose, another 500 men would row across the shoals for a frontal assault. On June 22 the landing party debarked four miles northwest of the island, but the flanking move was countered by the highly accurate marksmanship of the ''Constellation’s'' gunners and was forced to pull back. The frontal assault also suffered from well-directed American fire, which sank three barges and threw the rest into confusion. After taking eighty-one casualties, the British sailed off in disorder. The defenders counted no casualties.

Frustrated at Norfolk, Warren crossed the Roads to Hampton, where he overwhelmed the 450 militia defenders and pillaged the town. A portion of the fleet remained in the bay for the rest of the year, blockading and marauding; but the operation was not an unalloyed success. It failed to cause a diversion of American troops from the northern border and, by strengthening popular resentment (Cockburn was vilified throughout the country), helped unite Americans behind the war effort.

The conduct of the war in 1812 and 1813 revealed deficiencies in the administration of the War Department that would plague the American cause to the end. In early 1813 Madison replaced his incompetent Secretary of War William Eustis with John Armstrong, who instituted a reorganization that eventually resulted in the substitution of younger, more aggressive field commanders for the aged veterans of the Revolution. Congress then authorized an expansion of the Army staff to help the Secretary manage the war. In March it re-created the Offices of the Adjutant General, Inspector General, Surgeon, and Apothecary General and assigned eight topographical engineers to the staff.

Competent leadership meant little, however, without sufficient logistical support; and logistics, more than any other factor, determined the nature of the military campaigns of the war. Lack of transportation was a major problem. The United States was fighting a war on widely separated fronts that required moving supplies through a wilderness where roads had to be built for wagons and packhorses. For this reason, ammunition and clothing supplies proved inadequate. General Harrison had to depend on homemade cartridges and clothing from Ohio townsmen for his northwestern campaign, and Brig. Gen. Winfield Scott’s regulars would fight at Chippewa in the gray uniforms of the New York militia. Winter found the troops without blankets, inadequately housed, and without forage for their horses. Most important, the subsistence supply failed so completely that field commanders found it necessary to take local food procurement virtually into their own hands.

Transportation difficulties accounted for only part of the problem. The supply system devised in 1812 proved a resounding failure. Congressional intent notwithstanding, the Quartermaster General had never assumed accountability for the money and property administered by his subordinates or administrative control over his deputies in the south and northwest. Moreover, the functions of his office, never clearly defined, overlapped those of the Commissary General. In a vain attempt to unravel the administrative tangle, Congress created the Office of Superintendent General of Military Supplies to keep account of all military stores and reformed the Quartermaster Department, giving the Quartermaster General stricter control over his deputies. In practice, however, the deputies continued to act independently in their own districts.

Both Congress and the War Department overlooked the greatest need for reform as the Army continued to rely on contractors for the collection and delivery of rations for the troops. With no centralized direction for subsistence supply, the inefficient, fraud-racked contract system proved to be one of the gravest hindrances to military operations throughout the war.

==The Last Year of the War, 1814==
After the setbacks at the end of 1813, a lull descended on the northern frontier. In March 1814 Wilkinson made a foray from Plattsburg with about 4,000 men and managed to penetrate about eight miles into Canada before 200 British and Canadian troops stopped his advance. It was an even more miserable failure than his attempt of the preceding fall.

In early 1814 Congress increased the Army to 45 infantry regiments, 4 regiments of riflemen, 3 of artillery, 2 of light dragoons, and 1 of light artillery. The number of general officers was fixed at 6 major generals and 16 brigadier generals in addition to the generals created by brevet. Secretary of War Armstrong promoted Jacob Brown, who had been commissioned a brigadier general in the Regular Army after his heroic defense of Sacket’s Harbor, to the rank of major general and placed him in command of the Niagara–Lake Ontario theater. He also promoted the youthful George Izard to major general and gave him command of the Lake Champlain frontier. He appointed six new brigadier generals from the most able, but not necessarily most senior, colonels in the Regular Army, among them Winfield Scott, who had distinguished himself at the battle of Queenston Heights and was now placed in command at Buffalo.

British control of Lake Ontario, won by dint of feverish naval construction during the previous winter, obliged the Secretary of War to recommend operations from Buffalo, but disagreement within the President’s Cabinet delayed adoption of a plan until June. Expecting Commodore Chauncey’s naval force at Sacket’s Harbor to be strong enough to challenge the British Fleet, Washington decided upon a coordinated attack on the Niagara peninsula. Secretary Armstrong instructed General Brown to cross the Niagara River in the vicinity of Fort Erie and, after assaulting the fort, either to move against Fort George and Newark or to seize and hold a bridge over the Chippewa River, as he saw fit.

Brown accordingly crossed the Niagara River on July 3 with his force of 3,500 men, took Fort Erie, and then advanced toward the Chippewa River, sixteen miles away. There, a smaller British force, including 1,500 regulars, had gathered to oppose the Americans. General Brown posted his army in a strong position behind a creek with his right flank resting on the Niagara River and his left protected by a swamp. In front of the American position was an open plain, beyond which flowed the Chippewa River; on the other side of the river were the British.

In celebration of Independence Day, General Scott had promised his brigade a grand parade on the plain the next day. On July 5 he formed his troops, numbering about 1,300; but on moving forward discovered British regulars had crossed the river undetected and had lined up on the opposite edge of the plain. Scott ordered his men to charge, and the British advanced to meet them. The two lines approached each other, alternately stopping to fire and then moving forward, closing the gaps torn by musketry and artillery fire. They came together first at the flanks, about sixty or eighty yards apart at the center. At this point the British line crumbled and broke. By the time a second brigade sent forward by General Brown reached the battlefield, the British had withdrawn across the Chippewa River and were retreating toward Ancaster on Lake Ontario. Scott’s casualties amounted to 48 killed and 227 wounded; British losses were 137 killed and 304 wounded.

Brown followed the retreating British as far as Queenston, where he halted to await Commodore Chauncey’s fleet. After waiting two weeks for Chauncey, who failed to cooperate in the campaign, Brown withdrew to Chippewa. He proposed to strike out to Ancaster by way of a crossroad known as Lundy’s Lane, from which he could reach the Burlington Heights at the head of Lake Ontario and at the rear of the British.

Meanwhile, the British had drawn reinforcements from York and Kingston and more troops were on the way from Lower Canada. Sixteen thousand British veterans, fresh from Arthur Wellesley, the Duke of Wellington’s victories over the French in Europe, had just arrived in Canada, too late to participate in the Niagara campaign but in good time to permit the redeployment of the troops that had been defending the upper St. Lawrence. By the time General Brown decided to pull back from Queenston, the British force at Ancaster amounted to about 2,200 men under General Phineas Riall; another 1,500 British troops were gathered at Fort George and Fort Niagara at the mouth of the Niagara River.

===Lundy's Lane===
As soon as Brown began his withdrawal, Riall sent forward about 1,000 men along Lundy’s Lane, the very route by which General Brown intended to advance against Burlington Heights; another force of more than 600 British troops moved out from Fort George and followed Brown along the Queenston road; while a third enemy force of about 400 men moved along the American side of the Niagara River from Fort Niagara. Riall’s advance force reached the junction of Lundy’s Lane and the Queenston road on the night of July 24, the same night Brown reached Chippewa, about three miles distant. Concerned lest the British force on the opposite side of the Niagara cut his line of communications and entirely unaware of Riall’s force at Lundy’s Lane, General Brown on July 25 ordered Scott to take his brigade back along the road toward Queenston in the hope of drawing back the British force on the other side of the Niagara. In the meantime, that force had crossed the river and joined Riall’s men at Lundy’s Lane. Scott had not gone far when much to his surprise he discovered himself face-to-face with a strong enemy element.

The ensuing battle, most of which took place after nightfall, was the hardest fought, most stubbornly contested engagement of the war. For two hours Scott attacked and repulsed the counterattacks of the numerically superior British force, which, moreover, had the advantage of position. Then both sides were reinforced. With Brown’s whole contingent engaged, the Americans now had a force equal to that of the British, about 2,900. They were able to force back the enemy from his position and capture his artillery. The battle then continued without material advantage to either side until just before midnight, when General Brown ordered the exhausted Americans to fall back to their camp across the Chippewa River. The equally exhausted enemy was unable to follow. Losses on both sides had been heavy, each side incurring about 850 casualties. On the American side, both General Brown and General Scott were severely wounded, Scott so badly that he saw no further service during the war. On the British side, General Riall and his superior, General Drummond, who had arrived with the reinforcements, were wounded. Riall was taken prisoner.

Both sides claimed Lundy’s Lane as a victory, with some justification, but Brown’s invasion of Canada was halted. Commodore Chauncey, who failed to prevent the British from using Lake Ontario for supply and reinforcements, contributed to the ambiguous outcome. In contrast to the splendid cooperation between Harrison and Perry on Lake Erie, relations between Brown and Chauncey were far from satisfactory. A few days after the Battle of Lundy’s Lane the American army withdrew to Fort Erie and held this outpost on Canadian soil until early in November.

Reinforced after Lundy’s Lane, the British laid siege to Fort Erie at the beginning of August but were forced to abandon the effort on September 21 after heavy losses. Shortly thereafter General Izard arrived with reinforcements from Plattsburg and pushed forward as far as Chippewa, where the British were strongly entrenched. After a few minor skirmishes, he ceased operations for the winter. The works at Fort Erie were destroyed, and the army withdrew to American soil on November 5.

During the summer of 1814 the British had been able to reinforce Canada and to stage several raids on the American coast. Eastport, Maine, on Passamaquoddy Bay, and Castine, at the mouth of the Penobscot River, were occupied without resistance. This operation was something more than a raid since Eastport lay in disputed territory, and it was no secret that Britain wanted a rectification of the boundary. No such political object was attached to British forays in the region of Chesapeake Bay.

===Washington and Baltimore===
[[Image:Bombardment of Ft McHenry.jpg|right|200px|thumb|Bombardment of Ft McHenry, Baltimore Harbor, September 13, 1814]]
On August 19 a force of some 4,000 British troops under Maj. Gen. Robert Ross landed on the Patuxent River and marched on Washington. At the Battle of Bladensburg, five days later, under the eyes of President Madison, who had arrived on the scene with a number of civilian officials just before the battle, Ross easily dispersed the 5,000 militia, naval gunners, and regulars hastily gathered together to defend the capital. The British then entered Washington, burned the Capitol Building, the White House, and other public buildings and returned to their ships.

Baltimore was next on the schedule, but that city had been given time to prepare its defenses. A rather formidable line of redoubts covered the land approach; the harbor was guarded by Fort McHenry and blocked by a line of sunken gunboats. On September 13 a spirited engagement fought by Maryland militia, many of whom had run at Bladensburg just two weeks before, delayed the invaders and caused considerable loss, including General Ross, who was killed. When the fleet failed to reduce Fort McHenry, the assault on the city was called off.

The British attacks in the Chesapeake Bay region were both high and low points for the American cause. The destruction of Washington after a humiliating defeat was certainly demoralizing. However, the successful defense of Baltimore, and in particular the stirring events around the defense of Fort McHenry that would be enshrined forever in Francis Scott Key’s poem, "The Star-Spangled Banner," had a far-reaching impact on the war and on later American history.

===Lake Champlain===
Two days before the attack on Baltimore, the British suffered a much more serious repulse on Lake Champlain. After the departure of General Izard for the Niagara front, Brig. Gen. Alexander Macomb had remained at Plattsburg with a force of about 3,300 men. Supporting this force was a small fleet under Commodore [[Thomas Macdonough]]. Across the border in Canada was an army of British veterans of the Napoleonic Wars whom Prevost was to lead down the route Burgoyne had taken thirty-seven years before. Moving slowly up the Richelieu River toward Lake Champlain, Prevost crossed the border and on September 6 arrived before Plattsburg with about 11,000 men. There, he waited for almost a week until his naval support was ready to join the attack. With militia reinforcements, Macomb now had about 4,500 men manning a strong line of redoubts and blockhouses that faced a small river. Macdonough had anchored his vessels in Plattsburg Bay, out of range of British guns but in a position to resist an assault on the American line. On September 11 the British flotilla appeared and Prevost ordered a joint attack. There was no numerical disparity between the naval forces but an important one in the quality of the seamen. Macdonough’s ships were manned by well-trained seamen and gunners, the British ships by hastily recruited French-Canadian militia and soldiers with only a sprinkling of regular seamen. As the enemy vessels came into the bay the wind died; and the British were exposed to heavy raking fire from Macdonough’s long guns. The British worked their way in and came to anchor; and the two fleets began slugging at each other, broadside by broadside. At the end the British commander was dead and his ships battered into submission. Prevost immediately called off the land attack and withdrew to Canada the next day.

Macdonough’s victory ended the gravest threat that had arisen so far. More important, it gave impetus to peace negotiations then under way. News of the two setbacks, Baltimore and Plattsburg, reached England simultaneously, aggravating the war weariness of the British and bolstering the efforts of the American peace commissioners to obtain satisfactory terms.

==New Orleans: The Final Battle==
[[Image:Andrew Jackson.jpg|right|200px|thumb|[[Andrew Jackson]]]]
The progress of the peace negotiations influenced the British to continue an operation that General Ross, before his repulse and death at Baltimore, had been instructed to carry out: a descent upon the gulf coast to capture New Orleans and possibly sever Louisiana from the United States. Maj. Gen. Sir Edward Pakenham, one of the Duke of Wellington’s distinguished subordinates, was sent to America to take command of the expedition. On Christmas Day, 1814, Pakenham arrived at the mouth of the Mississippi to find his troops disposed on a narrow isthmus below New Orleans between the Mississippi River and a cypress swamp. They had landed two weeks earlier at a shallow lagoon some ten miles east of New Orleans and had already fought one engagement. In this encounter, on December 23, General Jackson, who had taken command of the defenses on December 1, almost succeeded in cutting off a British advance detachment of 2,000, but after a three-hour fight in which casualties on both sides were heavy, he was compelled to retire behind fortifications covering New Orleans.

Opposite the British and behind a ditch stretching from the river to the swamp, Jackson had raised earthworks high enough to require scaling ladders for an assault. About 3,500 men with another 1,000 in reserve manned the defenses. It was a varied group, composed of the 7th and 44th Infantry Regiments, Major Beale’s New Orleans Sharpshooters, LaCoste and Daquin’s battalions of free African Americans, the Louisiana militia under General David Morgan, a band of Choctaw Indians, the Baratarian pirates, and a motley battalion of fashionably dressed sons and brothers of the New Orleans aristocracy. To support
his defenses, Jackson had assembled more than twenty pieces of artillery, including a battery of nine heavy guns on the opposite bank of the Mississippi.

