Conservapedia - User contributions [en]

Witchhunt

2007-12-14T05:11:09Z

Chipmonker: spelling

'''A witchhunt''' refers to methodology for identifying and accusing criminals then further exposing the conspiracy surrounding the presumed criminal activities of the criminals' web of friends and relations. This method of investigation is now virtually discredited. Today, the term ''witchhunt'' is most often used as an accusation against overly zealous prosecutorial procedures.

The term actually describes the investigative procedures used during witchunts of the [[Middle Ages]], during a time when investigators were earnestly hunting for witches. At the time it was believed that witches were blasphemers who worshiped Satan or other occult figures. It was further believe that through their occult practices witches brought hardship to the community at large and endangered the immortal souls of unwary Christians. The crime of [[witchcraft]] was punishable by death by fire. It was presumed at the time that witches were highly motivated to hide their true nature (not because of the penalty of the crime but because of the evilness of their practices). Therefore, certain investigators or inquisitors, often acting under the authority of the church, would investigate and prosecute this crime when a web of witches was suspected.

An investigation would usually start after the identification of a problem which the community believed might have been caused by witchcraft. For example, a disappointing crop, a cow that did not give milk or a barren female were all prime causes for suspicion. The investigator had little to go on when trying to connect a cow to a witch, but he would often begin by questioning anyone who might know of any witches. If a member of the community or a child suspected witchcraft in a particular individual that individual would immediately be apprehended. Through a mixture of coercion and torture the witchhunter would not only extract a confession from the detainee, but also the names of associates who were allegedly similarly involved in blasphemous acts. In this way, the inquisitor could start with the flimsiest of evidence and through this "investigative process" identify a conspiratorial web of witches and blasphemers. <ref>http://www.salemweb.com/guide/witches.shtml</ref><ref>http://www.salemwitchtrials.org/</ref><ref>http://www.thenazareneway.com/dark_side_of_christian_history.htm</ref>

Modern witchhunts usually describe a situation where a prosecutor or special prosecutor begins deposing targets to uncover a web of defendants. Rather than investigating a specific occurrence of a crime, a witchhunt focuses on individuals, presumably suspects. Rarely such investigations are used to bring down real, but elusive criminals, such as [[Al Capone]]. <ref>http://www.fbi.gov/libref/historic/famcases/capone/capone.htm</ref> More often witchhunts are political weapons which hope to ensnare victims in trumped-up perjury charges or perhaps trick victims into revealing crimes involving friends or relations.

==See Also==
* [[witch]]
* [[witch trial]]
* [[witchcraft]]

==References==
<references/>

[[category:political terms]]

United States presidential election, 1992

2007-12-14T05:06:09Z

Chipmonker: spelling

In the 1992 presidential election, President [[George H.W. Bush]] stood for reelection. He had received strong support for the way he had handled foreign relations during his term in office, but the economy was slumped due to [[inflation]]. Bush had the confidence of the [[Republican]] party, which nominated him for reelection. The [[Democrats]] nominated young Arkansas Governor, [[Bill Clinton]], as their candidate. A wealthy oil-businessman named [[H. Ross Perot]] also ran as an independent. The candidates conducted a firm and long campaign and appeared in several live televised [[Presidential Debates]]. Clinton won the election with a [[plurality]].

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Candidates
! Popular vote
! Percent
! Electoral vote
|-
| Bill Clinton
| 43, 728, 375
| 43.0%
| 370
|-
| George H.W. Bush
| 38, 167, 416
| 37.4%
| 168
|-
| H. Ross Perot
| 19, 237, 247
| 18.9%
| 0
|}
<ref> [[A Pictoral History of the U.S. Presidents]], by Clare Gibson, Gramercy Books, 2001, p. 127. </ref>

==References==
<references/>

{{DEFAULTSORT:1992, United States presidential election,}}
[[Category: United States presidential elections]]

Operating system

2007-12-14T05:05:56Z

Chipmonker: spelling

An '''operating system''' is a set of basic instructions that allow [[computer]]s to perform basic tasks for people. It is responsible for displaying the graphics on screen and outputting sound to the speakers, controlling input from the mouse and keyboard, allowing [[hardware]] to work properly, interfacing with other computers on a [[network]], and storing and retrieving data. The most common operating systems today are [[Microsoft Windows]], [[Apple Computers|Apple]] [[OS X]], and [[Linux]]/[[BSD]].

== Structure ==
An operating system is defined into two basic parts:
* The '''[[BIOS]]''', which handles all hardware related things. Often a computer has a BIOS integrated within its hardware, though some operating systems such as [[Linux]] are independent of this BIOS.
* The '''[[Kernel]]''', which handles all software related things and acts as a interpreter between applications and the BIOS.

== Sources ==
*[http://computer.howstuffworks.com/operating-system.htm Howstuffworks article on Operating Systems]

[[Category:Technology]]

Fruit of the poisonous tree

2007-12-14T05:05:40Z

Chipmonker: spelling

'''Fruit of the poisonous tree''' is a legal term in the United States that allows evidence that is obtained illegally (often unconstitutionally), as well as subsequent evidence legally obtained if said evidence was only made available via the illegally obtained evidence, to be ruled inadmissible in a court of law. It is also called the exclusionary rule. In the United States, defendants may make a motion to suppress such evidence, which means that the defendant is asking the trial judge to rule such evidence inadmissable during his or her trial.

For example, if a suspect has a confession beat out of him, and during the course of that confession, details to authorities to the location of a victim's body, and the authorities obtain a search warrant and recover the body, neither the confession nor the body can be used against the suspect in criminal proceedings.

== Exceptions ==
Evidence may not be suppressed under the fruit of the poisonous tree doctrine if:
#It was discovered through an untainted and independent source.
#It would have eventually been discovered through untainted sources.
== Origins ==
The fruit of the poisonous tree doctrine is related to the exclusionary rule, which finds its origins in [[Weeks v. United States|Weeks v. United States 232 U.S. 383 (1914)]], a case argued before the Supreme Court on December 2-3, 1913, and ultimately, the Bill of Rights. In Weeks v. United States, Justice William R. Day overturned Weeks's conviction because the evidence used against him at trial was obtained in violation of the [[Fourth Amendment]], and ruled that the illegally obtained evidence could not be used against Weeks.

== Criticisms ==

The exclusionary rule came about as a remedy for violations of suspects constitutional rights. However, some argue that it is ridiculous that a crimminal go free "because the constable blundered." While other remedies are conceivable, such as holding both the constable and the suspect accountable for their own actions and violations, in the United States, the exclusionary rule remains judicial precedent.

== See also ==
* [[Weeks v. United States|Weeks v. United States 232 U.S. 383 (1914)]] Created Exclusionary rule at federal level
* [http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/cgi-bin/getcase.pl?court=us&vol=367&invol=643 MAPP v. OHIO, 367 U.S. 643 (1961)] Applied exclusionary rule to states
* [[Bivens v. Six Unknown Named Agents]]

[[Category: Law]]
[[Category:legal terms]]

Buddhism

2007-12-14T05:05:20Z

Chipmonker: spelling and their to there

[[Image:China B.jpg|right]]
'''Buddhism''' is the fifth largest religion in the world. It is a belief system which teaches that desire causes suffering and if desire is eliminated, enlightenment and [[Nirvana]] are attained. Buddhism is a [[Dharmic religion]]. The term Buddha means "the enlightened one."

==Founder==

Buddhism's foundations lie with an [[India|Indian]] prince, [[Siddhartha Gautama]], who, after being sheltered until adulthood, finally observed the suffering of his people. After that he worked to discover the reason for suffering and pain. He studied a number of the disciplines of the day, seeking ultimate truth. After finding other approaches to understanding lacking, he went into meditation for 49 days, vowing not to move until he had attained enlightenment. After great personal struggle he achieved enlightenment, and began to teach the principles that are now associated with Buddhism.

The philosophy has its roots in [[Hinduism]] and Vedic religion, to which Gautama belonged until the foundation of Buddhism.

==View of God==

Buddhist scriptures acknowledge that gods exist, but does not consider that knowledge crucial to an individual's practice of Buddhist teachings. The Buddha taught that we should not speculate about what we cannot know, and that speculation about [[God]] is pointless. Buddhists' priorities are release from suffering and direct experience of the true nature of reality. Many modern strains of Buddhism are [[atheist|atheistic]] in nature, thus creating a paradox as to why they are called a religion. They can be considered to be philosophies of life. Certain denominations, such as the Mahayana tradition, believe in [[Bodhisattvas]], or quasi-divine cosmic beings that seek to benefit others by remaining in a state of [[Samsara]], or eternal rebirth. These are prayed to, for advice and spiritual guidance, and often venerated.

==Teachings==

The highest ideal for a Buddhist is the state of Nirvana, or release from eternal rebirth, a state beyond conceptual thought described by the Buddha as follows:
<blockquote>''"There is O monks, an Unborn, Unoriginated, Uncreated, Unformed. Were there not, o monks, this Unborn, Unoriginated, Uncreated, Unformed, there would be no escape from the world of the born, originated, created, formed. ~ Udana, 80-81"''</blockquote>

Buddhism is a very practical [[philosophy]], which teaches us to focus our attention on personal experience, to determine what is the cause of our discontents ("dukkha") and to find a way to liberate ourselves from these, all the while expressing "metta", which is universal, unconditional love, and "karuna", which roughly translates to "compassion", towards others. These teachings are encapsulated in the "Four Noble Truths".<ref>[http://www.parami.org/buddhistanswers/four_noble_truths.htm Four Noble Truths]</ref>

Buddhism is commonly held to be a relatively peaceful Religion, due to it's relative lack of a leader for the entire faith(as opposed to individual states), as well as a less "absolutist" view of morality, that encouraged not just acceptance of other faiths and ideas, but examination of the said ideas and, if necessary, application to ones life. This also allows people to follow Buddhism as a philosophy, and Islam, Judaism or Christianity as a faith, without contradicting any principles of either following. It is worth noting, however, that it is impossible for one to follow Buddhism as a faith, and Christianity, Islam or most other religions as a philosophy. Although Buddhism does not forbid this, most religions are not structured to allow such a compromise.<ref>http://buddhism.about.com/</ref>

However the ideals of tolerance and introspection among the Buddhist faithful were often ignored by the leaders of the a Buddhist nation(much like the leaders of most other nation softened disobeyed their own religions fundamental laws in the in the interest of what was practical). <ref>http://buddhism.about.com/</ref>

==Buddhism Today==

Buddhism is currently the majority religion in the following states:

Country Percent

Thailand 95%

Cambodia 90

Myanmar 88

Bhutan 75

Sri Lanka 70

Tibet * 65

Laos 60

Vietnam 55

Japan ** 50

* [[China]]: Buddhism is most widely practiced, with an estimated 100 million adherents.

* Tibet is an estimate, as there has never been a reliable survey. Furthermore, it is debatable whether Tibet should be considered an independent nation.

** [[Japan]] is an "odd" case, as surveys of adherence are conducted rather differently. Firstly it is debatable at what point various Japanese beliefs shift from being traditions to being religions. This is indicated by the fact that "85% of Japanese claim Buddhism as their preffered religion", yet "75% percent claim to practice and believe in no religion" -a more accurate estimate may be 20%.
<ref>[http://www.adherents.com/largecom/com_buddhist.html The Largest Buddhist Communities]</ref>

==See Also==

*[[Upanishads]]

==References==

<References/>

[[Category:Buddhism]]

Hamilton Alexander Rosskeen Gibb

2007-12-14T05:02:57Z

Chipmonker: spelling

Sir ''' H. A. R. (Hamilton Alexander Rosskeen) Gibb,''' 1895-1971 b. 2 January 1895 Alexandria Egypt, returned to Scotland for education at the age of 5 after the death of his father. Studies at the [[University of Edinburgh]] were interrupted by the [[World War I]] during which he served in France and Italy in the [[Royal Regiment of Artillery|Royal Field Artillery]]. Awarded a 'war privilege' MA. After the war he studied Arabic at the School of Oriental Studies of London University and obtained MA in 1922. Married Helen Jessie (Ella) same year, one son one daughter.

From 1921 to 1937 Gibb taught Arabic at the School of Oriental Studies and received professorship in 1930. Became an editor of the [[Encyclopedia of Islam]] in this period. In 1937 Gibb succeeded [[D. S. Margoliouth]] as laudian professor of Arabic at [[St. John's College]] at [[Oxford]], and remained there for 18 years. Gibb's ''Mohammedanism'', published in 1949, became the basic text used by western students of Islam for a generation.

1955 Gibb assumed the James Richard Jewett professor of Arabic at [[Harvard]] and also 'university professor', a rare title given to a few scholars 'working on the frontiers of knowledge, and in such a way as to cross the conventional boundaries of the specialties.' Became director of Harvard's Center For Middle Eastern Studies, and in this capacity he became a leader of the movement in American universities to set up centres of regional studies, bringing together teachers, researchers and students in different disciplines to study the culture and society of a region of the world.

=Books by H.A.R. Gibb=

* ''Arabic Literature'' (1926)

* ''Ibn Batuta, 1304-1377''. (Tuhfat al-nuzzar fi ghara'ib al-amsar. English) (1929)

* ''Travels in Asia and Africa, 1325-1354'', translated and selected with an introduction and notes, R. M. McBride & Company (1929)

* ''Modern Trends in Islam'' (1947)

* ''Mohammedanism, An Historical Survey'' (1949)

* ''Islamic Society and the West'' with Harold Brown (pt. 1 1950, pt. 2 1957)

* Editor, ''The Encyclopaedia of Islam''. New ed. Prepared by a number of leading Orientalists. under the patronage of the International Union of Academies. Leiden, Brill, 1954-, along with Edited by J. H. Kramers, and E. Levi-Provençal

* [http://nobsnews.blogspot.com/1993/10/geneses-of-civilizations.html#gibb ''Note by Professor H. A. R. Gibb''], from Arnold J. Toynbee, ''[[A Study of History]]'', Part I. ''C'' I (''b'') ''Annex I'', p. 400-02. (1939)

=Sources=

*''Oxford Dictionary of National Biography'', Oxford University Press (2004)

{{DEFAULTSORT: Gibb, Hamilton Alexander Rosskeen}}
[[Category:biographies]]

Dov Zakheim

2007-12-14T05:02:23Z

Chipmonker: spelling

[[Image:Dovzakheim.jpg|right|thumb]]
'''Dov S. Zakheim''' is the former Deputy Undersecretary of Defense for Planning and Resources from 1985 to 1987 under [[Ronald Reagan]], and Undersecretary of Defense and Comptroller from 2001 to 2004 under [[George W. Bush]]. He is currently the vice president of Booz Allen Hamilton Incorporated, a global strategy and technology consulting firm.

==Personal Life==
Dov Zakheim is a practicing [[Orthodox Jew]], born in Brooklyn, New York; his father was a close friend of former Israeli prime minister [[Menachem Begin]]. Zakheim was educated in Jewish schools, attended Zionist summer camps, and fluent in Hebrew. However he has been described by former Israeli Defense Minister Moshe Arens as a traitor to the Jewish people.<ref>[http://www.jstor.org.myaccess.library.utoronto.ca/view/0377919x/di009667/00p0013g/0 Plight of an American-Jewish Wonk] by Leon T. Hadar, ''Journal of Palestine Studies'', Vol. 27, No. 4, P. 112.</ref>

==Education==
Dov Zakheim received his bachelor's degree in government from Columbia University in 1970, and his Ph.D. in economics and politics from Oxford University. He is an adjunct professor at Columbia University and Yeshiva University, a private orthodox jewish university in New York city.

==References==
<references/>

{{DEFAULTSORT:Zakheim, Dov}}

[[category:political people]]
[[category:political scientists]]

Michael Ledeen

2007-12-14T05:02:12Z

Chipmonker: spelling

[[Image:Portrait.jpg|right|thumb]]
'''Michael Arthur Ledeen''' (Born Aug 1, 1941 in Los Angeles, California) is a journalist, author, [[neoconservative]] activist, [[American Enterprise Institute]] resident scholar, one of the funders of the [[Jewish Institute for National Security Affairs]] and a national security adviser to former president [[Ronald Reagan]].

