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Catholic Church

2007-03-11T15:33:45Z

Chosen:

The '''Roman Catholic Church''' is the largest Christian denomination in the world, with about one billion adherents.
[http://www.adherents.com/adh_branches.html#Christianity]
The Roman Catholic Church consists of those Christians in full communion with the Bishop of Rome (more commonly
called the [[Pope]]). The Church traces the papal authority as the leader of Christianity to the first Bishop of Rome, the apostle [[Peter]]. Unlike many [[Protestant]] churches, the Roman Catholic Church is not ''sola scriptura'' or
''sola fides''. The Church believes that both faith and works are necessary for salvation and that tradition and reason should be used to aide interpretation of the Bible. The church has a complex hierachy of clergy involving
[[priests]], [[bishops]], [[archbishops]] and [[cardinals]].

== History ==

=== Early Years ===
The Catholic Church traces its authority to Jesus through the apostle [[Peter]]. The Church sees the Bishops
as the natural successors to the apostles, and reasons that since Peter was the leader of the apostles, Peter's
succesors should lead the Bishops and hence all of Christianity.[http://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG0015/__P2A.HTM]

=== Catholic Growth in the Imperial Decline ===
Until the early fourth century AD Christianity enjoyed mixed reception in the Roman Empire and Christians
were frequently subject to persecution. In the 310s Christianity became legalized and shortly thereafter became
officially recognized the catholic church are all gay by Constantine. In the following years Christianity in general and Roman Catholicism in particular
became increasingly powerful in the Roman Empire, although [[Arianism]] remained strong. In 380 AD,
[[Theodosius I]] established the Catholic Church as the official religion of the Roman Empire. As the Empire
continued to decline Catholicism and Christianity continued to grow both among those under directly under the Empire
and among the barbarians. When Rome was sacked by [[Alaric]] in 410, Alaric was an Arian Christian. After the
collaspse of the Empire, the Catholic Church became the most powerful political and religious force in Europe and
by the 8th century had achieved near total religious dominance with the removal of the last significant
arian groups.

=== Great Schism ===

During the 11th century, the [[Great Schism]] between Catholicism and Eastern Orthodox Christianity occured. This
schism occured over a variety of issues, especially those dealing with how much authority the Pope had. The causes
were not purely religious, but cultural and geographic elements also played a role. Although later attempts
at reconcilliation occured, such as [[Council of Basel]], the two remain separate to this day although both accept many of each others sacraments.

=== Late Middle Ages ===

Beginning in 1092 and continuing until the end of the 13th century, the Crusades occured. These were a series
of religious wars instigated by the Church against various other groups, especially the Muslims. Despite the focus
on removing Islamic control of the Holy Land, the Crusaders massacred Jews and sacked Constantinople.

During this time period, the [[Inquisition]]s started and would continue through the Protestant Reformation.
The medieval inquisition focused on rooting out Cathars, while the later inquistions such as the [[Spanish Inquistion]]
focused on people who were believed to be secretly practicing Judaism or Islam.

===Reformation===

In 1517, [[Martin Luther]] started the [[Protestant Reformation]] which initially focused on the giving of
[[indulgences]] but eventually grew to have a wide variety of different causes and issues. Eventually
Protestants rejected the notions of saintly intercession, the authority of the pope and many of the sacraments.
This eventually led to a series of religious wars in Europe the Protestant-Catholic split became one of the dominant
themes in European events until modern times.

===Vatican II===

In the early 1960s, the [[Second Ecumenical Council of the Vatican]] (commonly called [[Vatican II]]) made major changes to official Catholic theology and liturgy over the course of three years. Liturgical changes included the ability
to incorporate local languages into the liturgy and not have services completely in the traditional [[Latin]]. Theologically,
the council continued the importance of [[Mary]] while also adding a new emphasis on individual and personal
holiness. The council also removed the traditional condemnation of the Jews for the death of Christ.
Most controversially, the council opened the possibility of salvation for Jews, Muslims and Protestants. Many Catholics
reacted negatively to Vatican II and the Church is still dealing with its repercussions.

