Conservapedia - User contributions [en]

Friedrich Nietzsche

2010-05-24T17:00:02Z

Daniel1983:

[[Image:nietzsche2.jpg|right|250px|thumb]]
'''Friedrich Nietzsche''' (1844-1900) was a [[Germany|German]] [[atheism|atheist]] [[philosopher]] whose work set a foundation for the [[existentialism|existentialist]] movement of the 1900s.<ref>[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/nietzsche/ Stanford's Biography on Nietzsche].</ref> Nietzsche went mad and suffered a mental breakdown, from which the world never recovered.

Nietzsche was critical of [[religion]] in general, though especially [[Christianity]], which he described as the "religion of pity."<ref>[http://www.quotationspage.com/quotes/Friedrich_Nietzsche/ Nietzsche Quotations]</ref> Nietzsche is perhaps most famous for his declaration that “God is dead,” which, rather than a [[theological]] argument, suggests that Western culture seemed no longer rooted in Christian dogmatism and a faith-based worldview. Without [[God]], the idea of absolutes are difficult to come by, and Nietzsche thus suggested ways for people to cope with this loss of "[[Good]]" and "[[Evil]]".

{{cquote|When [[Adolf Hitler]] first met [[Benito Mussolini]], he presented him with a gift of the collected works of Nietzsche. It was an appropriate memento. Hitler's ideas about life and politics were largely derived from Nietzsche. Hitler subscribed to the Nietzschean idea that superior people have an inborn right to rule. - [[William Kilpatrick]]}}

Nietzsche suffered a mental collapse in 1889, and spent the last ten years of his life unable to care for himself. During this time, his sister Elizabeth Förster-Nietzsche took over his affairs, and worked to falsify and re-edit his writings in order to support her virulent Antisemitism (a view which Nietzsche arguably abhorred, and often mocked, during his lifetime). It was her distorted version of culled and misquoted statements which later provided an intellectual fig leaf for the [[Nazi]]s and [[Italian]] [[Fascist]]s.

The ''Übermensch'' (overhuman, superhuman) was a literary device used in his magnum opus, "[[Thus Spoke Zarathustra]]". The Overman was to be a new kind of being which would overcome resentment and affirm the Eternal Recurrence of the same.

The statement "God is dead" first appeared in Nietzsche's "[[The Gay Science]]", in Aphorism 108, titled "New Struggles". This aphorism introduces Nietzsche's famous Madman, who runs out into the street shouting, "God is dead!" Yet, to his dismay, the Madman sees "he has come too soon," for people have not realized this cultural revelation for themselves and are blind to it. They consider the Madman's seemingly theological claim as absurd for they misunderstand him; it is no argument about the existence of God, but a claim of how [[secular]] society has become. Nietzsche was no friend to Christian beliefs, and no doubt considered the Christian God to be a mere myth. This passage shows his hope for a [[philosophy]] of the future, one he imagined would be emptied of coarse objective rationalizing, which he characterized as God and associated with Christianity. Nietzsche, in other words, felt his message of subjective truth came too soon and hoped, as the Madman, that he would be understood someday.

Nietzsche's father Carl Ludwig Nietzsche, was a [[Lutheran]] pastor.

In his first Papal Encyclical, "Deus Caritas Est" (God is Charity/Love) [[Pope Benedict XVI]] quotes from Nietzsche's ''Beyond Good and Evil'', taking very seriously Nietzsche's claim that the Church has poisoned ''eros'' (love) with dogma, and responding to it.

== Nietzsche's Insanity ==
Currently, there is an ongoing debate regarding whether atheism was a causal factor for Friedrich Nietzsche's insanity or whether it was caused strictly by disease.<ref>http://www.renewamerica.us/columns/hutchison/070307</ref><ref>http://www.ukapologetics.net/truthaboutnietzsche.html</ref><ref name="hkbu">http://www.hkbu.edu.hk/~ppp/top/top19</ref><ref>http://books.google.com/books?id=x4qDrNKVC5gC&pg=PA61&lpg=PA61&dq=Ren%C3%A9+Girard+nietzsche+and+madness&source=bl&ots=DQFLJpqjJd&sig=mXNq_6J6_qTciP2vW-FHojwBn20&hl=en&ei=hv99Sp0Y2YG2B8Ogsf4B&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1#v=onepage&q=&f=false</ref><ref>http://www.leonardsax.com/Nietzsche.pdf</ref><ref>http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17881977</ref><ref>http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17087793?dopt=Abstract</ref>
An article published on the Hong Kong Baptist University website offers the following regarding the cause of Friedrich Nietzsche's insanity:
{{cquote|Trying to explain what caused his insanity can only be a matter of speculation. Some people believe it was the result of a physical illness. Others interpret his suffering as that of a true prophet, almost as if he were accepting the punishment on behalf of those who could not see mankind's tendency towards self-destruction so clearly. Still others regard his final fate as a natural outcome of his philosophical outlook.<ref name="hkbu">http://www.hkbu.edu.hk/~ppp/top/top19</ref>}}