After losing an artillery duel to the Americans on January 1, Pakenham decided on a frontal assault in combination with an attack against the American troops on the west bank. The main assault was to be delivered by about 5,300 men, while about 600 men under Lt. Col. William Thornton were to cross the river and clear the west bank. As the British columns appeared out of the early morning mist on January 8, they were met with murderous fire, first from the artillery, then from the muskets and rifles of Jackson’s infantry. Achieving mass through firepower, the Americans mowed the British down by the hundreds. Pakenham and one other general were killed and a third badly wounded. More than 2,000 of the British were casualties; the American losses were trifling.

Suddenly, the battle on the west bank became critical. Jackson did not make adequate preparations to meet the advance there until the British began their movement, and by then it was too late. The heavy guns of a battery posted on the west bank were not placed to command an attack along that side of the river; and only about 800 militia, divided in two groups a mile apart, were in position to oppose Thornton. The Americans resisted stubbornly, inflicting greater losses than they suffered, but the British pressed on, routed them, and overran the battery. Had the British continued their advance, Jackson’s position would have been critical; but Pakenham’s successor in command, appalled by the repulse of the main assault, ordered Thornton to withdraw from the west bank and rejoin the main force. For ten days the shattered remnant of Pakenham’s army remained in camp unmolested by the Americans, then reembarked and sailed away.

The British appeared off Mobile on February 8, confirming Jackson’s fear that they planned an attack in that quarter. They overwhelmed Fort Bowyer, a garrison manned by 360 regulars at the entrance to Mobile Harbor. Before they could attack the city itself, however, word arrived that a treaty had been signed at Ghent on Christmas Eve, two weeks before the Battle of New Orleans. The most lopsided victory of the war, which helped propel Andrew Jackson to the Presidency, had been fought after the war was officially over.

==Summary==
The news of the peace settlement followed so closely on Jackson’s triumph in New Orleans that the war as a whole was popularly regarded in the United States as a great victory. Yet, at best, it was a draw. American strategy had centered on the conquest of Canada and the harassment of British shipping. The land campaign had failed miserably, and during most of the war the Navy was bottled up behind a tight British blockade of the North American coast. The initial success of the privateering effort had enriched a few individuals but was no substitute for a robust navy and did little to achieve the war aims. Ironically, the greatest losers in the war were probably the Indians. The Battles of the Thames in the north and Horseshoe Bend in the south dealt them blows from which they never recovered and in the south set the stage for the forcible removal of most members of the tribes of the "Five Civilized Nations" to the west.

If it favored neither belligerent, the war at least taught the Americans several important lessons. Although the Americans were proud of their reputation as the world’s most expert riflemen, the rifle played only a minor role in the war. On the other hand, the American soldier displayed unexpected superiority in gunnery and engineering. Artillery contributed to American successes at Chippewa, Sacket’s Harbor, Norfolk, the siege of Fort Erie, and New Orleans. The war also boosted the reputation of the Corps of Engineers, a branch that owed its efficiency chiefly to the Military Academy. Academy graduates completed the fortifications at Fort Erie, built Fort Meigs, planned the harbor defenses of Norfolk and New York, and directed the fortifications at Plattsburg. If larger numbers of infantrymen had been as well trained as the artillerymen and engineers, the course of the war might have been entirely different.

Sea power played a fundamental role in the war; and when combined sea-land operations went well, the resulting campaign was generally successful. In the west, both opponents were handicapped in overland communication, but the British were far more dependent on the Great Lakes for the movement of troops and supplies for the defense of Upper Canada. In the east, Lake Champlain was strategically important as an invasion corridor to the populous areas of both countries. Just as Perry’s victory on Lake Erie decided the outcome of the war in the far west, Macdonough’s success on Lake Champlain decided the fate of the British invasion in 1814 and helped influence the peace negotiations.

The much-maligned militia performed, on the whole, as well and as poorly as the Regular Army. The defeats and humiliations of the regular forces during the first years of the war matched those of the militia, just as in a later period the Kentucky volunteers at the Thames and the Maryland militia before Baltimore proved that the state citizen-soldier could perform well. The keys to the militiamen’s performance, of course, were training and leadership, the two areas over which the national government had little control. The militia, occasionally competent, was never dependable; though in relationship to the regulars its record was comparable. However, in the nationalistic period that followed the war, when the exploits of the regulars were justly celebrated, an ardent young Secretary of War, John Calhoun, would be able to convince Congress and the nation that the first line of American defense should be a standing army.
==See also==
* [[Embargo of 1807]]

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* Brown, Roger H. ''The Republic in Peril: 1812'' (1964). on American politics [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=100695976 online edition]
* Burt, Alfred L. ''The United States, Great Britain, and British North America from the Revolution to the Establishment of Peace after the War of 1812''. [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=750041 online edition]
*Coles, Harry L. ''The War of 1812'' (1965) brief scholarly survey* Goodman, Warren H. "The Origins of the War of 1812: A Survey of Changing Interpretations," ''Mississippi Valley Historical Review'', XXVIII (September, 1941), 171-86. [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0161-391X(194109)28%3A2%3C171%3ATOOTWO%3E2.0.CO%3B2-R in JSTOR]
* Egan, Clifford L. "The Origins of the War of 1812: Three Decades of Historical Writing," ''Military Affairs'', Vol. 38, No. 2 (Apr., 1974), pp. 72-75. short article on historiography [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0026-3931(197404)38%3A2%3C72%3ATOOTWO%3E2.0.CO%3B2-A in JSTOR]
* Engelman, Fred L. ''The Peace of Christmas Eve'' (1962), popular account; [http://www.americanheritage.com/articles/magazine/ah/1960/1/1960_1_28.shtml online excerpt from ''American Heritage Magazine'' (Dec 1960) v 12#1]
* Heidler, Donald & Jeanne T. Heidler (eds) ''Encyclopedia of the War of 1812'' (2nd ed 2004) 636pp; most comprehensive guide; 500 entries by 70 scholars from several countries
* Heidler, David S. and Heidler, Jeanne T. ''The War of 1812.'' Greenwood, 2002. 217 pp.
* Herbert C. W. Goltz, "Tecumseh" ''Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online'' [http://www.biographi.ca/EN/ShowBio.asp?BioId=36806&query=tecumseh online version]
* Hickey, Donald. ''The War of 1812: A Forgotten Conflict''. (1989). the standard history; by leading American scholar [http://books.google.com/books?id=YoLL0HgYw-0C&printsec=frontcover&dq=intitle:1812+inauthor:hickey&lr=&num=30&as_brr=0 exvcerpts and text search]
** Hickey, Donald R. ''The War of 1812: A Short History'' (1995), abridged version [http://books.google.com/books?id=3GLq_jMv5ToC&printsec=frontcover&dq=intitle:1812+inauthor:hickey&lr=&num=30&as_brr=0 excerpts and text search]
* Hickey, Donald R. [http://www.press.uillinois.edu/f06/hickey.html ''Don't Give Up the Ship! Myths of the War of 1812''.] (2006) ISBN 0-252-03179-2
* Hitsman, J. M. ''The Incredible War of 1812'' (1965), survey by Canadian scholar
* Horsman, Reginald. ''The Causes of the War of 1812'' (1962). [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=55079259 online edition]
* Kaplan, Lawrence S. "France and Madison's Decision for War 1812," ''The Mississippi Valley Historical Review,'' Vol. 50, No. 4. (Mar., 1964), pp. 652-671. [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0161-391X%28196403%2950%3A4%3C652%3AFAMDFW%3E2.0.CO%3B2-J in JSTOR]
* Langguth, A. J. ''Union 1812: The Americans Who Fought the Second War of Independence'' (2006) 495pp, popular history
* Latimer, Jon. ''1812: War with America'' (2007), 656pp; British perspective
* Malcomson, Robert. ''Historical Dictionary of the War of 1812.'' Scarecrow, 2006. 699 pp.
*Mahan, Alfred T. ''Sea Power in Its Relation to the War of 1812'', (1903), famous history [http://books.google.com/books?id=3zzOkc61L3sC&printsec=frontcover&dq=intitle:1812+inauthor:mahan&lr=&num=30&as_brr=0 full text online]
*Mahon, John K. ''The War of 1812'', (2d ed. 1991), standard military history
*Owsley, Frank L., Jr. ''Struggle for the Gulf Borderlines: The Creek War and the Battle of New Orleans, 1812–1815'', (2d ed. 2000)
* Perkins, Bradford. (1962). ''The Causes of the War of 1812.'' short survey
* Perkins, Bradford. ''Prologue to War: England and the United States, 1805-1812''. (1961). detailed diplomatic history by American scholar
* Pratt, Julius W. "Western War Aims in the War of 1812," ''Mississippi Valley Historical Review'', 12 (June, 1925), 36-50. [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0161-391X%28192506%2912%3A1%3C36%3AWAITWO%3E2.0.CO%3B2-X in JSTOR], influential article
* Quimby, Robert S., ''The US Army in the War of 1812: an operational and command study'' (1997) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=42476620 online version]
*Remini, Robert V. ''Andrew Jackson and the Course of American Empire, 1767–1821'', (1977), standard scholarly biography; Remini has other books on Jackson and on the battle of New Orleans
* Risjord, Norman K. "1812: Conservatives, War Hawks, and the Nation's Honor," ''William and Mary Quarterly'', 18 (April, 1961), 196-210. [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0043-5597(196104)3%3A18%3A2%3C196%3A1CWHAT%3E2.0.CO%3B2-B in JSTOR]
* Roosevelt, Theodore. ''The Naval War of 1812'' (1885) [http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/etext05/7trnv10.txt full text online]
* Smelser, Marshall. ''The Democratic Republic 1801-1815'' (1968) general survey of US politics & diplomacy
* Stacey, C.P. "Brock, Sir Isaac," ''Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online'' [http://www.biographi.ca/EN/ShowBio.asp?BioId=36410&query=isaac%20AND%20brock online version]
* Stagg, John C. A. ''Mr. Madison's War: Politics, Diplomacy, and Warfare in the Early American Republic, 1783-1830''. (1983), major overview (by a leading scholar; he is from New Zealand)
* Stagg, J. C. A. "James Madison and the 'Malcontents': The Political Origins of the War of 1812," ''William and Mary Quarterly'' (Oct., 1976) [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0043-5597%28197610%293%3A33%3A4%3C557%3AJMAT%22T%3E2.0.CO%3B2-X in JSTOR]
* Taylor, George Rogers, ed. ''The War of 1812: Past Justifications and Present Interpretations'' (1963), selections from historians and primary sources [http://www.questia.com/library/book/the-war-of-1812-past-justifications-and-present-interpretations-by-george-rogers-taylor.jsp online edition]

==Links==
*[http://www.nps.gov/fomc Fort McHenry National Monument]
*[http://www.ussconstitution.navy.mil/ USS ''Constitution'' official website]
*[http://www.history.navy.mil/docs/war1812/const1.htm USS ''Constitution'' battle records posted by U.S. Naval Historical Center]
*[http://www.warof1812.net/ Website dedicated to the War of 1812]
*[http://www.warof1812.ca/ Canadian website on the War of 1812]
*[http://americanhistory.si.edu/ssb/2_home/fs2.html History of the "Star Spangled Banner"]
====notes====
<references/>

[[Category:Wars]]
[[Category:Napoleonic Wars]]
[[Category:United States History]]
[[Category:US Invasions]]
[[Category:Canada]]
[[Category:Military history]]

Jim Bakker

2008-11-15T22:09:03Z

Canuck: add a category

'''Jim Bakker''' (1939-present), born James Orsen, was an [[America| American]] [[televangelist]].

Bakker and his then-wife, [[Tammy Faye Bakker| Tammy Faye]], were famous for hosting the [[PTL Club]] (alternately standing for Praise The Lord and People That Love) and later for heading up the PTL Network. At the show's height, it was being carried by close to one hundred stations and boasted over twelve million viewers. The Bakkers were also instrumental in the building of [[Heritage USA]], the now-defunct Christian theme park in [[North Carolina]].

Outside of religious circles, however, Bakker may be best known for his meteoric fall from grace. Bakker was accused of offering a $265,000 [[bribe]] to a secretary in the ministry to cover up their adulterous affair. He was also tried and convicted on charges of fraud, tax evasion, and racketeering, stemming from his involvement in several illegal financial transactions during the construction of Heritage USA.<ref>[http://www.rickross.com/groups/bakker.html Rick Ross Institute: Information on PTL Club]</ref>

Following the scandal, Bakker was the subject of intense backlash in the Christian broadcasting community, with [[Jerry Falwell]] calling PTL a "religious soap opera" and [[Jimmy Swaggart]] calling Bakker "a cancer in the body of Christ." (Many commentators have noted the irony in this statement, as Swaggart himself was later defrocked for his alleged extramarital engagements with a prostitute.){{fact}} Nevertheless, following his parole for good behavior in 1993, Bakker has been able to find forgiveness in the Christian community. He has published an autobiography entitled ''I Was Wrong'', and in 2003, he began broadcasting again with ''The New Jim Bakker Show''<ref>[http://www.nndb.com/people/061/000023989/ NNDB: Jim Bakker]</ref>.

==References==

<references/>

[[Category: Ministers]]

Sam Seder

2008-11-15T22:04:48Z

Canuck: partly wikify

'''Sam Seder''' (born November 28, 1966) is a [[comedian]], [[writer]], [[actor]], film [[director]], television producer-director, and Air America [[Radio]] host. Seder was born in [[New York City]], [[New York]] into a [[Jewish]] family, and raised in Worcester, [[Massachusetts]].

In March 2004, Seder became co-host along with [[Janeane Garofalo]] on Air America Radio's The Majority Report. Garofalo recently departed the show offering positive comments about working with Seder. Seder was later offered a new contract with [[Air America Radio]], and his show moved from the current 7-10 pm spot to a 9AM-Noon spot, retitled The Sam Seder Show.

On September 1, 2004, Sam Seder was briefly detained by the [[Secret Service]] during his live, on-site coverage of the [[Republican]] National Convention at Madison Square Garden. Shortly after Zell Miller gave his speech, Seder began searching (with a sign in hand) on the convention floor for a willing [[homosexual]] Republican to interview live on radio. It was not long before he was physically removed from the floor and after brief questioning, was asked (or according to some, "strongly encouraged") to leave the convention.

==Bibliography==
* F.U.B.A.R.: America's Right-Wing Nightmare, co-authored with Stephen Sherrill, 2006, (ISBN 0-06-084671-2)
* Wait! Don't Move to Canada: A Stay-and-Fight Strategy to Win Back America by Bill Scher, foreword co-authored with Janeane Garofalo, 2006, (ISBN 1-59486-396-2) (to be released September 19)

==External Links==

* Seder at the RNC [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=k74IZ34Qyrg]

{{uncited}}

[[category:Liberals]]

Ore

2008-11-15T22:00:00Z

Canuck:

'''Ore''' is a [[mineral]] which is refined to obtain a [[metal]].