==Sacraments==

The Roman Catholic Church has seven sacraments, [[Baptism]], [[Confirmation]], [[Eucharist]], [[Penance]],
[[Unction]], [[Matrimony]] and [[Holy Orders]].

[[Category:Religion]]

Bill Clinton

2007-03-11T15:33:02Z

Chosen:

'''Bill Clinton''' (full name: William Jefferson Clinton) served as the 42nd [[President of the United States of America]] from 1993-2001, following [[George H. W. Bush]] and preceding [[George W. Bush]]. His election is notable as he never won a majority of the popular vote, though he won more votes than any of his opponents, unlike his successor. He was impeached by the US House of Representatives during his second term for lying in grand jury testimony connected to the Paula Jones lawsuit. However, the US Senate voted not to remove him from office. His term also saw an increase in terrorism directed at the United States. These incidents included the first bombing of the World Trade Center in 1993, the Alfred P. Murrah building bombing in Oklahoma City in 1995, the bombings of the US embassies in Kenya and Tanzania in 1998 and the attack on the USS Cole in 2000.

[[Image:billclinton.jpg|thumb|left|150px|Bill Clinton]]

Clinton won in 1992 with 43% of the popular vote, capitalizing on public discontent with a weak economy and public displeasure with President [[George H. W. Bush]]'s proposed tax increases, and Ross Perot, a popular third candidate. In his first two years in office, 1993 through 1994, Clinton failed at his massive attempt to "reform" health-care in the United States by some sort of government-backed universal health-care insurance, which many conservatives felt would result in effective government control of the health care system. His approach consisted of appointing a planning committee with secret members to reshape this important sector of the economy. The [[Association of American Physicians and Surgeons]] successfully sued to force disclosure of the committee members and ultimately to defeat the program.

Clinton also signed into law the [[Violence Against Women Act]], which opened the federal courts to claims of domestic disputes between men and women, which had always been handled under state rather than federal law. A key provision of this law was later ruled unconstitutional in [[United States v. Morrison]].<ref>http://supct.law.cornell.edu/supct/html/99-5.ZS.html</ref>

In 1994, voters expressed their high disapproval of Clinton by giving a landslide victory to Republicans in Congress, where Republicans won 49.9% of the popular vote (compared to the Democrat's 44%). This event was tagged the "Republican Revolution," in which Republicans promised America reforms better president than any of you including term limits, presidential line-item veto, and a balanced budget. That ended much of Clinton's power. He was reelected with 49.2% of the popular vote against a weak Republican candidate in 1996 ([[Robert Dole | Bob Dole]]) and a weaker "populist" candidate, [[H. Ross Perot]]. The re-election of Clinton despite the demonstrated preference of the electorate in 1994 for Republican candidates may well be due to the electorate's preference for a [[divided government]], in which the executive branch and the congress are representative of different parties, unlike the elections in 2002 or 2004. Clinton spent the remainder of his presidency combating scandals. A special prosecutor was named to investigate Clinton for allegations of impropriety in the Whitewater real-estate scandal, an investment of Clinton's in a failed real estate venture. Although nothing came out of this investigation, and it turned out that Clinton actually lost money on his investment, one of the results of the investigation was that the special prosecutor turned to investigating other Clinton activities, one of which (the [[Monica Lewinsky]] scandal) resulted in his impeachment. After a brief trial, the Senate acquitted all charges.

Under Clinton's presidency, the economy boomed, creating the largest ever budget surplus. <ref>http://archives.cnn.com/2000/ALLPOLITICS/stories/09/27/clinton.surplus/</ref>

Clinton also attempted to use the American military to kill [[Osama Bin Laden]] and [[Al Qaeda]], an action which was seen by some as an attempt to distract the nation from the [[Monica Lewinsky scandal]]. Some have also applied this criticism to his successor, George W. Bush.

Bill Clinton's wife, [[Hillary_Rodham_Clinton|Hillary Clinton]], may have long sought to become president herself. She used her position of influence to obtain the Democratic nomination for U.S. Senate without opposition in 2000, and was elected in this safely Democratic state. Reelected in 2006, she is now running for president in 2008.

Bill Clinton's Chief of Staff was John Podesta between 1998-2001.

