Conservapedia - User contributions [en]

Noodles

2008-09-14T17:40:58Z

Chappers: created article

Noodles are a type of food that are string or ribbon shaped. They are usually made from a dough of flour, eggs and water.

Climate crisis

2008-09-03T19:47:44Z

Chappers: grrr another typo

Climate crisis is the term used to declare without a doubt that [[Anthropogenic global warming]] is harming the planet. Even though the [[science]] has not been proven, hysteria and [[deceit]] attempt to discredit skeptics' claims when in fact there may be no crisis. Much of the hysteria is directed at the USA for leading the world economy in CO2 emissions. As of 2008, China has surpassed the USA in CO2 emissions by completing construction of coal-fired power plants at a rate of about two a week <ref>[http://articles.latimes.com/2007/jun/21/world/fg-emissions21 China May Lead In Greenhouse Gases], June 21, 2007</ref>

==References==
<references/>

[[Category:Earth Sciences]]

Climate crisis

2008-09-03T19:46:39Z

Chappers: typo

Climate crisis is the term used to declare without a doubt that [[Anthropogenic global warming]] is harming the planet. Even though the [[science]] has not been proven, hysteria and [[deceit]] attempt to discredit skeptics' claims when in fact there may be no crisis. Much of the hysteria is directed at the USA for leading the world economy in CO2 emissions. As of 2008, China has surpassed the USA in CO2 emissions by completing construction of coal-fired power plants at a rate of about two a week <ref>[http://articles.latimes.com/2007/jun/21/world/fg-emissions21 China May Lead In Greenhouse Gases], June 21, 2007</ref>

==References==
<references/>

[[Category:Earth Sciences]]

Asteroid Belt

2008-05-03T19:53:35Z

Chappers: added explanation of toroidal

The '''Asteroid Belt''' is a large toroidal (doughnut-shaped) region in the inner [[Solar system]] with a [[heliocentric]] distance of between 2 and 4 [[astronomical unit]]s containing nearly two million minor planets <ref>http://www.spaceref.com/news/viewpr.html?pid=7925</ref>, or [[asteroids]] rather than a major rocky body like the [[Earth]] or [[Mars]].

== References ==

<references />

{{solarsystem}}[[Category:Astronomy]]

Appendix

2008-05-03T19:46:45Z

Chappers: grammar

An '''appendix''' consists of supplementary materials added to the end of a document.

In a legal [[appeal]], the appendix includes key documents presented to the court below.
[[Category:Legal Terms]]

In human [[anatomy]] appendix is a part of the large intestine and is a tube like organ. Evolutionists claim that this is a remnant of evolution from more primitive animals. But the appendix is known to produce white blood cells to fight infections.

Planet

2008-05-03T19:23:43Z

Chappers: typo

A '''planet''' is an astronomical body that is in [[orbit]] around a [[star]], that has sufficient mass for its own [[gravity]] to overcome rigid body forces, assumes an approximately spherical shape, and has cleared the neighborhood around its orbit <ref>http://www.iau.org/iau0603.414.0.html</ref>, i.e. has "swept out" the area around its orbit during its formation, accreting into its mass all other smaller bodies within its orbit. Consequently, a planet does not share its orbital region with any other bodies of significant size, except for its satellites or those collected later by virtue of its gravitational field.

== Young Earth Creationism View ==
[[Young earth creationism|Young earth creationist]] assert that [[materialism|materialistic]] explanations of the planet formation are inadequate and contra-evidential. <ref>http://www.creationscience.com/onlinebook/AstroPhysicalSciences3.html</ref><ref>http://www.answersingenesis.org/home/area/faq/astronomy.asp</ref> In addition, creationists often cite the secular scientific literature in order to make the case that materialist explanations of planet formation are inadequate:

“... most every prediction by theorists about planetary formation has been wrong.” Scott Tremaine, as quoted by Richard A. Kerr who was proposing a new planetary formation model, “Jupiters Like Our Own Await Planet Hunters,” <ref> Science, Vol. 295, 25 January 2002, p. 605 cited at: http://www.creationscience.com/onlinebook/ReferencesandNotes43.html</ref>

"No one knows quite how planetesimals ever attain protoplanet status." <ref>D. Kaisler, The puzzles of planethood, Sky & Telescope 104(2):32-38, 2002.</ref>

“It turns out to be surprisingly difficult for planetesimals to accrete mass during even the most gentle collisions.” Erik Asphaug, “The Small Planets,” <ref> Scientific American, Vol. 282, May 2000, p. 54. cited at: http://www.creationscience.com/onlinebook/ReferencesandNotes46.html</ref>

== References ==
<references/>

{{Solarsystem}}
[[Category:Astronomy]]

Oxbridge

2008-05-03T16:41:18Z

Chappers: corrected links so they now point to the universities rather than the towns

'''Oxbridge''' is a portmanteau word used to describe the [[English]] universites of [[Oxford University|Oxford]] and [[Cambridge University|Cambridge]], and, by extension, the upper class and upper-middle class cultural and political elites educated there. It is used in similar contexts to the American term [[Ivy League]].

[[Category:Universities]]

Libra

2008-05-03T16:33:17Z

Chappers: created page, yay

Libra is a constellation of the zodiac.

The Big Dipper

2008-05-03T16:18:32Z

Chappers: added other name

[[Image:Big_dipper.PNG|thumb|400px|right|map of the Big Dipper]]
'''The Big Dipper''' is an asterism in the [[constellation]] Ursa Major, commonly known as the Great Bear. The Big Dipper is known as the Plough in [[Britain]]

The Big Dipper was also the nickname of [[NBA]] legend Wilt Chamberlain.