{{uncited}}
{{stub}}

==See Also==
* [[Iron]]
* [[Ores]]

[[Category:Geology]]

Ore

2008-11-15T21:59:40Z

Canuck: try to fix a one-liner

'''Ore''' is a [[mineral]] which is refined to obtain a [[metal]].

{{uncited}}
{{stub}}

==See Also==
[[Iron]]
[[Ores]]

[[Category:Geology]]

Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism

2008-11-15T21:57:14Z

Canuck: attempt to categorize

''The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism'' is a highly influential 1905 book by sociologist [[Max Weber]].

==Argument==
In it, Weber argues that the religious values of protestantism contributed enormously to the rise of [[capitalism]] and economic success of protestant nations. Protestants saw success in business as proof of [[predestination]], and thus put a heavy emphasis on entrepreneurial activity, as opposed to [[Catholics]], who saw wealth as a sign of sin. Weber's thesis is firmly reflected in the success of the [[United States]], which is both the most protestant and wealthiest nation in history, as well as [[Germany]].

==Liberal Rejection==
In recent years, [[liberal]] [[revisionists]], in an attempt to achieve [[political correctness]] regarding religion, have attempted to throw out Weber's conclusions, despite the overwhelming proof of protestant success.

{{uncited}}

[[category: Protestantism]]
[[category: Sociology]]

Rabbit

2008-11-15T21:40:50Z

Canuck: add a taxonomy block

{{Taxonomy
|name=Rabbit
|image=Dürer bunnyrabbitt.jpg
|caption=by [[Albrecht Dürer]]
|superkingdom=
|kingdom= Animalia
|subkingdom=
|superphylum=
|phylum=Chordata
|subphylum=
|infraphylum=
|microphylum=
|superdivision=
|division=
|subdivision=
|superclass=
|class=Mammalia
|subclass=
|infraclass=
|superorder=
|order=Lagomorpha
|suborder=
|infraorder=
|superfamily=
|family=Leporidae
|subfamily=
|supertribe=
|tribe=
|subtribe=
|genera=
|genus=Oryctolagus
|subgenus=
|species=cuniculus
|binomialname=O. cuniculus
|sub=
|alt=
}}
[[Image:250px-Sylvilagus audubonii.jpg|right|thumb]]
'''Rabbits''' are small [[mammals]]. They are kept as [[pet]]s, eaten as a food source, and appear wild in nature. In some countries rabbits are a pest species causing great environmental damage. In [[Australia]] they were introduced as prey for the [[fox]] (which was also introduced as sport for British colonial hunters). From an initial introduction of 24 specimens, rabbits have since become the most serious pest in Australia causing untold environmental damage.

To limit the population in [[Western Australia]], a so-called "rabbit-proof [[fence]]" was erected between Cape Kerundun and Esperance. [[Myxomatosis]] was also introduced into Australia in the early 1950s for this purpose, then Rabbit Calicivirus Disease was introduced in the mid 1990s for the same reason.<ref>Rabbit Calicivirus Disease was actually being investigated for possible use when it escaped quarantine and rapidly spread through the rabbit population in southern Australia and [[Tasmania]].</ref>

Rabbits are not native to the [[British Isles]]. They were introduced by the [[Normans]] and farmed throughout the [[medieval]] period in purpose-built [[warren]]s.

== Note ==
{{reflist|2}}

[[category:Mammals]]

Talk:Queues

2008-11-15T21:27:50Z

Canuck: question notability

This is a one-liner with an internal contradiction - is it worth having? [[User:Canuck|Canuck]] 16:27, 15 November 2008 (EST)

New Yorker

2008-11-15T21:26:30Z

Canuck: categorize

The term "New Yorker" refers to anyone from the State of [[New York]], and most often from [[New York City]]. There is also a weekly [[magazine]] by the same name, which is published in New York.

==Links==
*[http://www.newyorker.com/ The New Yorker magazine official website]
*[http://www.coverbrowser.com/covers/new-yorker Cover gallery for the New Yorker]

[[category:Magazines]]

Air America

2008-11-15T21:25:29Z

Canuck: categorize

'''Air America Radio''' (AAR) is a politically [[liberal]] [[radio]] network founded in 2004. The station filed Chapter 11 bankruptcy October 13, 2006.

[[Category:Broadcasting]]

Denver Post

2008-11-15T21:24:33Z

Canuck: categorize

[[Image:Denver Post.gif|right|150px]]
The '''Denver Post''' is a [[newspaper]] published in [[Denver]], [[Colorado]]. In 2006, the Denver Post was ranked 31st in the ''Top 100 Daily Newspapers in the U.S.'' with a daily subscription of 255,452.
<ref>[http://www.burrellesluce.com/top100/2006_Top_100List.pdf Top 100 Daily Newspapers in the U.S. by Circulation]</ref>

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==External Links==
http://www.denverpost.com/ Official Website

[[category: United States Newspapers]]

New York Post

2008-11-15T21:24:09Z

Canuck: categorize

The '''New York Post''' is a [[conservative]] tabloid newspaper owned by [[Rupert Murdoch]], who also owns [[Fox News]]. It is the 13th oldest paper in the United States, started in 1801 by [[Alexander Hamilton]] as the ''New-York Evening Post''.

The New York Post is one of the few publications that has been critical of prominent [[liberal]] [[Ted Kennedy]].

== See also ==

*[[Conservative Links]]

[[category:United States Newspapers]]

Village Voice

2008-11-15T21:23:08Z

Canuck: categorize

The '''''Village Voice''''' is a leading extreme [[liberal]] free weekly newspaper published in [[New York City]], having a free circulation of perhaps 240,000 per week. It spices its commentary and articles with occasional profanity and sometimes cartoons mocking [[Republican Party]] officials, such as Vice President [[Dick Cheney]].

Founded in 1955 in a two-bedroom apartment in [[Greenwich Village]] by Dan Wolf, Ed Fancher and Norman Mailer, the ''Village Voice'' remains one of the most influential voices of the [[American]] far [[left]]. The offices of the paper are at Cooper Square in the East Village.

In 2005 the Village Voice was purchased by a media conglomerate and there has been criticism of its perceived change in character:<ref>http://www.gothamgazette.com/article/communitydevelopment/20070212/20/2098/</ref>

:The Village Voice is now managed by two libertarians from Phoenix, Arizona. They merged New Times with Village Voice Media, they took the name, Village Voice Media, but the controlling party are these two from Phoenix. They came to town, they fired veterans, they imposed conditions that were so difficult for others that they resigned, they lost an editor. In the view of many veterans at the Voice, they crushed the spirits of the newspaper and tried to impose a style whose fit for the city remains open to question. For example, many people at the Voice were concerned that there was a political purge ... in my view that's not very alternative at all.

== References ==

<references/>

[[category:United States Newspapers]]

Robert H. Goddard

2008-11-15T21:18:55Z

Canuck: categorize

[[Image:Goddard.jpg|right]]
'''Robert H. Goddard''' was born on October 5, 1882, in Worcester, [[Massachusetts]]. He is considered to be the father of modern rocketry and [[outer space|space]] flight.

==Early Life==
In 1908, Goddard graduated from Worcester Polytechnic Institute and went on to become a [[physics]] instructor at Worcester Technical University. This is where he received an M.A. in 1910 and a Ph.D. in 1911. He became a full professor Clark University in 1919. Since no one else thought his work, experimenting with rockets, promising, he seriously considered abandoning it. In September 1916 he wrote a letter to the Institution describing his rocket experiments, and requesting funds so he could continue with his work. On January 5, 1917, Goddard received a $5,000 grant from the Hodgkins Fund for [[atmospheric]] research. The Smithsonian continued supporting Goddard's research for many years.

==The First Rocket==
{{cquote|On March 16, 1926, Goddard successfully launched the world's first flight of a liquid-propelled rocket. This is often compared in its significance to the Wright Brothers first flight in 1903. Another important first came on July 17, 1929, when Goddard tested the first rocket to carry scientific instruments. The rocket carried a [[barometer]] and a [[camera]]. Robert Goddard made great contributions to the development of rockets and space flight. He is credited with 214 patents, with 131 filed after his death. Goddard died on August 10, 1945, from throat [[cancer]].<ref> [http://siarchives.si.edu/history/exhibits/documents/goddard.htm American Rocket Pioneer] </ref>}}

==References==
<references />

==External Links==
*[http://www.relativitycalculator.com/rocket_equations.shtml   Rocket Equations: Newton's 3rd Law of Motion]

{{DEFAULTSORT: Goddard, Robert H.}}
[[Category:Scientists]]
[[Category: Space Exploration]]

Young Plan

2008-11-15T21:10:00Z

Canuck: typo

The '''Young Plan''' was the plan that replaced the [[Dawes Plan]] in 1929. The [[Stock market crash of 1929]] created problems for the German economy and Owen D. Young was asked by the Allied Reparations Committee to investigate the situation. What Young suggested is that the total amount of reparations should be reduced to around three-quarters. In this way [[Germany]] would make annual payments till 1988. All governments but Germany accepted Young’s plan. It was criticized by [[Adolf Hitler]] and Alfred Hugenberg who repudiated all German reparation payments under the [[Versailles Treaty]]. When unemployment in Germany grew in 1931, payments were suspended and a year later the payments were cancelled.

[[Category:History]]

Canada

2008-11-15T21:08:46Z

Canuck: /* Taxation */ another equalization link

{| border="1" align="right" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" width="300" style="margin-left:5px"
|align="center" colspan="2"|[[Image:Canada pol99.jpg|300px]]
|-
!colspan="2" align="center" style="color: black; height: 30px; background: white no-repeat scroll top left;"|''Canada''
|-
!align ="center" style="color: black; height: 30px; background: white no-repeat scroll top left;"|Flag
!align ="center" style="color: black; height: 30px; background: white no-repeat scroll top left;"|[[Image:Flag of Canada.svg|50px|]]
|-
!align ="center" style="color: black; height: 30px; background: white no-repeat scroll top left;"|Arms
!align ="center" style="color: black; height: 30px; background: white no-repeat scroll top left;"|[[Image:Canada arms.png|48px|]]
|-
|-
|Capital
|[[Ottawa]]
|-
|Government
|[[Parliamentary Democracy]]/[[Federal]] [[Constitutional monarchy]]
|-
|Monarch
|[[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Queen Elizabeth II]]
|-
|Official Languages
|[[English]] and [[French]]
|-
|Governor General
|Her Excellency the Right Honourable [[Michaëlle Jean]]
|-
|Prime Minister
|The Right Honourable [[Stephen Harper]]
|-
|Area
|3,854,085 sq mi 9,984,670 km2
|-
|Population (2007 estimate)
|32,907,500
|-
|GDP (2007 estimate)
|$1.105 trillion
|-
|GDP per capita (2007 estimate)
|$35,133
|-
|}
'''Canada''' is the largest country in [[North America]], and the second largest in the world behind [[Russia]]. It also has the longest coastline of any nation. Canada borders the [[United States]] to the south and northwest. Canada's motto "A Mari usque ad Mare" (From sea to sea) is based on biblical scripture: "He shall have dominion from sea to sea and from the river unto the ends of the earth (Psalm 72:8)".<ref>[http://www.pch.gc.ca/progs/cpsc-ccsp/sc-cs/arm2_e.cfm The Arms of Canada- Description]</ref>
==Etymology==
The name Canada comes from the St. Lawrence Iroquoian word "kanata", meaning "village" or "settlement". In 1535, two Huron youths directed [[Jacques Cartier]] to "kanata", their village. The village they referred to was Stadacona, the future site of Quebec City.<ref name="Canadian_Encylopedia">[http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com/index.cfm?PgNm=TCE&ArticleId=A0001216 The Canadian Encyclopedia]</ref> By 1545, European books and maps began referring to this region as Canada.

The name ''Dominion of Canada'' was adopted during [[British North America Act|confederation]] in 1867, and kept until the [[Constitution Act]] of 1982, when "Canada" became the only legal name.

== History and the Constitution ==
[[Image:Supreme Court of Canada.jpg|right|thumb|300px|The Supreme Court of Canada.]]
Canada was officially created by the signing of the British North America Act, which came into force on July 1, 1867. The BNA Act was an [[Act of Parliament|Act of the British Parliament]], and is also referred to as the Constitution Act of 1867. The first Prime Minister, [[John A Macdonald|Sir John A. Macdonald]], was a member of the Liberal-Conservative Party.
The BNA Act was later amended in 1982 by the Constitution Act of 1982. The Right Honourable [[Pierre Elliot Trudeau]], the Liberal Prime Minister of Canada at the time, also established the Canadian [[Charter of Rights and Freedoms]] as part of the Constitution Act. The Charter sets clear, fundamental freedoms for all Canadians. It has been cited in thousands of court challenges and is the fundamental legal document supporting the national legalization of same-sex marriages and the prevention of government intervention regarding abortion.

The Canadian national flag was officially adopted February 15, 1965; prior to that time and subsequent to Confederation in 1867, Canada used a variant of the Red Ensign, a British merchant flag, as its national flag. The new flag was imposed by the Liberal government in an effort to appease socialists and Quebec Nationalists. The Liberal government refused to hold a referendum on the subject; instead the public was invited to submit designs.<ref>[http://www.pch.gc.ca/progs/cpsc-ccsp/sc-cs/df3_e.cfm Birth of the Canadian Flag]</ref> The introduction of the new flag was not without controversy.

In a memo from Diefenbaker’s personal files he wrote:
<blockquote>The Pearson flag is a meaningless Flag. There is no recognition of history; no indication of the existence of French and English Canada; the partnership of the races; no acknowledgement of history. It is a flag without a past, without history, without honour and without pride.” (Source – I Stand for Canada: The Story of the Maple Leaf Flag ).<ref>[http://www.mapleleafweb.com/features/cultural/flag/national-flag-canada.html The Debate Over the Maple Leaf Flag]</ref></blockquote>

While the debate has been largely forgotten today, the Red Ensign can still be seen flying on some private homes and the debate does reemerge into the public domain occasionally. <ref>[http://www.theglobeandmail.com/servlet/story/RTGAM.20070321.wxflag21/BNStory/National/ PM wants Red Ensign to fly at Vimy, sources say]</ref>

The Canadian national anthem, '[[O Canada]]', was written by Sir Adolphe-Basile Routhier as a poem, to which music, composed by Calixa Lavallée, was later added, in 1880. The original was composed in French, and was first translated into English by Dr. Thomas Bedford Richardson of Toronto, Ontario, in 1906. However, it was not officially adopted as the national anthem until 1980.<ref>[http://www.pch.gc.ca/progs/cpsc-ccsp/sc-cs/anthem_e.cfm National Anthem: O Canada]</ref> It is important to distinguish between 'O Canada', the national anthem, and 'God Save The Queen', which is the Royal anthem, played as a salute to Her Majesty [[Queen Elizabeth II]] as Queen of Canada.