The Russian-born psychoanalyst and writer Lou Andreas-Salomé, who had a brief and tempestuous affair with Nietzsche, believed that Nietzsche's philosophy can be viewed as a reflection of his psychology and that his madness was the result of his philosophizing.<ref>http://www.amazon.com/Nietzsche-Lou-Salome/dp/0252070356</ref> In addition, the French historian René Girard asserted that Nietzsche's philosophy led to his insanity.<ref>http://books.google.com/books?id=x4qDrNKVC5gC&pg=PA61&lpg=PA61&dq=Ren%C3%A9+Girard+nietzsche+and+madness&source=bl&ots=DQFLJpqjJd&sig=mXNq_6J6_qTciP2vW-FHojwBn20&hl=en&ei=hv99Sp0Y2YG2B8Ogsf4B&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1#v=onepage&q=&f=false</ref>

==On Morality==
Friedrich Nietzsche argued that [[rational egalitarianism]] denies [[creativity]], and reason cannot create values and [[morality]], attempt to do so would only lead to [[nihilism]]. Therefore morality has been imposed.

Friedrich Nietzsche wrote "Morality is the herd-instinct in the individual.", "With morality, the individual can only ascribe value to himself as a function of the herd", "I submit that egoism belongs to the essence of a noble soul ... and has its basis in the primary law of things", "all morality is partisan; just as any legal system will favor certain behavior against others", "who else should we wish to serve, if not ourselves?" and "Whoever battles monsters should take care not to become a monster too, for if you stare long enough into the Abyss, the Abyss stares back into you."

==On Science and Knowledge==
Friedrich Nietzsche wrote "I mistrust all systemizers and avoid them; the will to systematize is a lack of integrity", "there is no pre-established harmony between the furtherance of truth and the well-being of mankind", "the free-spirit is brought into disrepute chiefly by scholars who miss their thoroughness and ant-like industry in his art of regarding things", "there are many things I do not wish to know, wisdom sets a limit on knowledge too", "the fact that science as we practice it today is possible proves that the elementary instinct which protect life have ceased to function", "we have arranged for ourselves a world in which we are able to live with postulation of bodies, lines, surfaces, causes, and effects, motion and rest, form and content: without these articles of faith, nobody could manage to live", "the irrationality of a thing is no argument against its existence, rather a condition for it", "[too much knowledge causes us to] choke on our own reason", "creed of nihilism which I see everywhere is the result of too much learning" and "Any truth which threatens life is no truth at all, it is an error".

==On Politics==
Friedrich Nietzsche wrote "As a political subject, it is an illusion to ask myself what I require from the state. In reality, it is a question of what the state requires from me", "culture and the state are antagonistic", "clearly, the individual will is forfeit to the demands of government - a kind of political Darwinism. The herd triumphs again, this time under the banner of the state", "socialism is the fantastic younger brother of an almost decrepit despotism, which it wants to succeeded", "the doctrine of free will is an invention of the ruling classes" and "madness is something rare in individuals; but in groups, parties, ages, it is the rule".

==On Women==
Friedrich Nietzsche wrote "Women are essentially unpeaceful" and "Man is for woman a means; the purpose is always a child. But what is woman for man?"

==On Philosophy==
Friedrich Nietzsche wrote "Philosophy is the dressing-up in rational argument of moral beliefs, intuitions and desires".

==On Religion==
Friedrich Nietzsche was born to a long line of Protestant Lutheran ministers. His grandfather, Friedrich August Ludwig Nietzsche, was in fact an established Protestant scholar whose writings argued the “everlasting survival of Christianity.” From an early age Friedrich Nietzsche maintained a dedication to Lutheranism and continued his passion for theology in university. In the year 1864, Nietzsche entered the University of Bonn as a theology and philology student with a particular interest in the translation and interpretation of Biblical texts. Nietzsche's views on religion are scattered amongst his earliest works in the 1860s well up until the time of his death in 1889. As such, his views concerning religion, morality, and human nature are not outlined definitively and are thus the subject of scholarly debate.

