Conservapedia - User contributions [en]

School

2007-10-10T22:34:19Z

Cornovius: /* = British public schools */

A '''school''' is an educational institution. Schools can be either publicly- or privately-owned, funded by public or private sources or a combination of both, and may have a secular or a religious mandate.

The increasingly popular alternative to school is [[homeschooling]].<ref>[http://nces.ed.gov/nhes/homeschool/ 1.1 Million Homeschooled Students in the United States in 2003], Nation Institute for Education Statistics</ref>

== Types of schools ==

Terms used to describe schools vary from place to place. Some of the following descriptions overlap with each other.

=== State school ===

A '''state school''' is one that is owned and funded by the state.

In the United States, government-controlled schools are supported by taxpayers, often in the form of a school tax on property. Prior to the 20th century, school attendance was only part-time, consuming only about half or less of the year.

In some states of [[Australia]], although the curriculum is secular, religious education by volunteers associated with the Council for Christian Education is permitted. This takes place in class time, but parents can choose that their children not attend this class.

In [[Norway]] there are virtually no schools other than government schools.<ref>[http://www.rhpeo.org/ijhp-articles/1998/15/1.htm Case Studies On Health Promotion Initiatives From The Nordic Countries]</ref>

=== Private school ===

A '''private school''' is one that is owned by some body other than the state. Private schools are generally funded by fees levied on the parents of the students, which usually means that the parents are paying twice, once in direct fees, and once in taxes for state schools.

In Australia, the Federal government provides some funding to private schools, although the parents of the students provide most of the income of the school.

Some private schools aspire to very high standards, some specialize in certain modes and topics of instruction (such as a military school), and yet others provide a place for children who need curricula not available in the state systems.

=== Public school ===

In America, a '''public school''' is a ''state school''. In some Commonwealth countries, a '''public school''' is a church-run (i.e. run by a church denomination) school that is open to the general public.

In America, the curriculum in public schools is dictated by state governments and increasingly by the federal government under the "No Child Left Behind" legislation. Federal courts generally prohibit any type of prayer led by school officials, and even forbid the display and teaching of the [[Ten Commandments]]. As a result, morality has virtually disappeared from public school education, and public school students almost never hear that something is morally wrong, which is one reason for the rise in incidents of public school violence and drug abuse.{{fact}}

Compulsory 5-days a week, nearly 8-hours a day attendance at public school only began nationwide in the [[United States]] during the 20th century. Compulsory schooling laws were not universal throughout the [[United States]] until 1917, and even then the school year was often less than a half year.<ref>http://www.renewamerica.us/columns/kellmeyer/050428</ref> There have been few, if any, long-term studies on the effects of the modern approach of full-time attendance at school from age 6 and younger to age 21 and older.

==== British public schools ====

In the United Kingdom, public schools are, despite their name, the most exclusive of the private schools, usually educating the children of the aristocracy and the very rich. The prevalence of [[homosexuality]] among the members of the British upper classes (and hence institutions such as the [[BBC]]) is a direct result of the so-called [[fag]] system, whereby an older boy takes on a younger boy as his personal slave. The Amercian slang term "fag", for homosexual, derives from this practice.

=== Faith school ===

A '''faith school''' in the [[United Kingdom]] is partially controlled by religious groups and have a predominance of pupils from that religious group. The government funds or partially funds faith schools.

=== Parent-controlled schools ===

'''Parent-controlled schools''' (in Australia) are private schools usually owned by churches, but with control being in the hands of a parent-appointed board.

=== Church schools ===

'''Church schools''' (in Australia) are the older denominationally-owned and run public schools which generally provide a secular education.

=== Christian schools, Muslim schools, etc. ===

What are known as ''Faith schools'' in the United Kingdom are known as '''Christian schools''', '''Catholic schools''', or similar in Australia.

== Alternatives ==

For most parents, [[homeschooling]] is the primary alternative education to schools. Increasing numbers of parents choose homeschooling due to a declining quality and culture in traditional schools and their hostility to religion and morality.<ref>Mankins, Dave, [http://park.org/Guests/Educate/HTALK/faq.htm Home Education Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ)]</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist|2}}

==See also==
*[[Homeschooling]]

[[Category:Education]]

School

2007-10-10T22:34:03Z

Cornovius: /* Public school */

A '''school''' is an educational institution. Schools can be either publicly- or privately-owned, funded by public or private sources or a combination of both, and may have a secular or a religious mandate.

The increasingly popular alternative to school is [[homeschooling]].<ref>[http://nces.ed.gov/nhes/homeschool/ 1.1 Million Homeschooled Students in the United States in 2003], Nation Institute for Education Statistics</ref>

== Types of schools ==

Terms used to describe schools vary from place to place. Some of the following descriptions overlap with each other.

=== State school ===

A '''state school''' is one that is owned and funded by the state.

In the United States, government-controlled schools are supported by taxpayers, often in the form of a school tax on property. Prior to the 20th century, school attendance was only part-time, consuming only about half or less of the year.

In some states of [[Australia]], although the curriculum is secular, religious education by volunteers associated with the Council for Christian Education is permitted. This takes place in class time, but parents can choose that their children not attend this class.

In [[Norway]] there are virtually no schools other than government schools.<ref>[http://www.rhpeo.org/ijhp-articles/1998/15/1.htm Case Studies On Health Promotion Initiatives From The Nordic Countries]</ref>

=== Private school ===

A '''private school''' is one that is owned by some body other than the state. Private schools are generally funded by fees levied on the parents of the students, which usually means that the parents are paying twice, once in direct fees, and once in taxes for state schools.

In Australia, the Federal government provides some funding to private schools, although the parents of the students provide most of the income of the school.

Some private schools aspire to very high standards, some specialize in certain modes and topics of instruction (such as a military school), and yet others provide a place for children who need curricula not available in the state systems.

=== Public school ===

In America, a '''public school''' is a ''state school''. In some Commonwealth countries, a '''public school''' is a church-run (i.e. run by a church denomination) school that is open to the general public.

In America, the curriculum in public schools is dictated by state governments and increasingly by the federal government under the "No Child Left Behind" legislation. Federal courts generally prohibit any type of prayer led by school officials, and even forbid the display and teaching of the [[Ten Commandments]]. As a result, morality has virtually disappeared from public school education, and public school students almost never hear that something is morally wrong, which is one reason for the rise in incidents of public school violence and drug abuse.{{fact}}

Compulsory 5-days a week, nearly 8-hours a day attendance at public school only began nationwide in the [[United States]] during the 20th century. Compulsory schooling laws were not universal throughout the [[United States]] until 1917, and even then the school year was often less than a half year.<ref>http://www.renewamerica.us/columns/kellmeyer/050428</ref> There have been few, if any, long-term studies on the effects of the modern approach of full-time attendance at school from age 6 and younger to age 21 and older.

==== British public schools ===

In the United Kingdom, public schools are, despite their name, the most exclusive of the private schools, usually educating the children of the aristocracy and the very rich. The prevalence of [[homosexuality]] among the members of the British upper classes (and hence institutions such as the [[BBC]]) is a direct result of the so-called [[fag]] system, whereby an older boy takes on a younger boy as his personal slave. The Amercian slang term "fag", for homosexual, derives from this practice.

=== Faith school ===

A '''faith school''' in the [[United Kingdom]] is partially controlled by religious groups and have a predominance of pupils from that religious group. The government funds or partially funds faith schools.

=== Parent-controlled schools ===

'''Parent-controlled schools''' (in Australia) are private schools usually owned by churches, but with control being in the hands of a parent-appointed board.

=== Church schools ===

'''Church schools''' (in Australia) are the older denominationally-owned and run public schools which generally provide a secular education.

=== Christian schools, Muslim schools, etc. ===

What are known as ''Faith schools'' in the United Kingdom are known as '''Christian schools''', '''Catholic schools''', or similar in Australia.

== Alternatives ==

For most parents, [[homeschooling]] is the primary alternative education to schools. Increasing numbers of parents choose homeschooling due to a declining quality and culture in traditional schools and their hostility to religion and morality.<ref>Mankins, Dave, [http://park.org/Guests/Educate/HTALK/faq.htm Home Education Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ)]</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist|2}}

==See also==
*[[Homeschooling]]

[[Category:Education]]

Monarchy in the British Isles

2007-10-10T22:17:47Z

Cornovius:

This article lists Monarchs of [[England]] and its successor states, from 1801 the [[Kingdom of Great Britain]], from 1801 the [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland]] and from 1927 the [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland]]. The usual title for these monarchs is ''King'', but those maked with '''ƒ''' were female, and therefore ''Queens'' instead. Those monarchs marked with '''¿''' were, or are believed by historians to have been, [[homosexual]].

== West Saxons ==

* '''[[Alfred the Great]]''' (871-899)
* '''Edward the Elder''' (899-924)
* '''Athelstan''' (924-939)
* '''Edmund the Magnificent''' (939-946)
* '''Edred''' (946-955)
* '''Edwy the Fair''' (955-959)
* '''Edgar the Peaceable''' (959-975)
* '''Edward the Martyr''' (975-978)
* '''Ethelred the Unready''' (978-1013, 1014-1016)
* '''Edmund Ironside''' (1016)

== Danes ==

* '''Sweyn Forkbeard''' (uncrowned) (1013-1014)
* '''Canute''' (1016-1035)
* '''Harthacanute''' (1035-1037, 1040-1042)
* '''Harold Harefoot''' (1037-1040)

== West Saxons (restored) ==

* '''[[Edward the Confessor]]'''¿ (1042-1066)
* '''[[Harold Godwinson]]''' (1066)
* '''Edgar the Atheling''' (uncrowned) (1066) (abdicated, died ''circa'' 1126)

== Normans ==

* '''[[William the Conqueror|William I, the Conqueror]]''' (1066-1087)
* '''[[William Rufus|William II, Rufus]]'''¿ (1087-1100)
* '''[[Henry I]]''' (1100-1135)
* '''[[Stephen]]''' (1135-1141, 1141-1154)
* '''Matilda'''ƒ (uncrowned) (1141) (deposed, died 1167)

== Plantagenets ==
=== Angevins ===

* '''[[Henry II]]''' (1154-1189)
* '''[[Richard I|Richard I, the Lionheart]]'''¿ (1189-1199)
* '''[[King John|John]]''' (1199-1216)
* '''[[Henry III]]''' (1216-1272)
* '''[[Edward I]]''' (1272-1307)
* '''[[Edward II]]'''¿ (1307-1327) (deposed, died 1327)
* '''[[Edward III]]''' (1327-1377)
* '''[[Richard II]]''' (1377-1399) (deposed, died 1400)

=== Lancastrians ===

* '''[[Henry IV]]''' (1399-1413)
* '''[[Henry V]]''' (1413-1422)
* '''[[Henry VI]]''' (1422-1461, 1470-1471)

=== Yorkists ===

* '''[[Edward IV]]''' (1461-1470, 1471-1483)
* '''[[Edward V]]''' (uncrowned) (1483) (deposed, probably died 1483)
* '''[[Richard III]]''' (1483-1485)

== Tudors ==

* '''[[Henry VII]]''' (1485-1509)
* '''[[Henry VIII]]''' (1509-1547)
* '''[[Edward VI]]''' (1547-1553)
* '''[[Lady Jane Grey|Jane]]'''ƒ (uncrowned) (1553) (deposed, died 1554)
* '''[[Mary I]]'''ƒ (1553-1558)
* '''[[Elizabeth I]]'''ƒ (1558-1603)

== Stuarts ==

* '''[[James I]]'''¿ (1603-1625)
* '''[[Charles I]]''' (1625-1649)

== Commonwealth ==

* '''[[Oliver Cromwell]]''' (Lord Protector, 1653-1658)
* '''Richard Cromwell''' (Lord Protector, 1658-1659) (resigned, died 1712)

== Stuarts (restored) ==
From 1707 styled as '''King\Queen of Great Britain'''

* '''[[Charles II]]''' (1660-1685)
* '''[[James II]]''' (1685-1688) (deposed, died 1701)
* '''[[William III of England|William III]]''' (1689-1702)
* '''Mary II'''ƒ (co-monarch, 1689-1694)
* '''Anne'''ƒ¿ (1702-1714)

== Hanoverians ==
From 1801 styled as '''King\Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland'''

* '''George I''' (1714-1727)
* '''George II''' (1727-1760)
* '''[[King George III|George III]]''' (1760-1820)
* '''George IV''' (1820-1830)
* '''William IV''' (1830-1837)
* '''[[Queen Victoria|Victoria]]'''ƒ (1837-1901)

== Saxe-Coburg-Gotha ==

* '''Edward VII''' (1901-1910)

== Windsors ==
From 1922 styled as '''King\Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland'''

* '''George V''' (1910-1936)
* '''[[Edward VIII]]''' (uncrowned) (1936) (abdicated, died 1972)
* '''[[George VI]]''' (1936-1952)
* '''[[Elizabeth II]]'''ƒ (1952-present)
[[Category:United Kingdom Monarchs]]

Necho II

2007-10-06T23:24:30Z

Cornovius:

'''Necho II''' was [[pharaoh]] of [[Egypt]] from about 610-595 BC, as a member of the [[26th Dynasty]]. He is chiefly remembered for employing [[phoenicia|Phoenician]] sailors to circumnavigate [[Africa]] and thereby proving it was not joined to the [[Outer Continent]].