[[Category:Astronomy]]

The Big Dipper

2008-05-03T16:17:47Z

Chappers: added info

[[Image:Big_dipper.PNG|thumb|400px|right|map of the Big Dipper]]
'''The Big Dipper''' is an asterism in the [[constellation]] Ursa Major, commonly known as the Great Bear.

The Big Dipper was also the nickname of [[NBA]] legend Wilt Chamberlain.

[[Category:Astronomy]]

The Big Dipper

2008-05-03T16:16:26Z

Chappers: corrected info

[[Image:Big_dipper.PNG|thumb|400px|right|map of the Big Dipper]]
'''The Big Dipper''' is an asterism in the [[constellation]] Ursa Major.

The Big Dipper was also the nickname of [[NBA]] legend Wilt Chamberlain.

[[Category:Astronomy]]

Astronomical object

2008-05-03T16:15:12Z

Chappers: /* Examples */ corrected info and expanded (Dwarf planets)

[[Image:Orange sun large.jpg|right]]
An '''astronomical object''' is a substantial physical entity, association or structure which exists in space.<ref>http://www.spacefuture.com/archive/a_celestial_body_is_a_celestial_body_is_a_celestial_body.shtml</ref> 
 

== Examples ==
*[[Planets]]
**[[Mercury]]
**[[Venus]]
**[[Earth]]
**[[Mars]]
**[[Jupiter]]
**[[Saturn]]
**[[Uranus]]
**[[Neptune]]
*[[Dwarf Planet|Dwarf Planets]]
**[[Ceres]]
**[[Pluto]]
*[[Constellations]]

== See also ==
*[[Space]]
*[[Albert Einstein]]

== External links ==

*[http://www.site.uottawa.ca:4321/astronomy/index.html#celestialbody Celestial Body] University of Ottawa.

==References==
<references/>

{{Solarsystem}}

[[Category:Astronomy]]

Old Norse

2008-05-03T16:05:45Z

Chappers: expanded

'''Old Norse''' was the language spoken in the [[Nordic]] countries and in areas settled by the [[Vikings]] between c. AD 800 and AD 1300. In its written form it is remarkably similar to modern [[Icelandic]]. It survives today in southern areas of [[Greenland]] as a ceremonial language and has similar status to that of [[Latin]] in the Catholic chuch.

[[Category:Languages]]

Boris Johnson

2008-05-03T15:28:47Z

Chappers: update won mayoral election

'''Boris Johnson''' (born New York, 1964) is the [[British]] [[Conservative Party]] [[MP]] for [[Henley on Thames]] and a former editor of the conservative political weekly [[The Spectator]]. In 2008 he was elected to the post of Mayor of [[London]].

==Further Information==
http://www.conservatives.com/tile.do?def=people.person.page&PersonID=4863

[[Category:Politicians]]
[[Category:British Politics]]

Celsius

2008-05-02T13:47:42Z

Chappers: not called degrees kelvin, just kelvin

The '''Celsius''' is used by scientists to measure [[temperature]]. The scale was originally defined such that at standard atmospheric pressure [[water]] freezes at 0 ºC and boils at 100 ºC. To convert from [[Fahrenheit]] to Celsius take the Fahrenheit temperature, subtract 32 then multiply by 5 and divide by 9.

One Celsius degree is equal to one [[Kelvin]], with an offset such that T(°C) = T(K) - 273.15. So Kelvin's [[absolute zero]] (the temperature at which there is no heat) is -273.15 degrees Celsius.

Celsius is the commonly used unit of temperature in Europe and Canada, but in the United States, Fahrenheit is still preferred.

''Centigrade'' is a term commonly used as a synonym of Celsius, especially when giving weather temperature on the air.

See: [[Metric System]]

==External links==
* [http://www.sizes.com/units/temperature_centigrade.htm Why was the centigrade scale abandoned?]

[[Category:Units of Temperature]]

Extraterrestrial life

2008-05-02T13:44:02Z

Chappers: /* Candidates for extraterrestrial life in our Solar System */ typo

'''Extraterrestrial life''' is [[Life science|life]], whether demonstrated, hypothesized, or merely imagined, that did not obviously originate on the [[earth]]. It has been a staple of [[science fiction]] since the [[Edward VII|Edwardian]] era, but has also lately become the subject of intense speculation, scientific debate, and even theological debate.

The term ''life'' is here used in its usual manner to connote living things, regardless of complexity or condition of sentience. However, in [[science fiction]] especially, extraterrestrial life may take unconventional form, such as non-carbon-based life forms or even disembodied intelligence.

The term ''race'' here means a species of sentient individuals (not an ethnographic subdivision of a single species); for example, humans all belong to only one race, the human race.

== Extraterrestrial life as a scientific hypothesis ==
Vigorous scientific research on the subject is fairly limited, and has focused on both the "micro" and "macro" aspects of the problem:

# The [[exogenesis]], nature, survival, and movement of primitive life forms, including the hazard that such microbes might pose to [[astronaut]]s or to the earth itself.
# The possibility of prior or future detection, contact, trade, or war with an extraterrestrial [[civilization]].