However, Nietzsche spoke out against Islam citing that it was a force subsisting wholly on the denial of the individual. He posed in his work "The Birth of Tragedy" that Islam (among other religions) utilizes the restriction of necessary human desires such as love as a means of securing their permanence as a force of control.

Thus Friedrich Nietzsche viewed [[Mohammed]], [[Buddah]], [[Homer]] etc, not as religious figures, but as creators of rigid moral frameworks, who lost their authority as [[Europe]] severed ties with its diverse religious tradition.

==See Also==
*[[Nihilism]]

==References==
<references/>
*[https://www.dartmouth.edu/~fnchron/index.html Nietzsche Chronicle]
*[http://www.press.uchicago.edu/Misc/Chicago/452786.html Nietzsche: The Problem of Autumn]
*[http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=816224 "The Case for Nietzschean Moral Psychology"]
*[http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/benedict_xvi/encyclicals/documents/hf_ben-xvi_enc_20051225_deus-caritas-est_en.html#_ftnref1 ''Deus Caritas Est'', from the Vatican website]
*[http://www.amazon.com/Introducing-Nietzsche-Third-Introducing-Laurence/dp/1840466278/ref=pd_bbs_sr_1/103-5268663-4749443?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1179639544&sr=1-1 Introducing Nietzsche, Third Edition by Laurence Gane]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Nietzsche, Friedrich}}

[[Category:Existentialist Philosophers]]
[[category:German Philosophers]]
[[Category:Children of Clergy]]

User talk:Daniel1983

2010-05-24T16:55:13Z

Daniel1983:

You want to place a "citation needed" tag with this edit [http://www.conservapedia.com/index.php?title=Acquired_Immunodeficiency_Syndrome&diff=prev&oldid=781382], but don't bother to cite anything for your other edits? Kind of strange, don't you think? [[User:Karajou|Karajou]] 12:50, 24 May 2010 (EDT)
cos all teh nigra iz gae[[User:Daniel1983|Daniel1983]] 12:55, 24 May 2010 (EDT)

Telephone

2010-05-24T16:42:05Z

Daniel1983: /* See Also */

A '''telephone''' is a device which allows instantaneous [[voice]] communication between two parties. It has evolved into one of the most used pieces of equipment worldwide, and is a crucial component of the daily lives of most individuals, families and [[business]]es, despite only being invented less than 150 years ago and having a relatively simple design and concept.

==History==

The telephone was developed out of the [[telegraph]], a system through which messages could be sent and received by send pulses of signal through an electrical circuit in the form of [[morse code]]. These required trained operators to both send and receive the message (which was then typed and delivered to the receiving party), however the basic concept led to the design of the telephone, and the extensive wiring provided infrastructure for early telephones.

Credit for inventing the telephone is a subject of extensive debate. There are reports stating that it was developed as early as 1849 by Antonio Meucci, however it is unknown whether he built a telephone or a different type of electric device involving voice. The two main contenders for recognition as the inventor are [[Alexander Graham Bell|Alexander Bell]] and [[Elisha Gray]] who designed similar products using [[electromagnets]]. Their patent applications were registered on the same day in 1876 (with Gray's being filed two hours before Bell's), however as Bell had actually built a working model it was his that was granted, Gray choosing to withdraw his on advice of his lawyers. The following month Bell transmitted his famous line, "Mr. Watson, come here, I want to see you", however he used components from Gray's patent in his final design.

Bell's struggles were not over after his patent application was confirmed. [[Thomas Edison]] had been developing a product which used a carbon microphone to transmit signals at a significantly cheaper price than the original design (which required permanent magnets and iron fittings), resulting in intense competition between the companies. In 1878 the first telephone exchanges were opened in both North America and Europe, however these were limited in that they required operators to monitor and connect lines. In 1879 David Connolly and JT McTighe patented an automatic dialing system, later developed by John and Charles Erickson and Frank Lundquist. This system was first implemented in 1919, however it was only in 1978 that the last manual phone was converted.

In 1927 the first transcontinental telephone call was made, however this was only possible through broadcasting radio waves. In 1935 the first international telephone call was made, leading to the running of wires along sea beds to allow long distance communication. Later developments in technology including satellite communications allowed for increased volume and higher quality in these calls.