== Provinces and Territories ==
[[Image:800px-Canada-satellite.jpg|right|thumb|300px|A satellite image of Canada.]]
At the time of Confederation, Canada was comprised of four provinces: Upper Canada (now Ontario), Lower Canada (now Québec), Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick. Since that time, six additional provinces have joined Canada or have been created. From west to east, the provinces are [[British Columbia]], [[Alberta]], [[Saskatchewan]], [[Manitoba]], [[Ontario]], [[Québec]], [[New Brunswick]], [[Prince Edward Island]], [[Nova Scotia]], and [[Newfoundland|Newfoundland and Labrador]]. Newfoundland was the last province to join Canada, in 1949. The provinces all elect a single (unicameral) legislature, headed by Premier, who is selected the same way as the Prime Minister. A Lieutenant-Governor represents the Queen, similar to the Governor General.
Canada has three territories: the [[Yukon Territory]], the [[Northwest Territories]], and [[Nunavut]]. Territories have only have those powers delegated to them by the federal government

== Government ==
The government of Canada is split into two orders, federal and provincial, as outlined by the BNA Act. Each has very specific responsibilities, with some overlap. For instance, universal health care is mandated by the Federal Government, but it is administered by the Provincial Governments. Neither level has supremacy over the other. The Federal Government is run out of [[Ottawa]], [[Ontario]]; the provincial governments are run out the ten provincial capitals.

The federal parliament is bicameral, including both a lower house - the [[Canadian House of Commons]] - and an upper house - the [[Canadian Senate]]. The parliamentary system is based on the British parliament. Members of Parliament represent specific geographical areas, generally chosen to have approximately equal population. A single member is elected from each on a [[first past the post]] system. The [[prime minister]] is usually the leader of the party with the most seats, though two or more parties may form a [[coalition]] to form a government.

The Senate is made up of sentors appointed for life by the prime minister (acting on behalf of the Governer General).

In almost all cases, Acts of Parliament are created in the House of Commons. After passing three readings in the House of Commons, the bill is passed to the Senate. The job of the Senate is to further debate the proposed legislation, before passing it to the Governor General for Royal Assent. The Governor General is the official representative of Her Majesty [[Queen Elizabeth II]], Queen of Canada. The Governor General is, in the absence of the Queen, Canada's Head of State, and the Commander-in-Chief of the [[Canadian Forces]]. The Prime Minister of Canada is the head of Government of Canada, acting as the Minister of the Crown, based on the British system.

All provincial legislatures are unicameral. The legislative process for provincial legislation is the same as for federal legislation, except that there is no Senate and the legislation is given royal assent by the provincial Lieutenants Governor, who represent the monarch at the provincial level.

From 1841 to 1844, the capital city of what would become Canada was located in [[Kingston|Kingston, Ontario]]. Subsequently the capital alternated between [[Toronto]] and [[Montreal]] until 1857, when the capital moved to [[Ottawa|Ottawa, Ontario]].

== Present Day ==
The 40th Canadian Federal General Election is scheduled for October 14, 2008. <ref>[http://www.cbc.ca/canada/story/2008/09/07/election-call.html "Vote set for Oct. 14"]</ref>Currently, the Prime Minister is The Right Honourable [[Stephen Harper]], a member of the [[Conservative Party of Canada]], while Her Excellency [[Michaëlle Jean]] is the Governor General. At present Canada is governed by a [[minority government]]. In 2005 the city of [[Vancouver]], [[British Columbia]] was voted "the world's best place to live".<ref> [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/4306936.stm Vancouver is "best place to live"]</ref>
Canada's population is increasingly urban, with 6 cities recording a population over 1 million ([[Toronto]], [[Montreal]], [[Vancouver]], [[Ottawa]]-Gatineau, [[Calgary]], [[Edmonton]]); these 6 cities represent over 45% of Canada's population. Canada is becoming an increasingly multicultural country, with most new immigrants settling in [[Toronto]], [[Montreal]] and [[Vancouver]]. [[Toronto]] is the world's most multicultural city, with 43% a member of a visible minority.<ref>http://www.canada.com/vancouversun/news/story.html?id=bb0fee45-b305-490a-b161-a21bcb1d7329&k=34160</ref>

== Public Health Care ==
In 1984, the Federal Government, under the leadership of the Liberals and The Right Honourable [[Pierre Trudeau|Pierre Elliot Trudeau]], enacted the Canada Health Act. This act was based on the five principles of "universality, accessibility, portability, comprehensiveness, and public administration"<ref>[http://www.fin.gc.ca/FEDPROV/hise.html History of Canada Health and Social Transfer]</ref>. This public health care system is run in partnership by Health Canada and provincial Ministries of Health, who both contribute tax revenues. The federal government sets policy, while the provinces are responsible for actual administration. In 1995, the Canada Health and Social Transfer was created to replace existing systems for the transferal of tax funding to the provinces to administer social programs. The rationale behind the system is to allow all Canadians equal access to equal treatment, regardless of socio-economic status.

In Canada health care is frequently listed as top issue in election campaigns and is both a topic of frequent debate and a point of pride for many Canadians, Tommy Douglas the founder of medicare was, for example, voted the "Greatest Canadian" on a CBC television programme in 2004 <ref>
http://www.cbc.ca/greatest/</ref>.

The current state of Canada's public health care system is gathering increasing media attention due to rising wait times. [[David Gratzer]] wrote:
<blockquote>... government researchers have provided the best data on the doctor shortage, noting, for example, that more than 1.5 million Ontarians (or 12 percent of that province’s population) can’t find family physicians. <ref>[http://city-journal.org/html/17_3_canadian_healthcare.html The Ugly Truth about Canadian Healthcare] </ref></blockquote>
Most of the blame for the current state of affairs has been placed on successive government mismanagement. This represents a failure of the federal government to properly regulate the level of service being offered in the provinces. People regularly have to wait between four and eight months for necessary surgeries depending on the nature of the surgery, and province of residence.{{fact}} The median wait time for an MRI across Canada is 10.3 weeks in 2006.<ref>http://www.fraserinstitute.ca/shared/readmore.asp?sNav=nr&id=753</ref> In fact, former Prime Minister [[Jean Chretien|Jean Chrétien]] campaigned on a promise to shut down private MRI clinics because it creates a two tier system, regardless of the demand for more facilities.

In recent years, there has been suggestion from some lobby groups that Canada should adopt a two-tier health care system, while others have expressed strong opposition to this idea, including the federal government under the Liberal party. Some argue that Canada already does have a two-tier health care system as the very wealthy can go to the United States for treatment. The argument for allowing private health care is twofold. The first reason is that competition may improve the quality of products and services, while the increase in options will allow those with the means to access private health care and may relieve some of the burden off the public system. Critics argue that health is a right, and that everyone should have access to the same standard of care.

Recently, in [[Québec]], a provincial judge has ruled that private health care providers must be allowed to compete with the government-run health care system.

== Secession movements ==
There are separatist movements lobbying for independence from Canada in British Columbia, Alberta, and Québec. The only movement of real significance is in Québec, where the province has twice voted on whether or not to separate from Canada, once in 1980 and again in 1995; the vote in 1995 failed by just 1 percent. On November 27, 2006, the Federal Government passed a motion declaring Québec a nation "within a united Canada". <ref> http://www2.parl.gc.ca/HousePublications/Publication.aspx?Pub=hansard&Language=E&Mode=1&Parl=39&Ses=1&DocId=2544166&File=0#OOB-1799206</ref>

== Culture ==
Due to its colonial past, Canadian culture has historically been heavily influenced by [[United Kingdom|British]] and [[France|French]] cultures and traditions. In more modern times, Canadian culture has been greatly influenced by United States' culture, due to the proximity and the migration of people, ideas, and capital. Amidst this, Canadian culture has developed some unique characteristics, and many Canadian movies, authors, [[television]] shows, and musicians are equally popular in United States. Canadian culture has also been influenced by indigenous cultures, and by immigrant groups from around the world. It has the highest per capita immigration rate of any country in the world <ref>.http://www.statcan.ca/Daily/English/080402/d080402a.htm </ref>

Canada has two federal official languages, French and English. The province of Quebec has French as an official language, New Brunswick both French and English, and all other provinces English (although in some parts of Ontario French has special status). The territory of Nunavut has Inuktitu and Innuinaqtun as official languages in addition to French and English, the North West territories has eleven official languages, and the Yukon recognises French and English.

Canada tends to reflect more liberal ideals than the United States. Two such examples are the legalizing of [[gay marriage]] in June, 2005<ref>[http://www.cbc.ca/canada/story/2005/06/28/samesex050628.html CBC news article on passing of gay marriage law]</ref> and, in some regions, the decriminalization of medicinal [[marijuana]] and small amounts of other psychoactive substances.

Notable sports which are enjoyed throughout Canada include [[hockey]], [[curling]], [[lacrosse]], and [[football]]. Canada collected 18 medals in the Summer Olympics, more per capita than the United States but less than Australia. The country finished third overall in the Torino Winter Olympics, with a total of 24 medals, one less than the United States and 10 more than next-place [[Sweden]]. The next winter Olympics, to be held in 2010 will be held in Vancouver and Whistler.

==Religion==
For the total population, approximately 44% of the population of Canada is [[Catholicism|Catholic]], with a another 29% being [[Protestantism|Protestant]] (all denominations). However, while 16% of the total population has no religious affiliation (including atheists and agnostics), 20% of the population under 25 has declared no religion, congruent with the world-wide trend of increasing secularism in young demographics. <ref>Statistics Canada - Cat. No. 97F0022XCB2001002</ref> Other religions of significance in Canada include Judaism, Islam, Sikhism, and Buddhism.

== Taxation ==
The average tax rate in Canada is higher than in the United States. In 2003, Canada's tax burden equals about 33.8% of GDP placing it in the middle of the G7 countries, with Japan lowest at 25.3% and France highest at 43.4% <ref>[http://www.fin.gc.ca/activty/faq1e.html#Taxation Department of Finance Canada: FAQs]</ref>. The US rate is roughly 25.6%; this discrepancy is consistent with the differing levels of social services which the governments funds. Canada also has managed to run without a budget deficit for a number of years.

Equalization payments, worth 11.7 billion Canadian dollars are made by the federal government to the provinces from richer provinces (currently Alberta, Newfoundland<ref>[http://www.cbc.ca/canada/newfoundland-labrador/story/2008/11/03/have-not.html]</ref>, and British Columbia) and the poorer provinces (Ontario, <ref>[http://www.cbc.ca/canada/story/2008/11/03/flaherty-ministers.html]</ref>, Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island, New Brunswick, Quebec, Manitoba and Saskatchewan) . This is to ensure that reasonably uniform standards of services and taxation are kept between the richer and poorer provinces.<ref>Budget 2007 [http://www.budget.gc.ca/2007/bp/bpc4e.html]</ref> These payments have not been without controversy as provinces begin to make more revenues from natural resources they do not want to give up the Equalization payments.

British Columbia has the lowest corporate tax rate in North America <ref>http://www.investbc.com/businessclimate.htm</ref>.

Canada also has a national sales tax, the Goods and Services Tax (GST) of 5% on all purchases. Some provinces add an additional percentage in the form of a Provincial Sales Tax (PST), or a combined Harmonized Sales Tax (HST) combining GST and the Provincial Sales Tax. Based on actual income, and a number of other factors, the government will refund GST/HST to eligible tax payers in quarterly installments on the fifth of the month in July, October, January, and April.

==Cultural style==
Canadian culture puts stress on open-mindedness and tolerance of multiple viewpoints -- even the (very strong) view that Quebec should declare independence and break up Canada.<ref>See [http://www.telegraph.co.uk/global/main.jhtml?xml=/global/features/cucanada.xml&source=EMC-exp_01102008 National Cultural Profiles, a guide from the London ''Telegraph'' to the thinking patterns of all the world's major cultures] </ref> Canadian opinion shows a strong sense of wanting to be independent of the U.S., although the economy, society and culture closely resembles the U.S. , and most Canadians live a short drive from the border. (The main difference is the state-provided health care system.) Much of the anti-Americanism comes from exiles who left the U.S., for example in fleeing the draft during the Vietnam War (1965-72). Recent surges in oil prices have lifted the Canadian economy, and shifted power toward the oil-rich province of [[Alberta]].

== Education ==
Education in Canada is the responsibility of provincial and territorial governments; curriculum and marking schemes are completely removed from the control of the federal government. Each province uses a different method of administering education, with variation in the number of years and the curriculum. Quebec, for example has five years of secondary school finishing at the equivalent of grade 11 followed by two years of CEGEP, while Ontario has two years of kindergarten. Most provinces have kidergarten beginning at age 5 through grade 12 (age 17) as part of the public system. Some provinces have standardised provincial exams at the end of secondary school and/or at other designated grades.

Several provinces have two publically funded school systems: public and separate (e.g. Catholic). The constitution also guarantees education in one's first official language and, as such, all provinces and territories have both English and French language schooling. Additionally, private schools both religious and secular exist throughout the country. Alberta has an additional category, known as charter schools. Charter schools are schools that have been created in the community to surround a particular theme. They could be artistic, vocational, etc.

The Canadian grading scale markedly differs from the grading scale in the United States. In the US, a 59% or below earns you an F, a 60% nets a D-, and 80% a B. However, in Canadian universities, only 49% or below is an R, 60% will net a C+, and 80% is an A-. <ref>http://www.federal-realestate.com/info-schools/mcgill-university.html</ref>. Marking in Canadian universities, however, tends to be lower with grades over 90% extremely rare in the humanities and social sciences, and higher entrance marks required for those entering from American high schools.

In some Canadian secondary schools, the mark F is absent and substituted by R. A ranges from 100%-80%, B from 79%-70%, C from 69%-60%, D from 59%-50% and R is any mark less than 50%. However, as education is under provincial jurisdiction marking varies regionally and it is difficult to make generalisations across the board.

This may vary from province to province; it is also important to note that comparison of educational achievement requires more than a cursory observation of grading scales. Perhaps a better source of comparison is the Human Development Index, a measurement of literacy, education, life expectancy and standard of living. Using this scale, with Iceland at number one, Canada falls in at number four and the United States ranks at 12.

== Military ==
As of the most recent cabinet shuffle, Conservative MP Peter MacKay has assumed the role of Minister of National Defence.