==Education==
Michael Ledeen received his B.A. in 1963 from Pomona College in Claremont, California; his M.S. and Ph.D. in History and Philosophy from the University of Wisconsin. He served as a professor at the University of Rome from 1975 to 1977, and as a Professor at Washington University from 1967 to 1974.

==Books==
: ''The War Against the Terror Masters: Why It Happened. Where We Are Now. How We’ll Win''
: ''Tocqueville on American Character: Why Tocqueville’s Brilliant Exploration of the American Spirit is as Vital and Important Today as it was Nearly Two Hundred Years Ago''
: ''Machiavelli on Modern Leadership: Why Machiavelli’s Iron Rules are as Timely and Important Today as Five Centuries Ago''
: ''Freedom Betrayed: How America led a Global Democratic Revolution, Won the Cold War and Walked Away''

==References==
:[http://www.nndb.com/people/210/000099910/ NNDB profile of Michael Ledeen]

==See Also==
:[http://www.pajamasmedia.com/xpress/michaelledeen/ Faster, Please!], Michael Ledeen's blog.

{{DEFAULTSORT: Ledeen, Michael}}
[[category:political scientists]]
[[category:authors|Ledeen, Michael]]
[[category:journalists]]

History of microbiology

2007-12-14T05:01:35Z

Chipmonker: spelling

The foundations of [[microbiology]] were established in the later 19th century, with the work of Louis Pasteur and Robert Koch. Since then, many disease-causing microorganisms have been identified and means of controlling their harmful effects have been developed. In addition, means of channeling the activities of various microorganisms to benefit medicine, industry, and agriculture have been discovered. Molds, for example, produce [[antibiotic]]s, notably [[penicillin]]. See also [[bacteriology]], [[genetic engineering]].

==Timeline of Microbiology Discoveries==
The chief discoveries of microbiology took place in a period starting in the 1500s.

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Date
! Event

|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 1546
| Italian physician Girolamo Fracastoro suggests that invisible organisms may cause disease.
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 1665
| Robert Hooke publishes his discovery of cells in cork.
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 1676
| Antony van Leeuwenhoek observes bacteria and protozoa using his homemade microscope.
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 1717
| Mary Wortley Montagu introduced the smallpox vaccination to England from Turkey.
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 1767
| Lazzaro Spallanzani helped dispute the theory of spontaneous generation.
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 1796
| Edward Jenner introduces a vaccination procedure for smallpox.
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 1838-1839
| Mathias Schleiden and Theodor Schwann independently propose that all organisms are composed of cells, the basic unit of life.
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 1840
| J. Henle presents a clear exposition of the germ theory of disease.
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 1847-1850
| Ignaz Semelweis demonstrates that puerperal or childbed fever is a contagious disease transmitted by physicians to their patients during childbirth.
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 1853
| Heinrich Anton deBary noted that plant disease is caused by bacteria.
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 1853-1854
| John Snow demonstrates the epidemic spread of cholera through a water supply contaminated with human sewage.
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 1857
| Louis Pasteurdemonstrates that yeast can degrade sugar to ethanol and carbon dioxide and multiply in the process.
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 1861
| Louis Pasteur publishes experiments that refute the theory of spontaneous generation.
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 1864
| Louis Pasteur develops pasteurization as a method to destroy unwanted organisms in wine.
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 1866
| Gregor Mendel published results of experiments on the laws of inheritance, thus establishing the science of genetics.
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 1867
| Joseph Lister publishes the first work on antiseptic surgery, beginning the trend toward modern aseptic techniques in medicine.
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 1875
| Ferdinand J. Cohn published an early classification of bacteria and first used the genus name Bacillus.
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 1876
| Robert Koch demonstrates that anthrax is caused by a bacterium.
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 1877
| Ferdinand J. Cohn discovered the bacterial spore and related its resistance to sterilization processes.
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 1881
| Robert Koch introduces the use of pure culture techniques for handling bacteria in the laboratory.
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 1881
| Walther and Fanny Hesseintroduce agar-agar as a solidifying gel for culture media.
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 1882
| Koch identifies the causative agent of tuberculosis.
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 1884
| Koch states [[Koch's postulate]]s for determining the cause of a disease.
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 1884
| Elie Metchnikoff discovers phagocytic cells and thus begins the study of immunology.
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 1884
| Christian Gram publishes a paper describing the Gram stain.
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 1884
| Shibasaburo Kitasatodiscovered Clostridium tetani, the causative agent of tetanus.
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 1884
| Thomas J. Burrillpioneered the field of plant pathology. Discovers "fire blight"of fruit trees is caused by a bacterium.
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 1884
| Erwin F. Smith , another pioneer plant pathologist, discovers "peach yellows" is caused by a virus.
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 1885
| Theodor Escherich identified Escherichia coli as a natural inhabitant of the human gut.
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 1885
| Louis Pasteur published his work on immunization against rabies.
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 1887
| Julius Petri adapts two plates to form a container for holding media and culturing microbes - the Petri dish.
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 1887
| David Bruce identified Brucella melitensis as causative agent of brucellosis in cattle.
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 1888
| Martinus Beijerinck obtained a pure culture of root nodule bacterium Rhizobium and studied the process of nitrogen fixation.
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 1890
| Emil von Behring developed a diphtheria antitoxin.
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 1890
| Paul Ehrlich proposed a theory of immunity in which antibodies are responsible for immunity.
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 1890
| Sergei Winogradsky studied nitrifying bacteria, advanced the idea of autotrophic metabolism.
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 1892
| Weisman demonstrated important role of nucleus in heredity (1892).
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 1897
| Paul Ehrlichformulated sidechain theory of antibody formation.
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 1901
| Emil von Behring received Nobel Prize for the development of serum treatment, especially for diphtheria.
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 1902
| Sir Ronald Ross recieves the Nobel Prize for the discovery of the life cycle of malaria parasite in humans and mosquitoes.
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 1905
| Robert Koch receives Nobel Prize for founding scientific bacteriology and proving the cause of tuberculosis.
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 1907
| Charles Louis received Nobel Prize for showing protozoa are the cause of some infectious diseases.
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 1908
| Paul Ehrlich develops the drug Salvarsan to treat syphilis, thereby starting the use of chemotherapy to treat diseases. Receives Nobel Prize.
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 1911
| F. Peyton Rous discovers that a virus can cause cancer in chickens.
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 1912
| Paul Ehrlich synthesized a "magic bullet" for syphilis.
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 1928
| Frederick Griffith discovers genetic transformation in bacteria, thereby raising a key question in genetics: What chemical caused the transformation.
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 1929
| Alexander Fleming discovers and describes the properties of the first antibiotic, penicillin.
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 1930
| Karl Landsteiner receives the Nobel Prize for the discovery of the ABO human blood groups.
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 1931
| Cornelius Van Niel pioneered work on the biochemistry of photosynthesis in sulfur bacteria.
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 1935
| Gerhardt Komagk discovered sulfur drug for chemotherapy. Receives the Nobel Prize in 1939.
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 1941
| Selman Waksman described production of the antibiotic actinomycin, streptothricin, cycloserines and novobiocin by actinomycetes. Receives Nobel Prize in 1952.
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 1941
| George Beadleand Edward Tatum produce evidence of genetic mutants, opening the field of molecular genetics.
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 1944
| Oswald Avery , Colin MacLeod, and Maclyn McCarty demonstrate that Griffith's transforming principle is DNA.
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 1944
| Joshua Lederbergand Edward Tatum demonstrate that DNA can be transferred from one bacterium to another. Received Nobel Prize in 1958 with George Beadle.
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 1945
| Alexander Fleming, Sir E. B. Chain and Lord H.W. Florey receive the Nobel Prize for disscovering penicillin, the first antibiotic.
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 1948
| Barbara McClintock demonstrates transposable elements in maize, and almost two decades later they are discovered in bacteria.
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 1950
| Elizabeth Hazen and Rachel Brown discovered antifungal nystatin.
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 1951
| Max Theiler receives the Nobel Prize for developing a vaccine for yellow fever.
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 1953
| James Watson , Francis Crick, Rosalind Franklin and Maurice Wilkins determine the structure of DNA. Receive Nobel Prize in 1962.
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 1954
| Jonas Salk developed the first polio vaccine.
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 1954
| John F. Enders, T.H. Weller and F.C. Robbins receive the Nobel Prize for growing poliovirus in cell cultures, making the polio vaccine possible.
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 1955
| Polio vaccine approved by the U.S. government.
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 1957
| D. Carlton Gajdusek demonstrates the slow infectious nature of the disease kuru, which is later shown to be caused by a prion.
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 1969
| Max Delbruck, Alfred Hershey and Salvadore E. Luria receive Nobel Prize for describing the mechanism of viral infection of bacterial cells.
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 1977
| Carl Woese classifies all life into three domains.
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 1980
| A rare cancer in humans is shown to be caused by a retrovirus.
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 1980
| The World Health Organization declares eradication of smallpox in the world.
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 1987
| Susumu Tonegawa recieves Nobel Prize for work on the genetics of antibody diversity.
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 1995
| The first complete nucleotide sequence of a bacterial chromosome is reported (Haemophilus influenzae).
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 1997
| Stanley B. Prusiner receives Nobel Prize for the discovery and characterization of prions.
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 1998
| An autoimmune disease (chronic arthritis) is linked to bacterial infection.
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 2000
| The first new antibiotic in 35 years, Zyvox, is approved by the Food and Drug Administration.
|}

==See Also==
:*
==References==
<references/>

[[category:biology]]

The Visitation

2007-12-14T05:01:14Z

Chipmonker: spelling

'''The Visitation''' is a 1999 [[Christian]] novel by [[Frank E. Peretti]]. The book deals with [[demon|demonic]] encounters with the people of the farming town of Antioch, [[Washington]]. Issues covered in the book include demons disguised as [[angel]]s, "name it, claim it" ideology, false [[Christ]]s, a pastor regaining his lost faith, and sightings of Christ and the [[Virgin Mary]].

==Plot summary==
{{spoiler}}

The book is written from the viewpoint of Travis Jordan, former pastor of the Antioch Community Church. Jordan lost his faith in [[God]] after the death of his wife, Marian, due to [[lung cancer]]. However, Jordan's life takes a turn after the appearance of a young man named Brandon Nichols, who bears a striking resemblance to [[Jesus]]. Soon, alleged appearances of Christ appear in the clouds, and people come flocking to the local [[Catholic]] church to view the weeping [[crucifix]] that is reported to have healing powers. Brandon heals several people of their lifelong ailments, including two [[Vietnam]] veterans. It isn't long before people come from all over the state to see Brandon Nichols and have him heal them of their various ailments and diseases.

However, soon things begin to take a turn for the worse. Brandon is beginning to lose his patience with the noise in the tent and the children running up and down the aisles, and worse, he has taken to beating his "mistress", Sally Fordyce. To make things even worse, the infirmities that Brandon supposedly healed are returning.

Jordan and the new Antioch Community Church pastor, Kyle Sherman, decide to investigate Brandon's past. Soon they find out from the daughter of a pastor of one of the largest churches in the country that his name is actually Justin Cantwell, and that she had an affair with him. Jordan, after talking with Cantwell about this, decides to go down to Justin's hometown in Nichville, Texas.

There he finds the pastor of a small church, Rev. Ernest Cantwell, and his wife. Cantwell has suffered severe injuries that are purported to be a car accident. However, Mrs. Cantwell later reveals that it was not a car accident, but Justin himself who caused the injuries. This was in revenge for a previous injury that Ernest had inflicted upon his son by nailing him to a fence. After this happened, Justin had become possessed by several [[demon]]s.

Jordan returns and finds Antioch in a state of confusion. Justin and his "servant", Michael Elliot, are going through town on the back of a flatbed truck, throwing out loaves of bread that Justin seems to create out of nothing to the people and other "miracles". However, he is not the only one; there are several others now, all claiming to be Christ. They are quickly taken care of by the police.

But Justin is not yet done. He holds Jordan's new sweetheart, Morgan Elliot hostage in Jordan's house. Jordan and Kyle and another friend of theirs, meanwhile, are digging up the corpse of the true Brandon Nichols in the back of the Macon Ranch. It turns out that he and Cantwell had worked together on a ranch in Montana, and had appeared so similar it was hard to distinguish them. Thus Cantwell murdered him and then went around under his alias. Soon Jordan begins receiving calls from Justin, telling him to "go home" and get away from the Macon ranch.

Jordan returns home and confronts Justin, who has murdered Jordan's police officer friend, Brett Henchle. Cantwell has also summoned his demons to guard all the exits so there would be no escape. However, he is slowly dying of blood loss from a deep wound he received while fighting Henchle. Travis attempts to get him to a hospital, but Cantwell will not let him. Finally, he dies from all the blood loss, and collapses on the ground, while his demons abandon him. Jordan regards him with deep sorrow and regret, and then he and Morgan embrace. The book ends with the two getting married.

{{stub}}

Homosexual rights advocacy

2007-12-14T05:00:44Z

Chipmonker: spelling

The '''gay rights''' movement seeks to elevate [[homosexuality]] to the same level of social and political respectability as heterosexual relationships. Although the Bible prohibits homosexual acts, activists point out that such prohibitions are found in the old testament among a variety of outdated and ignored guidelines. For example, it is no longer acceptable to treat one's wife or children as property; clearly Christianity has evolved beyond the rules that bound it thousands of years ago. Additionally, the levels of STI's in the heterosexual population has become equal to that in the homosexual population. It can no longer be claimed that gay sex poses a greater health risk than any other form of intercourse.

With arguments against homosexuality largely dispelled, the gay rights movement seeks to remove the stigma of [[sexual perversion]] from homosexuality by arguing that either,
# Homosexuality is an immutable trait, and discriminating against immutable traits is wrong (cf. race discrimination), or,
# Homosexuality, if not immutable, is highly correlated with personality, and discriminating against such deeply rooted notions of self is wrong, as well (cf. religious intolerance).

==History==
As Amazon.com said in a review of a book of [[Harry Hay]]'s writings, he "is the acknowledged father…of the modern gay liberation movement." As a [[Communist Party of the United States]] (CPUSA) organizer, he turned out "essays, position papers, critical studies, and manifestos concerning what it means to be gay in the world." <ref> [http://www.aim.org/media_monitor/A269_0_2_0_C/ Red Roots Of Gay Movement], Cliff Kincaid, Accuracy in Media, September 10, 2003. </ref>

The first step Hay took in organizing the gay rights movement was to recommend to the CPUSA that he be expelled. In
light of his years 18 years of service to the party <ref>[http://www.sojournertruth.net/ipp.html#i In Partial Payment Class Struggle, Sexuality and Gay Liberation (1978)], by A. Rausch. Retrieved from ''Urgent Tasks: [[Leftist|Journal of the Revolutionary Left]]'', Sojourner Truth Organization Digital Archive , 10 May 2007. </ref> they released him as “a security risk but a life-long friend of the people.” The early leadership of the Foundation shaped the organization to reflect the cell structure of the Communist Party, in which "secrecy, hierarchical structures, and centralized leadership predominated." <ref>John D'Emilio, ''Sexual Politics, Sexual Communities: The Making of a Homosexual Minority in the United States'' (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1983), quoted in Martin Meeker, Behind the Mask of Respectability, ''Journal of the History of Sexuality'', (2001) 78-116. </ref>
Hay and his fellow gay rights activists began circulating the [[USSR]] and the East European Communist parties sponsored anti-war [[Stockholm Peace petition]] against the [[Korean War]] <ref>[http://www.kimsoft.com/2000/germberia.htm New Russian Evidence on the Korean War Biological Warfare Allegations: Background and Analysis,]Milton Leitenberg, Cold War International History Project, Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars. </ref> at a gay beach in Los Angeles. The first months produced hundreds of members.