The design of the telephone has allowed the development of other forms of technology, in particular the [[Internet]]. Originally [[dial up modems]] connected directly through the telephone system, and more recently [[ADSL]] which uses partitions of telephone lines (this in turn has led to [[Voice over IP]] or VoIP in which calls can be placed through an internet connection). [[Cellular phones]] were also developed from the fixed line network, and utilise similar technology when transmitting calls between base towers and exchanges.

==Methodology==

===Basic Principle===

The principle behind the telephone is remarkably simple: it consists of an electrical circuit between two handsets (each containing a speaker and a microphone). The circuit is maintained at about 30 milliamps (provided by the telephone exchange), and is connected when the handset of the phone is taken off the hook. As one party speaks into the telephone the microphone vibrates, resulting in small changes in resistance of the circuit. These changes are tiny, however since the circuit is operating at such a low current they are proportionally large, resulting in a fluctuating current. This changing current results in the [[speakers]] in the circuit vibrating at changing frequencies, effectively reproducing the original input sound. In order to prevent one's own speaker to vibrate at one's input (in other words to stop a person hearing their own voice) many phones are fitted with a [[duplex]] coil which splits the incoming current and prevent [[foldback]].

===Telephone Networks===

The actual methodology behind the telephone network is slightly more complicated. Each line (or telephone circuit) from a building consists of a pair of thin copper wires. A number of these wires (eg all the wires on a street or in a region) are connected at an entrance bridge (typically a box on the side of a road) where they are packed into a thick wire. For small networks this wire may run directly to the central exchange, for larger networks several of this wires may meet at a local exchange, where their signals are converted into a digital signal which is transmitted to the main exchange.

At the exchange a call is connected to its destination phone. Originally this was done manually with human operators. When a phone was taken off the hook the circuit would be completed and an indicator light would switch on. The worker at the exchange would speak down the line and determine the intended destination phone before manually connecting the incoming call to a jack corresponding to the target phone, effectively completing the circuit. More recently this is achieved automatically using dial tones. The typical phone has twelve dials powered by the electrical circuit, each consisting of a different pair of fluctuating frequencies (each row has a sound frequency, each column has a sound frequency, these are added together). When the phone is taken off the hook the computer at the exchange "listens" to these dial tones and determines the target phone (hence a telephone number), and subsequently completes the circuit between the two phones.

Once the circuit is extended to the target phone it will start ringing, the actual ring being a fluctuation between two tones powered by the small current in the phone circuit and controlled by a [[capacitator]]. Although the speaker/microphone of the handset are not initially connected to the circuit the dial speaker is, when the phone is taken off the hook a switch takes the dial speaker off the circuit and connects the handset. When the handset is placed down at the end of the call the hook switch takes the handset off the circuit and places the dial speaker back on, however the computer at the exchange detects that the call is completed, and disconnects the circuit between the two phones.

When the handset is picked up again the dial tone is heard, indicating that there is a completed circuit between the phone and the exchange which can be extended to another phone. If a call is placed to a phone which is "off hook" the exchange will detect that no complete circuit can be established, and will return a busy tone down the line. In order to conserve power most telephone companies will limit the [[bandwidth]], effectively limiting the pitch of tones that can be transmitted over the system (sounds of very high pitch are cut off because they have the highest frequency and hence require the most power to transmit). In the event of a power failure phone lines will continue to be functional (provided they themselves are not cut) because power is provided not through the mains lines but through the exchange, which itself usually has either a backup generator or a large battery supply or both.

===Interstate and International Calls===

International and interstate calls function roughly the same way as domestic calls, however rather than being connected through one main exchange two or more exchanges allow the circuit to be completed. If an incoming call to an exchange is detected to be outside of the exchange's jurisdiction (through area or country codes) the exchange will attempt to connect to the exchange in which the target phone is located. Over small distances this may be through a wire connecting the two centers, however over larger distances undersea cables or satellite technology may be used and an individual call may be routed through several exchanges (for example the original exchange dials and exchange connected to a satellite transmitter, which in turn sends the signals to an exchange connected to a satellite receiver, which may then connect to other exchanges in order to reach the target phone). Remarkably this entire process may take mere seconds, however it is more expensive and more prone to disconnections than local calls.