The [[Canadian Forces]] is comprised of the Regular Force, the Reserve Force, and the Special Force (when so in service). The Regular and Reserve Forces employ over 62,000 and 25,000 members respectively. While the various branches wear distinctive elemental uniforms (DEU), the Royal Canadian Navy, Canadian Army and the Royal Canadian Air Force were amalgamated in 1968 into one common command structure <ref>http://www.forces.gc.ca/site/about/index_e.asp</ref>.
The Canadian Forces are <ref>http://www.canadianally.com/ca/forces-cf-en.asp</ref>equipped with modern vehicles such as the Canadian-built LAV III, the German-built Leopard CII tanks and both the American-built CF-18 Hornet and CC-177 Globemaster III. The Canadian government spends about 17 billion Canadian dollars annually on defence<ref>[http://www.tbs-sct.gc.ca/est-pre/20072008/me-bd/part1/ME-030_e.asp http://www.tbs-sct.gc.ca/est-pre/20072008/me-bd/part1/ME-030_e.asp]</ref>.

The Conservative government has continued the trend of increased defence spending initiated by the Liberals, and have also taken steps to decrease red-tape preventing the troops from having the necessary equipment to keep them safe and effective.

Over 3000 Canadian troops are currently deployed around the world, with over 2500 in [[Afghanistan]] where they are assisting in anti-terrorism & reconstruction operations, and another 500 are deployed to the Middle East where they are attached to a US-led coalition fleet and the Standing NATO Maritime Group 1 (SNMG1). These are prime examples of Canada's capability for interoperability with foreign military forces.

== References ==
{{reflist|2}}

== External Links ==
* [http://www.gc.ca/ Government of Canada]
* [http://www.parl.gc.ca/ Parliament of Canada]
* [http://www.pch.gc.ca/ Department of Canadian Heritage]
* [https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ca.html CIA World Factbook:Canada]
* [http://www.forces.ca The Canadian Forces]

=== Political Party Websites ===
* [http://www.blocquebecois.org Bloc Québécois]
* [http://www.conservative.ca Conservative Party of Canada]
* [http://http://www.fpnpoc.ca/ First Peoples National Party of Canada]
* [http://www.greenparty.ca Green Party of Canada]
* [http://www.liberal.ca Liberal Party of Canada]
* [http://www.ndp.ca New Democratic Party of Canada]
* [http://www.partyofalberta.org/ Party of Alberta]
* [http://www.progressivecanadian.org/ Progressive Canadian Party]
* [http://www.mlpc.ca/ Marxist-Leninist Party]
* [http://www.canadianactionparty.ca/ Canadian Action Party]
* [http://www.peoplespoliticalpower.ca/ People's Political Power Party]
* [http://www.animalalliance.ca/ Animal Alliance Environment Voters Party]
* [http://www.westernblockparty.com/ Western Bloc Party]
* [http://www.chp.ca/en/index.html Christian Heritage Party of Canada]

===Political Advocacy Websites===
*[http://www.canadadivided.com/ Canada Divided]
*[http://www.projectalberta.com/ Project Alberta]
*[http://onthefencefilms.com/video/twowomen.html Two Women]
*[http://www.westcan.org/ Western Canada Concept]

[[Category:Canada| ]]
[[Category:North American Countries]]
[[Category:NATO members]]
[[Category:Christian-Majority Countries]]

Canada

2008-11-15T21:06:48Z

Canuck: /* Taxation */ change equalization item, with reference to news story

{| border="1" align="right" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" width="300" style="margin-left:5px"
|align="center" colspan="2"|[[Image:Canada pol99.jpg|300px]]
|-
!colspan="2" align="center" style="color: black; height: 30px; background: white no-repeat scroll top left;"|''Canada''
|-
!align ="center" style="color: black; height: 30px; background: white no-repeat scroll top left;"|Flag
!align ="center" style="color: black; height: 30px; background: white no-repeat scroll top left;"|[[Image:Flag of Canada.svg|50px|]]
|-
!align ="center" style="color: black; height: 30px; background: white no-repeat scroll top left;"|Arms
!align ="center" style="color: black; height: 30px; background: white no-repeat scroll top left;"|[[Image:Canada arms.png|48px|]]
|-
|-
|Capital
|[[Ottawa]]
|-
|Government
|[[Parliamentary Democracy]]/[[Federal]] [[Constitutional monarchy]]
|-
|Monarch
|[[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Queen Elizabeth II]]
|-
|Official Languages
|[[English]] and [[French]]
|-
|Governor General
|Her Excellency the Right Honourable [[Michaëlle Jean]]
|-
|Prime Minister
|The Right Honourable [[Stephen Harper]]
|-
|Area
|3,854,085 sq mi 9,984,670 km2
|-
|Population (2007 estimate)
|32,907,500
|-
|GDP (2007 estimate)
|$1.105 trillion
|-
|GDP per capita (2007 estimate)
|$35,133
|-
|}
'''Canada''' is the largest country in [[North America]], and the second largest in the world behind [[Russia]]. It also has the longest coastline of any nation. Canada borders the [[United States]] to the south and northwest. Canada's motto "A Mari usque ad Mare" (From sea to sea) is based on biblical scripture: "He shall have dominion from sea to sea and from the river unto the ends of the earth (Psalm 72:8)".<ref>[http://www.pch.gc.ca/progs/cpsc-ccsp/sc-cs/arm2_e.cfm The Arms of Canada- Description]</ref>
==Etymology==
The name Canada comes from the St. Lawrence Iroquoian word "kanata", meaning "village" or "settlement". In 1535, two Huron youths directed [[Jacques Cartier]] to "kanata", their village. The village they referred to was Stadacona, the future site of Quebec City.<ref name="Canadian_Encylopedia">[http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com/index.cfm?PgNm=TCE&ArticleId=A0001216 The Canadian Encyclopedia]</ref> By 1545, European books and maps began referring to this region as Canada.

The name ''Dominion of Canada'' was adopted during [[British North America Act|confederation]] in 1867, and kept until the [[Constitution Act]] of 1982, when "Canada" became the only legal name.

== History and the Constitution ==
[[Image:Supreme Court of Canada.jpg|right|thumb|300px|The Supreme Court of Canada.]]
Canada was officially created by the signing of the British North America Act, which came into force on July 1, 1867. The BNA Act was an [[Act of Parliament|Act of the British Parliament]], and is also referred to as the Constitution Act of 1867. The first Prime Minister, [[John A Macdonald|Sir John A. Macdonald]], was a member of the Liberal-Conservative Party.
The BNA Act was later amended in 1982 by the Constitution Act of 1982. The Right Honourable [[Pierre Elliot Trudeau]], the Liberal Prime Minister of Canada at the time, also established the Canadian [[Charter of Rights and Freedoms]] as part of the Constitution Act. The Charter sets clear, fundamental freedoms for all Canadians. It has been cited in thousands of court challenges and is the fundamental legal document supporting the national legalization of same-sex marriages and the prevention of government intervention regarding abortion.

The Canadian national flag was officially adopted February 15, 1965; prior to that time and subsequent to Confederation in 1867, Canada used a variant of the Red Ensign, a British merchant flag, as its national flag. The new flag was imposed by the Liberal government in an effort to appease socialists and Quebec Nationalists. The Liberal government refused to hold a referendum on the subject; instead the public was invited to submit designs.<ref>[http://www.pch.gc.ca/progs/cpsc-ccsp/sc-cs/df3_e.cfm Birth of the Canadian Flag]</ref> The introduction of the new flag was not without controversy.

In a memo from Diefenbaker’s personal files he wrote:
<blockquote>The Pearson flag is a meaningless Flag. There is no recognition of history; no indication of the existence of French and English Canada; the partnership of the races; no acknowledgement of history. It is a flag without a past, without history, without honour and without pride.” (Source – I Stand for Canada: The Story of the Maple Leaf Flag ).<ref>[http://www.mapleleafweb.com/features/cultural/flag/national-flag-canada.html The Debate Over the Maple Leaf Flag]</ref></blockquote>

While the debate has been largely forgotten today, the Red Ensign can still be seen flying on some private homes and the debate does reemerge into the public domain occasionally. <ref>[http://www.theglobeandmail.com/servlet/story/RTGAM.20070321.wxflag21/BNStory/National/ PM wants Red Ensign to fly at Vimy, sources say]</ref>

The Canadian national anthem, '[[O Canada]]', was written by Sir Adolphe-Basile Routhier as a poem, to which music, composed by Calixa Lavallée, was later added, in 1880. The original was composed in French, and was first translated into English by Dr. Thomas Bedford Richardson of Toronto, Ontario, in 1906. However, it was not officially adopted as the national anthem until 1980.<ref>[http://www.pch.gc.ca/progs/cpsc-ccsp/sc-cs/anthem_e.cfm National Anthem: O Canada]</ref> It is important to distinguish between 'O Canada', the national anthem, and 'God Save The Queen', which is the Royal anthem, played as a salute to Her Majesty [[Queen Elizabeth II]] as Queen of Canada.

== Provinces and Territories ==
[[Image:800px-Canada-satellite.jpg|right|thumb|300px|A satellite image of Canada.]]
At the time of Confederation, Canada was comprised of four provinces: Upper Canada (now Ontario), Lower Canada (now Québec), Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick. Since that time, six additional provinces have joined Canada or have been created. From west to east, the provinces are [[British Columbia]], [[Alberta]], [[Saskatchewan]], [[Manitoba]], [[Ontario]], [[Québec]], [[New Brunswick]], [[Prince Edward Island]], [[Nova Scotia]], and [[Newfoundland|Newfoundland and Labrador]]. Newfoundland was the last province to join Canada, in 1949. The provinces all elect a single (unicameral) legislature, headed by Premier, who is selected the same way as the Prime Minister. A Lieutenant-Governor represents the Queen, similar to the Governor General.
Canada has three territories: the [[Yukon Territory]], the [[Northwest Territories]], and [[Nunavut]]. Territories have only have those powers delegated to them by the federal government

== Government ==
The government of Canada is split into two orders, federal and provincial, as outlined by the BNA Act. Each has very specific responsibilities, with some overlap. For instance, universal health care is mandated by the Federal Government, but it is administered by the Provincial Governments. Neither level has supremacy over the other. The Federal Government is run out of [[Ottawa]], [[Ontario]]; the provincial governments are run out the ten provincial capitals.

The federal parliament is bicameral, including both a lower house - the [[Canadian House of Commons]] - and an upper house - the [[Canadian Senate]]. The parliamentary system is based on the British parliament. Members of Parliament represent specific geographical areas, generally chosen to have approximately equal population. A single member is elected from each on a [[first past the post]] system. The [[prime minister]] is usually the leader of the party with the most seats, though two or more parties may form a [[coalition]] to form a government.

The Senate is made up of sentors appointed for life by the prime minister (acting on behalf of the Governer General).

In almost all cases, Acts of Parliament are created in the House of Commons. After passing three readings in the House of Commons, the bill is passed to the Senate. The job of the Senate is to further debate the proposed legislation, before passing it to the Governor General for Royal Assent. The Governor General is the official representative of Her Majesty [[Queen Elizabeth II]], Queen of Canada. The Governor General is, in the absence of the Queen, Canada's Head of State, and the Commander-in-Chief of the [[Canadian Forces]]. The Prime Minister of Canada is the head of Government of Canada, acting as the Minister of the Crown, based on the British system.

All provincial legislatures are unicameral. The legislative process for provincial legislation is the same as for federal legislation, except that there is no Senate and the legislation is given royal assent by the provincial Lieutenants Governor, who represent the monarch at the provincial level.

From 1841 to 1844, the capital city of what would become Canada was located in [[Kingston|Kingston, Ontario]]. Subsequently the capital alternated between [[Toronto]] and [[Montreal]] until 1857, when the capital moved to [[Ottawa|Ottawa, Ontario]].

== Present Day ==
The 40th Canadian Federal General Election is scheduled for October 14, 2008. <ref>[http://www.cbc.ca/canada/story/2008/09/07/election-call.html "Vote set for Oct. 14"]</ref>Currently, the Prime Minister is The Right Honourable [[Stephen Harper]], a member of the [[Conservative Party of Canada]], while Her Excellency [[Michaëlle Jean]] is the Governor General. At present Canada is governed by a [[minority government]]. In 2005 the city of [[Vancouver]], [[British Columbia]] was voted "the world's best place to live".<ref> [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/4306936.stm Vancouver is "best place to live"]</ref>
Canada's population is increasingly urban, with 6 cities recording a population over 1 million ([[Toronto]], [[Montreal]], [[Vancouver]], [[Ottawa]]-Gatineau, [[Calgary]], [[Edmonton]]); these 6 cities represent over 45% of Canada's population. Canada is becoming an increasingly multicultural country, with most new immigrants settling in [[Toronto]], [[Montreal]] and [[Vancouver]]. [[Toronto]] is the world's most multicultural city, with 43% a member of a visible minority.<ref>http://www.canada.com/vancouversun/news/story.html?id=bb0fee45-b305-490a-b161-a21bcb1d7329&k=34160</ref>

== Public Health Care ==
In 1984, the Federal Government, under the leadership of the Liberals and The Right Honourable [[Pierre Trudeau|Pierre Elliot Trudeau]], enacted the Canada Health Act. This act was based on the five principles of "universality, accessibility, portability, comprehensiveness, and public administration"<ref>[http://www.fin.gc.ca/FEDPROV/hise.html History of Canada Health and Social Transfer]</ref>. This public health care system is run in partnership by Health Canada and provincial Ministries of Health, who both contribute tax revenues. The federal government sets policy, while the provinces are responsible for actual administration. In 1995, the Canada Health and Social Transfer was created to replace existing systems for the transferal of tax funding to the provinces to administer social programs. The rationale behind the system is to allow all Canadians equal access to equal treatment, regardless of socio-economic status.

In Canada health care is frequently listed as top issue in election campaigns and is both a topic of frequent debate and a point of pride for many Canadians, Tommy Douglas the founder of medicare was, for example, voted the "Greatest Canadian" on a CBC television programme in 2004 <ref>
http://www.cbc.ca/greatest/</ref>.

The current state of Canada's public health care system is gathering increasing media attention due to rising wait times. [[David Gratzer]] wrote:
<blockquote>... government researchers have provided the best data on the doctor shortage, noting, for example, that more than 1.5 million Ontarians (or 12 percent of that province’s population) can’t find family physicians. <ref>[http://city-journal.org/html/17_3_canadian_healthcare.html The Ugly Truth about Canadian Healthcare] </ref></blockquote>
Most of the blame for the current state of affairs has been placed on successive government mismanagement. This represents a failure of the federal government to properly regulate the level of service being offered in the provinces. People regularly have to wait between four and eight months for necessary surgeries depending on the nature of the surgery, and province of residence.{{fact}} The median wait time for an MRI across Canada is 10.3 weeks in 2006.<ref>http://www.fraserinstitute.ca/shared/readmore.asp?sNav=nr&id=753</ref> In fact, former Prime Minister [[Jean Chretien|Jean Chrétien]] campaigned on a promise to shut down private MRI clinics because it creates a two tier system, regardless of the demand for more facilities.