Amid growing public focus on gays and lesbians, 91 homosexuals were found to be employed in the [[U.S. State Department]]. Congressional investigators discovered homosexuals employed in 36 of 53 branches of Government, as well as in the armed forces. Between Jan. 1, 1947 and April 1950, 4,954 cases had come to light among some three and a half million people in Government service. Most were in the armed services. 574 cases were found involving civilian Government employees; in all the other cases the accused had either quit, been cleared or fired. The investigators found the greatest batch of civilian cases—143—in the U.S. State Department. State had cleared or gotten rid of all but a dozen whose cases were still pending. The Veterans Administration was found to have 101 cases. Others included the Atomic Energy Commission, 8; EGA, 27; Congress' legislative agencies (Library of Congress, congressional employees, etc.), 19. One Senator remarked, "It follows that if blackmailers can extort money from a homosexual under threat of disclosure, [[espionage]] agents can use the same type of pressure to extort confidential information." <ref>[http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,859060,00.html Object Lesson], ''TIME magazine'', Dec. 25, 1950.</ref>

The [[Human Rights Campaign]] referred to Hay as "founder and architect of the modern movement for gay, lesbian, bisexual and transgender rights" and "Harry was one of the first to realize that the dream of equality for our community could be attained through visibility and activism". <ref>[http://www.hrc.org/Content/ContentGroups/News_Releases/20021/HRC_Mourns_the_Death_of_Gay_Rights_Pioneer_Harry_Hay.htm Human Rights Campaign Mourns the Death of Gay Rights Pioneer Harry Hay], Press Release, Oct. 24, 2002.</ref> Hay not only promoted homosexual rights, he actively campaigned for the "rights" of [[pedophile]]s. ''The Boston Phoenix'' noted that nowhere was this more evident than in Hay's persistent support of the right of the North American Man-Boy Love Association, [[NAMBLA]], to march in gay-pride parades. <ref>''The Boston Phoenix'', [http://bostonphoenix.com/boston/news_features/other_stories/documents/02511115.htm The real Harry Hay], Michael Bronski, October 31 - November 7, 2002. </ref> NAMBLA maintains a website with a body of Hay's work and a tribute to Harry Hay on its homepage. The Human Rights Campaign and other gay rights organizations, while revering Hay for his contributions to gay rights, do not support NAMBLA or communism.

In 2006, [[Catholic Charities]] of Boston closed their adoption program after more than a century of finding homes for [[orphans]] and [[unwanted children]] when it was reported by the ''Boston Globe'' that gay couples had received children placed from the agency.<ref>[http://www.boston.com/news/local/articles/2006/03/11/catholic_charities_stuns_state_ends_adoptions/ Catholic Charities stuns state, ends adoptions], By Patricia Wen, ''The Boston Globe'', March 11, 2006.</ref> Massachusetts law barring "orientation discrimination" prohibited one of the nations oldest adoption agencies from refusing service to gay activists, and a mass resignation of the agencies Board in protest followed. <ref>[http://www.weeklystandard.com/Content/Public/Articles/000/000/012/191kgwgh.asp Banned in Boston], by Maggie Gallagher, ''The Weekly Standard'', 05/15/2006, Volume 011, Issue 33.</ref>

== Legal Success ==
Courts, including the Supreme Court, have accepted either one or both of these rationales. In ''[[Romer v. Evans]]'', the Court found that discriminating against homosexuals could only be explained by a rational of animus laid bare, which was not enough even to allow state condemnation of homosexuality under the [[rational basis review]] test. ''Romer'', then, protects the status of homosexuality from undue discrimination that occurs without a rational basis.<ref>Romer v. Evans, 517 U.S. 620</ref>

Homosexual conduct was formerly illegal in many states.<ref>See generally ''Bowers v. Hardwick'', 478 U.S. 186</ref> In the last decade of the twentieth century, although these laws existed, they were rarely (if ever) enforced.<ref>''Lawrence v. Texas,'' 539 U.S. 558, Justice Anthony Kennedy, in the Opinion of the Court, found this in his historical analysis.</ref> Without disclosing whether it saw homosexuality as a status protected from discrimination at as high of a level as gender and race, the Court struck down bans on homosexual conduct, framing it as an expansion of its privacy jurisprudence.<ref>''Lawrence v. Texas'', 539 U.S. 558</ref>

The status of homosexuality before the law, then, is in some degree of flux. While bare discrimination against homosexual status is facially unconstitutional lacking a rational basis, and while preventing homosexual conduct is similarly unconstitutional, the Supreme Court has held in these landmark cases that the state may discriminate against homosexuals to preserve an "institution that the law protects" - namely, [[marriage]].<ref>''Lawrence v. Texas''; Kennedy & O'Connor both reached this conclusion explicitly.</ref> As such, the standard to be applied in deciding if discrimination against homosexuals is wrong is somewhere in between [[rational basis review]] and [[strict scrutiny review]]. Justice [[Antonin Scalia]] thinks that this uncertainty will surely be resolved in the favor of gay rights, and he warns that such a legal erosion will result in the downfall of the law's moral authority.<ref>''Lawrence v. Texas'', Scalia, J., dissenting.</ref>

== Opposition to Gay Rights ==
Polls consistently reveal that a clear majority <ref>[http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/03/18/AR2007031800484.html | Clinton, Obama Slow to Respond to Questions on Homosexuality] Washington Post, March 18, 2007</ref><ref>[http://www.freerepublic.com/focus/f-news/963906/posts| New poll shows Americans oppose gay civil unions 58%-37%] Washington Post, August 18, 2003</ref> of people disapprove of homosexuality, or at least consider it less than ideal, and prefer that public policy does not encourage it. They also believe that accepting homosexuality would require the loss of rights to free speech, freedom of religion, freedom of association, and traditional [[marriage]].{{fact}}

Conservatives criticize attempts by gay rights activists to prohibit any statements which are critical of homosexuality, such as the idea that it is "unnatural" or "sinful", using [[hate crime]]s statutes and anti-[[discrimination]] laws.

Conservatives also oppose attempts by homosexual activists to indoctrinate children through the use of ''tolerance'' or ''diversity'' programs in schools which encourage acceptance of homosexual behavior. Notable figures including [[Tony Perkins]] have expressed concerns.

*The EU parliament called on Polish authorities to publicly condemn and take measures against declarations by officials "inciting discrimination and hatred based on sexual orientation." [http://www.breitbart.com/article.php?id=D8OOFTCO5&show_article=1]

== Support for Gay Rights ==

A [[Newsweek]] poll, conducted March, 2007, found that 61% of those polled felt that homosexuals should be allowed to serve openly in the military ([[margin of error]], plus or minus 3%). The poll did not ask directly about current military policy.

The same poll found that 50% of those asked favored legal recognition of same-sex unions, either as marriages or [[civil union]]s or partnerships. 44% felt same-sex couples should have no legal recognition, with 6% unsure.<ref>Polling Report http://www.pollingreport.com/civil.htm</ref>

==Tactics==

*Kirk and Madsen predicted a mass public change of heart would follow, even among opponents, "if we can actually make them like us." <ref>[http://www.leaderu.com/jhs/socarides.html How America Went Gay], by Charles W. Socarides, M.D., ''America'', November 18, 1995.</ref>

Advocates routinely use deceit, notably pursuing various goal while pretending not to. For example, some advocates will claim:
*The movement does not seek to convince others that homosexuality is ''right''

Yet clearly the drive for "[[tolerance]]" is only one step toward the ultimate goal of "[[approval]]".

Blurring distinctions: Advocates routinely fail to distinguish between [[homosexual behavior]] and homosexuality as an "identity".

==See also==
*[[H.R. 1592: Local Law Enforcement Hate Crimes Prevention Act of 2007]]
*[[Intimate Partner Violence]]

== References ==
{{reflist|2}}

[[Category:Homosexual Agenda]]

Madness

2007-12-14T05:00:12Z

Chipmonker: spelling

'''Madness''' were a British [[ska]] band of the late 1970s and early 1980s.

They had a string of hits that combined their love for [[Jamaica|Jamaican]] music with the pop sensibility and self-conscious Englishness of earlier groups such as [[The Kinks]].

Releasing their debut single "The Prince" on the [[2 Tone]] label in 1979, the group initially attracted a large following among young supporters of the [[British National Front]] (Madness being the only all-white band on the 2 Tone roster), which drifted away as the group began to express their initially ambiguous anti-racist stance more clearly, and the group began to appeal to a more mainstream audience.

Arguably the most successful of the British second-wave ska bands (their main competition being [[The Specials]]), Madness went on to achieve 23 top 40 hits between 1979 and 1986, including fifteen in the top ten. Their exuberant videos led to Madness being heavily played on [[MTV]], leading to them having a 1982 US hit with "Our House".

The departure of co-founder Mike Barson in 1984 signaled a decline in fortunes for the group, which disbanded in 1986. Four of the original seven members then formed a spin-off group, The Madness, with members of the Specials and the Attractions, which issued one poorly-received LP.

Prompted by the use of their single "It Must Be Love" in an advertisement for a British bank, Madness reformed for two gigs, dubbed "Madstock" in 1992, and continued to headline intermittent concerts throughout the 1990s, before reforming properly for 1999's comeback album ''Wonderful''. The band went on to issue an album of cover versions, ''The Dangermen Sessions Volume 1'' in 2005, and a new album is scheduled for 2007.

Frontman Graham McPherson (usually known as Suggs) has also enjoyed a solo career and has also become an occasional TV and radio presenter.

[[category:bands]]

Henry M. Paulson

2007-12-14T04:59:44Z

Chipmonker: spelling

'''Henry M. Paulson, Jr.''' (born March 28, 1946) is the current [[United States Secretary of the Treasury|Secretary of the Treasury]] heading the [[Department of the Treasury]]. Henry was nominated by President [[George W. Bush]] on June 19, 2006 and confirmed unanimously by the [[Senate]] on June 28, 2006.<ref>[http://www.ustreas.gov/organization/bios/paulson-e.html Biography]</ref>

==Background==
Paulson attended [[Dartmouth]], graduating in 1968 and received his MBA from [[Harvard]] in 1970.

Paulson served as Staff Assistant to President [[Richard Nixon]] from 1972-73 and Assistant to the Assistant Secretary of Defense from 1970-72.

After working for the White House, Paulson went to work for Goldman Sachs. He joined the company in 1974 and worked his way up the chain to be named Chairman and CEO in 1999.

==References==
<references/>

[[category:political figures]]

William Remington

2007-12-14T04:59:32Z

Chipmonker: spelling

{| cellpadding="1" style="float: right; border: 1px solid #8888aa; background: #f7f8ff; padding: 5px; font-size: 85%; margin: 0 15px 0 15px;"
| style="background: #ccf; text-align: center;" | '''This article is part of the''' '''[[Venona project|Venona]]''' '''series.'''
|-
| style="text-align: center;"|[[CPUSA#Secret_apparatus|Secret apparatus]]
|-
| style="text-align: center;"|[[Tennessee Valley Authority]]
|-
| style="text-align: center;"|[[Office of Emergency Management]]
|-
| style="text-align: center;"|[[War Production Board]]
|-
| style="text-align: center;"|[[American Youth Congress]]
|-
| style="text-align: center;"|[[American Peace Mobilization]]
|-
| style="text-align: center;"|[[Elizabeth_Bentley#Myrna_group|Myrna group]]
|-
|style="border-bottom: 1px solid #ccc"|
|-
| style="text-align: center;"|[http://en.wikipedia.org/w/wiki.phtml?title=Template:Ushistory&action=edit Edit this box]
|}
'''William Walter Remington''' was born 25 October 1917 in New Jersey and received a B.A. from Dartmouth College in 1939 and an M.A. from Columbia University in 1940, also having completed most of the requirements for a Ph.D.

Remington was employed from September 1936 to May 1937 with the [[Tennessee Valley Authority]], Knoxville, Tennessee; April 1937 to August 1937 with the Workers' Education project, Knoxville, Tennessee; and from May 1940 to July 15, 1941, a Junior Economist with the National Resources Planning Board in Washington D.C; from July 1941 to February 1942 Remington was an associate industrial economist in the Consumers Division of the Office of Emergency Management; from February 1942 to October 1943 Remington worked as an assistant to the Director of the [[War Production Board]] (WPB), and from October 1943 an assistant to the Director of Orders ans Regulations Bureau in the WPB.

Remington was employed in a number of posts, principally as an economist:

*[[Tennessee Valley Authority]], Knoxville, Tennessee, September 1936 to May 1937;
*Workers' Education project, Knoxville, April to August 1937;
*Junior Economist with the National Resources Planning Board, Washington D.C, May 1940 to July 15, 1941;
*Associate industrial economist in the Consumers Division of the [[Office of Emergency Management]], from July 1941 to February 1942;
*Assistant to the Director of the [[War Production Board]] (WPB), February 1942 to October 1943;
*Assistant to the Director of Orders and Regulations Bureau in the WPB, October 1943 onwards.

During a [[Hatch Act of 1939|Hatch Act]] investigation it was discovered Remington had been active in the [[American Peace Mobilization]] and did research for the [[American Youth Congress]] in February of 1941. Remington's wife, Ann, was the executive secretary of the Washington chapter of the [[American Peoples Mobilization]].

Remington supplied [[Elizabeth Bentley]] for transmission to the [[Soviet Union]] information such as: charts setting out aircraft production and other matters concerning the aircraft industry; tests made on aircraft and other data concerning high octane gasoline; other information related to the aircraft production field; and a process for the manufacture of synthetic rubber. Remington introduced Bentley to [[Bernard Redmont]].

After [[World War II]], Remington obtained a position with the Office of War Mobilization and Reconversion. In 1946, Remington was about to be transferred to a professional position at the [[White House]] as an aide to a presidential assistant when FBI suspicion put a stop to it. After that Remington was in the process of applying for a position with the [[Atomic Energy Commission]] when the FBI interviewed him in 1947.

Remington later was convicted of perjury for denying Communist Party activity and was killed in a prison brawl.

==References==
* John Earl Haynes and Harvey Klehr, ''Venona: Decoding Soviet Espionage in America'' (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1999).
*[http://foia.fbi.gov/silversm/silversm3a.pdf FBI Silvermaster file pgs. 283-287]
*May, G. (1995) ''Un-American Activities: The Trials of William Remington'' ISBN 1-57766-327-6

{{DEFAULTSORT:Remington, William}}
[[Category:KGB Agents and Sources]]

Reconstruction Finance Corporation

2007-12-14T04:58:38Z

Chipmonker: spelling

The '''Reconstruction Finance Corporation''' (RFC) was an independent agency of the U.S. government, chartered during the administration of [[Herbert Hoover]] in 1932. The agency advanced $2 billion in loans to state and local governments and to banks, railroads, farm mortgage associations, and other businesses, funding, for example, the construction of the original Hayden Planetarium. [[Thomas G. Corcoran]] received a placement in the Reconstruction Finance Corporation when Hoover was President.

The RFC also had a division that would give the states loans for emergency relief needs.

The RFC was bogged down in bureaucracy and failed to disburse many of its funds. It failed to stem the tide of mass unemployment of the [[Great Depression]]. The failure of the RFC helped to lead to the election of [[Franklin Delano Roosevelt]].

==New Deal==
During the [[New Deal]] era, the Reconstruction Finance Corporation was given a blank check appropriation by Congress and authority to borrow money. It borrowed twenty or more billions. The RFC would buy the stock of a new corporation and lend it money, as much as ten, fifty or a hundred million dollars, billions in some cases. Thus the Executive branch was able to bypass the Constitutional power afforded to Congress. <ref>''The Roosevelt Myth'', Book 3, Ch. 4, [http://www.rooseveltmyth.com/cgi-bin/framed/2767/book/fdrmyth_Chapter_Four___Toward_the_Precip.htm ''Toward the Precipice''], John T. Flynn, Fox and Wilkes, 1948.</ref>

==World War II==

President Roosevelt merged the RFC, [[Board of Economic Warfare]] (BEW), and the [[Lend-Lease]] Office together under the direction of Leo Crowley, former head of the [[Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation]] (FDIC), which was one of the landmarks of the New Deal. Oscar Cox, a prime author of the [[Lend-Lease Act]], general counsel of the [[Foreign Economic Administration]] joined as well. [[Lauchlin Currie]], formerly of the [[Federal Reserve]] Board staff, was the deputy administrator to Crowley.