==See Also==

* [[Cellular phone]]
* [[IPhone]]

[[Category:Technology]]
[[Category:Electricity]]

Telephone

2010-05-24T16:41:38Z

Daniel1983: /* See Also */

A '''telephone''' is a device which allows instantaneous [[voice]] communication between two parties. It has evolved into one of the most used pieces of equipment worldwide, and is a crucial component of the daily lives of most individuals, families and [[business]]es, despite only being invented less than 150 years ago and having a relatively simple design and concept.

==History==

The telephone was developed out of the [[telegraph]], a system through which messages could be sent and received by send pulses of signal through an electrical circuit in the form of [[morse code]]. These required trained operators to both send and receive the message (which was then typed and delivered to the receiving party), however the basic concept led to the design of the telephone, and the extensive wiring provided infrastructure for early telephones.

Credit for inventing the telephone is a subject of extensive debate. There are reports stating that it was developed as early as 1849 by Antonio Meucci, however it is unknown whether he built a telephone or a different type of electric device involving voice. The two main contenders for recognition as the inventor are [[Alexander Graham Bell|Alexander Bell]] and [[Elisha Gray]] who designed similar products using [[electromagnets]]. Their patent applications were registered on the same day in 1876 (with Gray's being filed two hours before Bell's), however as Bell had actually built a working model it was his that was granted, Gray choosing to withdraw his on advice of his lawyers. The following month Bell transmitted his famous line, "Mr. Watson, come here, I want to see you", however he used components from Gray's patent in his final design.

Bell's struggles were not over after his patent application was confirmed. [[Thomas Edison]] had been developing a product which used a carbon microphone to transmit signals at a significantly cheaper price than the original design (which required permanent magnets and iron fittings), resulting in intense competition between the companies. In 1878 the first telephone exchanges were opened in both North America and Europe, however these were limited in that they required operators to monitor and connect lines. In 1879 David Connolly and JT McTighe patented an automatic dialing system, later developed by John and Charles Erickson and Frank Lundquist. This system was first implemented in 1919, however it was only in 1978 that the last manual phone was converted.

In 1927 the first transcontinental telephone call was made, however this was only possible through broadcasting radio waves. In 1935 the first international telephone call was made, leading to the running of wires along sea beds to allow long distance communication. Later developments in technology including satellite communications allowed for increased volume and higher quality in these calls.

The design of the telephone has allowed the development of other forms of technology, in particular the [[Internet]]. Originally [[dial up modems]] connected directly through the telephone system, and more recently [[ADSL]] which uses partitions of telephone lines (this in turn has led to [[Voice over IP]] or VoIP in which calls can be placed through an internet connection). [[Cellular phones]] were also developed from the fixed line network, and utilise similar technology when transmitting calls between base towers and exchanges.

==Methodology==

===Basic Principle===

The principle behind the telephone is remarkably simple: it consists of an electrical circuit between two handsets (each containing a speaker and a microphone). The circuit is maintained at about 30 milliamps (provided by the telephone exchange), and is connected when the handset of the phone is taken off the hook. As one party speaks into the telephone the microphone vibrates, resulting in small changes in resistance of the circuit. These changes are tiny, however since the circuit is operating at such a low current they are proportionally large, resulting in a fluctuating current. This changing current results in the [[speakers]] in the circuit vibrating at changing frequencies, effectively reproducing the original input sound. In order to prevent one's own speaker to vibrate at one's input (in other words to stop a person hearing their own voice) many phones are fitted with a [[duplex]] coil which splits the incoming current and prevent [[foldback]].

===Telephone Networks===

The actual methodology behind the telephone network is slightly more complicated. Each line (or telephone circuit) from a building consists of a pair of thin copper wires. A number of these wires (eg all the wires on a street or in a region) are connected at an entrance bridge (typically a box on the side of a road) where they are packed into a thick wire. For small networks this wire may run directly to the central exchange, for larger networks several of this wires may meet at a local exchange, where their signals are converted into a digital signal which is transmitted to the main exchange.

At the exchange a call is connected to its destination phone. Originally this was done manually with human operators. When a phone was taken off the hook the circuit would be completed and an indicator light would switch on. The worker at the exchange would speak down the line and determine the intended destination phone before manually connecting the incoming call to a jack corresponding to the target phone, effectively completing the circuit. More recently this is achieved automatically using dial tones. The typical phone has twelve dials powered by the electrical circuit, each consisting of a different pair of fluctuating frequencies (each row has a sound frequency, each column has a sound frequency, these are added together). When the phone is taken off the hook the computer at the exchange "listens" to these dial tones and determines the target phone (hence a telephone number), and subsequently completes the circuit between the two phones.