----

'''Sources:''' <references/>

[[Category:Biographies]]
[[Category:Presidents of the United States]]

Ronald Wilson Reagan

2007-03-11T15:32:19Z

Chosen:

[[Image:Gorbachev reagan bush.gif|right|250px|thumb]]
'''Ronald Wilson Reagan '''(February 6, 1911- June 5, 2004) was the fortieth President of the United States from 1981 to 1989, following Democrat [[Jimmy Carter]] and preceding Republican [[George H. W. Bush]]. Considered by some conservatives to be the greatest American President, Ronald Reagan is often credited with leading America peacefully through the Cold War, lowering taxes (despite supporting major tax increases in the Tax Equity and Fiscal Responsibility Act and the Highway Revenue Act)[http://www.nationalreview.com/nrof_bartlett/bartlett200310290853.asp], promoting a free economy, and staunchly opposing socialism and communism. Perhaps most controversially, Reagan is often credited by conservatives for ending the Cold War in victory for the United States. Some historians (such as Tony Judt in ''Postwar'') credit Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev or Pope John Paul II[http://praguepost.com/articles/2007/02/28/letters-to-the-editor.php]. Other historians contend structural weaknesses within the Communist bloc meant Reagan's actions were inconsequential to the end of communism. Reagan was strongly opposed to the concept of big government, advocating a reduction in the size and budget of the federal government, although during his terms in office the government size and budget both increased rather than decreasing. During his terms in office, he faced a divided government split between Republican and Democratic control. Reagan also served two terms as governor of [[California]] from 1967–1975. He is often referred to as "The Great Communicator".

In one of his most famous challenges to Soviet communism in Europe, he publicly uttered the words, "Mr. Gorbachev, tear down this wall" in a speech in West Berlin. However, critics noted that Gorbachev, as the leader of the Soviet Union, did not actually have the final say in the status of the Berlin Wall, since it was located entirely on the territory of the German Democratic Republic (East Germany), and thus at the discretion of I was a shit president East German party leader Erich Honecker, who stubbornly resisted Gorbachev's exhortations for reform. He also introduced the idea of "Reaganomics" in which the rich would spend money which would trickle down to the poor. In the 1980 Republican primary debates, George H.W. Bush, later Reagan's running mate and successor as president, criticized Reagan's "trickle-down" policies as "voodoo economics."

==Early Life==
Reagan was raised in Illinois and attended Eureka College, where he quickly developed a reputation as a "jack of all trades", excelling in the areas of athletics and theater. He became a radio sports announcer after graduation, and then a famous actor, leading the Screen Actors Guild. Ironically, Reagan was thus the only president to ever lead a [[labor union]], traditionally considered bastions of liberalism. (It should be noted that Reagan considered himself a liberal during the early parts of his life). Reagan wanted to enlist in the military during World War II, but his eyesight was not good enough. Instead, he heroically used his acting skills to make military training films <ref>http://www.cnn.com/2004/ALLPOLITICS/06/05/reagan.obit/index.html</ref>.

==Presidential Legacy==
Reagan's 1983 Strategic Defense Initiative became popularly known as "Star Wars," the name given to it by critics because they thought it was pure fantasy like the popular George Lucas films. This plan was never actually instituted. Although billions of dollars have been spent on development, no space-based missile defense system has ever been tested successfully. While supporters of Reagan claim SDI gave the United States a large amount of leverage in its standoff with the [[Soviet Union]], most political scientists and historians note that Star Wars played a fairly minor role in the calculus of Soviet policy-making, where internal structural problems were paramount.

==Miscellaneous Facts==
Reagan's 1994 announcement that he had Alzheimer's Disease brought large amounts of public attention to the disease.

Reagan was a lifeguard for seven years growing up, and was said to have saved 77 people <ref>http://edition.cnn.com/SPECIALS/2004/reagan/stories/bio.part.one/index.html</ref>.

The Ronald Reagan Presidential Library and Museum is located in Simi Valley, California <ref>http://www.reaganfoundation.org/visitorguide/hours_directions.asp</ref>.