The RFC established seven new corporations, and purchased an existing corporation. The eight RFC wartime subsidiaries are Metals Reserve Company, [[Rubber Reserve Company]], Defense Plant Corporation, Defense Supplies Corporation, War Damage Corporation, U.S. Commercial Company, Rubber Development Corporation, [[Petroleum Reserve Corporation]]. These corporations were involved in funding the development of synthetic rubber, construction and operation of a tin smelter, and establishment of abaca (Manila hemp) plantations in Central America. Both natural rubber and abaca (used to produce rope products) were produced primarily in south Asia, which came under Japanese control. Thus, these programs encouraged the development of alternative sources of supply of these essential materials. Synthetic rubber, which was not produced in the United States prior to the war, quickly became the primary source of rubber in the post-war years.

From 1941 through 1945, the RFC authorized over $2 billion of loans and investments each year, with a peak of over $6 billion authorized in 1943. The magnitude of RFC lending had increased substantially during the war. Most lending to wartime subsidiaries ended in 1945, and all such lending ended in 1948.

[[Nathan Gregory Silvermaster]], who headed an extremely large group of Soviet agents working in the U.S. Government during World War II, was transferred, along with the rest of the division from the Treasury Department's War Asset's Administration into to the Reconstruction Finance Corporation, where it became the War Assets Corporation.

On May 29, 1946, FBI Director J. Edgar Hoover sent George E. Allen, a confidant of the President and head of the Reconstruction Finance Corporation, a four-page letter marked Personal and Condifential by special messenger. Hoover reported that a reliable source, which was the [[Venona project]], revealed “an enormous Soviet espionage ring in Washington.” <ref>[http://www.fas.org/sgp/library/moynihan/hoovlet.html Hoover to Allen Letter, May 29, 1946].</ref> Of some fourteen names listed which included [[Alger Hiss]] and [[Nathan Gregory Silvermaster]], Hoover added at the top of the list Undersecretary of State Dean Acheson, and others who were not Venona suspects. Hoover's action here was one source of much confusion regarding the Soviet penetration of the US Government during [[World War II]] which become public knowledge later. <ref>Robert J. Hanyok, [http://www.nsa.gov/publications/publi00044.cfm ''Eavesdropping on Hell'']: Historical Guide to Western Communications Intelligence and the Holocaust, 1939-1945. Ft. Meade, MD: [[National Security Agency]], Center for Cryptologic History, 2005; "Currie, known as PAZh (Page) and [[Harry Dexter White|White]], whose cover names were YuRIST (Jurist) and changed later to LAJER (Lawyer), had been Soviet agents since the 1930s. They had been identified as Soviet agents in [[Venona]] translations and by other agents turned witnesses or informants for the FBI and [[Justice Department]]. From the Venona translations, both were known to pass intelligence to their handlers, notably the [[Greg Silvermaster#Silvermaster group|Silvermaster network]]."</ref><ref>United States. National Counterintelligence Center. [http://www.ncix.gov/issues/CI_Reader/Vol3/Vol3Chap1.pdf ''A Counterintelligence Reader'']. NACIC, no date. vol. 3, chap. 1, pg. 31.</ref>

The Petroleum Reserves Corporation was transferred to the Office of Economic Warfare, which was consolidated into the [[Foreign Economic Administration]], which was transferred to the Reconstruction Finance Corporation and changed to the War Assets Corporation. The War Assets Corporation was dissolved as soon as practicable after March 25, 1946. Presidential aide and Soviet spy, Lauchlin Currie headed the office during this time.

==See also==
*[[War Assets Administration]]

==References==
<references/>

==External link==

*[http://www.trumanlibrary.org/oralhist/havlik.htm Oral History Interview with Hubert F. Havlik], Truman Presidential Library, June 20, 1973.

[[Category:New Deal]]
[[Category:Espionage]]

Communist Party of the United States of America

2007-12-14T04:58:08Z

Chipmonker: spelling

The '''Communist Party of the United States of America''' ('''CPUSA''') is one of several [[Marxist-Leninist]] groups in the [[United States]].

The Soviet Union conducted an extensive and continuous espionage attack against the security institutions—political, economic, and scientific—of the United States from the time of Washington's diplomatic recognition of the USSR by the Roosevelt Administration. <ref>Felix Wittmer, [http://www.geocities.com/Pentagon/6315/yaltabet.html ''The Yalta Betrayal''], Claxton Printers, 1953, p. 15. </ref> That attack continued not only during the time [[Molotov-Ribbentrop pact|the USSR was allied with Nazi Germany from 1939]] until it was [[Operation Barbarossa|attacked by Germany in 1941]], but during the war years 1942–1945. The main thrust was to give impetus to the Soviet drive for [[World Revolution]]; to increase the political power of CPUSA, and to strengthen the Soviet economy by economic and scientific espionage. But principally it sought to weaken and [[subversion (political)|subvert]] the government of its "main enemy," the United States. A major instrument of Moscow's policy was the CPUSA. Many of America's [[liberal]] political elite still refuse to acknowledge this, despite the evidence. <ref>Earl M. Hyde, ''Bernard Schuster and Joseph Katz: KGB Master Spies in the United States'', International Journal of Intelligence and CounterIntelligence, Volume 12, Issue 1 March 1999. </ref> Members of the liberal elite have claimed over the years that the CPUSA has never been connected with Soviet espionage despite a solid body of evidence to the contrary. For example, Victor Navasky, then editor of the [[leftist]]
''[[The Nation]]'' published an article identifying [[Victor Perlo]] as merely a "[[New Deal]] economist." <ref>John E. Haynes and Harvey Klehr, ''Outed From the Cold,'' Weekly Standard (15 April 1996).</ref>

==Early years==

It was formed in 1919 as a splinter group of the [[left-wing]] of the [[Socialism|Socialist Party]] over the issue of the [[Bolshevik Revolution]] in [[Russia]]. The left wing [[socialist]]s supported [[Lenin]] and [[Trotsky]], and broke off the SP to form two rival parties: the [[Communist Party of America]] and [[Communist Labor Party]]. Under pressure from the [[Communist International]], these two communist parties officially merged in Chicago in 1919. From its inception, the Communist Party, USA came under attack from the [[FBI]] and Attorney General [[A. Mitchell Palmer]] for defying the [[Sedition Act of 1918]]. Consequently, the Communist Party went underground and went through name changes to evade the authorities.

During the early 1920s, the party apparatus was to a great extent underground. It reemerged in 1923 with a small legal above ground element, the [[Workers Party of America]]. As the [[Red Scare]] and deportations of the early 1920s ebbed, the party became bolder and more open. An element of the party, however, remained permanently underground. It was through this underground party, often commanded by a Soviet official operating as an illegal in the United States, that Soviet intelligence was able to co-opt CPUSA members. <ref>"The COMINTERN (Communist International) was a Soviet-controlled organization that conducted liaison with the national Communist parties of various countries, including the United States, in order to further the cause of revolution. Moscow issued guidance, support, and orders to the parties through the apparatus of the COMINTERN." [http://www.nsa.gov/publications/publi00036.pdf ''The Venona Story''], Robert L. Benson, Ft. George G. Meade, MD: National Security Agency, Center for Cryptologic History, [n.d.].</ref><ref>[http://www.nsa.gov/venona/venon00008.cfm Venona 142(a) Moscow to Canberra 12 September 1943]. Text reads: "change in circumstances - and in particular the dissolution of the [[Comintern]] - necessitates a change in the method used by the workers of our residencies to keep in touch with the leaders of the local [[Communist_Party_of_the_United_States_of_America#Secret_apparatus|Communist]] organizations on intelligence matters. 
2. Our workers, by continuing to meet the leader of the Communists, are exposing themselves to danger and are giving cause [''orgs of''] local authorities to suspect that the Comintern is still in existence. 
3. We propose: 
a. That personal contact with leaders of the local Communist organizations should cease and that Communist material should not be accepted for forwarding to the Comintern. 
b. That meetings of our workers may take place only with special reliable undercover [ZAKONSPIRIROVANNYJ] contacts of the Communist [D% organizations], who are not suspected by the [''orgs of''] local authorities, exclusively about specific aspects of our intelligence work (acquiring [1 group unidentified] contacts, leads [NAVODKI], rechecking of those who are being cultivated, etc.). For each meeting it is necessary to obtain our consent. 

Representative of the Soviet Union. 

No. 4084 
Lt. Gen. [[P.M. Fitin]]. 

Notes: [a] This message is known to have been sent also to NEW YORK, SAN FRANCISCO, and OTTAWA.</ref> The Comintern supplied the American Communist movement with the equivalent of several million dollars in valuables, an enormous sum in the 1920s. <ref>[http://www.fas.org/sgp/library/moynihan/appa4.html Moynihan Commission on Government Secrecy Report, Appendix A, 4. ''The Encounter with Communism''] (1997).</ref> By 1930 it had adopted the title Communist Party of the USA.

In the 1930s the CPUSA recruited several hundred persons among thousands of new employees hired by the federal government under the impact of the [[New Deal]]'s rapid expansion of governmental programs. Federal regulations forbade partisan political activity by federal employees, and open membership in the Communist Party brought discharge. The CPUSA evaded the law by organizing caucuses of government employees that met in secret. [[Joseph Peters]], a senior member of the Central Committee of the CPUSA, headed the party’s underground apparatus from 1932 to 1938 and pioneered its role as an auxiliary to Soviet intelligence activities. CPUSA operatives did not move in heavily until Roosevelt's second term and not en masse until the third term, although the entering wedge was made during his first term.

In 1932, Sergei Ivanovich Gussev, who had served as Comintern agent and Stalin's personal representative in the United States, "commanded the Communists in the United States to take up four tasks. Two of them were the defence of the Soviet Union and the furtherance of Red conquest of China." In 1933 the notorious [[Gerhart Eisler]] "was secretly sent into the United States by Moscow to make sure these orders were carried out." <ref>[[Louis F. Budenz]], ''The Techniques of Communism'', (Chicago: Henry Regnery and Company, 1954), pp. 162-163.</ref>

[[Edgar Snow]] introduced Mao and [[Zhou Enlai]] to American readers in 1937 in his book, ''Red Star Over China'', shortly after the [[Chinese Red Army]]’s route by [[Chiang Kai-shek]] in 1934 and their year long retreat to [[Yenan]] known as the [[Long March]]. Snow wrote, "the political ideology, tactical line and theoretical leadership of the Chinese Communists have been under the close guidance, if not positive detailed direction, of the Communist International, which during the last decade has become virtually a bureau of the Russian Communist Party." And he further declared that the CCP had to subordinate itself to the "strategic requirements of [[Soviet Russia]], under the leadership of [[Stalin]]."<ref>Red Star Over China by Edgar Snow, New York, 1937.</ref><ref>''The Secret World of American Communism'', by Harvey Klehr, John Earl Haynes, and Fridrikh Igorevich Firsov, Yale University Press, 1995, pgs. 343 - 344, Document 94. ISBN 0-300-06183-8</ref><ref>[http://en.epochtimes.com/news/6-6-23/43082.html The West Has Always Been Deceived by Communism], An interview with Xin Haonian, an expert on the history of communism, By Lin Dan, Xie Zongyan, and Chen Xiuwen, ''[[Epoch Times]]'', Jun 23, 2006.</ref> Communists in the United States hailed the book. Victor A. Yakhontoff wrote in the ''[[New Masses]]'' (January 11, 1938): "I want to urge you with all my force to read this new book by Edgar Snow." A few weeks later in the same Red organ, he added this revealing comment: "The value of this material can be judged by the fact that most of it was supplied by Mao Tsetung, the head of the Soviet regime, and that some of it was checked by personal observation of the author" (January 25, 1938).

In 1940 [[Mao Zedong]] of the [[Chinese Communist Party]] wrote a book entitled ''The New Democracy''. It carried an introduction by [[Earl Browder]]. Mao wrote, "We cannot separate ourselves from the assistance of the Soviet Union."<ref>''The New Democracy'' by Mao Tse-tung (1940), quoted in ''While You Slept : Our Tragedy in Asia and Who Made It'', John T. Flynn, New York : The Devin - Adair Company, 1951, [http://www.mises.org/books/whileyouslept.pdf pg. 21] pdf.</ref>

November 18, 1945, [[William Z. Foster]] told delegates to the National Convention of the Communist Party that "on the international scale the key task is to stop American intervention in China." On December 4, 1945, the Communists staged a "Get Out of China Rally," while communist dominated [[labor union]]s put on work stoppages with the same slogan.

==Leadership==

[[Earl Browder]] assumed party leadership after 1929 and actually dissolved the party in 1944 replacing it with a Communist Political Association. For this he was in turn expelled and [[William Z. Foster]] became head of the party. Foster published a 'new history' of America, which was highly praised in Moscow, translated in many languages and made a handbook of anti-American propaganda all over the world. Of it Browder wrote, "This extraordinary book interpreted the history of America from its discovery to the present, as an orgy of 'bloody banditry' and imperialism, enriching itself by 'drinking the rich red blood' of other peoples. Foster joined in the Thorez declaration of French Communist [[Maurice Thorez]] that said if the Soviet armies found it necessary to occupy all Western Europe the working people would greet them as liberators; the only thing missing was a direct welcome to Soviet armies in America itself." Foster was to lead the party until he retired in 1958 and was succeeded by Gus Hall.

[[Whittaker Chambers]] testified that Sandor Goldberger AKA "Joseph Peters" who commonly wrote under the name J. Peters, a Comintern apparatchik who worked in the Fourth Department, a Comitern functionary, headed the party’s underground secret apparatus from 1932 to 1937 and pioneered its role as an auxiliary to Soviet intelligence activities. [[Bernard Schuster]], Organizational Secretary of the New York District of the CPUSA was the operational recruiter and conduit for members of the CPUSA into the ranks of the secret apparatus, or "Group A line". <ref>Hyde, ''Bernard Schuster and Joseph Katz </ref>

==Secret apparatus==

In the 1930s CPUSA membership became largely native-born, and more educated people joined, including many scientific and technically trained professionals. American Communists considered the '[[capitalist]]' corporations which employed them as morally illegitimate institutions. When Soviet intelligence officers approached and asked that the scientific secrets of these corporations be shared with the Soviet Union, few had moral objections.

Soviet intelligence agencies were able to use over 400 American [[citizen]]s during the 1930s and up to 1946. The CPUSA was not just a recruiting ground for Soviet intelligence, it functioned within Soviet espionage as an auxiliary organization. Earl Browder, with the active assistance of a dozen high-level CPUSA officials, and numerous rank-and-file members, supervised CPUSA cooperation with the OGPU and GRU. Browder was given personal credit for recruitment of eighteen agents in a 1946 OGPU memo.

In the 1930s, the chief Soviet espionage organization operating in the U.S. became the [[GRU]]. [[J. Peters]], headed the secret apparatus that supplied internal government documents from the [[Harold Ware|Ware group]] to the GRU. Browder assisted Peters in building a network of operatives in the [[Roosevelt administration]]. This group included [[Alger Hiss]], [[John Abt]], and [[Lee Pressman]]. Courier for the group at the time was [[Whittaker Chambers]]. Browder oversaw the efforts of [[Jacob Golos]] and his girlfriend, [[Elizabeth Bentley]], whose network of agents and sources included two key figures at the Department of Treasury, [[Greg Silvermaster|Nathan Gregory Silvermaster]] and [[Harry Dexter White]].

By the end of 1936 at least four mid-level [[State Department]] officials were delivering information to Soviet intelligence: Alger Hiss, assistant to Assistant Secretary of State Francis Sayre; [[Julian Wadleigh]], economist in the Trade Agreements Section; [[Laurence Duggan]], Latin American division; and [[Noel Field]], West European division. Chambers told how a tank design by C.W. Christie was procured, and was put into production in the Soviet Union as the Mark BT.