=== Microbes and other primitive forms ===
[[Image:PIA09027 a anno br.jpg|400px|right]]

Extraterrestrial microbes have been and remain the subject of much serious scientific speculation. Such speculation has centered on three questions:

# Could a microbe of extraterrestrial origin somehow come to earth and cause a killer [[pandemic]]?<ref>This question of ''back-contamination'' was a serious worry in the middle years of [[Project Apollo]]--that is, the time of the first four missions of that project. [[National Aeronautics and Space Administration|NASA]], the launch authority for Apollo, required the crews of the first three missions actually to reach the [[moon]] to spend weeks in [[quarantine]] while under the constant care and watch of a [[physician]]. Only after three crews landed on the moon and returned to earth with no ill effect and no evidence of having contracted any communicable disease on the moon or in space did NASA drop that requirement. (The crew of [[Apollo 13]] did not face this requirement because their in-flight emergency precluded their planned landing.)</ref>
# Did life on earth begin with the "seeding" of the earth from outside? This theory, called [[panspermia]], alleges that either (a) the earth acquired the seeds of life by passing through the tail of a [[comet]], or (b) an extraterrestrial ''civilization'' sent the seeds of life ''deliberately'' for one reason or another. Extraterrestrial microbes would be involved in either case.
# Might a human crew or human-directed robotic explorer find extraterrestrial microbes on another [[planet]]?

With the continued development and perfection of telescopes, [[Astronomy|astronomers]] and [[rocket]] [[science|scientists]] have openly and often feverishly speculated about whether the other planets in our [[solar system]] might harbor forms of life that originated on those planets. This speculation has also extended to [[Titan]], the largest satellite of the planet [[Saturn]].

The major considerations driving such speculation are the requirements of life, and the difficulty with the theory of [[abiogenesis]] as a workable origin of [[life]] on [[earth]]. Most scientists engaged in such speculation seem to agree that life requires at least two things in order to self-generate in any environment:

# [[Water]]
# An [[atmosphere]]
[[Image:Mars_meteorite.jpg|thumb|150px|[[Meteor]]ite believed to have once been a part of [[Mars]] and to contain [[fossil]] evidence that primitive [[life]] may have existed on Mars.[http://spaceflight.nasa.gov/gallery/images/mars/meteorites/html/s94_032549.html Image source] ]]
Currently the most exciting subject for speculation concerning extraterrestrial life is the planet [[Mars]]. Its atmosphere is quite thin, and this would militate against the presence of life or, more to the point, the presence of standing or flowing water. But photographs taken from orbit and from the surface of Mars reveal erosion channels that strongly suggest that water once flowed on Mars. Indeed, the first graphic above shows changes in a gully in two views of it, taken four years apart--as if liquid water had opened another erosion channel in the meantime. (The operators of the Mars Global Surveyor insist that such pictures might still contain artifacts that make them unsuitable for scientific research, and hence disclaim any definite conclusion that anyone might be tempted to draw from them.) The second graphic shows a [[meteor]]ite, found in [[Antarctica]] in 1984, containing microscopic cavities that once might have held [[microbes]] and that, until recently, was believed to have fallen to earth from Mars.<ref>Donald L. Savage, James Hartsfield, and David Salisbury, "[http://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/snc/nasa1.html Meteorite Yields Evidence of Primitive Life on Early Mars]," ''Mars Meteorite Project'', press release 96-160, August 7, 1996. Retrieved April 17, 2007, from the [[Jet Propulsion Laboratory]] Web servers.</ref>

If one could show that abiogenesis occurred on Mars, then that process was far more likely to have occurred on earth than it would be absent such a showing or finding. Yet apart from the reliability of such evidence is this one inherent weakness for this argument: it assumes that life ''found'' on Mars ''originated'' on Mars. The [[Hydroplate theory]] of the [[Great Flood]] suggests that large quantities of water, including muddy slurries, were ejected into space during the initial fissure of the original earth's crust, and that these ejecta persist today as [[comet]]s, [[asteroid]]s, and [[meteor]]oids. If such ejected water and mud fell to Mars from above, then they might have held [[microbes]]--and therefore any microbes found on Mars are far more likely to have come from earth during the Noachic Flood than to have originated on Mars.<ref>If such life forms survived, that need not be a great shock to any observer. [[Extremophiles]], or microbes known to thrive under conditions that would kill or render dormant any other form of life, are well-known on earth and have even been the subject of engineering studies attempting to find practical uses for them.</ref>

Space scientists have searched for extraterrestrial microbes for years. To date, no definitive proof of such microbes has been found. The Antarctic meteorite mentioned above, and the alleged bacterial fossils on it, fueled speculation for months, until other scientists finally determined that the microbes involved probably were earthly contaminants.<ref>Rick Lockridge, "[http://www.cnn.com/TECH/9801/15/contaminated.rock/ Scientists dispute NASA's claims about Mars meteorite]", ''The Cable News Network'', January 15, 1998. Retrieved April 17, 2007 from CNN's web servers.</ref>

Nevertheless, the finding of extraterrestrial microbes on [[Mars]] is one of the fondest expressed hopes of NASA planetary scientists<ref>Authors unknown, "[http://mars.jpl.nasa.gov/life/ Do Martians Exist?], ''NASA Mars Exploration'', 05 Oct 2005 04:51:40 UTC. Retrieved April 17, 2007, from [[NASA]].</ref> and of other scientists and advocacy groups<ref>Everett Gibson, Jr., David S. McKay, and Kathie Thomas-Kerpta, "[http://www.marssociety.org/portal/TMS_Library/MAR_98_046/view Life on Mars: Evidence from Martian Meteorites]," ''Proceedings of the Founding Convention of the Mars Society'', R. M. Zubrin and M. Zubrin, eds. 1998. Retrieved April 17, 2007, from [http://www.marssociety.org The Mars Society].</ref> hoping to persuade the [[United States]] government, or perhaps the [[United Nations]], to fund crewed expeditions to Mars. Furthermore, no sane space mission planner could in good conscience ignore the potential hazard of the transport of a microbe to earth and the release of that microbe into earth's [[biosphere]]. Happily, measures for containing such a microbe, perhaps derived from those measures taken during [[Project Apollo]], would contribute a relatively insignificant amount to the total budget of a program of crewed missions to Mars or to any other celestial body.