[[Category:Egypt]]
[[Category:Royalty]]

Necho II

2007-10-06T23:22:00Z

Cornovius: New page: '''Necho II''' was pharaoh of Egypt from about 610-595 BC, as a member of the 26th Dynasty. He is chiefly remembered for employing Phoenician sailors to circumnav...

New penny

2007-10-06T18:31:40Z

Cornovius: New page: The new penny is a small coin introduced in 1971 and worth 2.4 pence. The plural is new pence when referring to an amount of money, or new pennies when referring to the coins. Ther...

The new penny is a small coin introduced in 1971 and worth 2.4 [[pence]]. The plural is [[new pence]] when referring to an amount of money, or new pennies when referring to the coins. There are 100 to the [[pound]].

New pence

2007-10-06T18:29:06Z

Cornovius: New page: New pence is the plural of new penny, of which there are 100 to the pound, when referring to an amount of money. The plural is new penny when referring to the coins.

New pence is the plural of [[new penny]], of which there are 100 to the [[pound]], when referring to an amount of money. The plural is new penny when referring to the coins.

Penny

2007-10-06T18:27:43Z

Cornovius: New page: A penny is a small coin, originally silver, but now made of cupro-nickel. The plural is pence when referring to an amount of money, or pennies when referring to the coins. There are tr...

A penny is a small coin, originally silver, but now made of cupro-nickel. The plural is [[pence]] when referring to an amount of money, or pennies when referring to the coins. There are traditionally 240 pence to the [[pound]], or 100 [[new pence]].

Pence (coinage)

2007-10-06T18:25:31Z

Cornovius: New page: Pence is the plural of penny when an amount of money is being referred to. If one is referring to the actual coins, the plural is pennies. There are traditionally 240 pence to the [[po...

Pence is the plural of [[penny]] when an amount of money is being referred to. If one is referring to the actual coins, the plural is pennies. There are traditionally 240 pence to the [[pound]], or 100 [[new pence]].

Guinea

2007-10-06T18:22:54Z

Cornovius:

The guinea is a unit of currency equal to 21 [[shilling]]s (a [[pound]] is 20 shillings). This can also be expressed as 252 [[pence]], or in decimal form, 105 [[new pence]]. It is equal to £1.05. Some traditional payments, such as horse racing prizes, are still expressed in guineas rather than pounds.

Shilling

2007-10-06T18:21:23Z

Cornovius: New page: A shilling is a coin and unit of currency equal to 1/20 of a pound. It consisted of 12 pence, or 5 new pence.

A shilling is a coin and unit of currency equal to 1/20 of a [[pound]]. It consisted of 12 [[pence]], or 5 [[new pence]].

Guinea

2007-10-06T18:20:06Z

Cornovius:

The guinea is a unit of currency equal to 21 [[shilling]]s (a [[pound]] is 20 shillings). This can also be expressed as 252 pence, or in decimal form, 105 new pence. It is equal to £1.05. Some traditional payments, such as horse racing prizes, are still expressed in guineas rather than pounds.

Guinea

2007-10-06T18:19:25Z

Cornovius:

The guinea is a unit of currency equal to 21 [[shilling]]s (a [[pound]] is 20 shillings). This can also be expressed as 252 pence, or in decimal form, 105 pence. It is equal to £1.05. Some traditional payments, such as horse racing prizes, are still expressed in guineas rather than pounds.

Guinea

2007-10-06T18:19:07Z

Cornovius: New page: The guinea is a unit of currency equal to 21 shillings (a pound is 20 shilings). This can also be expressed as 252 pence, or in decimal form, 105 pence. It is equal to £1.05. Some...

The guinea is a unit of currency equal to 21 [[shilling]]s (a [[pound]] is 20 shilings). This can also be expressed as 252 pence, or in decimal form, 105 pence. It is equal to £1.05. Some traditional payments, such as horse racing prizes, are still expressed in guineas rather than pounds.

Manetho

2007-10-06T17:00:17Z

Cornovius: New page: Manetho was an Egyptian historian who lived in the 3rd century BC. He wrote a chronicle of all the pharaohs of Egypt, which only survives in quotations from later writers.

Manetho was an [[Egyptian]] historian who lived in the 3rd century BC. He wrote a chronicle of all the [[pharaoh]]s of Egypt, which only survives in quotations from later writers.

Eastern Europe

2007-10-06T16:49:40Z

Cornovius:

Eastern Europe is a region of [[Europe]] that was formerly part of the [[Soviet]] sphere of influence. It consists of the following countries:

*[[East Germany]]
*[[Poland]]
*[[Czechoslovakia]]
*[[Hungary]]
*[[Albania]]
*[[Yugoslavia]]
*[[Bulgaria]]
*[[Romania]]

Many of these countries have since been divided into smaller countries, and one (East Germany) has been annexed by [[West Germany]].

Eastern Europe

2007-10-06T16:49:20Z

Cornovius: New page: Eastern Europe is a region of Europe that was formerly part of the Soviet sphere of influence. It consists of the following countries: *East Germany *Poland *[[Czechoslova...

Eastern Europe is a region of [[Europe]] that was formerly part of the [[Soviet]] sphere of influence. It consists of the following countries:

*[[East Germany]]
*[[Poland]]
*[[Czechoslovakia]]
*[[Hungary]]
*[[Albania]]
*[[Yuguslavia]]
*[[Bulgaria]]
*[[Romania]]

Many of these countries have since been divided into smaller countries, and one (East Germany) has been annexed by [[West Germany]].

Phoenicia

2007-10-06T16:21:59Z

Cornovius: New page: Phoenicia is an ancient nation that existed on the east coast of the Mediterranean in appriximately what is now Lebanon and northern Israel. Its chief cities included Tyre,...

Phoenicia is an ancient nation that existed on the east coast of the [[Mediterranean]] in appriximately what is now [[Lebanon]] and northern [[Israel]]. Its chief cities included [[Tyre]], [[Sidon]], and [[Joppa]] (now [[Tel Aviv]]). The Phoenicians spoke a [[Semitic]] language and invented an alphabetic script that is the basis for [[Hebrew]], [[Greek]], and all Western alphabets. They were famous as seafarers and traders, and founded colonies all over the Mediterranean, including [[Carthage]] in what is now [[Tunisia]].

Mesozoic

2007-10-06T16:15:18Z

Cornovius: New page: The Mesozoic is an era in earth's geological history running from about 251 million years ago to about 65 million years ago, and most famous for being the era of the dinosaurs. It is d...

The Mesozoic is an era in earth's geological history running from about 251 million years ago to about 65 million years ago, and most famous for being the era of the [[dinosaur]]s. It is divided into three periods, the [[Triassic]], the [[Jurassic]], and the [[Cretaceous]].

Domestic cat

2007-10-06T15:47:13Z

Cornovius: New page: The domestic cat, or ''pussy'' cat (as opposed to ''big'' cats such as lions and tigers), is a small furry mammal of the species ''Felis silvestris catus'' that has for many th...

The domestic cat, or ''pussy'' cat (as opposed to ''big'' cats such as [[lion]]s and [[tiger]]s), is a small furry [[mammal]] of the species ''Felis silvestris catus'' that has for many thousands of years been a constant companion of [[human]]s. Originally domesticated in [[Ancient Egypt]], cats have been much valued for their ability to catch [[mice]] and other vermin, and for their loving and loyal relationship with their human masters. The distinctive cry of the cat is the [[miaow]], though it is also noted for its [[purr]]. Nocturnal by nature, cats living outside of human society, known as ferral cats, invariably revert to a night-time existence.

Harold Holt

2007-08-29T18:20:45Z

Cornovius:

'''Harold Holt''', 1908-? (disappeared 1967), was prime minister of [[Australia]] 1966-1967, for the Liberal Party. His short tenure as prime minister saw the granting of constitutional rights to [[Aborigines]] and the introduction of the [[Australian dollar]] in place of the [[Pound]]. He was also a close ally of the [[United States]] in its war in [[Vietnam]], committing large numbers of Australian troops to the conflict. Perhaps unfairly, however, he is chiefly remembered for the bizzare circumstances surrounding his disappearance. On December 17, 1967, while swimming off Cheviot Beach, Victoria, he vanished without trace, never to be seen or heard from again. For two days Australia remained without a government until [[John McEwan]] was chosen as caretaker, amid a constitutional crisis. Conspiracy theories have alleged that Harold Holt may have been kidnapped at sea by the [[China|Chinese]], the [[Soviet Union|Soviets]], or even a [[UFO]]. None of these theories have any foundation whatever.

Harold Holt

2007-08-29T18:20:21Z

Cornovius:

'''Harold Holt''', 1908-? (disappeared 1967), was prime minister of [[Australia]] 1966-1967, for the Liberal Party. His short tenure as prime minister saw the granting of contsitutional rights to [[Aborigines]] and the introduction of the [[Australian dollar]] in place of the [[Pound]]. He was also a close ally of the [[United States]] in its war in [[Vietnam]], committing large numbers of Australian troops to the conflict. Perhaps unfairly, however, he is chiefly remembered for the bizzare circumstances surrounding his disappearance. On December 17, 1967, while swimming off Cheviot Beach, Victoria, he vanished without trace, never to be seen or heard from again. For two days Australia remained without a government until [[John McEwan]] was chosen as caretaker, amid a constitutional crisis. Conspiracy theories have alleged that Harold Holt may have been kidnapped at sea by the [[China|Chinese]], the [[Soviet Union|Soviets]], or even a [[UFO]]. None of these theories have any foundation whatever.

Harold Holt

2007-08-29T18:16:49Z

Cornovius: New page: '''Harold Holt''', 1908-? (disappeared 1967), was prime minister of Australia 1966-1967, for the Liberal Party. His short tenure as prime minister saw the granting of contitutional rig...