In the late 1930s and 1940 the [[OGPU]], known as the Political Directorate, used the U.S. as one of several staging areas for multiple OGPU plots to murder exiled Soviet leader [[Leon Trotsky]], then living in Mexico City. It was American Communists who infiltrated Trotsky’s killer into his own household . They were also central to the NKVD's unsuccessful efforts to free the killer from a Mexican prison. In the late 1930s Soviet agents sought to provide Moscow with a wide range of information on high-performance aircraft, battleships, cruisers, armor, navigation equipment, tank engines, and armaments from key U.S. defense contractors, including [[Northrop Corporation|Northrop]], [[Douglas Aircraft Company|Douglas]], and [[Martin Marietta|Marietta]]. The operations were run by Soviet Case Officers working under the cover of Amtorg Trading Corporation<ref> Herbert Romerstein and Stanislav Levchenko, The KGB Against the "Main Enemy": How the Soviet Intelligence Service Operates against the United States (Lexington, MA: D.C. Heath, 1989), pp. 19-21, 176-177.</ref>, the Soviet Society of the Red Cross, TASS, Sovfil'meksporta and some other establishments.

By 1940 Soviet interest was focused on [[atomic energy]] and other scientific developments, with some emphasis also being given to infiltration of Trotskyite and White Russian activities.

After the [[Operation Barbarossa|German invasion of the Soviet Union]] on 22 June 1941, and American entry into the war in December, the USSR became a major recipient of American military aid. Thousands of Soviet military officers and technicians entered the U.S. Scores of Soviet intelligence officers were among those arriving in America. These Case Officers, with the assitance of American citizens, waged a successful unrestrained espionage campaign against the United States, from 1942 to late 1945.

General Secretary [[Josef Stalin]] of the [[Communist Party of the Soviet Union]] (CPSU), directed Soviet intelligence officers to collect information in four main areas. [[Pavel Fitin]], the 34-year-old chief of the KGB First Directorate, was directed to seek American intelligence concerning Hitler's plans for the war in Russia; secret war aims of London and Washington, particularly with regard to planning for [[Operation Overlord]], the second front in Europe; any indications the Western allies might be willing to make a separate peace with Hitler; and American scientific and technological progress, particularly in the development of an [[atomic weapon]].

Since 1933 one of the main objectives in Soviet policy had been to maneuver America into war with Japan. Japan was a serious threat to Soviet designs on the Far East. If Japan's power were broken, there would be no difficulty in realizing Soviet objectives in Asia. The [[Roosevelt Administration]] wittingly or unwittingly followed the Soviet line, and [[Harry Dexter White]], an important and trusted official in the Administration, drafted a note to Japan that produced the war for which Roosevelt had long been looking. <ref>Communism at Pearl Harbor, How the Communists Helped to Bring on Pearl Harbor and Open up Asia to Communinization, Dr. Anthony Kubek, Dallas Texas, Teaching Publishing Company, 1959. Dr. Anthony Kubek was the Editor of the U.S. Senate Committee on the Judiciary, [[Senate Internal Security Subcommittee]], Report on the ''Morgenthau Diaries''. The records of the Morgenthau Diary Study, 1953-65 consist largely of copies of portions of memorandums, correspondence, transcripts of meetings, and other records preserved by Secretary Morgenthau in order to document his tenure. The original records are in the custody of the Franklin D. Roosevelt Library in Hyde Park, NY. In 1965, the SISS issued a two volume committee print entitled Morgenthau Diary (China), Edited by Dr. Anthony Kubek, containing entries from the records at the Franklin D. Roosevelt Library selected to illustrate the implementation of Roosevelt administration policy in China. According to Dr. Anthony Kubek, the subcommittee wanted to produce a documentary history on the subject and "also indicate the serious problem of unauthorized, uncontrolled and often dangerous power exercised by nonelected officials," specifically Harry Dexter White. White was a major figure in Senator William Jenner's investigation of interlocking subversion in Government departments in 1953. The bipartisan investigation continued for twelve years, and the Subcommittee's Report took another two years to write. [http://www.archives.gov/legislative/guide/senate/chapter-13-judiciary-1947-1968.html#103] Dr. Anthony Kubek also is a recognized expert on the subject of U.S. Naval Intelligence's Operation Magic, the effort to crack Japanese diplomatic ciphers. [http://www.fas.org/irp/ops/ci/docs/ci2/2ch2_bibl.pdf]</ref><ref>[http://sandiego.indymedia.org/media/2006/10/119975.pdf ''Tragedy and Hope: A History of the World in Our Time''], Carroll Quigley, Collier-Macmillan, 1966, pgs. 735 - 741. ISBN 0-945001-10-X</ref>

Soviet recruitment of sources within American intelligence agencies, particularly within the [[Office of Strategic Services]] (OSS), the predecessor to the Central Intelligence Agency was impressive. The highest ranking recruit was [[Duncan Lee]], counsel to General William Donovan, OSS head. Lee, however, was extremely cautious and less productive than other OPGU sources, like [[Maurice Halperin]], or [[Donald Wheeler]], in the OSS Research and Analysis division. At least fifteen Soviet agents penetrated the OSS, with the actual number more likely around twenty.

The Soviets also developed about twenty sources within the U.S. State Department and other wartime foreign relations agencies. The two most senior Soviet operatives had been active in the 1930s, Alger Hiss and Laurence Duggan. A number of other Soviet infiltrators connections to American diplomacy have only been identified by code-names in the [[Venona project]] materials. Some of these identities have not been determined. Some most likely continued to operate in the post-war period. American counter-intelligence officials spent decades interviewing and examining the backgrounds of hundreds of American diplomatic personnel attempting to attach an identity to the code-name of many of these known operatives.

==Silvermaster network==
:''Main article: [[Silvermaster group]]''
The [[United States Treasury]] hosted nearly a dozen Soviet sources, including one of the most important, [[Harry Dexter White]], assistant secretary of the treasury and the second most influential official in the department. In Late May 1941 Vitaly Pavlov, a 25 years old NKVD officer, approached White and attempted to secure his assistance to influence U.S. policy with towards Japan. White agreed to assist Soviet intelligence in any way he could. The principle function of White was to aid in the infiltration and placement of Soviet operatives within the government, and protecting sources. When security concerns arose around [[Greg Silvermaster|Nathan Gregory Silvermaster]], White protected him in his sensitive position at the [[Board of Economic Warfare]]. White likewise was a purveyor of information and resources to assist Soviet aims.

Silvermaster denied any links with agents of a foreign power and appealed to Under Secretary of War Robert Patterson to overrule the security officials. Harry Dexter White contacted Patterson and told him suspicions about Silvermaster were baseless. [[Lauchlin Currie]], a presidential aide who also cooperated with Soviet intelligence, personally phoned Patterson and urged a reconsideration of Silvermaster’s case. Patterson accepted these highly placed sources and overruled military [[counterintelligence]]. This decision facilitated the work of one of the most productive Soviet espionage rings, and provided substance for the postwar partisan charge that high officials in the Roosevelt and Truman administrations aided Soviet espionage against the United States.

Stalin publicly disbanded the Comintern in 1943. A Moscow OGPU message to all stations on 12 September 1943 detailed instructions for handling intelligence sources within the CPUSA after the disestablishment of the Comintern.

In late 1944 two senior OGPU officers, Stephan Apresyan of the New York ''rezidentura'', and Vladimir Pravdin, a OGPU officer working out of Washington D.C., sent cables to Moscow criticizing each other’s performance, but also disagreeing over OGPU tactics. Apresyan denounced Pravdin for believing that “without the help of the ... secret appartus we are completely powerless.” Apresyan argued that “it is ... untrue that without ... Browder we are ‘powerless.’” While “we shall have to have recourse to the ... secret appartus ... they ought not to be the one and only base especially if you take into account the fact that in the event of ... [[Thomas Dewey]]’s being elected President, this source may dry up.” Apresyan lost that particular argument. Thomas Dewey was not elected in 1944, and the OGPU was able to continue to use the CPUSA as an auxiliary, but the reprieve ended in 1945.

Many of the OGPU’s sources in this period regarded themselves to be under CPUSA as well as Soviet direction. In early 1945, [[Ishkak Akhmerov]], the KGB illegal officer, sent a long cable to Moscow discussing the Silvermaster group. Akhmerov noted that “it is doubtful whether ... the OGPU could get the same results as ... Silvermaster.” He told Moscow that “it costs ... Silvermaster great pains to keep ... [the American sources] in line. ... Silvermaster being their leader in the CPUSA line helps him give them orders”, and added, “that our ... OGPU officers would not manage to work with the same success under the CPUSA flag.” The productivity of the secret apparatus networks supervised by Akhmerov is illustrated by OGPU records of the numbers of reels of [[microfilm]] of United States Government documents delivered to Moscow via Akhmerov: 59 roles in 1942, 211 in 1943, 600 in 1944, and 1,896 in 1945.

In the 1930s and early 1940s there was only limited “compartmentalization” between the CPUSA and Soviet espionage. The organizational blending of these different aspects of the Communist movement allowed the Soviet Union to maximize its return on the assets it possessed. But after World War II when American authorities belatedly paid attention, and the FBI began an aggressive investigation, the vulnerability of this arrangement also became clear. An organization as large as the CPUSA had too many areas of weakness. Many party-linked espionage operations were exposed and neutralized by American counterintelligence in the late 1940s and 1950s. And the CPUSA itself became tainted with disloyalty.

In August 1945 [[Elizabeth Bentley]] turned herself in to the government. Afterward, the Soviets quickly closed down the networks with which she had contact and recalled to Moscow those OGPU officers whom Bentley could identify. Shortly after Bentley’s defection came [[Igor Gouzenko]], a GRU cipher clerk at the Soviet embassy in Canada who disclosed information about Soviet espionage both in Canada and the U.S and Soviet codes.

The first [[Soviet atomic bomb project|Soviet atomic bomb]] in 1949 was a virtual carbon copy of “[[Fat Man]],” the implosion-type plutonium weapon the United States dropped on Nagasaki four years earlier.

The latter 1940s and early ’50s were a time of tense, explosive conflict, in the world at large and in American politics. Soviet expansionism in Europe, the [[Chinese Civil War]], and the 1950 outbreak of the [[Korean War]] shatterred the dreams of post-war cooperation with the Soviet Union. American policy dealing with this rapidly changing scene was often confused, naive, slow to respond, and contradictory. <ref>Carroll Quigley, ''Tragedy and Hope: A History of the World in Our Time'', Collier-Macmillan, 1966, pg. 909. ISBN 0-945001-10-X</ref> In Korea, for example, the U.S. aided and armed [[South Korea]] to [[Containment|contain the spread of Soviet communism]], while in China only two years earlier the U.S actually told the [[Nationalist Chinese]] government to do what the Soviet Union wanted — unite with the Soviet backed [[Chinese Communist Party]]. When Gen. [[Chiang Kai-shek]] refused, we U.S. disarmed him.<ref>''While You Slept : Our Tragedy in Asia and Who Made It'', John T. Flynn, New York : The Devin - Adair Company, 1951, [http://www.mises.org/books/whileyouslept.pdf pg. 15] pdf.</ref>

==Popular Front==
:''Main article: [[Popular Front]]''
The CPUSA was adamantly opposed to fascism during the Popular Front period. In fact, the Popular Front was motivated by a fear of fascism, and the possible threat to the Soviet Union that [[Nazi Germany]] posed. Although membership in the CPUSA rose to about 75,000 [http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/archives/sova.html] by 1938, nearly a third of its members left the party after the signing of the [[Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact]] [[nonaggression pact|Nonaggression Pact]] of 1939 pact with [[Hitler]]. A committed core remained in the ranks. The CPUSA even went so far as to accuse [[Winston Churchill]] and [[Franklin Delano Roosevelt]] of provoking aggression against Hitler. The CPUSA went so far as to denounce the [[Polish]] government as fascist after the German and Soviet invasion.

[[Benjamin Gitlow]], a Communist who later broke with the Party, wrote in 1940: "Stalin's hopes, through the activities of the American Communist Party, to create a public opinion in tbe United States that would favor a war ...Stalin is perfectly willing to let Americans die in defense of the Soviet Union even if they are not members
of the Commumist Party...." <ref>Benjamin Gitlow, ''I Confess'', New York: E P. Dutton, lnc., 1940, pgs. 485-486.</ref>

==American Labor Party==

Stalin publicly disbanded the Comintern in 1943. A Moscow NKVD message to all stations on 12 September 1943 detailed instructions for handling intelligence sources within the CPUSA after the disestablishment of the Comintern. Earl Browder had been both Chairman of the CPUSA and recruiter for the [[NKVD]] (in the [[Venona project]] he is known as Agent "HELMSMAN"). He was expelled from the leadership when Soviet policy shifted. His crime had been to follow Moscow’s orders in 1941 and “disband” the party in a show of unity with the US Government. But the NKGB thought his services worth keeping, and they succeeded in covertly financing him, by setting him up as a representative of Soviet publishers. Even then, that didn't work, as Browder was dropped after violating the Party Line again in favor of [[Titoism]]. Lovestone said of Browder, "There, but for an accident of geography, walks a dead man".

As the [[Presidential election of 1944]] approached Browder and [[Sidney Hillman]] teamed up to capture the [[American Labor Party]]. Hilman’s [[Council of Industrial Organizations]] (CIO) enjoyed a favored position before [[Franklin Roosevelt]]’s [[National Labor Relations Board]].

==Propaganda==

Between the crucial years of 1943 and 1949 some 30 books on the general political situation in China were published in the United States. Of these, 23 were pro-[[Maoist]] and seven were anti-Communist. Several of the pro-Maoist books are noted here:

*''Unfinished Revolution in China'' by [[Israel Epstein]]
*''Journey from the East'' by [[Mark Gayn]]—''[[Washington Post]]'' Correspondent charged in [[Amerasia]] Case in which his office was found filled with stolen secret government documents.
*''New Frontiers in Asia'' by [[Philip J. Jaffe]]—Also charged in the Amerasia Case.
*''Solution in Asia'' by [[Owen Lattimore]]— Known [[Comintern]] operative.
*''Making of Modern China'' by Owen and [[Eleanor Lattimore]]—Reviewed favorably in ''[[The Nation]]'' and ''[[The New Republic]]''.
*''Situation in Asia'' by Owen Lattimore.
*''China's Wartime Politics'' by Lawrence K. Rosinger—Issued under the auspices of the [[Institute of Pacific Relations]].
*''Battle Hymn of China'' by [[Agnes Smedley]]—Known Soviet operative.
*''People on Our Side'' by [[Edgar Snow]]—"the people on our side" include the [[Chinese Communists]] who six years later were shooting American soldiers in the [[Korean War]].
*''Challenge of Red China'' by [[Guenther Stein]]—Stein was accused by Gen. [[Douglas MacArthur]]'s Intelligence service of being a Soviet agent.
*''Chinese Conquer China'' by [[Anna Louise Strong]]—[[KGB]] Agent and writer for the [[Marxist-Leninist]] ''[[Guardian]]'' newspaper.
*''The Phoenix and the Dwarfs'' by George E. Taylor—A play by the [[Office of War Information]] (OWI) deputy director of its Far Eastern Division.

Every one of the 23 pro-Communist books, where reviewed, received glowing approval in the literary reviews of the ''[[New York Times]]'', ''The [[Herald-Tribune]]'', ''The Nation'', ''The New Republic'' and ''The Saturday Review of Literature''. And every one of the anti-Communist hooks was either roundly condemned or ignored in these same reviews.