[[Francis Crick]] and [[Leslie Orgel]], in 1973,<ref>Crick, F. H. C., and Orgel, L. E. "Directed Panspermia," ''Icarus'', 19, 341 (1973).</ref> openly speculated on a form of exogenesis called [[Panspermia#Directed panspermia|directed panspermia]], in which such an extraterrestrial nation-state fired a brace of missiles, each laden with [[bacteria]] and/or [[blue-green algae]], in all directions. One such missile crashed on earth, and we are its by-product, as it were, their theory states.<ref>For a detailed discussion on the logical weaknesses and omissions of such a position, see the main article on [[Panspermia]].</ref>

====Candidates for extraterrestrial life in our Solar System====
Besides [[Earth]] there are two moons and one planet that scientists consider possibly habitable to some form of life.
#[[Mars]], as mentioned above, is the most popular candidate. Ice is known to exist at the poles. Some liquid water might exist on Mars because temperatures occasionally rise above freezing.
#The [[Jupiter|Jovian]] moon [[Europa]] is covered with a thick sheet of ice. Scientists speculate that a liquid ocean may exist under the crust and that may harbour life.
#[[Titan]], a moon of [[Saturn]], has approximately the same percentage of [[nitrogen]] in its atmosphere as in Earth's. Titan also has [[ocean]]s and thick clouds. Scientists have determined that the oceans are liquid [[methane]], not water, and that the low temperatures of -178° Celsius make life, at least as we know it, highly improbable.

=== Extraterrestrial Civilizations ===
Do one or more extraterrestrial civilizations exist? Until recently, speculation about extraterrestrial races was confined either to [[science fiction]] or to innumerable anecdotal reports of "[[UFO|unidentified flying objects]]." These latter reports were once the subject of an investigation, known as [[Project Blue Book]], by the [[United States Air Force]].<ref>Anonymous, "[http://www.ufoevidence.org/topics/ProjectBlueBook.htm Project Blue Book]", ''[http://www.ufoevidence.org/ UFO Evidence.org]'', retrieved April 16, 2007</ref><ref>Anonymous, ''[http://www.bluebookarchive.org/ The Project Blue Book Archive]'', retrieved April 16, 2007</ref><ref>Fund for Unidentified Flying Object Research (FUFOR), ''[http://www.nicap.org/index.htm Official Site of the National Investigative Committee for Aerial Phenomena]'', Francis L. Ridge, editor and Webmaster, December 15, 1997 to present. Retrieved April 16, 2007.</ref><ref>Presumably the [[Union of Soviet Socialist Republics|Soviet]] Army Air Forces had their own version of Blue Book as well.</ref> But years after Blue Book wound down, a large cadre of scientists began to entertain seriously the notion that extraterrestrial civilizations might exist.

SETI ('''S'''earch for '''E'''xtra'''t'''errestrial '''I'''ntelligence)<ref>[http://www.seti.org/site/pp.asp?c=ktJ2J9MMIsE&b=178025 Home of the SETI Institute]</ref> is the name given to several government and privately-funded projects that over the years have searched for evidence of extraterrestrial civilizations. This is done by listening via [[radiotelescope]] on a defined frequency band for any transmission having any semblance of order. The frequency band is one that, they believe, is the likeliest region in the [[electromagnetic spectrum]] for anyone to be sending a signal intended to cross interstellar, or even intergalactic, space.

No definitive evidence exists for any form of extraterrestrial civilization. While the [[Project Blue Book]] investigators found a number of cases that they had to classify as "unknown," they were able to classify the bulk of the anecdotes as anything from outright hoaxes to misinterpretations of common weather features to misinterpretation of the sightings of ordinary aircraft.<ref>The Air Force might also have acted in a deceptive manner in certain isolated cases in which what the witnesses took for [[UFO]]s were actually secret experimental prototypes. Perhaps some of these prototypes exist today as the [[B-2]], [[F-117]], and other [[Stealth aircraft]].</ref> Neither has any [[Astronomy|astronomer]] or [[astronaut]] reported a definite sighting of, much less contact with, any carrier-like vessel that would have been capable of launching any of the alleged two-seater or similar small-crewed craft that various "witnesses" report having encountered. Nor has any [[physics|physicist]] yet suggested a method by which such a craft could have visited our [[solar system]], given the fixed speed limit set by the [[Special Theory of Relativity]]. Finally, the SETI project, for all their searching for a signal (even to recruiting civilians to participate in a "distributed computing" project to process the noise they have received from their radiotelescopes), have never isolated anything like a definite signal.

====The Drake Equation====
In 1961, astronomer Frank Drake developed a method for estimating of the number of extraterrestrial civilizations in the galaxy. The Drake Equation simply begins with the number of stars, then multiplies that number by a series of probabilities (probability that a star has planets, that a planet can support life, etc.) to obtain the quantity desired (number of populated planets, number of civilizations whose existence is detectable, etc.).