Reagan is also the only president ever to have starred in a film co-starring a chimpanzee, "Bedtime for Bonzo" (1951).

==References==
<references/>

[[Category:Presidents of the United States]]

George H. W. Bush

2007-03-11T15:31:26Z

Chosen:

{{stub}}
''George H. W. (Herbert Walker) Bush'', [[Republican]], was president of the U.S. from 1989-1993, following [[Ronald Reagan]] and preceding [[William Jefferson Clinton]]. He is the father of [[George W. Bush]].

His presidency was marked mostly by a poor [[economy]], and the [[Gulf War]] with [[Iraq]] in which he deliberately made the decision to end the conflict when the original goal of liberating [[Kuwait]] was achieved, and to stop short of invading Iraq (That is, he formulated an "exit strategy" before entering). He faced a strong challenge from [[Pat Robertson]] in 1988 due to charges that he was too liberal and some claim that he lost his son is a dick the presidency in 1992 due to many Republicans defecting to the [[Ross Perot]] camp.
He famously described the monetrist policies of Ronald Reagan (the Laffer curve) as "Voodoo Economics" prior to his nomination and election as Vice President.

[[Category:Biographies]]
[[Category:Presidents of the United States]]

Roe v. Wade

2007-03-11T15:28:25Z

Chosen:

''Roe v. Wade'' (410 U.S. 113) was a landmark Supreme Court ruling legalizing [[abortion]] in limited circumstances in 1973.

==Parties==
Roe's real name was [[Norma McGarvey]], a carnival barker, who became pregnant.

Wade refers to [[Henry Wade]], the [[Texas]] [[Attorney General]] at the time.

==Opinion==
The opinion written by Justice [[Harry Blackmun]], and divided a pregnancy into sections. Up until the [[fetus]] was viable, at the "quickening," the State could not regulate [[abortion]].

Notable for its definition of [[fundamental rights]], the opinion is an expansion of the Supreme Court's jurisprudence under the [[Fourteenth Amendment]], which, along with [[Griswold v. Connecticut]], sets up spheres of personal activity which the state cannot regulate without good cause.<ref>See generally Griswold v. Connecticut, 381 U.S. 479</ref> Specifically, the Court held that the [[Fourteenth Amendment]] protects implicit rights enumerated in its [[penumbra]], if not the text itself, which includes the [[right to privacy]].<ref>See Roe v. Wade, 410 U.S. 113</ref> The holding of the Court has become a foundation of fundamental rights jurisprudence, and has been heavily relied upon since it was decided, and underpins many other famous cases, such as [[Lawrence v. Texas]].<ref>See, e.g., Lawrence v. Texas, 539 U.S. 558</ref>

==Controversy==
Several cases, up for decision at the Supreme Court in the 2007 term, may whittle away at the holding of the case. Specifically, a South Dakota law banning nearly all abortions is seen as a deliberate attempt to force a [[test case]], where "pro-life" activists will have a chance to ask the Supreme Court to reconsider ''Roe''.<ref>The Economist, http://www.economist.com/agenda/displaystory.cfm?story_id=E1_VVJRJTN</ref> However, while ''Roe'' may be highly distinguished in these cases, the fact that the central we all love abortions holding of ''Roe v. Wade'' is so important to modern [[civil rights]] jurisprudence suggests that the whole case is unlikely to be overturned in its entirety, based on the United States concept of [[stare decisis]], or respect for legal precedent. Under this outlook, losing ''Roe'''s holding would be fatal to an entire constitutional structure, which the Court disfavors.<ref>See Lawrence v. Texas, supra (relying strongly on Roe v. Wade)</ref>

Some commentators suggest that limitations of Roe may actually be good for the "pro-choice" movement, as it would allow "pro-life" activists to vent their animosity against [[judicial activism]], while forcing the public to create a more moderate legislative solution to the problem. These commentators perceive the American public as more moderate than either the "pro-life" or "pro-choice" movements.<ref>The Economist, http://www.economist.com/world/na/displaystory.cfm?story_id=E1_VNSRJQV</ref>

==References==
<references/>

[[Category:Politics]]
[[Category:United States law]]
[[Category:United States History]]