In recent years, there has been suggestion from some lobby groups that Canada should adopt a two-tier health care system, while others have expressed strong opposition to this idea, including the federal government under the Liberal party. Some argue that Canada already does have a two-tier health care system as the very wealthy can go to the United States for treatment. The argument for allowing private health care is twofold. The first reason is that competition may improve the quality of products and services, while the increase in options will allow those with the means to access private health care and may relieve some of the burden off the public system. Critics argue that health is a right, and that everyone should have access to the same standard of care.

Recently, in [[Québec]], a provincial judge has ruled that private health care providers must be allowed to compete with the government-run health care system.

== Secession movements ==
There are separatist movements lobbying for independence from Canada in British Columbia, Alberta, and Québec. The only movement of real significance is in Québec, where the province has twice voted on whether or not to separate from Canada, once in 1980 and again in 1995; the vote in 1995 failed by just 1 percent. On November 27, 2006, the Federal Government passed a motion declaring Québec a nation "within a united Canada". <ref> http://www2.parl.gc.ca/HousePublications/Publication.aspx?Pub=hansard&Language=E&Mode=1&Parl=39&Ses=1&DocId=2544166&File=0#OOB-1799206</ref>

== Culture ==
Due to its colonial past, Canadian culture has historically been heavily influenced by [[United Kingdom|British]] and [[France|French]] cultures and traditions. In more modern times, Canadian culture has been greatly influenced by United States' culture, due to the proximity and the migration of people, ideas, and capital. Amidst this, Canadian culture has developed some unique characteristics, and many Canadian movies, authors, [[television]] shows, and musicians are equally popular in United States. Canadian culture has also been influenced by indigenous cultures, and by immigrant groups from around the world. It has the highest per capita immigration rate of any country in the world <ref>.http://www.statcan.ca/Daily/English/080402/d080402a.htm </ref>

Canada has two federal official languages, French and English. The province of Quebec has French as an official language, New Brunswick both French and English, and all other provinces English (although in some parts of Ontario French has special status). The territory of Nunavut has Inuktitu and Innuinaqtun as official languages in addition to French and English, the North West territories has eleven official languages, and the Yukon recognises French and English.

Canada tends to reflect more liberal ideals than the United States. Two such examples are the legalizing of [[gay marriage]] in June, 2005<ref>[http://www.cbc.ca/canada/story/2005/06/28/samesex050628.html CBC news article on passing of gay marriage law]</ref> and, in some regions, the decriminalization of medicinal [[marijuana]] and small amounts of other psychoactive substances.

Notable sports which are enjoyed throughout Canada include [[hockey]], [[curling]], [[lacrosse]], and [[football]]. Canada collected 18 medals in the Summer Olympics, more per capita than the United States but less than Australia. The country finished third overall in the Torino Winter Olympics, with a total of 24 medals, one less than the United States and 10 more than next-place [[Sweden]]. The next winter Olympics, to be held in 2010 will be held in Vancouver and Whistler.

==Religion==
For the total population, approximately 44% of the population of Canada is [[Catholicism|Catholic]], with a another 29% being [[Protestantism|Protestant]] (all denominations). However, while 16% of the total population has no religious affiliation (including atheists and agnostics), 20% of the population under 25 has declared no religion, congruent with the world-wide trend of increasing secularism in young demographics. <ref>Statistics Canada - Cat. No. 97F0022XCB2001002</ref> Other religions of significance in Canada include Judaism, Islam, Sikhism, and Buddhism.

== Taxation ==
The average tax rate in Canada is higher than in the United States. In 2003, Canada's tax burden equals about 33.8% of GDP placing it in the middle of the G7 countries, with Japan lowest at 25.3% and France highest at 43.4% <ref>[http://www.fin.gc.ca/activty/faq1e.html#Taxation Department of Finance Canada: FAQs]</ref>. The US rate is roughly 25.6%; this discrepancy is consistent with the differing levels of social services which the governments funds. Canada also has managed to run without a budget deficit for a number of years.

Equalization payments, worth 11.7 billion Canadian dollars are made by the federal government to the provinces from richer provinces (currently Alberta, Newfoundland, and British Columbia) and the poorer provinces (Ontario, <ref>http://www.cbc.ca/canada/story/2008/11/03/flaherty-ministers.html</ref>, Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island, New Brunswick, Quebec, Manitoba and Saskatchewan) . This is to ensure that reasonably uniform standards of services and taxation are kept between the richer and poorer provinces.<ref>Budget 2007 [http://www.budget.gc.ca/2007/bp/bpc4e.html]</ref> These payments have not been without controversy as provinces begin to make more revenues from natural resources they do not want to give up the Equalization payments.

British Columbia has the lowest corporate tax rate in North America <ref>http://www.investbc.com/businessclimate.htm</ref>.

Canada also has a national sales tax, the Goods and Services Tax (GST) of 5% on all purchases. Some provinces add an additional percentage in the form of a Provincial Sales Tax (PST), or a combined Harmonized Sales Tax (HST) combining GST and the Provincial Sales Tax. Based on actual income, and a number of other factors, the government will refund GST/HST to eligible tax payers in quarterly installments on the fifth of the month in July, October, January, and April.

==Cultural style==
Canadian culture puts stress on open-mindedness and tolerance of multiple viewpoints -- even the (very strong) view that Quebec should declare independence and break up Canada.<ref>See [http://www.telegraph.co.uk/global/main.jhtml?xml=/global/features/cucanada.xml&source=EMC-exp_01102008 National Cultural Profiles, a guide from the London ''Telegraph'' to the thinking patterns of all the world's major cultures] </ref> Canadian opinion shows a strong sense of wanting to be independent of the U.S., although the economy, society and culture closely resembles the U.S. , and most Canadians live a short drive from the border. (The main difference is the state-provided health care system.) Much of the anti-Americanism comes from exiles who left the U.S., for example in fleeing the draft during the Vietnam War (1965-72). Recent surges in oil prices have lifted the Canadian economy, and shifted power toward the oil-rich province of [[Alberta]].

== Education ==
Education in Canada is the responsibility of provincial and territorial governments; curriculum and marking schemes are completely removed from the control of the federal government. Each province uses a different method of administering education, with variation in the number of years and the curriculum. Quebec, for example has five years of secondary school finishing at the equivalent of grade 11 followed by two years of CEGEP, while Ontario has two years of kindergarten. Most provinces have kidergarten beginning at age 5 through grade 12 (age 17) as part of the public system. Some provinces have standardised provincial exams at the end of secondary school and/or at other designated grades.

Several provinces have two publically funded school systems: public and separate (e.g. Catholic). The constitution also guarantees education in one's first official language and, as such, all provinces and territories have both English and French language schooling. Additionally, private schools both religious and secular exist throughout the country. Alberta has an additional category, known as charter schools. Charter schools are schools that have been created in the community to surround a particular theme. They could be artistic, vocational, etc.

The Canadian grading scale markedly differs from the grading scale in the United States. In the US, a 59% or below earns you an F, a 60% nets a D-, and 80% a B. However, in Canadian universities, only 49% or below is an R, 60% will net a C+, and 80% is an A-. <ref>http://www.federal-realestate.com/info-schools/mcgill-university.html</ref>. Marking in Canadian universities, however, tends to be lower with grades over 90% extremely rare in the humanities and social sciences, and higher entrance marks required for those entering from American high schools.

In some Canadian secondary schools, the mark F is absent and substituted by R. A ranges from 100%-80%, B from 79%-70%, C from 69%-60%, D from 59%-50% and R is any mark less than 50%. However, as education is under provincial jurisdiction marking varies regionally and it is difficult to make generalisations across the board.

This may vary from province to province; it is also important to note that comparison of educational achievement requires more than a cursory observation of grading scales. Perhaps a better source of comparison is the Human Development Index, a measurement of literacy, education, life expectancy and standard of living. Using this scale, with Iceland at number one, Canada falls in at number four and the United States ranks at 12.

== Military ==
As of the most recent cabinet shuffle, Conservative MP Peter MacKay has assumed the role of Minister of National Defence.

The [[Canadian Forces]] is comprised of the Regular Force, the Reserve Force, and the Special Force (when so in service). The Regular and Reserve Forces employ over 62,000 and 25,000 members respectively. While the various branches wear distinctive elemental uniforms (DEU), the Royal Canadian Navy, Canadian Army and the Royal Canadian Air Force were amalgamated in 1968 into one common command structure <ref>http://www.forces.gc.ca/site/about/index_e.asp</ref>.
The Canadian Forces are <ref>http://www.canadianally.com/ca/forces-cf-en.asp</ref>equipped with modern vehicles such as the Canadian-built LAV III, the German-built Leopard CII tanks and both the American-built CF-18 Hornet and CC-177 Globemaster III. The Canadian government spends about 17 billion Canadian dollars annually on defence<ref>[http://www.tbs-sct.gc.ca/est-pre/20072008/me-bd/part1/ME-030_e.asp http://www.tbs-sct.gc.ca/est-pre/20072008/me-bd/part1/ME-030_e.asp]</ref>.

The Conservative government has continued the trend of increased defence spending initiated by the Liberals, and have also taken steps to decrease red-tape preventing the troops from having the necessary equipment to keep them safe and effective.

Over 3000 Canadian troops are currently deployed around the world, with over 2500 in [[Afghanistan]] where they are assisting in anti-terrorism & reconstruction operations, and another 500 are deployed to the Middle East where they are attached to a US-led coalition fleet and the Standing NATO Maritime Group 1 (SNMG1). These are prime examples of Canada's capability for interoperability with foreign military forces.

== References ==
{{reflist|2}}

== External Links ==
* [http://www.gc.ca/ Government of Canada]
* [http://www.parl.gc.ca/ Parliament of Canada]
* [http://www.pch.gc.ca/ Department of Canadian Heritage]
* [https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ca.html CIA World Factbook:Canada]
* [http://www.forces.ca The Canadian Forces]

=== Political Party Websites ===
* [http://www.blocquebecois.org Bloc Québécois]
* [http://www.conservative.ca Conservative Party of Canada]
* [http://http://www.fpnpoc.ca/ First Peoples National Party of Canada]
* [http://www.greenparty.ca Green Party of Canada]
* [http://www.liberal.ca Liberal Party of Canada]
* [http://www.ndp.ca New Democratic Party of Canada]
* [http://www.partyofalberta.org/ Party of Alberta]
* [http://www.progressivecanadian.org/ Progressive Canadian Party]
* [http://www.mlpc.ca/ Marxist-Leninist Party]
* [http://www.canadianactionparty.ca/ Canadian Action Party]
* [http://www.peoplespoliticalpower.ca/ People's Political Power Party]
* [http://www.animalalliance.ca/ Animal Alliance Environment Voters Party]
* [http://www.westernblockparty.com/ Western Bloc Party]
* [http://www.chp.ca/en/index.html Christian Heritage Party of Canada]

===Political Advocacy Websites===
*[http://www.canadadivided.com/ Canada Divided]
*[http://www.projectalberta.com/ Project Alberta]
*[http://onthefencefilms.com/video/twowomen.html Two Women]
*[http://www.westcan.org/ Western Canada Concept]

[[Category:Canada| ]]
[[Category:North American Countries]]
[[Category:NATO members]]
[[Category:Christian-Majority Countries]]

Stela of Merneptah

2008-11-15T21:03:05Z

Canuck: add a link for the text

[[Image:Merneptah Stela1.jpg|right|300px|thumb|Stela of Merneptah]]
[[Image:Israelpassage.jpg|right|300px|thumb|The "Israel" passage]]
The '''Stela of Merneptah''' is a large [[granite]] [[stela]] originally inscribed by the [[pharaoh]] of [[Egypt]], [[Merneptah]] (ruled 1231-1203 BC). It was set up to commemorate the [[Egypt]]ian victories over a number of peoples, but it is most famous because it mentions [[Israel]].

==External Links==
[http://www.bible-history.com/archaeology/egypt/2-israel-stela-bb.html Bible History] close up and translation

[[Category:Egypt]]

Theology Online

2008-11-15T20:51:27Z

Canuck: categorize

'''Theology Online''' (http://www.theologyonline.com) is a public web forum where people from all walks of life discuss the issues most important to them. Theology Online's no-holds-barred approach to discourse provides a unique opportunity for its members to reveal their true feelings on any topic.

== History ==
Founded in 1998, Theology Online was created to discuss the particulars of [[Christian]] [[theology]] by students of Professor Bob Hill's Derby School of Theology <ref>http://www.biblicalanswers.com/derby_school_of_theology_online.htm</ref>. Since then, Theology Online has grown to become a hotbed of debate and dialog, as well as a resource to it's 8,415 members. With nearly 25,000 threads and 1 million posts, Theology Online has vast references that examine every side of the most relevant issues facing our society today.

== Content ==
Theology Online's slogan is "Open rebuke is better than love carefully concealed," citing from the [[Bible]] Proverbs 27:5 <ref>http://cf.blueletterbible.org/search/translationResults.cfm?Criteria=open+rebuke&t=KJV</ref>. In it's pages, visitors will find a vast array of knowledge and opinion, varying from the most common topics to those other websites are afraid to broach.

Theology Online is the first website of its kind. Thousands of [[Christians]], [[Atheists]], [[Agnostics]], [[Buddhists]], and many others have come together to reasonably debate [[politics]], [[religion]], current events, and a wide variety of other interesting topics. Theology Online users are a diverse group, ranging in age from 14 to 80 years old, and varying widely in life philosophies and experiences. Spanning the globe, Theology Online has users in many countries, including [[Canada]], [[Hong Kong]], [[Israel]], [[New Zealand]], and [[Australia]] and of course the [[United States]]. TOL has a web traffic rank of 355,203, according to Alexa's Web Information <ref>http://www.alexa.com/data/details/traffic_details/theologyonline.com</ref>.

Topics often include politics<ref>http://www.theologyonline.com/forums/forumdisplay.php?f=6</ref>, where topics such as current events, [[abortion]], [[homosexuality]], [[gun control]], [[public schools]], [[welfare]], taxes, and [[government]] are debated. Religion<ref>[http://www.theologyonline.com/forums/forumdisplay.php?f=5</ref>is another major topic, where TOL's members debate General Theology, Religions and Denominations, God's Attributes, [[Predestination]] and Free Will, Dispensationalism, [[Eschatology]], [[Philosophy]], Origins, [[Archeology]], Science, World History and other such topics.