'''Harold Holt''', 1908-? (disappeared 1967), was prime minister of [[Australia]] 1966-1967, for the Liberal Party. His short tenure as prime minister saw the granting of contitutional rights to [[Aborigines]] and the introduction of the [[Australian dollar]] in place of the [[Pound]]. He was also a close ally of the [[United States]] in its war in [[Vietnam]], committing large numbers of Australian troops to the conflict. Perhaps unfairly, however, he is chiefly remembered for the bizzare circumstances surrounding his disappearance on December 17, 1967, while swimming off Cheviot Beach, Victoria, he vanished without trace, never to be seen or heard from again. For two days Australia remained without a government until [[John McEwan]] was chosen as caretaker, amid a constitutional crisis. Conspiracy theories have alleged that Harold Holt may have been kidnapped at sea by the [[China|Chinese]], the [[Soviet Union|Soviets]], or even a [[UFO]]. None of these theories have any foundation whatever.

Talk:British Empire

2007-08-29T11:56:16Z

Cornovius: /* No longer a world power */

St Kitts and Nevis gained independence in 1983 <ref> https://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/sc.html </ref>
[[User:Chrysogonus|Chrysogonus]] 07:19, 15 April 2007 (EDT)

<references/>

== Ireland ==

Was Ireland a part of the British Empire or was it considered just a constituent part of the United Kingdown? The article mentions Ireland becoming independent of the British Empire. Was it ever in it? [[User:Hannibal ad portas|Hannibal ad portas]] 02:52, 10 May 2007 (EDT)
: You're correct. Ireland was an integral part of the ''United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland'' (Dublin was considered the Empires second city), it was never considered a colony. It was the United Kingdom (rather than the British Empire) it broke away from. [[User:Mrjimbob|Mrjimbob]] 18:11, 27 June 2007 (EDT)

== No longer a world power ==

I question the claim that the UK is no longer a world power. Yes, it's not as powerful as it used to be, but I think it's still a world power. [[User:DanH|DanH]] 01:09, 30 July 2007 (EDT)

:On the contrary, the United Kingdom is a great deal more powerful than it has ever been in the past. Just to take one example, in Victorian times it had no nuclear weapons, but it does now. [[User:Cornovius|Cornovius]] 07:56, 29 August 2007 (EDT)

Roman numeral

2007-08-29T11:37:56Z

Cornovius: New page: '''Roman numerals''' are an ancient system of representing numbers devised by the Romans and still sometimes encountered today, often on clockfaces or in formal or old fashioned co...

'''Roman numerals''' are an ancient system of representing [[number]]s devised by the [[Romans]] and still sometimes encountered today, often on clockfaces or in formal or old fashioned contexts. Unlike our modern system, Roman numerals used letters of the alphabet and did not use a decimal place system.

*I (1)
*II (2)
*III (3)
*IV (4)
*V (5)
*VI (6)
*VII (7)
*VIII (8)
*IX (9)
*X (10)
*-
*L (50)
*-
*C (100)
*-
*D (500)
*-
*M (1000)

The system could be very cumbersome. The year 1888, for example, is written MDCCCLXXXVIII. 1999 is MCMXCIX, whereas 2000 is MM. There was also no symbol for zero, and there is no Year 0 between 1 BC and AD 1.

Number

2007-06-21T22:28:27Z

Cornovius: New page: A '''number''' is a term that describes the amount of something. A number may be even (divisible by two) or odd (not divisible by two), positive (more than nothing) or negative (less than ...

A '''number''' is a term that describes the amount of something. A number may be even (divisible by two) or odd (not divisible by two), positive (more than nothing) or negative (less than nothing), whole (undivided) or fractional (divided into smaller parts), and various other classifications, such as prime (only divisible by itself and one).

Numbers are usually represented in [[English]] writing by a system of ''numerals'':

*0 (zero)
*1 (one)
*2 (two)
*3 (three)
*4 (four)
*5 (five)
*6 (six)
*7 (seven)
*8 (eight)
*9 (nine)

Which can be used in combination to represent any number of any size. An older system of representation, still sometime encountered on clocks and other places, is [[Roman numeral]]s, which used certain letters of the [[alphabet]] instead.

Epoch

2007-06-18T16:11:44Z

Cornovius:

An '''epoch''' is the name given to the formal starting point of any calendar or era. For example, the epoch of the ''[[Anno Domini]]'' era, on the [[Julian Calendar]], is Saturday, January 1, AD 1. This does not imply that the calendar was actually invented on that date.

Epoch

2007-06-18T16:10:32Z

Cornovius: New page: An '''epoch'' is the name given to the formal starting point of any calendar or era. For example, the epoch of the ''anno domini'' era, on the Julian Calendar, is Saturday, January...

An '''epoch'' is the name given to the formal starting point of any calendar or era. For example, the epoch of the ''[[anno domini]]'' era, on the [[Julian Calendar]], is Saturday, January 1, AD 1. [[User:Cornovius|Cornovius]] 12:10, 18 June 2007 (EDT)

Midlands

2007-06-18T16:07:52Z

Cornovius: New page: The '''Midlands''' is a large region of England located, as its name suggests, in the middle of the country. It is characterised by a lack of substantial coastline, rolling, fertile co...

The '''Midlands''' is a large region of [[England]] located, as its name suggests, in the middle of the country. It is characterised by a lack of substantial coastline, rolling, fertile countryside, large industrial cities, and distinctive accents and dialects. Formerly known as the Kingdom of [[Mercia]] prior to the unification of England in the 10th century.

Sejanus

2007-06-18T16:02:30Z

Cornovius:

'''Lucius Aelius Sejanus''' (20 BC-AD 31) was a [[Roman]] army officer who rose to become commander of the [[Praetorian Guard]] under the Emperor [[Tiberius]], and virtual ruler of the [[Roman Empire]] after Tiberius retired to [[Capri]]. When Tiberius discovered his plotting he had Sejanus and his supporters brutally murdered.

Sejanus was notably portrayed by [[Patrick Stewart]] (of later [[Star Trek]] fame) in the [[BBC]]'s 1976 adaptation of the novel ''I, Claudius'' by [[Robert Graves]].

Sejanus

2007-06-18T16:02:13Z

Cornovius: New page: '''Lucius Aelius Sejanus''' (20 BC-AD 31) was a Roman army officer who rose to become commander of the Praeorian Guard under the Emperor Tiberius, and virtual ruler of the [[Ro...

'''Lucius Aelius Sejanus''' (20 BC-AD 31) was a [[Roman]] army officer who rose to become commander of the [[Praeorian Guard]] under the Emperor [[Tiberius]], and virtual ruler of the [[Roman Empire]] after Tiberius retired to [[Capri]]. When Tiberius discovered his plotting he had Sejanus and his supporters brutally murdered.

Sejanus was notably portrayed by [[Patrick Stewart]] (of later [[Star Trek]] fame) in the [[BBC]]'s 1976 adaptation of the novel ''I, Claudius'' by [[Robert Graves]].

Celtic

2007-06-18T15:54:26Z

Cornovius: New page: '''Celtic''' is a language family, and is part of the larger language family known as Indo-European. Celtic includes the following languages: Welsh, Irish Gaelic, [[Scots Gaeli...

'''Celtic''' is a language family, and is part of the larger language family known as [[Indo-European]]. Celtic includes the following languages: [[Welsh]], [[Irish Gaelic]], [[Scots Gaelic]], [[Manx]], [[Cornish]], and [[Breton]].

Germanic languages

2007-06-18T15:50:37Z

Cornovius: New page: '''Germanic''' is a language family, and is part of the larger language family known as Indo-European. Germanic includes the following languages: English, German, Dutch, [[...

'''Germanic''' is a language family, and is part of the larger language family known as [[Indo-European]]. Germanic includes the following languages: [[English]], [[German]], [[Dutch]], [[Frisian]], [[Afrikaans]], [[Danish]], [[Swedish]], and [[Norwegian]].

Mercia

2007-06-14T15:48:45Z

Cornovius:

'''Mercia''' was an independent [[Anglo-Saxon]] Kingdom on the Island of [[Great Britain]], roughly analogous to the modern English [[Midlands]]. It was part of the English Heptarchy, and was the dominant member of it from the mid-7th to the mid-9th century A.D. Following the [[Danish]] invasions, Mercia was partitioned during the Treaty of Wedmore into the Saxon-controlled West Mercia and Danish-controlled East Mercia. Mercia was eventually united along with the other Kingdoms of the Heptarchy to create the Kingdom of [[England]].

==Kings of the Mercians==
===Iclings (House of Icel)===
*'''Icel''' (''c.''488-''c.''501)
*'''Cnebba''' (''c.''501-''c.''566)
*'''Cynewald''' (''c.''566-584)
*'''Créoda''' (584-593)
*'''Pybba''' (593-606)
*'''Céorl''' (606-626)
*'''Penda''' (626-655)
*'''Éowa''' (co-monarch, ''c.''635-642)
*'''Péada''' (co-monarch, ''c.''653-656)
*(Mercia occupied by Northumbria, 655-658)
*'''Wulfhere''' (658-675)
*'''Æþelred''' (675-704) (abdicated)
*'''Cœnred''' (704-709) (abdicated)
*'''Céolred''' (709-716)
*'''Céolwald''' (716)
*'''Æþelbald''' (716-757) (proclaimed King of Britain, 746)

===Usurper===
*'''Béornred''' (757) (deposed)

===House of Offa===
*'''Offa the Mighty''' (757-796) (proclaimed King of the English, 774)
*'''Egfriþ''' (co-monarch, 787-796)

===House of Cœnwulf===
*'''Cœnwulf''' (796-821) (proclaimed Emperor)
*'''Cynehelm''' (812 or 821)
*'''Céolwulf''' (821-823) (deposed)

===Elected monarchs===
*'''Béornwulf''' (823-826)
*'''Ludeca''' (826-827)
*'''Wigláf''' (827-829, 830-840)
*(Mercia occupied by Wessex, 829-830)
*'''Wigmund''' (co-monarch, ''c.''840)
*'''Wigstan''' (840) (abdicated)
*'''Béorhtwulf''' (840-852)
*'''Burgred''' (852-874) (abdicated)
*'''Céolwulf the Foolish''' (874-883)
*'''Æþelred Mucil''' (883-911)

===Ladies of the Mercians===
*'''Æþelflæd''' (911-918)
*'''Ælfwynn''' (918-919) (deposed)
*(Mercia annexed by Wessex, 919)

Kings of England and Great Britain

2007-06-13T15:18:47Z

Cornovius:

Alfred the Great, King of Wessex from 871, proclaimed himself ''King of the English'' after liberating London from the Danes in 886. The following lists all the Kings of England from that date (titled Kings of Great Britain from 1603 onwards).