When Edgar Snow's ''People on Our Side'' appeared, it was reviewed in the ''Hearld-Tribune''<ref>''New York Herald-Tribune Books of the Week'', September 10, 1944.</ref> by [[Joseph Barnes]], whom Lattimore had instructed to replace non-Communist Chinese in OWI with Communists.<ref>[http://www.geocities.com/Pentagon/6315/yaltabet.html ''The Yalta Betrayal''], Felix Wittmer, Claxton Printers, 1953, pg. 36.</ref> Mark Gayn reviewed it in the ''Saturday Review of Literature''<ref>''Saturday Review of Literature'', September 9, 1944</ref> In the ''New Republic''<ref>''New Republic'', October 2, 1944.</ref> an equally glowing review came from Agnes Smedley. ''The Nation''<ref>''The Nation'', September 23, 1944.</ref> came along with a review by Marcus
Duffield, who saw in Snow's ''People on Our Side'' a fine book "by a scrupulously accurate reporter."

The incestuous relationship of Communist [[propagandist]]s can be seen when Lattimore's book ''Solution in Asia'' was reviewed in the ''New York Times''<ref>''New York Times Weekly Book Review'', February 25, 1945.</ref> by Edgar Snow. Another of Lattimore's books a short time earlier received accolades from Edgar Snow's wife, [[Nym Wales]], in the ''Saturday Review of Literature''.<ref>''Saturday Review of Literature'', March 25, 1944.</ref> In the ''Herald-Tribune''<ref>''New York Herald-Tribune Books of the Week'', February 25, 1945.</ref> A. T. Steele said Lattimore's book was one which "belongs in the brief case of every diplomat and general concerned with the reshaping of Asia." [[T. A. Bisson]], also arrested in the ''Amerasia'' scandal, wrote in the ''Saturday Review of Literature'', "The breath of the future blows through . . . this stimulating review of Far Eastern issues."<ref>''Saturday Review of Literature'', March 10, 1945.</ref> ''The Nation''<ref>''The Nation'', March 17, 1945.</ref> review was done by [[Maxwell S. Stewart]], also an editor of the same publication and was involved with some 40 [[Communist front]] activities.

Of the 23 pro-Communist books, Owen and Eleanor Lattimore, Edgar Snow and his wife Nym Wales, Agnes Smedley, Mark Gayn, [[John K. Fairbank]], [[Theodore White]] and [[Annalee Jacoby]], [[Harrison Forman]], [[Foster Rhea Dulles]], and [[Lawrence K. Rosinger]] wrote 12 and turned in 44 reviews, either touting each other's books, or blasting the 7 anti-Communist books. Throughout this extensive and concerted propaganda campaign it was made to appear that the Communists wanted unity to fight Japan but that Chiang Kai-shek was only interested in fighting his own people.<ref>''While You Slept: Our Tragedy in Asia and Who Made It'', John T. Flynn, New York : The Devin-Adair Company, 1951, [http://www.mises.org/books/whileyouslept.pdf pg. 152] pdf.</ref> Lattimore wrote, "The Soviet Union stands for democracy"<ref>''Solution in Asia'', Owen Lattimore, pg. 108.</ref> and Snow "The Soviet Union cannot have any [[expansionist]] tendencies."<ref>''Battle for Asia'', Edgar Snow, pg. 300.</ref>

[[Owen Lattimore]] in the [[leftist]] ''New York Compass'' said that the U.S. should give Korea a "parting grant" of $150,000,000 and "let [[South Korea]] fall but not to let it look as though we pushed it."<ref> New York Compass, Jan. 17, 1949.</ref>

==Infiltration==

Infiltrating the United Nations organization became a priority in the wake of the disbanding of the Comintern, the death of Golos which led to the ultimate breakdown in security, and the end of the War. Hiss was influential in the employment of 494 persons by the United Nations on its initial staff. <ref>Activities of U.S. Citizens Employed by the UN, second report of the [[SISS]] (March 22, 1954), p. 12.</ref>

Gradually it became apparent that the objectives of World War II for which the United States and others made tremendous sacrifices were not fully realized, and there remained in the world a force presenting even greater dangers to world peace than the Nazi militarists and Japanese warlords. Consequently, the United States made the decision in the Spring of 1947 to assist Greece and Turkey with a view to protecting their sovereignties, which were threatened by direct or instigated activities of the Soviet Union.

President Truman's Executive Order 9835 of 22 March 1947 tightened protections against subversive infiltration of the US Government, defining disloyalty as membership on a list of subversive organizations maintained by the Attorney General.

Truman’s denunciations of the charges against [[Alger Hiss]], Harry Dexter White, and others, all of whom appear under code names in decrypted messages translated before Truman left office, suggest that Truman was never briefed on the Venona program, or if he was briefed, did not grasp its significance. Truman insisted Republicans trumped up the loyalty issue, and that wartime espionage had been insignificant and well contained by counteritelligence agencies.

It was the belief of opponents of the CPUSA such as [[J. Edgar Hoover]], long-time director of the FBI, and [[Joseph McCarthy]], for whom [[McCarthyism]] is named, and other [[anticommunism|anticommunists]] that the CPUSA constituted an active [[conspiracy]], was secretive, loyal to a foreign power, and dedicated to the clandestine [[infiltration]] of American cultural and political institutions. This is the "traditionalist" view of some in the field of Communist studies such as Harvey Klehr and John Earl Haynes.

Senator [[Daniel Patrick Moynihan]], Chairman of the Moynihan Commission on Government Secrecy wrote in 1997, "President Truman was almost willfully obtuse as regards American Communism."

==Harry White==
:''Main article: [[Harry Dexter White]]''
Harry Dexter White was positively identified as Agent Jurist <ref>[http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/FBI_Memorandum_identifying_Harry_Dexter_White_as_agent_Jurist FBI Memorandum identifying Harry Dexter White as agent Jurist], Ladd to the Director, 16 October 1950.</ref> in an [[FBI]] memorandum dated 16 October 1950. White became involved with Soviet intelligence espionage in May of 1941. One of the most valuable assets to Soviet intelligence was his ability to infiltrate the United States [[Department of the Treasury]] with persons the [[Greg Silvermaster|Silvermaster spy ring]] wanted to have assinged there. Among the other American citizens and government employees acting as Soviet agents were [[Lud Ullman]], [[William Henry Taylor]], and [[Sonia Steinman Gold|Sonia Gold]].

On December 4, 1945, the FBI transmitted to the White House a report entitled "Soviet Espionage in the United States." The report summarized White's espionage activities. Copies of the report were sent to Attorney General [[Tom C. Clark|Tom Clark]] also. The evidence indicated a substantial spy ring operating within the Government and involving White. Given the secrecy of the [[Venona project]] materials, the president went ahead six weeks later and nominated White for appointment to head the newly created [[International Monetary Fund]], one of the chief institutional pillars of the postwar international economic order.

White was summoned before the [[House Un-American Activities Committee]] in August of 1948.
[[Elizabeth Bentley]] told the FBI White that had been involved in espionage activities on behalf of the [[Soviet Union]] during [[World War II]]. [[Whittaker Chambers]] earlier had testified of his association with White in the [[Communist]] underground secret apparatus up to 1938. White, recovering from a series of heart attacks, proclaimed his lifelong commitment to the principles of democracy and the ideals of President Roosevelt's New Deal. He died of a heart attack three days later and HUAC. The positive identification of Harry Dexter White as agent Jurist came two years after his death.

==[[Manhattan Project]]==
:''Main article: [[Manhattan Project]]''
[[Image:Image-Lenssketch2a.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Hand sketch by [[Morton Sobell]] of the detonator for the [[atomic bomb]]]]
Oppenheimer had been an ardent [[Popular Front]] liberal and ally and gave generous contributions often deliverd to [[Isaac Folkoff]]. Oppenheimer did not know just the secrets of some parts of the project; as director, he knew all the secrets, and just as soon as they came into being. Up to the time he reported the Chevalier recruitment approach, he may have overlooked the conduct of others, a passivity motivated by personal and political ties to those persons. Sins of ommission or neglect. (Although another theory states the Chevalier approach may not have been an attempt at recruitment, but part of the big shake up after Stalin publicly disbanded the Comintern in 1943, and agents had to be reassigned new case officers).<ref> Haynes & Klehr, ''Venona'' pp. 327-330.</ref>

An internal Soviet memorandum reads,

:"In 1942 one of the leaders of scientific work on uranium in the USA, Professor R. Oppenheimer while being an unlisted [nglastny] member of the apparatus of Comrade Browder informed us about the beginning of work. On the request of Kheifetz, confirmed by Comrade Browder, he provided cooperation in access to research for several of our tested sources including a relative of Comrade Browder…Due to complications…it is expedient to immediately sever contacts of leaders and activist of the American Communist Party with scientists and specialists engaged in work on uranium.

Excerpts from the testimony of CPUSA functionary, Paul Crouch, p. 1834 -1841 <ref>[http://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/resources/pdf/Volume3.pdf McCarthy Hearings, Testimony of Paul Crouch], Executive Session, Vol. 3: 1834 - 1841, 15 September 1953. (PDF file, pgs. 33-41).</ref> concerning [[J. Robert Oppenheimer]].

:"Chairman – Were you a top functionary of the party?
:Crouch – Yes...I was a full time organizer for 15 years [1925 -1942]

:Chairman – What were some of the positions you held...?
:Crouch – I was a representative of the Young Communist League and the Communist Party of the United States to the meetings of the executive committee of the Communist International, Young Communist International, Moscow...I was an honorary officer of the Red Army...a member of the editorial staff of the Daily Worker...a district organizer...in Virginia, New York and South Carolina, Tennessee and Utah; member of the district bureau in the Alabama district and the California district, Alameda County [CA] organizer, 1941...

:Chairman – ...and you were informed by two Justice Dept. lawyers that you would not be used because if you were...you would have to identify Robert J. Oppenheimer? [as a member of the CPUSA]
:Crouch – To that effect, yes sir.

:Chairman – Is there any doubt in your mind that Oppenheimer was a member of the Communist Party?
:Crouch – No, sir, none whatever. I met him in a closed meeting of the Communist Party in a house which was subsequently found to have been his residence at the time...and following that I met him at quite a number of Communist Party affairs in Alameda County.

:Chairman – Is there any doubt in your mind that but that Oppenheimer was under Communist party discipline at the time...?
:Crouch – No, sir, none whatever

:Chairman – And naturally they would be interested in any atomic information he had?
:Crouch – Yes, sir. Just as a matter of fact, the Communist Party might have chosen to direct him to turn over the information; they might have chosen to direct him to appoint other Communists to key positions who would in turn, turn over the information. It is a matter of record that Dr. Oppenheimer has appointed many Communists to key positions to the atomic energy program..."

==CIA==

After working as a journalist, [[Kim Philby]] was recruited by Valentine "Vee Vee" Vivian of the British [[Secret Intelligence Service]] (the so-called M.I.6) in 1940, later becoming part of the [[Special Operations Executive]], and coming into contact with [[Office of Strategic Services]] agents.

After [[World War II]] Philby was assigned to Istanbul, and then to the United States, where he later became first secretary at the British Embassy in Washington. While there he visited [[Arlington Hall]] for discussions about [[VENONA]] and regularly received copies of transcripts as part of his official duties. He returned to Britain in 1950 and in 1951 managed to warn Burgess and Maclean of an internal British intelligence probe, which allowed them sufficient time to escape to the Soviet Union. Suspicion of his involvement forced his retirement from intelligence and he went to work in Beirut.

However, in 1956 Philby was again in the employ of SIS as an "informant on retainer". He was given the task as second-in-command to the point man for [[Operation Musketeer]], the British, French, and Israeli plan to attack Egypt and depose [[Gamal Abdel Nasser]].

Only in 1963, with the defection of [[Anatoliy Golitsyn]], did Western intelligence unmask Philby's true allegiance; however, Philby was able to escape to the Soviet Union before he could be detained.

==Espionage==

In June 1947, a Senate Appropriations subcommittee addressed a secret memorandum to Secretary of State [[George Marshall]], calling to his attention a condition that developed and still flourished in the State Department under the administration of [[Dean Acheson]].

{{Cquote|It is evident that there is a deliberate calculated program being carried out not only to protect Communist personnel in high places, but to reduce security and intelligence protection to a nullity. On file in the Department is a copy of a preliminary report of the FBI on Soviet espionage activities in the United States, which involves large numbers of State Department employees. . . this report has been challenged and ignored by those charged with the responsibility of administering the department. <ref>[http://www.humanevents.com/article.php?print=yes&id=455 McCarthyism: Waging the Cold War in America], by M. Stanton Evans, ''Human Events'', 05/30/1997. Updated 05/08/2003.</ref>}}

The memorandum listed the names of nine of these State Department officials and said that they were "only a few of the hundreds now employed in varying capacities who are protected and allowed to remain despite the fact that their presence is an obvious hazard to national security." On June 24, 1947, Assistant Secretary of State John Peurifoy notified the chairman of the Senate subcommittee that ten persons had been dismissed from the department, five of whom had been listed in the memorandum. But from June 1947 until McCarthy's Wheeling speech in February 1950, the State Department did not fire one person as a loyalty or security risk. <ref>[http://www.arlingtoncemetery.net/jepeurifoy.htm John Emil Peurifoy, Foreign Service Office & United States Ambassador], Arlington National Cemetery Website, retrieved 21 March 2007.</ref>

Senator [[Margaret Chase Smith]] of Maine delivered her famous [[Declararation of Conscience]] on the floor of the U.S. Senate:
{{Cquote|The American people are sick and tired of seeing innocent people smeared and guilty people whitewashed. But there have been enough proved cases, such as the ''[[Amerasia]]'' case, the [[Hiss]] case, the [[Coplon]] case, the [[Harry Gold|Gold]] case, to cause the nationwide distrust and strong suspicion that there may be something to the [[McCarthyism|unproved, sensational accusations]].

The Democratic Administration has greatly lost the confidence of the American people by its complacency to the threat of communism here at home and the leak of [[manhattan project|vital secrets]] to Russia [[Venona|through key officials of the Democratic administration]]. <ref>Sen. Margaret Chase Smith, [http://americanrhetoric.com/speeches/margaretchasesmithconscience.html "Declaration of Conscience"], 1 June 1950. Retrieved from americanrhetoric.com 24 June 2007.</ref>}}

Director Hoover told a House Committee in February 1950 that counterespionage required "an objective different from the handling of criminal cases. It is more important to ascertain his contacts, his objectives, his sources of information and his methods of communication" as "arrest and public disclosure are steps to be taken only as a matter of last resort." He concluded that "we can be secure only when we have a full knowledge of the operations of an espionage network, because then we are in a position to render their efforts ineffective." <ref>J. Edgar Hoover, Testimony before House Appropriations Committee, 2/7/1950.</ref>

In summary memorandums to Director Hoover of [[Venona project]] information begun in 1950 entitled, ''Operations of the [[MGB]] Residency at New York, 1944-45'', Special Agent Belmont reported the FBI had identified 206 persons involved in Soviet espionage activity who had been active in United States. Of this number the FBI had information from defector [[Elizabeth Bentley]] and other sources regarding espionage activity on 87 of these persons. However, espionage activity on the paert of 119 persons from Venona information were not previously known to the FBI prior to 1946 but were mostly identified through investigation by 1950. <ref>[http://foia.fbi.gov/venona/venona.pdf FBI Venona file]</ref>

Most but not all of [[Senator McCarthy]]’s numbered cases were drawn from the “Lee List” or “108 list” of unresolved [[Department of State]] security cases compiled by the investigators for the House Appropriates Committee in 1947. Robert E. Lee was the committee’s lead investigator and supervised preparation of the list. The Tydings subcommittee also obtained this list. The Lee list, also using numbers rather than names, was published in the proceeding of the subcommittee. <ref>U.S. Senate Committee on Foreign Relations, State Department Employee Loyalty Investigations (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Govt. Print. Off., 1950).</ref>

Senator McCarthy furnished the [[Tydings Committee]] the real names attached to his numbered cases, and the Tydings Committee received the real names attached to the Lee list as well. <ref>McCarthy to Tydings, 18 March 1950 with attached list.</ref> Over the years that followed all of the names became public one way or another. Additionally, in a series of speeches McCarthy named others as secret Communists, spies, security risks, or participants in the Communist conspiracy.