In principle, the Drake Equation can provide an upper and lower bound for the number of extraterrestrial civilizations by setting upper and lower bounds for each probability factor, which can then be improved upon as better information becomes available. Because the number of stars in so huge, even the lower bound is often calculated to be a respectable number. However, a serious problem is that some of the probabilities are completely unknown, or even unknowable. For example, the probability of life emerging on a planet is a meaningless concept if life is created directly by God and not by some naturalistic process.

If any of the probabilities appearing in the equation is zero, then the number of extraterrestrial civilizations of course goes to zero. This is a serious problem if one relies only on naturalistic explanations of the genesis of life. One of the most well-accepted scientific laws, the [[law of biogenesis]], says that life only comes from life, which means that it cannot come from non-life. Furthermore, scientific observations are that evolution itself is impossible, as evolution requires ''increasing'' genetic [[information]], whereas observations show that living things ''lose'' genetic information.<ref>Wieland, Carl, [http://www.creationontheweb.com/content/view/431/ The evolution train’s a-comin’], ''Creation'' 24(2):16–19, March 2002.</ref>

== Extraterrestrial Life in Science Fiction ==
Extraterrestrial nation-states and, almost as often, extraterrestrial microbes, have been a staple of [[science fiction]] since soon after science-fiction writers first began speculating on what sort of inventions might carry men into outer space, and what they might discover there. [[H. G. Wells]] even speculated on an extraterrestrial civilization on the [[moon]], populated by man-sized insects (''The First Men in the Moon''). Wells also speculated that the Martian nation-state would launch an invasion of earth (''The War of the Worlds''), an invasion that would fail when the Martian soldiers and pilots fell terminally ill with earthly microbes against which their immune systems would have no defense. [[Edgar Rice Burroughs]] indulged in far richer speculation on an entire civilization on Mars, and on semi-regular commerce between his Martians and a select few visitors from earth.

The middle twentieth century saw the introduction of a number of popular-culture icons that were either:
# Humans caught up in events on other, inhabited worlds, some of which were making war against the earth, or
# An extraterrestrial "refugee" that became an obvious [[God-substitute]] after, [[Moses]]-like, he crashed to earth in a small space capsule launched from a world that later destroyed itself in a cataclysm far more devastating than the [[Great Flood]] had been.

In addition to this, the [[motion picture]] industry, especially in the [[United States]] but also in [[United Kingdom|Great Britain]], produced scores of low-budget films having a theme involving an extraterrestrial nation-state attempting either:

# To recruit humans, usually by fraudulent means, into assisting them in weapons or defensive-systems development,
# To subvert human society and/or the international community by infiltration or by playing some individual humans or human nation-states against others, or:
# To invade the earth by main force.

The motion picture industry abandoned that theme as the century progressed, and produced a number of films showing extraterrestrials to be friendly. Toward the very end of the century, the theme of extraterrestrial invasion returned, in the form of a number of high-budget films that linked the basic theme to a number of modern-day legends, including:

# The alleged crash of an extraterrestrial scout craft near [[Roswell]], [[New Mexico]], [[United States]].
# The synthetic religion, called [[Scientology]], developed by the late [[L. Ron Hubbard]]. This movement informed many of Hubbard's works, including [[Battlefield Earth]] (which the actor [[John Travolta]], an adherent of Scientology, has lately adapted for the [[motion picture]]s), and [[Mission Earth]], a ten-volume series completed shortly before Hubbard's death and published posthumously.

The [[Star Trek]] [[television]] franchise that [[Gene Roddenberry]] created, with its myriad of extraterrestrial and often trans-galactic nation-states and empires hardly needs introduction. But in addition, producer [[Quinn Martin]] created a series that centered on one man's attempt to warn his government that certain people were not what they appeared, but were instead extraterrestrial spies. More recently, [[Kenneth Johnston]] created a concept (''V'') of a space-borne force whose commanding admiral and officers at first puts on a friendly appearance similar to that of [[Matthew Perry]] (the American [[commodore]] who first visited [[Japan]]) but, soon afterward, subvert human governmental and media institutions in order to further their true purpose, which is to steal earth's water and carry away earth's population for food.

Nor have science fiction writers ignored speculation on the finding of extraterrestrial microbes. Usually they have portrayed such microbes as capable of producing deadly extinction-level pandemics. (See, for example, ''The Andromeda Strain'' by Michael Crichton.) John B. Olson and Randall S. Ingermanson, however, speculated that the first crew to fly to Mars might discover incontrovertible evidence of microbial life--including a culturable microbe. This would engender excitement in the hearts of their launch authorites, but would also inspire such fear in the mind of a [[National Aeronautics and Space Administration|NASA]] engineer that she would actually attempt to strand or murder the crew to stop them from [[back-contamination|back-contaminating]] the earth with their culture.

== Christian Views on Extraterrestrial Life ==
The question of whether the existence of an extraterrestrial race is compatible with the [[Bible]] is in sharp dispute. The dispute is probably of modern origin--the Catholic Church never issued any formal pronouncement on the question of alien life, and most Protestant confessions are silent on the matter. Those insisting that the Bible is entirely compatible with extraterrestrial races hold that the Bible contains no verse that says directly that man is the only sentient race in the universe.