Some of the more popular theological topics on Theology Online are [[Calvinism]], [[Arminianism]], and Open Theism. Other popular topics such as world news, pop culture, sports are as varied as the people who join Theology Online.

== Growth ==
Theology Online gained notoriety when Pastor and Radio Host Bob Enyart debated [[Knox Seminary]] graduate, Professor Dr. Samual Lamerson, in "Battle Royale X Openness Theology - Does God Know Your Entire Future?"<ref>http://www.theologyonline.com/forums/showthread.php?t=21711</ref>. Other Battle Royale<ref>http://www.theologyonline.com/index.php?page=battle</ref> titles include: "[[capital punishment|Capital Punishment]]: Should Christians Support the Death Penalty?" <ref>http://www.theologyonline.com/forums/showthread.php?t=31900</ref>, "Evolution: Science or Science Fiction?" <ref>http://www.theologyonline.com/forums/showthread.php?t=23808</ref>, and "Does God Exist?" <ref>http://www.theologyonline.com/forums/showthread.php?t=7709</ref>.

==References==
<references />

[[category:theology]]
[[Category:Websites]]

Web comic

2008-11-15T20:47:11Z

Canuck: categorize

'''Web Comics''', also known as '''Online Comics''' or '''Webcomics''' are a form of comics that are started on the [[Internet]]. Many online comics are [[published]] exclusively online, while some are both in print and archived online. There are many different types of webcomics; some are created to be more like traditional comic strips, while others are created to be more like [[graphic novels]]. Popular webcomics include the [[conservative]] [[Day By Day]] and the politically neutral with occasional liberal opinions [[xkcd]].

Most webcomics can be viewed free of charge. Webcomic creators still gain money off their work by selling printed versions of their webcomic, offering more content at a fee, selling merchandise, or simply asking for donations (sometimes donations are asked merely to pay for the site fees). Adds put on the webcomic's site also pull in some revenue.

With web comics, the restrictions of the traditional newspaper or magazine format can be lifted, which allows the [[artists]] to take advantage of the internet's unique capabilities, such as being able to draw and say anything they want without repercussion providing more freedom and creativity. Webcomic artists also are not confined size limitations. Some webcomics, such as those published by [[Scott McCloud]]<ref>http://www.scottmccloud.com/</ref>, have experimented with interactivity and animation in their comics. Most webcomics provide an archive for readers to look up any strip they wish.

== References ==
<references/>

[[category:comic Strips]]
[[category: internet]]

Category talk:Websites

2008-11-15T20:44:56Z

Canuck: suggestion

Not everything in here is a web site - talk.origins is a Usenet group, for example. Would renaming the category to something like Notable Internet Resources be helpful? [[User:Canuck|Canuck]] 15:44, 15 November 2008 (EST)

Website

2008-11-15T20:43:07Z

Canuck: add a category

{{stub}}

A website (alternatively, Web site) is a collection of Web pages, images, videos and other digital assets that is hosted on a Web server, usually accessible via the Internet or a LAN.

A Web page is a document, typically written in [[HTML]], that is almost always accessed via [[HTTP]], a protocol that transfers information from the Web server to display in the user's Web browser.

[[Category:Internet]]

Domain name

2008-11-15T20:41:35Z

Canuck: Try to clarify the distinctions between domain name and FQDN

'''Domain name''' is a 'word form' entry in the Internet Domain Name System which is owned by a registrant of that name. Several kinds of entries can be associated with a domain name, including entries for routing email and entries for other kinds of interaction.

A fully qualified domain name (FQDN) is resolvable to a numerical Internet Protocol (IP) address of an internet computer or system. In layman's terms, it is analogous to the names in a telephone directory which are associated with a telephone number. The domain name is 'pointed to' the actual IP address of a given computer or network, and allows a user to remember how to access that service more easily than having to remember a complex string of numbers<ref>[http://searchwindevelopment.techtarget.com/sDefinition/0,,sid8_gci211988,00.html Techtarget.com - Definition of Domain name]</ref>

Web servers, as is the case with all computers, are given [[IP address]]es when on the Internet. IP addresses may be represented by domain names (this is called "name resolution"). One example of a fully-qualified domain name would be "www.conservapedia.com".

==Subdomain==
The first portion of a domain name (often "www") is known as a ''subdomain''.

==Top-level domain==
The last portion of a Web site's name is known as a top-level domain (or TLD). Common TLDs of US Web sites include ".com" (commercial site), ".org" (non-profit organization), ".edu" (educational institution), ".gov" (government institution), ".us" (any United States user) and ".mil" (military institution). Other countries have their own TLDs, such as Britain's ".co.uk" and Germany's ".de" TLD. The ".com" TLD is used by companies world-wide. Some country TLDs, such as ".tv" (Tuvalu) and ".fm" (Federated Micronesia), are resold outside their country because of their resemblance to common English terms.

==References==
<references/>
==See also==
*[[Web site]]
*[[IP address]]

[[Category:Internet]]

Project Mercury

2008-11-15T20:31:40Z

Canuck: categorize as Space Race

[[Image:Mercuryatlas9.JPG|thumb|right|200px|Mercury-Atlas 9 on the launchpad.]]Started in 1958 and completed in 1963, '''Project Mercury''' was the [[United States]]' first [[human]]-in-[[Outer space|space]] program. The objectives of the program, which made six manned flights from 1961 to 1963, were to orbit a manned spacecraft around [[Earth]], to investigate human ability to function in space, and to recover both man and spacecraft safely. Project Mercury was a success and led to [[Project Gemini]].

== The Mercury Seven ==

The '''Mercury Seven''' were the original seven [[astronauts]] designated to fly in Project Mercury. They were M. Scott Carpenter, L. Gordon Cooper, John Glenn, Virgil "Gus" Grissom, Walter "Wally" Schirra, [[Alan Shepard]], and Donald "Deke" Slayton. Selected for their performance in the [[United_States_Air_Force|Air Force]], several of these pioneer astronauts (including Wally Schirra) flew in all NASA rocket spacecraft - from Mercury to [[Project Gemini|Gemini]] to [[Project Apollo|Apollo]].

The successful mission of [[Apollo 11]] could not have been conducted without their efforts, for which one (Gus Grissom) gave his life in the [[Apollo 1]] tragedy, alongside fellow astronauts Ed White and Roger Chaffee.

== Mercury Missions ==
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| Project Mercury Designation
| Mission
| Mission Date
| Notes/Pilot name
|-
| Mercury-Jupiter
| Test of Jupiter missile.
| Cancelled
|-
| Little Joe 1
| Test of launch escape system during flight.
| August 21st, 1959
|-
| Big Joe 1
| Test of heat shield and Atlas rocket.
| September 9th, 1959
|-
| Little Joe 6
| Test of Mercury capsule aerodynamics and stability.
| October 4th, 1959
|-
| Little Joe 1A
| Second test of launch escape system during flight.
| November 4th, 1959
|-
| Little Joe 2
| Carried a [[monkey]] 52.8 miles in altitude.
| December 4th, 1959
|-
| Little Joe 1B
| Carried a monkey 9.3 miles in altitude
| January 21st, 1960
|-
| Beach Abort
| Test of the Off-The-Pad abort system.
| May 9th, 1960
|-
| Mercury-Atlas 1
| First test flight of Mercury spacecraft and Atlas rocket.
| July 29th, 1960
|-
| Little Joe 5
| First flight of a standard Mercury capsule.
| November 8th, 1960
|-
| Mercury-Redstone 1
| First test flight of Mercury spacecraft and Redstone rocket. (Failure)
| November 21st, 1960
| The "Popped Cork" Incident
|-
| Mercury-Redstone 1A
| First test flight of Mercury spacecraft and Redstone rocket.
| December 19th, 1960
|-
| Mercury-Redstone 2
| Carried a [[chimpanzee]] 129.8 miles in altitude.
| January 31st, 1961
|-
| Mercury-Atlas 2
| Second test flight of Mercury spacecraft and Atlas rocket.
| February 21st, 1961
|-
| Little Joe 5A
| Third test of the launch escape system.
| March 18th, 1961
|-
| Mercury-Redstone BD
| Redstone rocket upgrade test flight.
| March 24th, 1961
|-
| Mercury-Atlas 3
| Third test flight of Mercury spacecraft and Atlas rocket.
| April 25th, 1961
|-
| Little Joe 5B
| Fourth test of the launch escape system.
| April 28th, 1961
|-
| Mercury-Atlas 4
| First orbital spaceflight of Mercury spacecraft and Atlas rocket.
| September 13th, 1961
|-
| Mercury-Scout 1
| Test of Mercury tracking network. (Failure)
| November 1st, 1961
|-
| Mercury-Redstone 3
| Carried first American to make a suborbital flight into space.
| May 5th, 1961
| [[Alan Shepard]]
|-
| Mercury-Redstone 4
| Carried second American to make a suborbital flight into space.
| July 21st, 1961
| [[Virgil I. Grissom]]
|-
| Mercury-Atlas 6
| Carried first American to orbit the Earth.
| February 20th, 1962
| [[John Glenn]]
|-
| Mercury-Atlas 7
| Manned spaceflight-3 orbits.
| May 24th, 1962
| [[Scott Carpenter]]
|-
| Mercury-Atlas 8
| Manned spaceflight-6 orbits.
| October 3rd, 1962
| [[Walter Schirra]]
|-
| Mercury Atlas 9
| Carried first American in space for over a day and last American to fly alone in Earth orbit.
| May 15th-May 16th, 1963
| [[Gordon Cooper]]
|-
| Mercury 10
| 3 day manned spaceflight mission.
| Cancelled
|}

[[Donald K. Slayton]] did not fly a Mercury mission. The flight surgeons grounded him for nearly a decade and a half after finding that he suffered from an occasional dysrhythmia of the [[heart]]. The other six astronauts then recommended to NASA administration that the astronaut corps should have a permanent chief, chosen among their number, and chose Slayton to fill that position. Slayton was the only chief that the astronaut corps ever had. He would finally fly the [[Apollo-Soyuz Test Project]] mission in 1975, the last mission flown with [[Project Apollo]] hardware.

[[Category:Space Race]]

Space station

2008-11-15T20:29:52Z

Canuck: categorize as part of Space Exploration only

A '''space station''' is a scientific laboratory inhabited by humans that orbits around the [[Earth]].

Currently the only operational space station is the [[International Space Station]] (ISS), although the space program of the USSR, and later the Russians had 6 Salyut Stations, and later the station [[Mir]]. The American Space Program put aloft [[Skylab]] in 1973 atop the last Saturn V rocket, and was serviced from the same command modules as were used in [[Project Apollo]]. Skylab orbited the earth until 1979 although the last manned flight was in 1974.

In science fiction, space stations have been used extensively, including [[Star Trek]]: Deep Space 9, Babylon 5 as well as in many novels.

[[category:Space Exploration]]

Apollo 11

2008-11-15T20:29:18Z

Canuck: categorize as Space Race; the final item for that category

[[Image:Apollo 11 Launch.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Apollo 11 launch]]
On July 20, 1969 the '''Apollo 11''' spacecraft landed on the [[moon]], and soon after, [[Neil Armstrong]] became the first man to set foot on the moon, when he stepped off the Lunar Module Eagle onto the moon's surface, delivering the line: "''That's one small step for a man, one giant leap for mankind.''"
<ref> He intended to say "one step for ''a'' man." Whether he succeeded in getting out the word "a" is disputed. See [[Neil_Armstrong#One small step]] </ref>

The crew of Apollo 11 consisted of 3 astronauts: Commander [[Neil Armstrong]], Edwin "Buzz" Aldrin Jr., and [[Michael Collins]]. [[Buzz Aldrin]] was second on the moon, while Astronaut Collins orbited the moon in the Apollo Command Module. The two astronauts initiated a live videotaping to be seen on earth and placed a [[United States]] flag on the surface, and a commemorative plaque which read: ''"Here men from the planet earth first set foot on the moon July 1969, A.D. We came in peace for all mankind."'' They then spent time gathering samples of rocks and soil to bring back to Earth.

The spacecraft was launched on July 16, 1969, by [[NASA]], the [[National Aeronautics and Space Administration]], the United States Federal Government agency responsible for aviation and space flight. The liftoff was from [[Kennedy Space Center]], and lunar orbit was entered on July 19, 1969.
[[Image:Apollo11-crew.jpg‎|right|thumb|250px|The Apollo 11 Crew]]
President [[John F. Kennedy]] had said that he was determined to send a man to the Moon before the end of the decade. However, this was not accomplished during his term in office; by the time the lunar landing was made, [[Richard Nixon]] was in office. The President sent the astronauts a live message shortly after they landed on the surface of the moon.

The mission of Apollo 11 was completed when the astronauts returned safely to Earth on July 24, 1969.

==References==
<references/>
*http://www.nasa.gov/
*http://www.historyplace.com/unitedstates/apollo11/
*http://www.buzzaldrin.com/

==See also==

*[[Project Apollo]]
*[[Apollo 13]]

[[Category:Space Race]]

Apollo 17

2008-11-15T20:28:04Z

Canuck: categorize as part of Space Exploration only

'''Apollo 17''' was the sixth and final sucessful manned flight of [[Project Apollo]], the manned [[NASA]] [[moon]] missions. On the voyage of the command module "America" and the lunar module "Challenger" Apollo 17 was crewed by [[Eugene A. Cernan]], the Commander; [[Ronald E. Evans]], the Command Module Pilot and [[Harrison Schmitt|Harrison H. "Jack" Schmitt]], Lunar Module Pilot. Schmitt a geologist by training was the only trained scientist to walk on the moon. Together the crew of Apollo 17 would spend the longest time on the lunar surface (147 hours 48 minutes), return with the largest weight of samples from the moon (approximately 110 kg or 243 pounds). Apollo 17 spent three days on the moon landing at Taurus-Littrow, located on the southeast edge of Mare Serenitatis.
Apollo 17 launched from the Kennedy Space Center in the first night launch on December 6, 1972, landing on the moon on December 11th, and concluded by returning to earth on 19 December 1972.

NASA plans to return to the moon with Project Constellation aboard Orion 15, expected to be launched in late 2019, some 47 years after Apollo 17.

[[Category:Space Exploration]]

Apollo 14

2008-11-15T20:27:19Z

Canuck: categorize as part of Space Exploration only

'''Apollo 14''' was the third sucessful landing on the [[Moon]] of [[Project Apollo]], following the explosion aboard [[Apollo 13]]. Kitty Hawk, the Command Module was crewed by [[Alan Shepard]], the Commander (and first American Astronaut); [[Stuart Roosa]], the Command Module Pilot and [[Edgar Mitchell]], Lunar Module Pilot.
Apollo 14 launched from the Kennedy Space Center on January 31, 1971, landing on the moon in the LEM Antares on February 5 in the Fra Mauro highlands and returned to earth on February 9th.