== West Saxons ==

* '''[[Alfred the Great]]''' (871-899)
* '''Edward the Elder''' (899-924)
* '''Athelstan''' (924-939)
* '''Edmund the Magnificent''' (939-946)
* '''Edred''' (946-955)
* '''Edwy the Fair''' (955-959)
* '''Edgar the Peaceable''' (959-975)
* '''Edward the Martyr''' (975-978)
* '''Ethelred the Unready''' (978-1013, 1014-1016)
* '''Edmund Ironside''' (1016)

== Danes ==

* '''Sweyn Forkbeard''' (uncrowned) (1013-1014)
* '''Canute''' (1016-1035)
* '''Harthacanute''' (1035-1037, 1040-1042)
* '''Harold Harefoot''' (1037-1040)

== West Saxons (restored) ==

* '''[[Edward the Confessor]]''' (1042-1066)
* '''[[Harold Godwinson]]''' (1066)
* '''Edgar the Atheling''' (uncrowned) (1066) (abdicated, died ''circa'' 1126)

== Normans ==

* '''[[William the Conqueror|William I, the Conqueror]]''' (1066-1087)
* '''[[William Rufus|William II, Rufus]]''' (1087-1100)
* '''Henry I''' (1100-1135)
* '''[[Stephen]]''' (1135-1141, 1141-1154)
* '''Matilda''' (uncrowned) (1141) (deposed, died 1167)

== Plantagenets ==
=== Angevins ===

* '''[[Henry II]]''' (1154-1189)
* '''[[Richard I|Richard I, the Lionheart]]''' (1189-1199)
* '''[[King John|John]]''' (1199-1216)
* '''[[Henry III]]''' (1216-1272)
* '''[[Edward I]]''' (1272-1307)
* '''Edward II''' (1307-1327) (deposed, died 1327)
* '''Edward III''' (1327-1377)
* '''Richard II''' (1377-1399) (deposed, died 1400)

=== Lancastrians ===

* '''Henry IV''' (1399-1413)
* '''Henry V''' (1413-1422)
* '''Henry VI''' (1422-1461, 1470-1471)

=== Yorkists ===

* '''Edward IV''' (1461-1470, 1471-1483)
* '''Edward V''' (uncrowned) (1483) (deposed, probably died 1483)
* '''Richard III''' (1483-1485)

== Tudors ==

* '''Henry VII''' (1485-1509)
* '''[[Henry VIII]]''' (1509-1547)
* '''Edward VI''' (1547-1553)
* '''[[Lady Jane Grey|Jane]]''' (uncrowned) (1553) (deposed, died 1554)
* '''[[Mary I]]''' (1553-1558)
* '''[[Elizabeth I]]''' (1558-1603)

== Stuarts ==

* '''[[James I]]''' (1603-1625)
* '''[[Charles I]]''' (1625-1649)

== Commonwealth ==

* '''[[Oliver Cromwell]]''' (Lord Protector, 1653-1658)
* '''Richard Cromwell''' (Lord Protector, 1658-1659) (resigned, died 1712)

== Stuarts (restored) ==

* '''[[Charles II]]''' (1660-1685)
* '''[[James II]]''' (1685-1688) (deposed, died 1701)
* '''[[William III of England|William III]]''' (1689-1702)
* '''Mary II''' (co-monarch, 1689-1694)
* '''Anne''' (1702-1714)

== Hanoverians ==

* '''George I''' (1714-1727)
* '''George II''' (1727-1760)
* '''George III''' (1760-1820)
* '''George IV''' (1820-1830)
* '''William IV''' (1830-1837)
* '''[[Queen Victoria|Victoria]]''' (1837-1901)

== Saxe-Coburg-Gotha ==

* '''Edward VII''' (1901-1910)

== Windsors ==

* '''George V''' (1910-1936)
* '''[[Edward VIII]]''' (uncrowned) (1936) (abdicated, died 1972)
* '''[[George VI]]''' (1936-1952)
* '''[[Elizabeth II]]''' (1952-present)

[[Category:UK Monarchs]]

Queen Victoria

2007-06-13T15:18:04Z

Cornovius:

Queen Victoria (May 24 1819 - January 22 1901) was a monarch of the [[United Kingdom]]

To date she is Britain's longest serving monarch.

[[Category:UK Monarchs]]

Kings of England and Great Britain

2007-06-13T15:11:41Z

Cornovius: /* Commonwealth */

Alfred the Great, King of Wessex from 871, proclaimed himself ''King of the English'' after liberating London from the Danes in 886. The following lists all the Kings of England from that date (titled Kings of Great Britain from 1603 onwards).

== West Saxons ==

* '''[[Alfred the Great]]''' (871-899)
* '''Edward the Elder''' (899-924)
* '''Athelstan''' (924-939)
* '''Edmund the Magnificent''' (939-946)
* '''Edred''' (946-955)
* '''Edwy the Fair''' (955-959)
* '''Edgar the Peaceable''' (959-975)
* '''Edward the Martyr''' (975-978)
* '''Ethelred the Unready''' (978-1013, 1014-1016)
* '''Edmund Ironside''' (1016)

== Danes ==

* '''Sweyn Forkbeard''' (uncrowned) (1013-1014)
* '''Canute''' (1016-1035)
* '''Harthacanute''' (1035-1037, 1040-1042)
* '''Harold Harefoot''' (1037-1040)

== West Saxons (restored) ==

* '''[[Edward the Confessor]]''' (1042-1066)
* '''[[Harold Godwinson]]''' (1066)
* '''Edgar the Atheling''' (uncrowned) (1066) (abdicated, died ''circa'' 1126)

== Normans ==

* '''[[William the Conqueror|William I, the Conqueror]]''' (1066-1087)
* '''[[William Rufus|William II, Rufus]]''' (1087-1100)
* '''Henry I''' (1100-1135)
* '''[[Stephen]]''' (1135-1141, 1141-1154)
* '''Matilda''' (uncrowned) (1141) (deposed, died 1167)

== Plantagenets ==
=== Angevins ===

* '''[[Henry II]]''' (1154-1189)
* '''[[Richard I|Richard I, the Lionheart]]''' (1189-1199)
* '''[[King John|John]]''' (1199-1216)
* '''[[Henry III]]''' (1216-1272)
* '''[[Edward I]]''' (1272-1307)
* '''Edward II''' (1307-1327) (deposed, died 1327)
* '''Edward III''' (1327-1377)
* '''Richard II''' (1377-1399) (deposed, died 1400)

=== Lancastrians ===

* '''Henry IV''' (1399-1413)
* '''Henry V''' (1413-1422)
* '''Henry VI''' (1422-1461, 1470-1471)

=== Yorkists ===

* '''Edward IV''' (1461-1470, 1471-1483)
* '''Edward V''' (uncrowned) (1483) (deposed, probably died 1483)
* '''Richard III''' (1483-1485)

== Tudors ==

* '''Henry VII''' (1485-1509)
* '''[[Henry VIII]]''' (1509-1547)
* '''Edward VI''' (1547-1553)
* '''[[Lady Jane Grey|Jane]]''' (uncrowned) (1553) (deposed, died 1554)
* '''[[Mary I]]''' (1553-1558)
* '''[[Elizabeth I]]''' (1558-1603)

== Stuarts ==

* '''[[James I]]''' (1603-1625)
* '''[[Charles I]]''' (1625-1649)

== Commonwealth ==

* '''[[Oliver Cromwell]]''' (Lord Protector, 1653-1658)
* '''Richard Cromwell''' (Lord Protector, 1658-1659) (resigned, died 1712)

== Stuarts (restored) ==

* '''[[Charles II]]''' (1660-1685)
* '''[[James II]]''' (1685-1688) (deposed, died 1701)
* '''[[William III of England|William III]]''' (1689-1702)
* '''Mary II''' (co-monarch, 1689-1694)
* '''Anne''' (1702-1714)

== Hanoverians ==

* '''George I''' (1714-1727)
* '''George II''' (1727-1760)
* '''George III''' (1760-1820)
* '''George IV''' (1820-1830)
* '''William IV''' (1830-1837)
* '''Victoria''' (1837-1901)

== Saxe-Coburg-Gotha ==

* '''Edward VII''' (1901-1910)

== Windsors ==

* '''George V''' (1910-1936)
* '''[[Edward VIII]]''' (uncrowned) (1936) (abdicated, died 1972)
* '''[[George VI]]''' (1936-1952)
* '''[[Elizabeth II]]''' (1952-present)

[[Category:UK Monarchs]]

Oliver Cromwell

2007-06-13T15:11:15Z

Cornovius: /* External links */

[[Image:Oliver_Cromwell.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Oliver Cromwell by Sir Peter Lely c.1653]]
'''Oliver Cromwell''' (April 25, 1599 - September 3, 1658) was an [[England|English]] statesman and soldier born in [[Huntingdon]], [[Cambridgeshire]]. He was educated at Huntingdon Grammar School and Sydney Sussex College, [[Cambridge University|Cambridge]], and went on to study [[law]] in [[London]]. He is often referred to as "God's Englishman".

==Parliamentarian==
Sponsored by the Montagu family, he was elected as a Member of Parliament (M.P.) for Huntingdon to the [[House of Commons]] in 1628. When Parliament was dissolved by King [[Charles I]] in 1629, Cromwell took up farming in Huntingdon. Soon afterwards he was converted to [[Puritanism]]. When Charles was forced by a shortage of funds to recall Parliament in 1640, Cromwell was returned to this Parliament as the M.P. for Cambridge. Known as the ''Short Parliament'', Charles again dissolved the house after only 3 weeks. A second Parliament was called later in 1640, afterwards known as the ''Long Parliament''. Cromwell returned to this Parliament again as M.P for Cambridge.

==The Civil War==
Cromwell was a fierce critic of King Charles and on the outbreak of the [[English Civil War|Civil War]] in 1642 he joined the [[Roundhead|Parliamentary]] army, serving under Edward Montagu, the Duke of Manchester. Although Cromwell had no military training, his experience as a large landowner had given him a good knowledge of [[horse]]s. Cromwell became convinced that if he could produce a well-disciplined army he could defeat the Royalist forces under the king's nephew Prince Rupert, the Duke of Cumberland, and his [[Cavalier]]s. He also knew, as a result of his limited experience with the local county militia that pikemen, armed with sixteen-foot-long pikes, who stood their ground during a cavalry attack, could do a tremendous amount of damage.

Cromwell had also realised that the Prince's cavalry were poorly disciplined, and that after they charged the enemy they then went in pursuit of individual targets. At the first major battle of the civil war at [[Edgehill]], the majority of the Prince's cavalry did not return to the battlefield until over an hour after the initial charge. By this time the horses were so tired they were unable to mount another attack.

Cromwell instead trained his cavalry to stay together after a charge, and in this way his forces could repeatedly charge the Cavaliers. Cromwell's new cavalry took part in its first major battle at [[Marston Moor]] in [[Yorkshire]] in July 1644. The king's forces suffered a crushing defeat, and Cromwell's soldiers became known as the ''Ironsides'' because of the way they cut through the Cavaliers on the battlefield. Cromwell himself earned the nickname ''Old Ironsides''.

==New Model Army==
At the beginning of the Civil War, Parliament relied on soldiers recruited by large landowners who supported their cause. In February 1645, Parliament decided to form a new army of professional soldiers. This army of 22,000 men became known as the [[New Model Army]] and its commander-in-chief was General [[Thomas Fairfax]]. Cromwell was placed in charge of its cavalry.

Members of the New Model Army received proper military training and by the time they went into battle they were very well-disciplined. Previously, people only became [[officer]]s because they came from powerful and wealthy families. In the New Model Army men were promoted when they showed themselves to be good soldiers. For the first time it became possible for working-class men to become army officers. Cromwell thought it was very important that soldiers in the New Model Army believed strongly in what they were fighting for. Where possible he recruited men who, like him, held strong Puritan views and the New Model Army always went into battle singing [[psalm]]s, convinced that God was on their side.

One strong faction among the regiments of the Army were known loosely as the "''Levellers''" "for they intend to sett all things straight, and rayse a parity and community in the kingdom".[http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Levellers] who subscribed to a belief in the "natural rights" of men that had been violated by the king's side. These natural rights, they asserted, came from the law of God expressed in the [[Bible]].

==The Battle of Naseby==
The New Model Army took part in its first major battle just outside the village of [[Naseby]] in [[Northamptonshire]] on 14 June 1645. The battle began when Prince Rupert led a charge against the left wing of the parliamentary cavalry which scattered and Rupert's men then gave chase. While this was going on Cromwell launched an attack on the left wing of the royalist cavalry. This was also successful and the royalists that survived the initial charge fled from the battlefield. Cromwell then ordered his cavalry to attack the now unprotected flanks of the infantry. Charles I was waiting with 1,200 men in reserve, but instead of ordering them forward to help his infantry he decided to retreat. Without support from the cavalry, the royalist infantry realised their task was impossible and surrendered. By the time Prince Rupert's cavalry returned to the battlefield the fighting had ended and his horses were exhausted after their long chase and not in a fit state to take on Cromwell's cavalry. The prince had no option but to ride off in search of the fleeing Charles I.