===John 10:16 ===
Compatability advocates quote this verse:{{Bible quote|I have other sheep, which are not of this fold; I must bring them also, and they will hear My voice; and they will become one flock with one shepherd.|book=John|chap=10|verses=16|version=NASB}}

Critics of this position point out that that verse probably referred to the distinction between [[Judaism|Jew]] and Gentile, and reject the proposition that "other sheep" might include extraterrestrial races.

===Uniqueness of the Atonement===
Opponents hold that the presence of such a race would give the lie to the claim of [[Jesus|Jesus Christ]] that He came to take away the sin of the world.<ref>{{Bible ref|book=I_John|chap=2|verses=2|version=NASB}}</ref>, and that He died once and only once to bring this about. They contend that since Jesus is referred to singly (as he was an individual person), this rules out the possibility of an alien counterpart to Jesus, and that an alien counterpart to Jesus is a necessary precondition for an alien nation to exist.<ref>{{Bible ref|book=Genesis|chap=1|verses=26-28|version=NASB}}</ref><ref>{{Bible ref|book=Romans|chap=5|verses=14|version=NASB}}</ref>--and that Kingdom is also not of this universe, or "cosmos".

Defenders of the compatibility position might insist that neither of the two verses named above speaks directly to the uniqueness claim. But the original [[Hebrew]] and [[Greek]] texts use definite article adjectives and references to a specific person named [[Adam]] (and another, named [[Jesus]]), with no hint that either Adam or Jesus had any counterpart elsewhere in the cosmos. These things militate in favor of uniqueness almost as well as any direct negation of plurality might. Again, compatibility defenders might cite a lack of evidence that any hypothetical alien race would ''require'' counterparts to Jesus or Adam. But [[Christian]] critics reply that if the Bible is real at all, then life does not arise out of non-life. Therefore ''every'' race would have its Adam--and if any given Adam did ''not'' fall into sin, then his race would be under strict Divine orders to avoid contact with humans until the "hour of temptation" (see above) came to pass.<ref>For a further exposition of the uniqueness position, see [[Essay: Extraterrestrial Life and the Bible]].</ref>

The speculation concerning Jesus dying multiple deaths on other worlds has occasionally found poetic expression. See, for example, [[The Innumerable Christ]] by [[Hugh McDiarmid]].

=== Extent of the Creation ===
The presence of extraterrestrial ''microbes'' on one or more of the other planets in our solar system (most likely Mars) does excite some fear in Christian quarters. But not all Christians harbor such fear, and even [[Young earth creationism|young earth creationists]] are quite confident that they could explain such a finding. For example, if the [[hydroplate theory]] is correct and a slurry of mud from the Great Flood traveled to Mars and poured itself out upon it, then such a slurry would almost certainly contain microbes. That some of these might be extremophiles, and thus capable of long-term survival even in such a harsh environment as that of Mars, is entirely possible and would allow complete harmony between the finding of microbes in such locations and the Biblical account of earth pre-history.

==Non-Christian Views on Extraterrestrial Life==
Outside of the Christian faith, other religions, as well as movements exhibiting characteristics common to [[pagan]] religions, have adopted or expressed tenets dealing with extraterrestrial life:

#'''Church of [[Scientology]]''' founder [[L. Ron Hubbard]] has lectured on and written accounts of complex extraterrestrial civilizations and alien interventions in earthly events.
#The '''[[Raelians]]''' believe that their minds are the once-disembodied souls of extraterrestrial persons (and therefore believe that their minds are extraterrestrial in origin though their bodies are not).
#The '''[[Hale-Bopp movement]]''', whose members committed mass suicide in the season of the close passage near the earth of [[Comet Hale-Bopp]], believed they would be taken away by an alien craft concealed in the comet's tail.
#The '''[[UFO]] movement''', which exists as a loose alliance of organizations often having the initials "UFO" (for Unidentified Flying Object) in their names, ''viz.'', "Mutual UFO Network", "Center for UFO Studies," "Fund for UFO Research", express various beliefs concerning the extrterrestrial nature of unidentified flying objects.
#The '''[[Nation of Islam]]''', especially when it came under the leadership of [[Louis Farrakhan]], expressed a belief that the original founder of the Nation of Islam lives today in an extraterrestrial spacecraft called the "Mother Wheel," and that Farrakhan himself has been taken on board that vessel for consultations with this person.<ref>Farrakhan seems recently to have abandoned this theory and attempted to steer the movement he now leads toward the orthodox [[Islam]] taught by [[Muhammad]].</ref>

== Explanations given for UFO sightings and belief ==
Lynn Cato, senior bibliographer for the library of Congress, created a 1600 entry on [[UFO]] bibliography for the [[United States Air Force]] Office of Scientific Research. After a two year investigation, in which she reviewed thousands of documents, Catoe stated:<ref name=Reason>Authors unknown. "[http://www.letusreason.org/NAM25.htm A UFO 2nd Coming]." Let Us Reason Ministries, 2007. Retrieved November 3, 2007.</ref><ref name=Gleghorn>Gleghorn, Michael. "[http://www.probe.org/cults-and-world-religions/cults-and-world-religions/ufos-and-alien-beings.html UFO's and Alien Beings]." Probe Ministries. Retrieved November 3, 2007.</ref> {{Cquote|A large part of the available UFO literature...deals with subjects like mental telepathy, automatic writing and invisible entities...poltergeist manifestations and 'possession'....Many of the UFO reports now being published in the popular press recount alleged incidents that are strikingly similar to [[demonic possession]] and [[psychic phenomenon]] which have long been known to [[Theology|theologians]] and [[Paraphschology|parapsychologists]].}}