==Subversive Activities Control Act ==

In the "Findings and declarations of fact" of the [[United States Congress]] in the [[Subversive Activities Control Act of 1950]], in 50 [[U.S. Code]] Chapter 23 Subchapter IV Sec. 841, that,

:"The Congress finds and declares that the Communist Party of the United States, although purportedly a political party, is in fact an instrumentality of a conspiracy to overthrow the Government of the United States...the policies and programs of the Communist Party are secretly prescribed for it by the foreign leaders...members of the Communist Party are recruited for indoctrination with respect to its objectives and methods, and are organized, instructed, and disciplined to carry into action slavishly the assignments given them...the Communist Party acknowledges no constitutional or statutory limitations upon its conduct...gives scant indication of capacity ever to attain its ends by lawful political means. The peril inherent in its operation arises not from its numbers, but from its failure to acknowledge any limitation as to the nature of its activities, and its dedication to the proposition that the present constitutional Government of the United States ultimately must be brought to ruin by any available means, including resort to force and violence. Holding that doctrine, its role as the agency of a hostile foreign power renders its existence a clear present and continuing danger to the security of the United States. It is the means whereby individuals are seduced into the service of the world Communist movement, trained to do its bidding, and directed and controlled in the conspiratorial performance of their revolutionary services.[http://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/html/uscode50/usc_sec_50_00000841----000-.html]

==Further reading==

*<cite>American Communist History</cite> a peer-reviewed journal published by the Historians of American Communism. [http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals/titles/14743892.html]

==See also==
*[[Harry Hay]]
*[[Cold War]]
*[[Soviet spies in America (1921-1948)]]

==References==
<references/>
*''The Sword and the Shield: The Mitrokhin Archive and the Secret History of the KGB'', Christopher Andrew and [[Vasili Mitrokhin]], Basic Books, 1999, hardcover edition, p. 287-293, p. 306, ISBN 0465003109. Vasili Mitrokhin was an archivist who worked for the [[KGB]]. After 1972 when the KGB established its new modern offices at Yasenovo, Mitrokhin was entrusted with transferring the corpus of KGB files from its old office at the [[Lubyanka]] in [[Moscow]] to the new offices. During the next ten years while performing these duties he copied many files which he turned over to British intelligence when he defected in March, 1992.

* ''Operation Solo: The FBI's Man in the Kremlin'', John Barron, Regnery Publishing, 1996, ISBN 0895264862; 2001 edition, ISBN 0709160615. This biography of [[Morris Childs]], who together with his brother Jack arranged for and handled the money transfers during the 1960s and 70s, contains much of the same material.

==External links==
*[http://education-research.org/PDFs/Silvermaster023.pdf Method of Operation of Soviet Espionage System], FBI Silvermaster file, Vol. 23, pgs. 60 - 63 pdf, February 21, 1946.

*[http://www.workers.org/2005/us/lgbtseries-0512/ Harry Hay tried to 'close chapter' on his gayness], Leslie Feinberg, '' Workers World'', May 4, 2005.

* [http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/FBI_Memo_Morgan_to_Clegg%2C_Janaury_14%2C_1947 FBI Memo Morgan to Clegg, Janaury 14, 1947]

* [http://www.fas.org/irp/ops/ci/docs/ci3/ch1.pdf Cold War Counterintelligence]

*[http://www.english.upenn.edu/~afilreis/50s/raymond-allen.html Article: Communists Should Not Teach In American Colleges], 1949, by Raymond B. Allen, President of the University of Washington, Seattle.

*[http://www-hoover.stanford.edu/publications/digest/992/beichman.html Article: Guilty as charged by Arnold Beichman, survey of Soviet documents on Communists in America] [[Hoover Institute]] - Hoover Digest 1999.

*[http://www.marxists.org/subject/usa/eam/cpaofficials.html Marxist Internet Archive]

[[Category:United States Political Parties]]
[[Category:Espionage]]
[[Category:Subversive organizations]]
[[Category:Communism]]

Book of Revelation

2007-12-14T04:57:10Z

Chipmonker: sp - 'recieved'

The '''Book of Revelation''' (formal title '''The Revelation of St. John the Divine''', also called '''The Revelation to John''', '''The Apocalypse of John''', or simply '''Revelation''') is the final book of the [[Christian]] [[Bible]] (The [[New Testament]]). It records a series visions received by the apostle John while he was imprisoned on the island of Patmos. The visions describe the end times and the second coming of [[Jesus Christ]].

Revelation also describes the final rebellion of [[Satan]] (at [[Armageddon]]), the final defeat of Satan by [[God]], and the return of peace to the world.

===Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse===
Revelation first describes the arrival of the [[Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse]]: Pestilence, War, Famine, and Death. However, the Bible itself only directly names the fourth horseman, "death".

===Mark of the Beast===
Revelation describes a time in which the a mark consisting of the [[Number of the Beast]] will be required on all people in order to buy or sell.

[[Category:New Testament]]

Texas War of Independence

2007-12-14T04:56:58Z

Chipmonker: spelling

The '''Texas War of Independence''' was fought from 1835-36 between the Mexican government and the rebellious territory of Texas. It resulted in the establishment of the short-lived [[Republic of Texas]].
==Background==
In 1810, [[Mexico]] received its independence from [[Spain]]. In 1824, with the Mexican government wishing to settle the mostly-empty northern region, [[Moses Austin]] was invited to settle a colony of [[United States|Americans]] in east Texas. The only conditions were that the Americans convert to [[Catholicism]], renounce their American citizenship, become "Mexicanized," and either free or leave behind their [[slavery|slaves]]. Most of these requests were ignored, and not easily enforceable. After the death of Austin, his son [[Sam Austin]] became the de-facto leader of the Texans. The Tejanos (American residents of Texas) wished for increased trade with the [[United States]], more self-rule, and slavery. When met with the "[[Napoleon]] of the West," the new Mexican President-General [[Santa Anna]], by 1835, increased tensions between the central government in [[Mexico City]] and the distant region of Texas were at the brink of war.
==The War==
===The Alamo and Goliad===
Texas declared its independence from Mexico, and Santa Anna quickly raised a 6000-strong army to put down the insurrection, despite the approaching winter. Santa Anna lost hundreds of troops in the desert winter while on the march, but arrived in Texas earlier than expected. [[Sam Houston]], a former governor of [[Tennessee]], had been gathering volunteers to face Santa Anna. With Houston's forces still in disarray, Santa Anna laid siege to the [[San Antonio]] fortress, the [[Alamo]]. Actually an old Spanish mission, it had been hastily barricaded into an impromptu fort. 187 Texans famously [[Alamo|held out for thirteen days]] despite knowing they would not be able to live through the 6,000-man assault. All 187 Texans were killed, including their commander [[William Travis]], and other notable persons such as [[David Crockett]] and [[Jim Bowie]]. The Mexican army suffered up to 1000 casualties.

At the [[Battle of Goliad]], a force of 300 Texans was surrounded by the Mexican army. After three costly charges, the Mexicans called in cannons and reinforcements, and surrounded the Texans in the night. The Texans surrendered the following day. At the [[Goliad Massacre]], General Santa Anna ordered the execution of all prisoners. Despite the deaths of up to 400 Texans in these two battles, these two occurrences were vital to the Texas Revolution. These two strategically unimportant locations delayed the Mexican advance for several weeks, allowing Houston to gather much-need support in eastern Texas. Also, the martyrdom of those who willingly gave their lives at the Alamo, as well as the butchery at Goliad, galvanized the Texan cause.

===[[Battle of San Jacinto]]===
Santa Anna, now unhindered, marched into the heart of Texas in pursuit of Houston. Houston, who knew his small but ever-growing army still could not hope to meet the Mexicans in battle, performed a strategic retreat eastward towards the [[United States]]. Much of the Texan support was coming from the western US, and as Houston retreated, his supply lines shortened. The Mexicans, who had limited food and supplies, were lengthening their supply lines from Mexico City every day. Houston also burned the towns and fields he passed through, so as to deny the Mexican army the ability to plunder and re-supply. An unexpected split of the Mexican army occurred, in which over half of Santa Anna's forces, under the command of General Urrea (the general who had called for reinforcements on the first day at Goliad), turned towards [[Galveston]], the temporary capital of Texas. Houston, at the demands of his 900 weary men, turned to face his enemy while he was only slightly outnumbered, with the Mexican forces now only numbering 1200.

Santa Anna, who believed that the Texans would again retreat upon realizing that they were still outnumbered, ordered his men to set up camp along the banks of the San Jacinto River. Houston's men, however, were eager to fight. Houston ordered an attack the following morning, unwittingly catching the Mexicans during their [[siesta]] hour. The unprepared Mexicans were massacred, with all soldiers being either killed or captured. The Texans lost nine. The captured Santa Anna ordered General Urrea to return to Mexico City, and granted the Texans their Independence. American President [[Andrew Jackson]], as well as [[Great Britain]], soon recognized the [[Republic of Texas]] as an independent nation.

==Republic of Texas==
The newly-formed Republic lasted for several years, before finally petitioning the United States for statehood. It was granted in 1845, just before the outbreak of the [[Mexican-American War]].

[[Category:Wars]]

William Henry Taylor

2007-12-14T04:56:12Z

Chipmonker: sp - 'recieved'

{| cellpadding="1" style="float: right; border: 1px solid #8888aa; background: #f7f8ff; padding: 5px; font-size: 85%; margin: 0 15px 0 15px;"
| style="background: #ccf; text-align: center;" | '''This article is part of the''' '''[[Venona project|Venona]]''' '''series.'''
|-
| style="text-align: center;"|[[CPUSA#Secret_apparatus|Secret apparatus]]
|-
| style="text-align: center;"|[[ Foreign Economic Administration]]
|-
| style="text-align: center;"|[[Silvermaster group]]
|-
|style="border-bottom: 1px solid #ccc"|
|-
| style="text-align: center;"|[http://en.wikipedia.org/w/wiki.phtml?title=Template:Ushistory&action=edit Edit this box]
|}
'''Willaim Henry Taylor''' was born in [[British]] Columbia on 30 March 1906 and studied at the Unversity of British Columbia, and attended school with [[Greg Silvermaster|Nathan Gregory Silvermaster]] at the University of California where he received a Ph.D. from the in 1933, taught [[economic]]s at the University of Hawaii for 8 years and became naturalized citizen in 1940. In 1934 while living in Hawaii Taylor visited the [[Soviet Union]] and spent several months there.

Taylor was able to secure employment within the [[United States]] [[Department of the Treasury]] through Secretary [[Harry Dexter White]] in 1941. The Treasury Department sent him to [[China]] and later Lisbon, [[Portugal]] for the [[Foreign Economic Administration]]. Taylor also was a member of the [[Communist Party of the United States]] (CPUSA), in violation of federal employment statutes barring membership in an organization seeking the violent overthrow of the United States Government. As a CPUSA member and of the secret apparatus known as the [[Silvermaster group]] <ref>[http://foia.fbi.gov/foiaindex/silversm.htm Silvermaster Group FBI FOIA]</ref>, Taylor supplied information orally and in document form to [[Soviet]] intelligence.

In June 1945 Taylor worked out of the U.S. Embassy in London and later that year Paris.

[[Elizabeth Bentley]] told the [[FBI]] in 1945 that several Treasury Department officials, [[Harry Dexter White]], [[V. Frank Coe]], and William H. Taylor passed along information to the Soviet intelligence from a cell headed by [[Nathan Gregory Silvermaster]] and [[William Ullman]]. To handle the volume of material passing through the group, Ullman, who lived in Silvermaster's house, had set up a darkroom in the basement to photograph the documents rather than copy them by hand.

Associates claim Taylor spoke about [[Communism]] constantly. He is one of two Soviet agents who used the code name name "Acorn" as deciphered by the [[Venona project]]. Code names sometimes were changed by a user and another assigned.

On 19 October 1953 Taylor testified in a private session of the Senate Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations chaired by [[Sen. Joseph McCarthy]] regarding stolen occupation currency plates at the end of WWII. <ref>McCarthy Hearings, Testimony of William Henry Taylor, Executive Session, [http://fl1.findlaw.com/news.findlaw.com/hdocs/docs/mccarthy/hearingsvol4.pdf Vol. 4]: 3403 - 3418 (681 - 696 PDF), 19 October 1953.</ref>

==References==
<references/>

{{DEFAULTSORT:Taylor, William Henry}}
[[Category:Communist Party USA members]]
[[Category:KGB Agents and Sources]]

Lona Cohen

2007-12-14T04:55:40Z

Chipmonker: spelling

[[Image:Koenl.jpg|right|150px|thumb|Lona Cohen]]
'''Lona Theresa Cohen''', '''Leontine''', a.k.a. in London as '''Helen Kroger''' (11 January 1913 - 23 December 1992) was born in Massachusetts. Lona Cohen was an American citizen and member of the [[Communist Party of the United States of America]] (CPUSA). She was recruited into Soviet espionage in 1939 by her husband [[Morris Cohen (Soviet spy)|Morris Cohen]], and worked for Soviet case officers, including [[Anatoli Yatskov]], out of the New York Rezidentura during [[World War II]].

Lona ran a network that included engineers and technicians at munitions and aviation plants in the New York area after Morris had been drafted in 1942. A source of heres smuggled a working model of a new machine gun out of a munition plant. The [[FBI]] discovered later that Lona had worked at two defense plans, the Public Metal Company in New York City in 1941 and the Aircraft Screw Products plant on Long Island in 1943.

She was a courier who picked up reports from [[Klaus Fuchs]] (covernames CHARLES and REST), [[David Greenglass]] (covernames BUMBLEBEE and CALIBRE), [[Theodore Hall]] (covername YOUNGSTER [MLAD]), and a source covernamed "FOGEL" and "PERS" from the American secret [[atomic weapons]] project at [[Los_Alamos_National_Laboratory#History |Los Alamos]], New Mexico and carried them to the Soviet consulate in New York, where a KGB sub-residency under a young engineer named [[Leonid R. Kvasnikov]] (covername ANTON) coordinated operations and dispatched intelligence to Moscow.

After the defections of [[Elizabeth Bentley]] and [[Igor Gouzenko]], the Cohens ended contact with Soviet intelligence until 1949, at which time they began working with Col. [[Rudolph Abel]], the ''Illegal'' U.S. Rezident. After Fuchs had been arrested in Great Britain in 1950, the Cohens fled to [[Moscow]]. Here Lona Cohen received additional training for the work as radio operator and cipher clerk. In 1954 the pair resurfaced in London under the names Helen and Peter Kroger with new Zealand passports. They set up a antiquarian book dealer business which was cover for their activities of running the London ''Illegal'' Rezidentura, headed by Morris. [[Gordon Lonsdale]] worked with them.

In the basement of their house, situated not far from the military airfield Of Nortkholt, they set up a radio station and began transferring to Moscow "information of special importance" with the use of the high speed radio transmitter. In January of 1961 they were arrested for espionage and in March Lona received a sentence of 20 years and Morris 25 years.

In 1969 the two were exchanged with the Soviet Union for a British subject being held. Back in Moscow, they two continued training colleagues for ''illegal'' intelligence operations.

Lona Cohen was awarded the Order of the Red Banner and Order of Order of Friendship of Nations. Her code name in Soviet intelligence and the [[Venona]] files is "Lesley".

==See also==
*[[Perseus (spy)|Perseus]]

==External link==
*[http://pers-perseus.blogspot.com/2005/04/theory-of-fielding-set-b-spanish-civil.html#SU Theory of Fielding]

===References===

*Russian Foreign Intelligence Service (SVR) [http://svr.gov.ru]
*Russian Federal Foreign Intelligence Service, Veterany vneshnei razvedki Rosii (Veterans of Russian foreign intelligence service), Moscow: Russian Federal Foreign Intelligence Service, (1995).
*[http://foia.fbi.gov/foiaindex/cohen_morris_lona.htm FBI Morris and Lona Cohen file, 100–406659].
*Rebecca West, ''The New Meaning of Treason'', New York: Viking (1964), pgs. 281–288.
*Joseph Albright and Marcia Kunstel, ''Bombshell: The Secret Story of America's Unknown Atomic Spy Conspiracy'', New York: Times Books (1997) pgs. 244–253.
*John Earl Haynes and Harvey Klehr, ''Venona: Decoding Soviet Espionage in America'', Yale University Press, pgs. 316, 317–319, 320, 321, 334.
*[http://www.pbs.org/redfiles/kgb/deep/interv/k_int_svetlana_chervonnaya.htm Interview with Dr. Svetlana Chervonnaya]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Cohen, Lona}}
[[Category:KGB Agents and Sources]]

Universal Declaration of Human Rights

2007-12-14T04:52:21Z

Chipmonker: sp - 'recieved'

The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948) was a United Nations' definition of basic human rights as including "life, liberty, and security of person."