The battle was disastrous for the king, with 1,000 of his men killed, and another 4,500 of his most experienced men taken prisoner. The Parliamentary forces were also able to capture the Royalist baggage train that contained the king's complete stock of guns and ammunition. After Naseby, Charles was never able to raise another army strong enough to defeat the parliamentary army in a major battle.

==Second English Civil War==
In January 1647, Charles I fled to Scotland where he was captured and handed over to the New Model Army. Charles was imprisoned in [[Hampton Court]], but in November 1647 he escaped and managed to rally support to raise another army. This time he was able to persuade the Scots to fight on his side. However, in August 1648 Cromwell's New Model Army defeated the Scots army (the "[[Engagers]]") at [[Preston]], where Cromwell tool sole command for the first time over an army of 9,000, which won a brilliant victory against the 18,000 strong Scots force.Once again Charles was taken prisoner.

==Politics and regicide==
Now that Parliament was in full control of England its members began to argue amongst themselves. Most Members of Parliament were [[Presbyterian]]s, and were willing to share power with the king. Presbyterians also had strong feelings on religion. They disapproved of other puritan groups such as the [[Anabaptist]]s, [[Religious Society of Friends|Quakers]] and [[Congregational church|Congregationalists]] and wanted them suppressed. The other major group were called the Independents. They tended to be followers of the religious groups that the Presbyterians wanted to suppress. The Independents argued for a policy of religious toleration. Some Independents also wanted to bring an end to the [[monarchy]].

The Independents had a strong following in the New Model Army and had the support of Cromwell. Afraid of their power, Presbyterian members of the House of Commons now tried to disband the army. The soldiers were furious, especially as Parliament made no effort to pay them the wages that were due to them. The army decided to take action and the Presbyterians were expelled from Parliament. With the Independents now in control, it was decided to put Charles I on trial as a [[Treason|traitor]]. In 1649 Charles was found guilty and executed by beheading outside his Whitehall Palace.

The Independents now passed a series of new laws. The monarchy, the House of Lords and the [[Anglican]] church were abolished. Lands owned by the royal family and the church were sold and the money was used to pay the parliamentary soldiers. The Independents also kept their promise regarding religious toleration. People were no longer fined for not attending their local church. However, everyone was still expected to attend some form of religious worship on Sundays.

==Conquest of Ireland==
In August 1649, Cromwell and 12,000 soldiers arrived in Ireland to eradicate the military threat of the alliance between the Irish Confederate Catholics and English royalists, and also to punish the Irish for their rebellion in 1641. After initially landing at [[Dublin]] on August 15, 1649 Cromwell captured the fortified port towns of [[Drogheda]] and [[Wexford]]. When Drogheda fell to the siege in September 1649, Cromwell's troops massacred nearly 3,500 people. Although this figure comprised around 2,700 royalist soldiers and all the men in the town bearing arms, a concerted propaganda campaign followed which ensured Cromwell was seen as a bloodthirsty tyrant in the national consciousness of Ireland. As recently as the 20th century Irish novelist [[James Joyce]] wrote in his novel ''[[Ulysses]]'': "''What about sanctimonious Cromwell and his ironsides that put the women and children of Drogheda to the sword with the bible text "God is love" pasted round the mouth of his cannon?''".

In May 1650 Cromwell learned that [[Charles II]] had landed in Scotland and been proclaimed king by the Scots Covenanter regime so he returned to England to put down this latest threat, leaving Henry Ireton and Edmund Ludlow in command of the English forces. The last Catholic held town, [[Galway]], surrendered in April 1652 and the last Irish troops surrendered in April 1653.

==Conquest of Scotland==
In an effort to avert war, Cromwell appealed to the General Assembly of the [[Church of Scotland]] to break their alliance with the royalists, famously urging them: ''"I beseech you, in the bowels of Christ, think it possible you may be mistaken."'' The Scot's rejected peace, and Cromwell invaded in August, 1650. After early setbacks, Cromwell destroyed the main Covenanter army at the battle of Dunbar on September 3 1650. Leaving 4,000 Scottish soldiers dead and 10,000 taken prisoner, he quickly moved to capture the Scottish capital of [[Edinburgh]]. In 1651 Charles II and the remaining Covenanters made a final desperate bid to invade England and capture London while Cromwell was still in Scotland. Cromwell rapidly pursued them south, however, and caught them at Worcester in September. In the ensuing battle Cromwell's forces wiped out the last major Scottish royalist army. Scotland was henceforward ruled from England under military occupation.

==Lord Protector==
By 1653 Cromwell and his Army effectively controlled all Britain, and in December 1653 the Army decided that Cromwell should become England's new ruler. Some officers wanted him to become king but he refused and instead took the title Lord Protector of the Commonwealth. Cromwell now imposed martial law in England and the country was divided into eleven districts, each district being overseen by a Major-General. The responsibilities of these Major-Generals included maintaining order, collecting taxes, granting poor relief and imposing Puritan morality. In some districts bear-baiting, cock-fighting, horse-racing and wrestling were banned. Betting and gambling were also forbidden. Large numbers of [[Public house|pubs]] were closed and fines were imposed on people heard swearing. In some districts, the Major-Generals also closed the theatres.

Former members of the Levellers grew disillusioned with the dictatorial policies of Cromwell and in 1655 Edward Sexby, John Wildman and Richard Overton were involved in fomenting a plot to overthrow the government, but the conspiracy was discovered and the men were forced to flee to the [[Netherlands]]. In May 1657 Edward Sexby published (under the pseudonym William Allen) ''Killing No Murder'', a political pamphlet that argued the justification of an assassination of Cromwell. The following month he arrived in England to carry out the assassination, but was arrested and imprisoned in the [[Tower of London]].

In 1658 Cromwell announced that he wanted his son, Richard Cromwell, to replace him as Lord Protector of the Commonwealth. The English army was unhappy with this decision. While they respected Oliver as a skillful military commander, Richard was just a country farmer.

Oliver Cromwell died on 3rd September 1658. His son became Lord Protector but in May 1659, the generals forced him to retire from government. As a result of the Restoration in 1660, Cromwell's body was disinterred from the tomb of kings in [[Westminster Abbey]] and was hung from the gallows at Tyburn.

==External links==
*[http://www.olivercromwell.org/ The Oliver Cromwell Association]
*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/cromwell_oliver.shtml Cromwell at BBC History]
*[http://britannia.com/history/monarchs/mon48.html Cromwell at ''Britannia'' website]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Cromwell, Oliver}}
[[Category:Military Commanders]]
[[Category:UK Monarchs]]

Oliver Cromwell

2007-06-13T15:10:39Z

Cornovius: /* External links */

Lady Jane Grey

2007-06-13T15:05:52Z

Cornovius:

'''Lady Jane Grey''' (1537-54) was proclaimed Queen of England on 10th of July 1553, and removed 9 days later on 19th of July.

Jane was a niece of Henry VIII who became a pawn in her family and others’ promotion of their dynastic interests. She was attractive and intelligent and enters history as a member of the household of Catherine Parr, Henry’s widow. Henry’s son, Edward VI was a sickly child who died without issue. The Duke of Northumberland, and President of the King’s Council, had persuaded Edward to name Jane (who did have legal claim to the throne) as his heir. He then married Jane (much against her will) to his own son, Guildford Dudley.

On Edward’s death Jane was proclaimed Queen and this was ratified by the Council. Supporters of the staunchly Catholic Mary – Henry VIII’s eldest daughter - marshalled their forces, and Jane’s supporters soon admitted defeat. Jane pleaded guilty to treason, and she and Dudley were beheaded. She died on 12th February 1554. Her last words were a denial that she had ever desired the Throne, and that she considered that she was going to her death as a true Christian.

[[Category:UK Monarchs]]

Henry III

2007-06-13T15:05:23Z

Cornovius:

'''HENRY III''' (1207-1272), King of England (1216-1272), was only nine when he succeeded his father [[King John]]. This was at a time of crisis, with a French army controlling much of the south of a kingdom already wracked by the civil war between his father and the barons. He was fortunate that the barons saw fit not to transfer their grievances from the father to the son; and that the regency of England was in the hands of the remarkable old warrior and diplomat, William Marshall, who, with papal help, came to terms with the French and secured the kingdom.

He was crowned in Gloucester on the death of his father and again at Westminster in 1220. He did not, however, rid himself of a council of advisers and begin his personal rule until 1234. Two years later he married Eleanor of Provence, who was to bear him two sons, and four daughters, and cause much resentment at the overbearing and grasping ways of her retinue.

Henry was a man unsuited to the duties of thirteenth century kingship and the realities of the post-[[Magna Carta]] age. He was the most cultured of monarchs, spending great sums on art and aggrandisement, and the restoration of Westminster Abbey, including the establishment of the royal necropolis, which, whilst of interest to the modern tourist, was considered of less worth in an England in some financial strife. He found it impossible to understand that he, as king, did not have the same powers as his forebears did before Magna Carta.

He attempted unsuccessfully to regain Poitou lost by his father; managed to retain Gascony, but was finally forced to accept the King of France as his liege lord in that country and agree to forego all claims to other French lands that had once been the Angevin birthright.

Henry, by the late 1250s, was an unpopular ruler in the eyes of the magnates of the realm, and in 1258 a group of them led by Simon de Montfort, forced him to accept the Provisions of Oxford, which curtailed his power to the extent that a council of fifteen was
appointed by Parliament to control all expenditure, and he had to agree to the holding of regular future parliaments.

It became apparent that the power in the kingdom was leaning too much towards de Montfort, and in 1261 Henry had enough baronial support to break free of his restraints. He obtained papal absolution enabling denial of the Provisions. In 1263 many of the barons revolted and de Montfort retook Government. The French king’s decision in 1264 to accept the right of Henry to ignore the Provisions brought renewed fighting and Henry was captured at the Battle of Lewes and forced to recall Parliament. (These Parliaments – 1258, 1264, 1265 - together form an important step in the long path from Magna Carta to modern parliamentary democracy. For the first time, commoners were included in deliberations and the vote. The Parliament of 1265 can be considered as the first meeting of the House of Commons.)

The attitude of de Montford again irritated many of the barons. He fell out with the powerful Earl of Gloucester. The earl joined Henry’s son, the future Edward I, in the Welsh Marches. Together they raised an army, and at the battle of Evesham (4 August 1265) de Montford was killed, and Henry returned to power. The reforms of the three great Parliaments were annulled.

Henry died in 1272 and was succeeded by Edward.

Henry’s reign had staggered from one crisis to another, and on the surface it seems that little was achieved; that all the strife and hope had been for nought. But the England at the succession of Edward was a different place to the war-riven land of 1216. Whilst those in high position bickered and fought for power, the farmer and artisan and merchant - even the still-bound serf - were getting on with their lives and starting to become aware of a thing called England. Whilst the nobles still spoke their French, and followed the ways of the French court, there was not the gulf between them and the great mass of the people that had existed before. The English language was at last being written. The universities at Oxford and Cambridge shed much of their "Frenchness" and became great in their own right. The great Dominican, Roger Bacon, and his Franciscan contemporary, Robert Grosseteste, who wrote seminal works in theology and science, flourished at this time. The capital, London, was now recognised at home and abroad as the great city it was. The three Parliaments may not have achieved their goal, but the seed had been planted, and there was now a perception that the common man might actually gain something.

The historian Arthur Bryant titled his chapter on the state of England at the end of Henry’s reign: “Merry England”. Much of the history of England now turns to the lives of the commoners instead of being solely the story of the high and noble.