Prominent UFO researcher [[John Keel]] concurred. After surveying the literature on [[demonology]] Keel stated,<ref name=Gleghorn/>{{Cquote|The manifestations and occurrences described in this imposing literature are similar if not entirely identical to the UFO phenomenon itself.}}

[[Astronomy|Astronomer]] Dr. [[Hugh Ross]] states that ninety-nine percent of what people have told him were UFOs, experienced astronomers can identify as a [[star]], cluster, or other object in the night sky. The 1 percent of sightings, which he calls residual UFOs, have attracted his attention. <ref name=Blade>Tarjanyi, Judy. "[http://www.toledoblade.com/apps/pbcs.dll/artikkel?SearchID=73122266402007&Avis=TO&Dato=20030104&Kategori=NEWS10&Lopenr=101040052&Ref=AR Astronomer links UFOs to Occultism]." ''The Toledo Blade'', January 4, 2003. Retrieved November 3, 2007.</ref> According to Dr. Ross very few astronomers have seen residual UFOs.<ref name=Blade/>

The following newspaper excerpt<ref name=Blade/> summarizes Dr. Ross's findings:

{{cquote|In 1969, however, Dr. Ross met two astronomers who were having regular UFO encounters. Both also happened to be involved in occult activity.

Upon investigation, Dr. Ross consistently found a connection between occult involvement and residual UFO encounters. For example, he said, countries with a high degree of occult activity such as Russia during the Soviet era, France, and certain parts of Brazil also had high percentages of UFO encounters. During Russia?s Soviet period when every expression of religion except occult activity had been outlawed, he said, “Russians were seeing UFOs at five to eight times the rate Americans were.}}

[[Christian]]s who reject naturalistic explanations of life such as the [[theory of evolution]] have presented arguments in the field of [[Christian apologetics]] regarding UFO's being spiritual in nature and not amenable to naturalistic explanation.<ref name=Gleghorn/><ref name=Reason/><ref name=Bohlin>Bohlin, Ray. "[http://www.leaderu.com/orgs/probe/docs/lifemars.html Are We Alone in the Universe?]" Leadership University, July 14, 2002. Retrieved November 3, 2007.</ref><ref name=CMI>Authors unknown. "[http://www.creationontheweb.com/content/view/2995/ Alien Life/UFO Questions and Answers]." Creation Ministries International. Retrieved November 3, 2007.</ref><ref name=AiG>Authors unknown. "[http://www.answersingenesis.org/home/area/faq/alien.asp Alien Life/UFO Questions and Answers]." Answers in Genesis. Retrieved November 3, 2007.</ref>

== Political speculation on ET's and UFO's ==
Politicians (among them, former [[President of the United States]] [[Jimmy Carter]]) have openly speculated on the existence of extraterrestrial nation-states.<ref>Carter claims to have witnessed an unidentified flying object in 1969; he remains the only U.S. President to have formally reported a [[UFO]]. He filed a report with the International UFO Bureau in [[Oklahoma City]] after a request from that organization.[http://www.presidentialufo.com/carter_ufo_report.htm] See [[Jimmy Carter]].</ref> More recently, [[United States House of Representatives|US Representative]] and Presidential candidate [[Dennis Kucinich]] [[Democratic Party|D]]-[[Ohio|OH]]) was asked in a primary debate whether he had, as earlier alleged, seen a UFO--and answered in the affirmative.<ref name=Kucinich>User "nikbaron". [http://youtube.com/watch?v=gSRWRbuMqyc Representative Dennis Kucinich UFO]." ''<http://youtube.com>,'' posted October 31, 2007. Retrieved November 17, 2007.</ref><ref name=Feagler>Feagler, Dick. "[http://www.cleveland.com/plaindealer/stories/index.ssf?/base/opinion-0/1193474407233790.xml&coll=2&thispage=1 So Dennis Kucinich saw a UFO; what's the big deal]?" ''The Plain Dealer'' (Cleveland), October 28, 2007. Retrieved November 17, 2007.</ref>

For further details, see the article on [[Exotheology]].

== References ==
{{reflist|2}}

== See Also ==
*[[Essay: Extraterrestrial Life and the Bible]]
*[[Exotheology]]

[[Category:Astronomy]]
[[Category:Biology]]

Drinking

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Chappers: /* See also */ added teetotalism

'''Drinking''' literally refers to the imbibing of any liquid into the body, but in modern vernacular has come to be associated with the imbibing of [[alcohol]]. The [[Bible]] speaks out against becoming [[drunk]]. There are varying opinions on the acceptability of drinking in general among various religious denominations as long as drunkenness does not occur.

In the United States there are laws against under-aged drinking which vary from state to state. There are also laws against [[drinking and driving]] with each state having different rules on how much alcohol can be in the bloodstream and still be acceptable for operating a vehicle. The penalties for drunk driving also vary from state to state.

== See also ==

*[[American Medical Association]]
*[[Doctor]]
*[[Alcoholism]]
*[[Teetotalism]]
[[Category:Health]]

Teetotalism

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Chappers: Created teetotal page

Teetotalism is the practice of abstinence from alcohol. Anyone who practices teetotalism is called a teetotaler.

Surrealism

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Chappers: /* Famous Surrealists */ grammar incorrect case, should be whom as is subject of sentence.