[[Category:Space Exploration]]

Category:Space Race

2008-11-15T20:26:50Z

Canuck: categorize as part of Space Exploration

[[Category:Cold War]]
[[Category:Space Exploration]]

Talk:Space Race

2008-11-15T20:25:54Z

Canuck: category discussion

I'm going to take this definition as locally canonical, and remove the Space Race category from everything after 1969. [[User:Canuck|Canuck]] 15:25, 15 November 2008 (EST)

Space station

2008-11-15T20:23:57Z

Canuck: capitalization

Talk:Phonemarking

2008-11-15T20:21:34Z

Canuck: raise a question

Is this about the 100th Congress or the 110th? [[User:Canuck|Canuck]] 15:21, 15 November 2008 (EST)

Phonemarking

2008-11-15T20:21:08Z

Canuck: existing link; grammar; capitals

'''Phonemarking''' is a process in the [[United States of America]] by which Congressional lawmakers directly contact a federal department or agency which is a recipient of federal [[appropriation]]s to secure money for their favorite causes outside of the congressional appropriations process. On some appropriations Congressional members are not permitted to attach [[earmarks]], or explicit instructions that a department or agency purchase specific good or services, usually from a company owned by a constituent, a donor, or both. Lobbyists and Congressional staffers refer to a new practice in the 110th Congress as "phonemarking", where a member calls the department or agency and tells them what a great idea it would be to spend money -- money which is already appropriated although not designated by name -- on a Congressional member's [[Pork-barrel_legislation | pet pork project]].

When the new Democratic majority in the House of Representatives passed one of its first spending bills in the 100th Congress, it made the claim that the legislation contained no money earmarked for lawmakers' pet projects and stressed that any prior congressional requests for such spending "shall have no legal effect." Within days, however, lawmakers including Senate Majority Leader [[Harry M. Reid]] of Nevada began directly phonemarking certain federal departments. <ref>[http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/05/23/AR2007052301782.html In the Democratic Congress, Pork Still Gets Served] 'Phonemarking' Is Among Ways Around Appropriations Process, By John Solomon and Jeffrey H. Birnbaum, ''Washington Post'', May 24, 2007; Page A01.</ref><ref>[http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/politics/la-na-earmarks23may23,1,699417.story?ctrack=1&cset=true Earmarks debate turned around on Democrats in Congress]
Now that the party controls both houses, Republicans are crying pork, pointing fingers at Pennsylvania's Rep. Murtha, By Richard Simon, ''L.A. Times'', May 23, 2007,</ref>

==See also==
*[[Earmark]]

==References==
<references/>

[[Category:politics]]

Indium

2008-11-15T20:15:50Z

Canuck: change density terminology

{{Element | name=Indium | symbol=In | anumber=49 | amass=114.818 amu | state=Solid | class=Poor Metals | cstructure=Face-centered tetragonal | color=Silvery-white | date=1863 | discname=Ferdinand Reich and Hieronymous Richter | origname=From the indigo blue it shows in a spectroscope. | uses=Used as a coating for high speed bearings, in mirrors, solar cells, nuclear power regulators, photo cells, thermistors, and transistors. Also employed in low-melting alloys for safety devices. | obtained=Found in some zinc ores, but is primarily produced as a by-product of lead and zinc smelting. }}

'''Indium''' is an [[element]] in the "poor metals" class (beyond the transition metals, before the nonmetals) of the [[periodic table of the elements|periodic table]]. It is soft and silvery-white. It is stable in air and water, but dissolves in acids. It has a specific gravity of 7.310. It has two stable isotopes (actually one, but another one has a [[half-life]] of over 1014 years).

[[Category:Elements]]

User talk:Mike770781

2008-11-14T04:57:25Z

Canuck: New page: Ayer's religious views don't belong in the Obama article. ~~~~

Ayer's religious views don't belong in the Obama article. [[User:Canuck|Canuck]] 23:57, 13 November 2008 (EST)

Ye

2008-11-14T04:52:59Z

Canuck: categorize

'''Kanye West''' is an American [[hip hop]] musician and record producer, one of the most popular of recent times. His records have won nine [[Grammy]] awards.

Kanye, an African American, attracted considerable media attention in September 2005, when he appeared on a television fundraiser for [[Hurricane Katrina]] victims and famously stated "George Bush doesn't care about black people."

He also created a stir when he posed for the cover of the February 2006 ''[[Rolling Stone]]'' magazine portraying Jesus Christ, wearing a crown of thorns on his head with blood running down his face. <ref>http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/11009059/</ref>

Wests' lyrics are sometimes considered controversial and offensive as they often contain explicit racial terms and profanity. <ref>http://www.americanchronicle.com/articles/5241</ref>
<ref>http://archive.newsmax.com/archives/articles/2006/2/2/200539.shtml</ref>

Kanye's father, Ray West, a [[sociology]] professor and former member of the [[Black Panther Party]] <ref>http://www.americanchronicle.com/articles/5241</ref> has stated that he does not condone the use of profanity and racial comments in Kanye's lyrics. <ref>http://www.contactmusic.com/new/xmlfeed.nsf/mndwebpages/kanyes%20dad%20lashes%20out%20at%20sons%20lyrics_27_01_2006</ref>

His mother Donda, a former chair of the English department at Chicago State University who acted as Kanye's manager, died Nov 10, 2007 following a cosmetic surgery procedure. She was 58 years old. <ref>http://www.people.com/people/article/0,,20159597,00.html</ref> West is engaged to be married to Alexis Phifer. <ref>http://www.people.com/people/article/0,,20037945,00.html</ref>

==Works==
*''The College Dropout'' (2004)
*''Late Registration'' (2005)
*''Graduation'' (2007)

==References==
<references/>

{{DEFAULTSORT:West Kanye}}
[[Category:Male Singers]]

Andy Williams

2008-11-14T04:52:35Z

Canuck: categorize

'''Howard Andrew Williams''' was born on December 3, 1927, in
Wall Lake, [[Iowa]]. Starting out in a [[church]] [[choir]] and as a
teenager joining his three brothers to form a [[quartet]] that
performed first on [[radio]] in [[Des Moines]] on WHO, and then in
[[Chicago]] on WLS and [[Cincinnati]]’s WLW, Andy became a
regular on [[Steve Allen]]’s [[Tonight Show]] in 1955.

In 1955 Andy signed a recording contract with Cadence Records,
where in the summer of 1956 his vocal version of the smash hit
instrumental “Canadian Sunset” would earn him a top ten hit,
followed by Andy’s lone #1 single chart topper, “Butterfly”.

In 1957 Andy Williams landed in the top ten with “I Like Your
Kind of Love” and again in 1958 with “Are You Sincere”.
In 1959 “Lonely Street” and “The Village of St. Bernadette”
both were top ten hits.

Leaving Cadence for [[Columbia Records]], Andy in 1963 reached
the #2 spot on the Hit Parade with “Can’t Get Used to Losing You”.
Among his fifty plus hit singles, were “Hopeless”, “Dear Heart” and
“A Fool Never Learns”, but it would be in 1971 before he had another
top ten hit single, “Where Do I Begin” from the film “Love Story”.

However, as an album artist, Andy Williams was a superstar with
as many as 17 gold albums, including:
* “Moon River”
* “Days of Wine and Roses”
* “Dear Heart”
* “The Shadow of Your Smile”
* “Love Story”
* “The Andy Williams Christmas Album”

The [[Christmas]] album is still a best seller several decades later. He would record eight Christmas albums, more than
any other recording artist at Columbia.

The Andy Williams Show on television won three [[Emmy Award]]s
and up until the 1990’s his Christmas specials were family
habits during the holidays.
In recent years to the delight of fans, Andy opened his
“Moon River Theatre” in Branson, [[Missouri]] where he has a home.
He alternates between a residence there and one
in La Quinta, [[California]].

{{DEFAULTSORT:Williams, Andy}}

[[Category:Male Singers]]

Jackie Wilson

2008-11-14T04:52:16Z

Canuck: categorize

'''Jack Leroy Wilson''' was born on June 9, 1934 in [[Detroit]], [[Michigan]].
At twelve years of age he sang with the “Ever Ready Gospel Singers”
a very popular group with Detroit’s black churches.

Encouraged by his mother to a singing career, Jackie at 19 joined
Billy Ward & the Dominoes, replacing Clyde McPhatter who left
the group to form the Drifters. Three years later Jackie Wilson
had his first hit as a solo artist with “Reet Petite”, followed in 1958
with “To Be Loved” and “Lonely Teardrops” his first top ten hit.

In 1959 “That’s Why I Love You So” and “I’ll Be Satisfied” charted.
“Night” would peak at #4 in 1960, followed by “Doggin’ Around”,
“All My Love”, “A Woman, a Lover, a Friend” and another top
five smash, “Alone at Last”. “My Empty Arms” was a top ten hit
in 1961 and “Baby Workout” top five in 1963. With more than
70 hit singles on Pop and R&B charts, Jackie’s final top ten hit,
“Higher and Higher” was in 1967.

Jackie Wilson’s on stage presentation earned him the nickname
“Mr. Excitement”. It was during one of those appearances on
September 28, 1975 while singing “Lonely Teardrops” at the
Latin Casino in Cherry Hill, [[New Jersey]], Jackie suffered a heart attack
and went into a coma that would hospitalize him until his death
on January 21, 1984. He was only 49 years of age.

Jackie Wilson was inducted into the [[Rock and Roll Hall of Fame]] in 1987.

{{DEFAULTSORT:Wilson, Jackie}}

[[Category:Male Singers]]

Thom Yorke

2008-11-14T04:51:57Z

Canuck: categorize

'''Thom Yorke''' is the lead singer for the [[Rock]] band [[Radiohead]].

==External Links==

http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0948810/

{{DEFAULTSORT:Yorke, Thom}}

[[Category:Male Singers]]
[[Category:Musicians]]

Bobby Vee

2008-11-14T04:50:51Z

Canuck: categorize

Born into a musical family, '''Robert Thomas Velline'''
entered the world at Fargo, [[North Dakota]] on April 30, 1943.
Family members would introduce Bobby to various musical instruments
including the [[saxophone]] that he would play in the high school band.

On February 3, 1959, a light plane bound for an appearance at Moorhead,
Minnesota, with rock stars [[Buddy Holly]], [[Richie Valens]] and J.P. Richardson,
known as ''the Big Bopper'', crashed in a snowy Iowa field, killing all aboard.
As other performers on tour with them arrived, the promoters decided
to go ahead with the show and sent out an urgent call for local talent
to fill in for the headliners.

Thus, a fifteen year old Bobby Vee began a career that would have made the
missing stars proud. In the years following he would be known for not only
being a hit maker, but for being a gentleman, a role model for others to follow.

A few months would pass before Bobby’s “Susie Baby” would hit the charts,
followed by his million-selling Top Ten hits “Devil or Angel” and “Rubber Ball”.
In the summer of 1961, his “Take Good Care of My Baby” would top the
Hit Parade and before the year ended “Run to Him” gave Bobby Vee his
fourth gold record. The following year, “The Night Has A Thousand Eyes”
landed inside the Top Five for another million-seller, and in 1967
“Come Back When You Grow Up” would also reach the Top Five.

Bobby Vee’s popularity is international with hits in [[Japan]], [[Australia]],
[[Germany]], [[England]] and [[Europe]].

Between Europe and America, Bobby and his band continue to
perform about a hundred dates a year. When he is not touring or
working on his own music, he is involved in the production of various
other musical projects at his Rockhouse Recording Studio,
located near St. Cloud, [[Minnesota]].

In 2007 Bobby Vee became a nominee at the [[Hit Parade Hall of Fame]].

{{DEFAULTSORT:Vee, Bobby}}

[[Category:Male Singers]]

Bobby Vinton

2008-11-14T04:50:33Z

Canuck: categorize

'''Stanley Robert Vintula, Jr.''', better known as '''Bobby Vinton''', was a prominent, multi-talented musician and actor. He was born on April 16, 1935 in
Canonsburg, Pennsylvania, the son of a popular Pittsburgh [[bandleader]].
At 16 years of age Bobby Vinton formed a [[band]] and began playing at
various [[club]]s to help finance his [[college education]] at Duquesne University,
where before graduating with a [[degree]] in musical [[composition]], he became
proficient in playing the [[clarinet]], [[saxophone]], [[trumpet]], [[drums]] and [[oboe]].

Signed to a recording contract with [[Epic Records]], Bobby had his first #1 hit,
“Roses Are Red” in 1962, the first of nine gold [[single]]s. A year later he would reach
the top of the [[Hit Parade]] again with “Blue on Blue”, “Blue Velvet” and
“There, I’ve said it again”. In 1964, "My Heart Belongs to Only You" and
“Mr. Lonely” earned Bobby [[gold record]]s, as did “Please Love Me Forever”
in 1967, “I Love How You Love Me” in 1968 and “My Melody of Love”
in 1974, a chart topper with [[ABC Records]].

In the course of his career, Bobby Vinton sold more than 75 million records,
appeared in two motion pictures with John Wayne, “Big Jake” and
“The Train Robbers” and was given a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame.
In 2007 Bobby Vinton became a nominee at the Hit Parade Hall of Fame.

Today his fans continue to enjoy his performances at the Bobby Vinton
Blue Velvet Theatre, a 1600 seat venue at Branson, Missouri.

{{DEFAULTSORT:Vinton, Bobby}}

[[Category:Male Singers]]

Johnny Tillotson

2008-11-14T04:49:17Z

Canuck: categorize

Floridian [[Johnny Tillotson]] (1939 - ) was born in [[Jacksonville]] on April 20, 1939.
As a high school student he gained recognition as a singer
and while attending the [[University of Florida]], where he
earned a Bachelor's Degree in Journalism and Communications,
he signed a recording contract. Following graduation from college
he moved to [[New York]] to pursue a music career.

Johnny first charted with "Dreamy Eyes" in 1958, peaking at #2
on the Hit Parade in 1960 with "Poetry in Motion." "Without You"
was top ten in 1961 and "It Keeps Right On A Hurtin," a top five hit
on both the Pop and Country music surveys in
1962 also earned Johnny a Grammy nomination.

In 1965 his "Heartaches By The Number" was nominated as
Best Vocal Performance of the year. Johnny also sang
the theme song for the Sally Field comedy "Gidget"
and appeared on numerous [[television]] shows and in motion pictures.

During his career covering five decades, Johnny Tillotson landed
on the Pop and country music Hit Parade a total of 30 times.
An international favorite, he recorded hits in five different languages.

In 2007 Johnny Tillotson became a nominee at the [[Hit Parade Hall of Fame]].

{{DEFAULTSORT:Tillotston, Johnny}}

[[Category:Male Singers]]