References: Arthur Bryant: “Makers of the Realm”| “The Plantagenet Encyclopedia”.

[[Category:UK Monarchs]]

Edward I

2007-06-13T15:04:43Z

Cornovius:

'''EDWARD I''' (1239-1307), King of England (1272-1307) was the embodiment of many of the perceptions and ideals of the medieval king. He was very tall (nicknamed “Longshanks”), intelligent, articulate and at his succession, already an experienced battle commander, having been the architect of the victory over de Montfort at Evesham in 1265 and distinguishing himself in action during the truncated Eighth Crusade (1270).

He was very aware of his rights and privileges as the monarch of a major European feudal realm; but unlike his father – indeed any king since Henry II – he also recognised the rights of his subjects and was a passionate believer in good and fair (for the period) governance. And he kept his word - as a young prince, when asked to break the oath he and his father, [[Henry III]] had made unwillingly at Oxford in 1258, he refused, although the barons had broken theirs. In his private life his love of his wife, Eleanor of Castille, and his very public and prolonged mourning after her death in 1290 are well recorded. Some of the 12 “Eleanor Crosses” he had erected in memoriam at the resting places for her funeral cortege on its way from Lincoln to Westminster still stand.

He was, however, ruthless and could be extremely cruel. He had the Plantagenet temper and was quick to take offence.

In the early years of his reign, free from the interminable struggles against France, hardly any aspect of the government of the realm, the relationship between Crown and Church, or the issue of law and order, was left untouched in Statutes approved at a series of Parliaments. He even re-confirmed [[Magna Carta]]

He is best remembered for his conquest of Wales, and for the series of campaigns in Scotland.

The Welsh and England had had a restive relationship for centuries, paralleled by frequent periods of unrest within Wales as local rulers fought for supremacy. By 1250 the Welsh prince, Llewellyn II ap Gruffydd had been reduced to the rank of an English baron, owing fealty to the Crown of England. During the next couple of decades Llewellyn extended his control until, in 1267, the Treaty of Montgomery recognised him as “Prince of Wales”, and although still a vassal of the King of England, he ruled a land recognised as purely Welsh.

In 1276 Edward perceived that Llewellyn had breached the Treaty of Montgomery. In what must be one of the greatest examples of overkill in medieval European history he mobilised the total forces of his realm, augmented by foreign troops and a large fleet, and in 1277 invaded Wales. The subsequent Peace of Aberconway was breached by Welsh forces hostile to Llewellyn and in 1282 Edward pounced again. Llewellan was killed in a skirmish. His brother Dafydd was hunted down and hideously executed. The string of great concentric castles was built, and English law and customs began their march into the interior. The investiture of his son, Edward as Prince of Wales (which legend tells us was at Caernarvon Castle in 1284, but was in reality at Lincoln 17 years later) retained the perception of the State as a principality, but it was the principality belonging to the heir to the English throne.

The matter of Scotland had different causes and a much different outcome. In 1290, as self-appointed arbiter on who should be appointed to the Scottish throne left vacant by the death of the heirless “Maid of Norway”. The man Edward chose, John Baliol, was unpopular. He was also placed in the invidious position of being forced to pay homage to Edward and to supply Scottish forces for forthcoming hostilities in France. He made a treaty with France. When Edward’s forces attacked France, the Scots attacked England. So Edward invaded Scotland. He was immediately successful, but holding on to the prize was difficult. First William Wallace (until captured and killed in 1305), then Robert the Bruce, led rebellions against the invaders. Edward did not live to see the result of Bruce’s uprising. In 1307 he died.

Edward’s legacy is complicated. He left a country bankrupted by the almost constant warfare of the previous twenty years. He had secured his country’s western borders, but committed to the upkeep of massive castles and a holding army in Wales. His treatment of the Scots still causes rancour in Anglo-Scottish relations today. This may or may not be balanced by the progress made in England’s standards of governance, and the greater reliance on parliament.

References:
• Arthur Bryant: “Makers of the Realm”
• Norman Davies: “The Isles”
• “The Oxford Companion to British History”

[[Category:UK Monarchs]]

Kings of England and Great Britain

2007-06-13T15:03:57Z

Cornovius: /* Angevins */

Alfred the Great, King of Wessex from 871, proclaimed himself ''King of the English'' after liberating London from the Danes in 886. The following lists all the Kings of England from that date (titled Kings of Great Britain from 1603 onwards).

== West Saxons ==

* '''[[Alfred the Great]]''' (871-899)
* '''Edward the Elder''' (899-924)
* '''Athelstan''' (924-939)
* '''Edmund the Magnificent''' (939-946)
* '''Edred''' (946-955)
* '''Edwy the Fair''' (955-959)
* '''Edgar the Peaceable''' (959-975)
* '''Edward the Martyr''' (975-978)
* '''Ethelred the Unready''' (978-1013, 1014-1016)
* '''Edmund Ironside''' (1016)

== Danes ==

* '''Sweyn Forkbeard''' (uncrowned) (1013-1014)
* '''Canute''' (1016-1035)
* '''Harthacanute''' (1035-1037, 1040-1042)
* '''Harold Harefoot''' (1037-1040)

== West Saxons (restored) ==

* '''[[Edward the Confessor]]''' (1042-1066)
* '''[[Harold Godwinson]]''' (1066)
* '''Edgar the Atheling''' (uncrowned) (1066) (abdicated, died ''circa'' 1126)

== Normans ==

* '''[[William the Conqueror|William I, the Conqueror]]''' (1066-1087)
* '''[[William Rufus|William II, Rufus]]''' (1087-1100)
* '''Henry I''' (1100-1135)
* '''[[Stephen]]''' (1135-1141, 1141-1154)
* '''Matilda''' (uncrowned) (1141) (deposed, died 1167)

== Plantagenets ==
=== Angevins ===

* '''[[Henry II]]''' (1154-1189)
* '''[[Richard I|Richard I, the Lionheart]]''' (1189-1199)
* '''[[King John|John]]''' (1199-1216)
* '''[[Henry III]]''' (1216-1272)
* '''[[Edward I]]''' (1272-1307)
* '''Edward II''' (1307-1327) (deposed, died 1327)
* '''Edward III''' (1327-1377)
* '''Richard II''' (1377-1399) (deposed, died 1400)

=== Lancastrians ===

* '''Henry IV''' (1399-1413)
* '''Henry V''' (1413-1422)
* '''Henry VI''' (1422-1461, 1470-1471)

=== Yorkists ===

* '''Edward IV''' (1461-1470, 1471-1483)
* '''Edward V''' (uncrowned) (1483) (deposed, probably died 1483)
* '''Richard III''' (1483-1485)

== Tudors ==

* '''Henry VII''' (1485-1509)
* '''[[Henry VIII]]''' (1509-1547)
* '''Edward VI''' (1547-1553)
* '''[[Lady Jane Grey|Jane]]''' (uncrowned) (1553) (deposed, died 1554)
* '''[[Mary I]]''' (1553-1558)
* '''[[Elizabeth I]]''' (1558-1603)

== Stuarts ==

* '''[[James I]]''' (1603-1625)
* '''[[Charles I]]''' (1625-1649)

== Commonwealth ==

* '''Oliver Cromwell''' (Lord Protector, 1653-1658)
* '''Richard Cromwell''' (Lord Protector, 1658-1659) (resigned, died 1712)

== Stuarts (restored) ==

* '''[[Charles II]]''' (1660-1685)
* '''[[James II]]''' (1685-1688) (deposed, died 1701)
* '''[[William III of England|William III]]''' (1689-1702)
* '''Mary II''' (co-monarch, 1689-1694)
* '''Anne''' (1702-1714)

== Hanoverians ==

* '''George I''' (1714-1727)
* '''George II''' (1727-1760)
* '''George III''' (1760-1820)
* '''George IV''' (1820-1830)
* '''William IV''' (1830-1837)
* '''Victoria''' (1837-1901)

== Saxe-Coburg-Gotha ==

* '''Edward VII''' (1901-1910)

== Windsors ==

* '''George V''' (1910-1936)
* '''[[Edward VIII]]''' (uncrowned) (1936) (abdicated, died 1972)
* '''[[George VI]]''' (1936-1952)
* '''[[Elizabeth II]]''' (1952-present)

[[Category:UK Monarchs]]

Kings of England and Great Britain

2007-06-13T15:03:18Z

Cornovius:

Alfred the Great, King of Wessex from 871, proclaimed himself ''King of the English'' after liberating London from the Danes in 886. The following lists all the Kings of England from that date (titled Kings of Great Britain from 1603 onwards).

== West Saxons ==

* '''[[Alfred the Great]]''' (871-899)
* '''Edward the Elder''' (899-924)
* '''Athelstan''' (924-939)
* '''Edmund the Magnificent''' (939-946)
* '''Edred''' (946-955)
* '''Edwy the Fair''' (955-959)
* '''Edgar the Peaceable''' (959-975)
* '''Edward the Martyr''' (975-978)
* '''Ethelred the Unready''' (978-1013, 1014-1016)
* '''Edmund Ironside''' (1016)

== Danes ==

* '''Sweyn Forkbeard''' (uncrowned) (1013-1014)
* '''Canute''' (1016-1035)
* '''Harthacanute''' (1035-1037, 1040-1042)
* '''Harold Harefoot''' (1037-1040)

== West Saxons (restored) ==

* '''[[Edward the Confessor]]''' (1042-1066)
* '''[[Harold Godwinson]]''' (1066)
* '''Edgar the Atheling''' (uncrowned) (1066) (abdicated, died ''circa'' 1126)

== Normans ==

* '''[[William the Conqueror|William I, the Conqueror]]''' (1066-1087)
* '''[[William Rufus|William II, Rufus]]''' (1087-1100)
* '''Henry I''' (1100-1135)
* '''[[Stephen]]''' (1135-1141, 1141-1154)
* '''Matilda''' (uncrowned) (1141) (deposed, died 1167)

== Plantagenets ==
=== Angevins ===

* '''[[Henry II]]''' (1154-1189)
* '''[[Richar I|Richard I, the Lionheart]]''' (1189-1199)
* '''[[King John|John]]''' (1199-1216)
* '''[[Henry III]]''' (1216-1272)
* '''[[Edward I]]''' (1272-1307)
* '''Edward II''' (1307-1327) (deposed, died 1327)
* '''Edward III''' (1327-1377)
* '''Richard II''' (1377-1399) (deposed, died 1400)

=== Lancastrians ===

* '''Henry IV''' (1399-1413)
* '''Henry V''' (1413-1422)
* '''Henry VI''' (1422-1461, 1470-1471)

=== Yorkists ===

* '''Edward IV''' (1461-1470, 1471-1483)
* '''Edward V''' (uncrowned) (1483) (deposed, probably died 1483)
* '''Richard III''' (1483-1485)

== Tudors ==

* '''Henry VII''' (1485-1509)
* '''[[Henry VIII]]''' (1509-1547)
* '''Edward VI''' (1547-1553)
* '''[[Lady Jane Grey|Jane]]''' (uncrowned) (1553) (deposed, died 1554)
* '''[[Mary I]]''' (1553-1558)
* '''[[Elizabeth I]]''' (1558-1603)

== Stuarts ==

* '''[[James I]]''' (1603-1625)
* '''[[Charles I]]''' (1625-1649)

== Commonwealth ==

* '''Oliver Cromwell''' (Lord Protector, 1653-1658)
* '''Richard Cromwell''' (Lord Protector, 1658-1659) (resigned, died 1712)

== Stuarts (restored) ==

* '''[[Charles II]]''' (1660-1685)
* '''[[James II]]''' (1685-1688) (deposed, died 1701)
* '''[[William III of England|William III]]''' (1689-1702)
* '''Mary II''' (co-monarch, 1689-1694)
* '''Anne''' (1702-1714)

== Hanoverians ==

* '''George I''' (1714-1727)
* '''George II''' (1727-1760)
* '''George III''' (1760-1820)
* '''George IV''' (1820-1830)
* '''William IV''' (1830-1837)
* '''Victoria''' (1837-1901)

== Saxe-Coburg-Gotha ==

* '''Edward VII''' (1901-1910)

== Windsors ==

* '''George V''' (1910-1936)
* '''[[Edward VIII]]''' (uncrowned) (1936) (abdicated, died 1972)
* '''[[George VI]]''' (1936-1952)
* '''[[Elizabeth II]]''' (1952-present)

[[Category:UK Monarchs]]

Kings of England and Great Britain

2007-06-13T15:01:34Z

Cornovius:

Alfred the Great, King of Wessex from 871, proclaimed himself ''King of the English'' after liberating London from the Danes in 886. The following lists all the Kings of England from that date (titled Kings of Great Britain from 1603 onwards).