'''Surrealism''' was an artistic movement consisting of dreamlike paintings. It was based on [[Sigmund Freud|Freudian]] philosophies of dream analysis.

== Famous Surrealists ==

[[Image:Dali-Memory.jpg|300px|thumb|''The Persistence Of Memory'' by [[Salvador Dali]].]]

Possibly the most famous surrealist artist was [[Salvador Dali]], who is credited with the surrealist painting ''The Persistence Of Memory''. Other famous surrealists were [[Ernst|Max Ernst]] and [[Magritte|René Magritte]].

== See also ==

*[[Painting Schools]]
*[[Painting Masterpieces]]

[[Category:Artistic Movements]]

Liberal Democrats

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Chappers: /* Policies */ typo

The '''Liberal Democrats''', often known as the "'''Lib Dems'''", are a political party in the [[United Kingdom]]. They have traditionally occupied the center of the political spectrum, between the [[Labour Party]] on the left and the [[Conservative Party]] on the right ("liberal" in British political parlance means "centrist" or "moderate" rather than "left-wing", as it does in the United States). At the present time, the party is seen as being moderately left-leaning.

The Liberal Democrats' current leader is [[Nick Clegg]].<ref>http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/programmes/politics_show/7148179.stm Clegg nicks it</ref>

The Liberal Democrats were formed in 1988 by a merger between the centrist [[Liberal Party]] and the moderately left-wing [[Social Democratic Party]], which had split off from the Labour Party in the early 1980s when the latter became too strongly socialist. The Liberal Party was one of the oldest political parties in the world, tracing its roots back to the [[Whigs]] of the era of [[William of Orange]].

== History ==
Since its foundation, the party has steadily increased its presence in the [[House of Commons]] at each successive election. The party won 62 seats in the 2005 general election<ref>http://news.bbc.co.uk/nol/ukfs_news/hi/uk_politics/vote_2005/ Election 2005</ref> - the most that the party or its predecessors had won since the election of 1923.

== Policies ==
Their policies can be broadly described as social-democratic, with a libertarian bent - they have mooted the idea of decriminalizing recreational drugs, whilst arguing for a rationalization of the currently confused status of the various components of the [[United Kingdom]].

They support laws against discrimination based on race, gender, disability, religion and sexuality.<ref>http://www.libdems.org.uk/media/documents/policies/11CivilLiberties.pdf Protecting Civil Liberties</ref> The party traditionally advocated higher spending funded from higher taxes, but from 2007 onwards have advocated replacing or cutting some taxes, particularly Council Tax, which takes a higher proportion from the poor than the rich.<ref>http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/3130988.stm Lib Dems vote to axe council tax</ref> They opposed the [[Iraq War]], but were in favour of the Bosnian and Kosovo wars. They are the most pro-European Union party in [[British politics]], and support an amnesty for illegal migrants that have lived in the UK for a decade without a criminal record.<ref>http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=/news/2007/09/18/nlibdem718.xml Lib Dems want amnesty for illegal immigrants</ref> Lib Dems, like all other parties in the UK, want the UK and the EU to take the lead in combating [[Global Warming]]. The Lib Dems want to stop global temperatures rising more than 2 degrees Celsius above the 1990 average, by making the UK a zero-carbon economy by 2050, and having more efficient buildings and transport.<ref>http://www.guardian.co.uk/politics/2007/aug/29/uk.greenpolitics Lib Dems see zero-carbon Britain setting the global green agenda</ref>

The most realistic chance of power for the party is to be part of a coalition government in a hung parliament, and they always state their terms for such an event at General elections. This has always included introducing [[proportional representation]] for elections, and their terms for the 2009/10 election include: to reform government by capping private donations, reducing the number of MPs, having a 100% elected [[House of Lords]] (it is currently made of bishops and party appointees), and having a written [[constitution]] and a [[Bill of Rights]].<ref>http://www.guardian.co.uk/politics/2008/mar/10/liberaldemocrats.nickclegg Clegg's terms for deal in hung parliament</ref>

==References==
<references/>

[[category:British Political Parties]]

Hosea (prophet)

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Chappers: corrected spelling of Isaiah

'''Hosea''' ([[Hebrew]]: '''הוֹשֵׁעַ''' ''Hoshea'' "Salvation/deliverance is the Lord") was a Hebrew [[prophet]] and author of the [[Bible|Biblical]] [[Hosea (Biblical book)|Book of Hosea]]. He is identified only as the "son of Beeri." Hosea served as the Lord's prophet during the reigns of King Uzzia, Jotham, Ahaz and Hezekiah of [[Judah]] and Jereboam II of [[Israel]] in the late 9th and early 8th centuries B.C. Prophets of the same period include Amos, [[Isaiah]] and Micah.

Hosea was almost certainly a subject of the ten-tribe northern kingdom of Israel, as this is the principal focus of his declarations: while there are 40 references to Israel, 37 to [[Ephraim]] (Israel's dominant tribe) and 6 to [[Samaria]] (capital of the northern kingdom), Judah has only 15, and [[Jerusalem]] none. Paradoxically, Hosea treats the kings of Judah with primary importance, writing of all four who reigned during his ministry, while mentioning only the king who ruled Israel at the beginning of his work. However, some scholars view this as an indication that Hosea, in common with many other prophets, regarded only the Judean kings of [[King David|David's]] line as the rightful kings over the chosen people.

The listing of the kings has also enabled accurate dating of Hosea's ministry.

[[Category:Biblical Persons]]