They can broadly be split into two groups; Articles 4 - 22 outline civil and political rights, such as the right to vote, and the right to freedom of speech; while 23 - 30 give socioeconomic rights, such as the rights to social security, health care, education, and a clean environment. Many of the articles run directly contrary to [[Marxist]] doctrine.

==Article 18==
Article 18 states
:''Everyone has the right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion; this right includes freedom to change his religion or belief, and freedom, either alone or in community with others and in public or private, to manifest his religion or belief in teaching, practice, worship and observance.''

This article was not received into much of the Soviet bloc until after the collapse of [[Communism]]. In China, the [[CCP]] still targets and persecutes certain religious believers, notably Christians and [[Falun Gong]].

==Reference==
*[http://www.un.org/Overview/rights.html Universal Declaration of Human Rights], Adopted and proclaimed by General Assembly resolution 217 A (III) of 10 December 1948.

[[Category:International Law]]
[[Category:Law]]

Phillip E. Johnson

2007-12-14T04:52:07Z

Chipmonker: sp - 'recieved'

'''Phillip E. Johnson''' is one of the leading members of the [[Intelligent design]] movement and has done much to help these ideas gain acceptance and a wider hearing worldwide. Johnson is the author of several books on evolution, philosophical naturalism, and other cultural issues and speaks extensively around the country. Johnson received the 2004 William Wilberforce Award a recognition of an individual who has made a difference in the face of formidable societal problems and injustices. The award is given in honor of William Wilberforce, an eighteenth century British parliamentarian who stood against his party in his campaign to abolish the slave trade and honor the basic human right to life.

{{stub2}}

== External Links ==
*[http://phillipejohnson.net/ Phillip E. Johnson] website
*[http://creationwiki.org/Phillip_Johnson CreationWiki - Phillip Johnson]

Mount Sinai

2007-12-14T04:51:53Z

Chipmonker: sp - 'recieved'

[[Image:Mount_Sinai6.jpg‎|250px|thumb|Mount Sinai]]
'''A 7,498 foot mountain, located in Southern Sinai''', now part of modern Egypt. According to the [[Bible]], this is the location where [[Moses]] received the [[Ten Commandments]] from [[God]], also known as Mount Horeb, Mount Musa.

Mount Sinai is mentioned 21 times in the [[Bible]], including 19 times in the [[Torah]] (first five books) alone.<ref>http://cf.blb.org/search/translationResults.cfm?Criteria=Mount+Sinai&Version=KJV&sf=3</ref>

[[Image:Sinai_Peninsula_from_Southeastern_Mediterranean_panorama_STS040-152-180.jpg|200px|thumb|Sinai peninsula from space]]

==References==

<References/>

==External Links==
*http://scriptures.lds.org/en/biblephotos/1 Photographs of Scriptural Sites: Mount Sinai (Horeb) and the Sinai Wilderness, scriptures.lds.org

{{DEFAULTSORT:Sinai, Mount}}

[[Category:Mountains]]
[[Category:Biblical places]]
[[Category:Geography]]

Subsistence pattern

2007-12-14T04:50:59Z

Chipmonker: spelling

A '''subsistence pattern''' (or strategy) is the method by which a [[society]] acquires its food resources. The subsistence patten is influenced by the natural environment and [[ecology]] of the region the society lives in. [[Anthropologists]] recognize five major subsistence strategies: [[Foraging]], [[Horticulture]], [[Pastoralism]], [[Agriculture]], and [[Industrialism]].<ref>Kotak, Conrad. 2005. ''Window on Humanity: A Concise Introduction to Anthropology.'' New York: McGraw-Hill.</ref> Foraging is the act of collecting, fishing, or hunting for food (ex. Aleuts, Austrailian Aborigines, Mbuti). Horticulture is the non-industrial system of plant cultivation in which plots lie fallow for varying lengths of time (ex. Jivaro, Yanommamo). Pastoralists receive most of their food from herds of domesticated animals (Massai, Bedouin). Agriculture is the growing of food in the same location for an extended period of time, and typically involving some form of irrigation system (ex. Cherokee, Feudal Japan, pre-industrial Europe). Industrialism refers to a society in which most of the population is not directly involved in the food production process (United States, Europe, Japan).

<references/>

[[Category:Anthropology]]

Management of a Corporation

2007-12-14T04:49:49Z

Chipmonker: spelling

There are three classes of management in a formal corporate enterprise: 1) The Board of Directors, 2) Officers and 3) Managers.

The Board of Directors are elected by the Shareholders to provide broad oversight and guidance to the Officers of the Corporation. Boards will have various committees with specific duties, such as the Audit Committee to liaise with the company's auditors, the Compensation Committee to determine the appropriate compensation for various senior managers, and many other ad hoc committees depending upon the needs of the business at the time.

Officers are appointed by the Board of Directors and at least three offices must be held by a minimum of two persons: The President, Secretary and Treasurer. Rules vary by state by state, but the President is generally the senior manager of the corporation. He reports to, and can be replaced by, the Board of Directors. In smaller companies, the Secretary and Treasurer position are normally held by one person, most likely the senior financial person in the business. In larger companies, the position of Secretary is normally held by a lawyer.

The Secretary's duties are to ensure the corporation fulfills its statutory requirements, and he is also keeper of the corporate seal. If the corporation is required to attest to a certain fact or condition, such attestation will probably be done by the Secretary.

The Treasurer is responsible for the financial affairs of the corporation, including but not limited to banking arrangements, proper filing of financial statements with regulatory authorities, and ensuring management has the timely, accurate and relevant information it needs to run the business.

In Europe, the concept of a corporate officer is not well known. Generally, a corporation will have outside directors (directors who are not employees of the corporation) and inside directors, such as the President. In [[England]], the term Managing Director is often used to designate the President's job, however, terms like CEO and CFO are now commonplace there.

Beneath the officer level, there are managers and supervisors, who, by definition, accomplish their work through other people. Management titles at this level mean little.
Many companies have literally hundreds of Vice Presidents, whereas others will have only one. In Europe the title Director implies that the holder is on the board, whereas in America in usually denotes someone between a Vice President and Manager.

The duties of the board and officers are specified in the documents used to incorporate the company, the laws the corporation is registered in and the laws of the jurisdictions in which it operates. Each state in the [[United States]] has rules for incorporating companies. In Canada, each province has rules and it is also possible for a corporation to obtain a federal charter.

[[Category:business]]

Inquisition

2007-12-14T04:49:09Z

Chipmonker: spelling

{{stub}}
The term inquisition can refer to either an investigation by the [[Roman Catholic]] Church into heresy, or to the department appointed to perform such investigations. This is currently titled the ''Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith'' since 1965, but was formerly been titled the ''Supreme Sacred Congregation of the Holy Office,'' and prior to that the ''Supreme Sacred Congregation of the Roman and Universal Inquisition.'' Several major inquisitions took place, under the management of differing departments.

Many of these inquisitions are known to have used brutal torture to extract confessions from accused heretics. While many of these accused heretics would be allowed free after repenting their views and stating their loyalty to the Church, a significant number - consisting almost entirely of those who refused to repent - were executed by a variety of deliberately painful methods including burning at the stake while alive, boiling in oil and the 'breaking wheel.'

Execution was never carried out by the church directly for theological reasons, but by secular authorities. This procedure was clarified in the ''Ad exstirpanda'' papal bull written by Pope Innocent IV in 1252, which also authorized the use of torture for extracting confessions from the accused and recommended burning at the stake as the appropriate punishment for those found guilty and unrepentant. ''Ad exstirpanda'' marked the beginning of one of the most brutal periods of Inquisition.

The best known of the four major inquisitions was the [[Spanish Inquisition]], which ran from 1438 onwards. One of its primary tasks was enforcement of the [[Alhambra Decree]] by the monarchs of Spain in 1492, ordering the immediate expulsion of all [[Jew]]s from the country and its territories.

The Office of the Inquisition would not be established until 1542 by Pope Paul III, with its stated objective "to maintain and defend the integrity of the faith and to examine and proscribe errors and false doctrines.'

[[Category:Christian History]]
[[Category:Religion]]

Gypsies

2007-12-14T04:48:15Z

Chipmonker: spelling

'''Gypsies''' are an [[ethnic]] group, properly known as 'Romani' or 'Roma', who are believed to have come from [[Rajasthan]] <ref>Donald Kenrick. Historical Dictionary of the Gypsies (Romanies). Scarecrow Press</ref>. They are most noted for their nomadic culture; their population is approximately 15 million<ref>http://europeandcis.undp.org/uploads/public/File/rbec_web/vgr/chapter1.1.pdf</ref>, although, due to the above fact, this is very difficult to measure accurately.

==Persecution of Gypsies==

Gypsy people have long suffered from prejudice and discrimination; one of the first concrete examples would be the laws passed in [[Moldavia]] and [[Wallachia]] which stated that any Romani on those countries' soil would automatically become a [[slave]].

Discriminatory laws were passed in many other countries as well; in [[Western Europe]] during the 15th century [[Ottoman]] invasion, in [[Argentina]] in 1880, and even the [[USA]] in 1885 passed laws restricting Gypsy immigration.<ref>http://www.geocities.com/Paris/5121/timeline.htm</ref>. Forced assimilation, and the abduction of children, was also practiced, in countries such as Norway, where 1500 Romani children were removed by the state from their parents<ref>http://www2.wcc-coe.org/ccdocuments.nsf/index/plen-4.4-en.html</ref> (under the, albeit later, [[Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court]], such actions are classified as attempted [[genocide]]).

Romani also suffered a great deal under the [[Holocaust]]; approximately 1,000,000<ref>http://www.radoc.net:8088/RADOC-3-PORR.htm</ref> of them were killed during it, a sizable fraction, in a period known as the 'Porajmos'. In the [[Bohemia]] region, this [[mass murder]] was so thorough that their culture and language became extinct there.

In the present day, they are often accused of pickpocketing and theft (it was such accusations, made in 1905, that precipitated the Porajmos<ref>Alfred Dillmann. Zigeuner-Buch. Munich: Wildsche (1905)</ref>); this has led to persecution and other [[human rights]] abuses<ref>http://web.amnesty.org/wire/February2002/Europe_Roma</ref><ref>http://www.socialniprava.info/article1607.html</ref>.

Some work has been carried out, however, to encourage integration; in the [[UK]], under the [[Human Rights Act 1998]], for example, the subsidized purchase of greenfield sites is being discussed, to give Romani and other Travellers accommodation.

==References==
<references/>

[[category:ethnicities]]

Ramses II

2007-12-14T04:46:34Z

Chipmonker: spelling error

'''Ramses II''' was a very long-lived [[pharaoh]] of the Egyptian kingdom being on the thrown from 1290 to 1224 B.C. and the last ruler of the [[New Kingdom]]. He was the son of [[Seti I]]. He reached an accommodation with the [[Hittites]] of Anatolia after a standoff in the [[Battle of Kadesh]] in Syria. He built on a grand scale throughout [[Egypt]].

== Sources ==

The Earth and Its Peoples A Global History, Bulliet et al, 2005.

[[Category: Pharaohs]]

Homosexuality and Anal Cancer

2007-12-14T04:42:52Z

Chipmonker: Revert - Spelling error in quotes

In June of 2004, the journal ''[[Nursing Clinics of North America]]'' reported the following regarding '''homosexuality and anal cancer''':
{{cquote|One of the more pressing issues for [[homosexuality|gay men]] is anal carcinoma. Several recent studies have indicated the rate of anal dysplasia to be increasing in men with and without [[HIV]]. Ninety percent of men with HIV have the [[Human Papiloma Virus|human papiloma virus]] ([[HPV]]), while 65% of men without HIV have HPV. HVP type 16 is the most troublesome for developing cancer and is found in a significant portion of gay men.

Another risk factor for developing anal cancer is the use of recreational drugs anally...Inserting "crystal [[methamphetamine |meth]]" or ecstasy in the rectum can lead to higher rates of anal dylpasia.<ref>[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&dopt=AbstractPlus&list_uids=15159188 Nursing Clinics of North America North Am. 2004 Jun;39(2):404]</ref>}}

In 1997, [[Concerned Women of America]] reported the following regarding [[homosexuality]] and anal cancer:
{{cquote|Homosexual men's practice of anal sex has left many of them victims of anal cancer. One article in the New England Journal of Medicine commented, "Our study lends strong support to the hypothesis that homosexual behavior in men increases the risk of anal cancer: 21 of the 57 men with anal cancer (37 percent) reported that they were homosexual or bisexual, in contrast to only one of 64 controls." The Journal of the American Medical Association also published similar findings: "Epidemiological studies have shown that risk factors for anal cancer include homosexuality, history of receptive anal intercourse, presence of anal condylomata, and smoking." And the International Journal of Cancer stated, "Being single and having practised anal intercourse appears to be associated with anal cancer and case reports have suggested a recent increase in the number of cases of anal cancer." Other studies have yielded the same conclusions.<ref>[http://www.cwfa.org/articles/959/CWA/family/index.htm Concerned Women of America - Health and Homosexuality]</ref>}}
==See also==
*[[Homosexuality]]
==References==
{{reflist|2}}

[[Category:Homosexuality]]
[[Category:Disease]]

Homosexuality and Anal Cancer

2007-12-14T04:41:15Z

Chipmonker: spelling error

In June of 2004, the journal ''[[Nursing Clinics of North America]]'' reported the following regarding '''homosexuality and anal cancer''':
{{cquote|One of the more pressing issues for [[homosexuality|gay men]] is anal carcinoma. Several recent studies have indicated the rate of anal dysplasia to be increasing in men with and without [[HIV]]. Ninety percent of men with HIV have the [[Human Papiloma Virus|human papiloma virus]] ([[HPV]]), while 65% of men without HIV have HPV. HVP type 16 is the most troublesome for developing cancer and is found in a significant portion of gay men.

Another risk factor for developing anal cancer is the use of recreational drugs anally...Inserting "crystal [[methamphetamine |meth]]" or ecstasy in the rectum can lead to higher rates of anal dylpasia.<ref>[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&dopt=AbstractPlus&list_uids=15159188 Nursing Clinics of North America North Am. 2004 Jun;39(2):404]</ref>}}

In 1997, [[Concerned Women of America]] reported the following regarding [[homosexuality]] and anal cancer:
{{cquote|Homosexual men's practice of anal sex has left many of them victims of anal cancer. One article in the New England Journal of Medicine commented, "Our study lends strong support to the hypothesis that homosexual behavior in men increases the risk of anal cancer: 21 of the 57 men with anal cancer (37 percent) reported that they were homosexual or bisexual, in contrast to only one of 64 controls." The Journal of the American Medical Association also published similar findings: "Epidemiological studies have shown that risk factors for anal cancer include homosexuality, history of receptive anal intercourse, presence of anal condylomata, and smoking." And the International Journal of Cancer stated, "Being single and having practiced anal intercourse appears to be associated with anal cancer and case reports have suggested a recent increase in the number of cases of anal cancer." Other studies have yielded the same conclusions.<ref>[http://www.cwfa.org/articles/959/CWA/family/index.htm Concerned Women of America - Health and Homosexuality]</ref>}}
==See also==
*[[Homosexuality]]
==References==
{{reflist|2}}

[[Category:Homosexuality]]
[[Category:Disease]]