== West Saxons ==

* '''[[Alfred the Great]]''' (871-899)
* '''Edward the Elder''' (899-924)
* '''Athelstan''' (924-939)
* '''Edmund the Magnificent''' (939-946)
* '''Edred''' (946-955)
* '''Edwy the Fair''' (955-959)
* '''Edgar the Peaceable''' (959-975)
* '''Edward the Martyr''' (975-978)
* '''Ethelred the Unready''' (978-1013, 1014-1016)
* '''Edmund Ironside''' (1016)

== Danes ==

* '''Sweyn Forkbeard''' (uncrowned) (1013-1014)
* '''Canute''' (1016-1035)
* '''Harthacanute''' (1035-1037, 1040-1042)
* '''Harold Harefoot''' (1037-1040)

== West Saxons (restored) ==

* '''[[Edward the Confessor]]''' (1042-1066)
* '''[[Harold Godwinson]]''' (1066)
* '''Edgar the Atheling''' (uncrowned) (1066) (abdicated, died ''circa'' 1126)

== Normans ==

* '''[[William the Conqueror|William I, the Conqueror]]''' (1066-1087)
* '''[[William Rufus|William II, Rufus]]''' (1087-1100)
* '''Henry I''' (1100-1135)
* '''[[Stephen]]''' (1135-1141, 1141-1154)
* '''Matilda''' (uncrowned) (1141) (deposed, died 1167)

== Plantagenets ==
=== Angevins ===

* '''[[Henry II]]''' (1154-1189)
* '''[[Richar I|Richard I, the Lionheart]]''' (1189-1199)
* '''[[King John|John]]''' (1199-1216)
* '''Henry III''' (1216-1272)
* '''Edward I''' (1272-1307)
* '''Edward II''' (1307-1327) (deposed, died 1327)
* '''Edward III''' (1327-1377)
* '''Richard II''' (1377-1399) (deposed, died 1400)

=== Lancastrians ===

* '''Henry IV''' (1399-1413)
* '''Henry V''' (1413-1422)
* '''Henry VI''' (1422-1461, 1470-1471)

=== Yorkists ===

* '''Edward IV''' (1461-1470, 1471-1483)
* '''Edward V''' (uncrowned) (1483) (deposed, probably died 1483)
* '''Richard III''' (1483-1485)

== Tudors ==

* '''Henry VII''' (1485-1509)
* '''[[Henry VIII]]''' (1509-1547)
* '''Edward VI''' (1547-1553)
* '''Jane''' (uncrowned) (1553) (deposed, died 1554)
* '''[[Mary I]]''' (1553-1558)
* '''[[Elizabeth I]]''' (1558-1603)

== Stuarts ==

* '''[[James I]]''' (1603-1625)
* '''[[Charles I]]''' (1625-1649)

== Commonwealth ==

* '''Oliver Cromwell''' (Lord Protector, 1653-1658)
* '''Richard Cromwell''' (Lord Protector, 1658-1659) (resigned, died 1712)

== Stuarts (restored) ==

* '''[[Charles II]]''' (1660-1685)
* '''[[James II]]''' (1685-1688) (deposed, died 1701)
* '''[[William III of England|William III]]''' (1689-1702)
* '''Mary II''' (co-monarch, 1689-1694)
* '''Anne''' (1702-1714)

== Hanoverians ==

* '''George I''' (1714-1727)
* '''George II''' (1727-1760)
* '''George III''' (1760-1820)
* '''George IV''' (1820-1830)
* '''William IV''' (1830-1837)
* '''Victoria''' (1837-1901)

== Saxe-Coburg-Gotha ==

* '''Edward VII''' (1901-1910)

== Windsors ==

* '''George V''' (1910-1936)
* '''[[Edward VIII]]''' (uncrowned) (1936) (abdicated, died 1972)
* '''[[George VI]]''' (1936-1952)
* '''[[Elizabeth II]]''' (1952-present)

[[Category:UK Monarchs]]

Henry II

2007-06-13T15:01:04Z

Cornovius:

HENRY II (1133-89) King of [[England]] (1154-89).

Henry was one of the most able of [[English]] kings. He came to the throne at a time when the legal and social fabric of England had all but disappeared in the civil war of much of the previous 19 years, and set about repairing the institutions of law and administration. By strength of character, some persuasion, and a mixture of brute force and clever stratagem, he brought the barons of the realm back under the control of the crown, and set about creating a system whereby the effective administration of the his dominions was not contingent on the king’s presence.

The first of the Angevin kings of England, he brought with him the titles of Count of Anjou from his father, Duke of Normandy from his mother’s line, and Duke of Aquitaine as right of his marriage to [[Eleanor of Aquitaine]]. He was lord of three fifths of what is now France, as well as England; an enormous area given the atrocious roads of the time and the notoriously fickle sea conditions between England and the Continent. That he kept his lands under a good degree of control for most of his reign, and managed to improve the civic, justice and economic institutions, indicate not only ability, but enormous stamina. He spent most of his reign travelling.

Whilst expert in statecraft, he was still given to bouts of temper and passion, especially when he perceived himself thwarted in his aims. The tragedy of T[[homas Becket]] is an example here. A fit of temper and thoughtless words brought about the death of a good
man (though one as pig-headed and sure of his own right as his sovereign and one-time friend.)

Perhaps his greatest failure was in the allocation of his domains to his sons in a will in 1169. His decision to give his youngest son, John, three castles in Anjou, after first denying him any estates, (hence “John Lackland”) incited his three eldest surviving sons to revolt in 1173. His wife sided with them. The remainder of his reign was to be plagued by the need to keep his family under control. Louis of France and, after 1180, Philip II were a constant irritant as one offspring or another (or all) enlisted aid from the old enemy (and Henry’s feudal overlord…as Duke of Normandy, Count of Anjou, and Duke of Aquitaine Henry owed fealty to the king of France; and each year went to him and swore the oath on bended knee.)

He died in 1189 shortly after losing a campaign against a coalition of Richard and John with Philip and having to sign a humiliating peace.

His reforms in the administration of his realms, and his strengthening of the rule of law enabled these institutions to withstand, by and large, the prolonged absences of Richard I and the struggle between King John and the barons during the following two and a half decades.

[[Category:UK Monarchs]]

King John

2007-06-13T15:00:12Z

Cornovius:

'''JOHN''' (1167-1216), King of England (1199-1216) and “Lord of Ireland” (1177-1216), was the youngest son of [[Henry II]] and [[Eleanor of Aquitaine]] and brother to [[Richard I]].

He was nicknamed “Lackland” because he was given money, not lands, in his father’s original will. A later amendment granting him certain castles in Anjou spurred his brothers to rebellion, which, although quelled, was to lead to his mother’s incarceration for nearly twenty years, and eventually contribute to his father’s death.

John is the popular villain in English history, and his notoriety is re-invoked every time [[Robin Hood]] draws bow on page or screen. During Richard’s incarceration by the King of Austria, he attempted to usurp the throne, but was foiled by Eleanor’s support for the king. He also attemted to delay Richard’s return.

He did receive the support of his mother, though, to assume the throne on Richard’s death. Richard had announced his nephew, Arthur of Brittany, as his heir, but Eleanor gave John the support of the immensely rich and powerful Aquitaine. Arthur and the French king Philip II were defeated at Mirebeau (1202). Arthur was captured and, according to legend, murdered by John in Rouen the following year. John’s treatment of Arthur and his fellow captives alienated many of his French subjects.

In 1200 John had had his marriage to Isabella of Gloucester annulled because of lack of issue and married Isabella of Angouleme, a lady already betrothed to Hugh of Lusignam. He confiscated Hugh’s lands as a wedding gift to his new father-in-law. This disregard for feudal protocol was to be used as justification for Philip’s take-over of John’s northern French dominions in 1202-3. (One of the features of the feudal landscape of the time was that, although the King of England was beholden to no temporal authority, that same man was also Duke of Normandy, Count of Anjou, and so on, and as such owed fealty to the King of France as ruler of those lands. Later, we were to have the seemingly ridiculous situation whereby King Edward III would halt a military campaign against France to go to the French camp, and kneel and swear fealty to the French King as his liege lord; then resume the campaign.)

The loss of his cross-channel lands was to lead to much unrest. His expeditions to recover them, although partly successful in 1205-6 with the return of Gascony and a part of Poitou to his name, were a drain on the purse and led to greater demands on his nobles, both in terms of finance, and their own time and effort. His increasing demands would finally cause armed conflict, effectively civil war – and yet another effort in his quest for the repatriation of his overseas lands would end in major defeat of his ally, the Holy Roman Emperor Otto IV by Philip of France in 1214, brought him so low that the barons were able to bring him to Runnymede and the [[Magna Carta]].

It was not only the barons he alienated. In 1206 he had refused to accept the accession of Stephen Langton as Archbishop of Canterbury. This, and his forcing into exile of all the Canterbury monks brought down the wrath of Pope Innocent III that the whole of England was placed under papal interdict forbidding any Christian services –clergy participation masses, marriages, burials was forbidden. It was only lifted in 1214. He further angered the Pope and was personally excommunicated. In a brilliant piece of politics he surrendered his lands to the Pope as papal fiefs, thus keeping them from any encroachments by the barons.

He ignored Magna Carta of course. Before the end of the year he was in conflict with the barons again and in 1216 Philip and his son, Louis, invaded England. It is an irony of history that at this time, with seemingly everyone against him, surrounded and outnumbered, John showed courage and skill and fought on. The loss of his supply train in at a river crossing on The Wash seemed to signal the end though, for he died shortly after.

He was succeeded by his nine year old son, Henry III, and a country confused and devastated.

John deserves most, if not all, of the opprobrium that history has showered on him. The historian, W. L. Warren says of him: “He had the mental abilities of a great king but the inclinations of a petty tyrant”. It is these inclinations he is remembered for. He at no time did he put the welfare of the realm before his own desires. He was a cruel man and assumed that others were of the same temperament, therefore he was distrustful of those around him. His barons were always aware that he could turn on any one of them at any time. The governance of the realm suffered accordingly. He showed flashes of brilliance in the field. He managed to subdue the Anglo-Norman magnates in Ireland in 1212 and he can be praised for his final campaigns, but in an era when a country’s prosperity was so contingent on the good character of its ruler he was a failure.

Reference: "Oxford Companion to English History"|"Plantagenet Encyclopedia"

[[Category:UK Monarchs]]

Kings of England and Great Britain

2007-06-13T14:57:53Z

Cornovius:

Alfred the Great, King of Wessex from 871, proclaimed himself ''King of the English'' after liberating London from the Danes in 886. The following lists all the Kings of England from that date (titled Kings of Great Britain from 1603 onwards).

== West Saxons ==

* '''[[Alfred the Great]]''' (871-899)
* '''Edward the Elder''' (899-924)
* '''Athelstan''' (924-939)
* '''Edmund the Magnificent''' (939-946)
* '''Edred''' (946-955)
* '''Edwy the Fair''' (955-959)
* '''Edgar the Peaceable''' (959-975)
* '''Edward the Martyr''' (975-978)
* '''Ethelred the Unready''' (978-1013, 1014-1016)
* '''Edmund Ironside''' (1016)

== Danes ==

* '''Sweyn Forkbeard''' (uncrowned) (1013-1014)
* '''Canute''' (1016-1035)
* '''Harthacanute''' (1035-1037, 1040-1042)
* '''Harold Harefoot''' (1037-1040)

== West Saxons (restored) ==

* '''[[Edward the Confessor]]''' (1042-1066)
* '''[[Harold Godwinson]]''' (1066)
* '''Edgar the Atheling''' (uncrowned) (1066) (abdicated, died ''circa'' 1126)

== Normans ==

* '''[[William the Conqueror|William I, the Conqueror]]''' (1066-1087)
* '''[[William Rufus|William II, Rufus]]''' (1087-1100)
* '''Henry I''' (1100-1135)
* '''[[Stephen]]''' (1135-1141, 1141-1154)
* '''Matilda''' (uncrowned) (1141) (deposed, died 1167)

== Plantagenets ==
=== Angevins ===

* '''Henry II''' (1154-1189)
* '''Richard I, the Lionheart''' (1189-1199)
* '''John''' (1199-1216)
* '''Henry III''' (1216-1272)
* '''Edward I''' (1272-1307)
* '''Edward II''' (1307-1327) (deposed, died 1327)
* '''Edward III''' (1327-1377)
* '''Richard II''' (1377-1399) (deposed, died 1400)

=== Lancastrians ===

* '''Henry IV''' (1399-1413)
* '''Henry V''' (1413-1422)
* '''Henry VI''' (1422-1461, 1470-1471)

=== Yorkists ===

* '''Edward IV''' (1461-1470, 1471-1483)
* '''Edward V''' (uncrowned) (1483) (deposed, probably died 1483)
* '''Richard III''' (1483-1485)

== Tudors ==

* '''Henry VII''' (1485-1509)
* '''[[Henry VIII]]''' (1509-1547)
* '''Edward VI''' (1547-1553)
* '''Jane''' (uncrowned) (1553) (deposed, died 1554)
* '''[[Mary I]]''' (1553-1558)
* '''[[Elizabeth I]]''' (1558-1603)

== Stuarts ==

* '''[[James I]]''' (1603-1625)
* '''[[Charles I]]''' (1625-1649)

== Commonwealth ==

* '''Oliver Cromwell''' (Lord Protector, 1653-1658)
* '''Richard Cromwell''' (Lord Protector, 1658-1659) (resigned, died 1712)

== Stuarts (restored) ==

* '''[[Charles II]]''' (1660-1685)
* '''[[James II]]''' (1685-1688) (deposed, died 1701)
* '''[[William III of England|William III]]''' (1689-1702)
* '''Mary II''' (co-monarch, 1689-1694)
* '''Anne''' (1702-1714)

== Hanoverians ==

* '''George I''' (1714-1727)
* '''George II''' (1727-1760)
* '''George III''' (1760-1820)
* '''George IV''' (1820-1830)
* '''William IV''' (1830-1837)
* '''Victoria''' (1837-1901)

== Saxe-Coburg-Gotha ==

* '''Edward VII''' (1901-1910)

== Windsors ==

* '''George V''' (1910-1936)
* '''[[Edward VIII]]''' (uncrowned) (1936) (abdicated, died 1972)
* '''[[George VI]]''' (1936-1952)
* '''[[Elizabeth II]]''' (1952-present)

[[Category:UK Monarchs]]

Kings of England and Great Britain

2007-06-13T14:53:32Z

Cornovius: /* Windsors */

Alfred the Great, King of Wessex from 871, proclaimed himself ''King of the English'' after liberating London from the Danes in 886. The following lists all the Kings of England from that date (titled Kings of Great Britain from 1603 onwards).

== West Saxons ==

* '''[[Alfred the Great]]''' (871-899)
* '''Edward the Elder''' (899-924)
* '''Athelstan''' (924-939)
* '''Edmund the Magnificent''' (939-946)
* '''Edred''' (946-955)
* '''Edwy the Fair''' (955-959)
* '''Edgar the Peaceable''' (959-975)
* '''Edward the Martyr''' (975-978)
* '''Ethelred the Unready''' (978-1013, 1014-1016)
* '''Edmund Ironside''' (1016)

== Danes ==

* '''Sweyn Forkbeard''' (uncrowned) (1013-1014)
* '''Canute''' (1016-1035)
* '''Harthacanute''' (1035-1037, 1040-1042)
* '''Harold Harefoot''' (1037-1040)

== West Saxons (restored) ==

* '''Edward the Confessor''' (1042-1066)
* '''Harold Godwinson''' (1066)
* '''Edgar the Atheling''' (uncrowned) (1066) (abdicated, died ''circa'' 1126)

== Normans ==

* '''William I, the Conqueror''' (1066-1087)
* '''William II, Rufus''' (1087-1100)
* '''Henry I''' (1100-1135)
* '''Stephen''' (1135-1141, 1141-1154)
* '''Matilda''' (uncrowned) (1141) (deposed, died 1167)

== Plantagenets ==
=== Angevins ===

* '''Henry II''' (1154-1189)
* '''Richard I, the Lionheart''' (1189-1199)
* '''John''' (1199-1216)
* '''Henry III''' (1216-1272)
* '''Edward I''' (1272-1307)
* '''Edward II''' (1307-1327) (deposed, died 1327)
* '''Edward III''' (1327-1377)
* '''Richard II''' (1377-1399) (deposed, died 1400)

=== Lancastrians ===

* '''Henry IV''' (1399-1413)
* '''Henry V''' (1413-1422)
* '''Henry VI''' (1422-1461, 1470-1471)

=== Yorkists ===

* '''Edward IV''' (1461-1470, 1471-1483)
* '''Edward V''' (uncrowned) (1483) (deposed, probably died 1483)
* '''Richard III''' (1483-1485)

== Tudors ==

* '''Henry VII''' (1485-1509)
* '''Henry VIII''' (1509-1547)
* '''Edward VI''' (1547-1553)
* '''Jane''' (uncrowned) (1553) (deposed, died 1554)
* '''Mary I''' (1553-1558)
* '''Elizabeth I''' (1558-1603)

== Stuarts ==

* '''James I''' (1603-1625)
* '''Charles I''' (1625-1649)

== Commonwealth ==

* '''Oliver Cromwell''' (Lord Protector, 1653-1658)
* '''Richard Cromwell''' (Lord Protector, 1658-1659) (resigned, died 1712)

== Stuarts (restored) ==

* '''Charles II''' (1660-1685)
* '''James II''' (1685-1688) (deposed, died 1701)
* '''William III''' (1689-1702)
* '''Mary II''' (co-monarch, 1689-1694)
* '''Anne''' (1702-1714)

== Hanoverians ==

* '''George I''' (1714-1727)
* '''George II''' (1727-1760)
* '''George III''' (1760-1820)
* '''George IV''' (1820-1830)
* '''William IV''' (1830-1837)
* '''Victoria''' (1837-1901)

== Saxe-Coburg-Gotha ==

* '''Edward VII''' (1901-1910)

== Windsors ==

* '''George V''' (1910-1936)
* '''Edward VIII''' (uncrowned) (1936) (abdicated, died 1972)
* '''George VI''' (1936-1952)
* '''Elizabeth II''' (1952-present)

[[Category:UK Monarchs]]

Kings of England and Great Britain

2007-06-13T14:53:01Z

Cornovius:

Alfred the Great, King of Wessex from 871, proclaimed himself ''King of the English'' after liberating London from the Danes in 886. The following lists all the Kings of England from that date (titled Kings of Great Britain from 1603 onwards).

== West Saxons ==

* '''[[Alfred the Great]]''' (871-899)
* '''Edward the Elder''' (899-924)
* '''Athelstan''' (924-939)
* '''Edmund the Magnificent''' (939-946)
* '''Edred''' (946-955)
* '''Edwy the Fair''' (955-959)
* '''Edgar the Peaceable''' (959-975)
* '''Edward the Martyr''' (975-978)
* '''Ethelred the Unready''' (978-1013, 1014-1016)
* '''Edmund Ironside''' (1016)

== Danes ==

* '''Sweyn Forkbeard''' (uncrowned) (1013-1014)
* '''Canute''' (1016-1035)
* '''Harthacanute''' (1035-1037, 1040-1042)
* '''Harold Harefoot''' (1037-1040)

== West Saxons (restored) ==

* '''Edward the Confessor''' (1042-1066)
* '''Harold Godwinson''' (1066)
* '''Edgar the Atheling''' (uncrowned) (1066) (abdicated, died ''circa'' 1126)

== Normans ==

* '''William I, the Conqueror''' (1066-1087)
* '''William II, Rufus''' (1087-1100)
* '''Henry I''' (1100-1135)
* '''Stephen''' (1135-1141, 1141-1154)
* '''Matilda''' (uncrowned) (1141) (deposed, died 1167)

== Plantagenets ==
=== Angevins ===

* '''Henry II''' (1154-1189)
* '''Richard I, the Lionheart''' (1189-1199)
* '''John''' (1199-1216)
* '''Henry III''' (1216-1272)
* '''Edward I''' (1272-1307)
* '''Edward II''' (1307-1327) (deposed, died 1327)
* '''Edward III''' (1327-1377)
* '''Richard II''' (1377-1399) (deposed, died 1400)

=== Lancastrians ===

* '''Henry IV''' (1399-1413)
* '''Henry V''' (1413-1422)
* '''Henry VI''' (1422-1461, 1470-1471)

=== Yorkists ===

* '''Edward IV''' (1461-1470, 1471-1483)
* '''Edward V''' (uncrowned) (1483) (deposed, probably died 1483)
* '''Richard III''' (1483-1485)

== Tudors ==

* '''Henry VII''' (1485-1509)
* '''Henry VIII''' (1509-1547)
* '''Edward VI''' (1547-1553)
* '''Jane''' (uncrowned) (1553) (deposed, died 1554)
* '''Mary I''' (1553-1558)
* '''Elizabeth I''' (1558-1603)

== Stuarts ==

* '''James I''' (1603-1625)
* '''Charles I''' (1625-1649)

== Commonwealth ==

* '''Oliver Cromwell''' (Lord Protector, 1653-1658)
* '''Richard Cromwell''' (Lord Protector, 1658-1659) (resigned, died 1712)

== Stuarts (restored) ==

* '''Charles II''' (1660-1685)
* '''James II''' (1685-1688) (deposed, died 1701)
* '''William III''' (1689-1702)
* '''Mary II''' (co-monarch, 1689-1694)
* '''Anne''' (1702-1714)

== Hanoverians ==

* '''George I''' (1714-1727)
* '''George II''' (1727-1760)
* '''George III''' (1760-1820)
* '''George IV''' (1820-1830)
* '''William IV''' (1830-1837)
* '''Victoria''' (1837-1901)

== Saxe-Coburg-Gotha ==

* '''Edward VII''' (1901-1910)

== Windsors ==

* '''George V''' (1910-1936)
* '''Edward VIII''' (uncrowned) (1936) (abdicated, died 1972)
* '''George VI''' (1936-1952)
* '''Elizabeth II''' (1952-present)

[[Category:UK monarchs]]