Once the circuit is extended to the target phone it will start ringing, the actual ring being a fluctuation between two tones powered by the small current in the phone circuit and controlled by a [[capacitator]]. Although the speaker/microphone of the handset are not initially connected to the circuit the dial speaker is, when the phone is taken off the hook a switch takes the dial speaker off the circuit and connects the handset. When the handset is placed down at the end of the call the hook switch takes the handset off the circuit and places the dial speaker back on, however the computer at the exchange detects that the call is completed, and disconnects the circuit between the two phones.

When the handset is picked up again the dial tone is heard, indicating that there is a completed circuit between the phone and the exchange which can be extended to another phone. If a call is placed to a phone which is "off hook" the exchange will detect that no complete circuit can be established, and will return a busy tone down the line. In order to conserve power most telephone companies will limit the [[bandwidth]], effectively limiting the pitch of tones that can be transmitted over the system (sounds of very high pitch are cut off because they have the highest frequency and hence require the most power to transmit). In the event of a power failure phone lines will continue to be functional (provided they themselves are not cut) because power is provided not through the mains lines but through the exchange, which itself usually has either a backup generator or a large battery supply or both.

===Interstate and International Calls===

International and interstate calls function roughly the same way as domestic calls, however rather than being connected through one main exchange two or more exchanges allow the circuit to be completed. If an incoming call to an exchange is detected to be outside of the exchange's jurisdiction (through area or country codes) the exchange will attempt to connect to the exchange in which the target phone is located. Over small distances this may be through a wire connecting the two centers, however over larger distances undersea cables or satellite technology may be used and an individual call may be routed through several exchanges (for example the original exchange dials and exchange connected to a satellite transmitter, which in turn sends the signals to an exchange connected to a satellite receiver, which may then connect to other exchanges in order to reach the target phone). Remarkably this entire process may take mere seconds, however it is more expensive and more prone to disconnections than local calls.

==See Also==

* [[Cellular phone]]
* [[Iphone]]

[[Category:Technology]]
[[Category:Electricity]]

ISDN

2010-05-24T16:40:17Z

Daniel1983:

An '''Integrated Services Data Network''' ('''ISDN''') is a 64[[Kbps]] [[data]] circuit, recently fallen out of popular use for home users in connecting to the [[internet]], it has advantages in point to point use. It was once the [[phone]] company's plan to offer digital services.

==See Also==

* [[Internet]]

[[category:internet]]

Batman

2010-05-24T16:36:02Z

Daniel1983: /* Christopher Nolan films */

[[Image:ARoss Batman.png|right|300px|thumb|''Batman'', by Alex Ross]]
'''Batman''' is a fictional [[superhero]] first appearing in ''Detective Comics'' in May, 1939. The creation of artist Bob Kane and writer Bill Finger, Batman remains one of the most famous and recognizable of the superhero genre, resulting in the creation of several television series, motion pictures, and graphic novels. The original comics are highly-prized by collectors and routinely fetch hundreds of thousands of dollars on the auction block.

==Comics lore==
The man who was to become Batman is Bruce Wayne, a Gotham City socialite who inherited his wealth from his father, a prominent doctor and philanthropist named Thomas Wayne. A trip to the movies with the family ended in tragedy: Thomas and his wife Martha are murdered by a common thug in front of Bruce, whose childhood effectively ends at the age of eight.
Wayne's anger at his parent's murder causes him to vow revenge against the criminal element in all of its forms.

Growing up in the care of his father's butler, Alfred Pennyworth, he inherits a vast fortune, his father's business and philanthropic empire.
Wayne uses his wealth to travel the world during his teenage years, seeking out instruction from experts in various fields including martial arts, chemistry, psychology, forensics, meditation and engineering among other things. He returns to his home of Gotham city and is nearly killed as he attempts to stop a robbery.

While recovering in his study at Wayne Manor, Bruce Wayne's brooding is disturbed by a bat as it crashes through the window of his room. He reflects, "Criminals are a cowardly and superstitious lot."
The bat inspires Wayne to create an alter ego for himself, one that will create fear and panic in those he targets, he decides to become the Batman. Wayne fashions himself a costume and arms himself with a small arsenal of bat related weapons and gear, specifically shunning guns. The refusal of Wayne to use guns stems not only from his professed belief that they are tools of the weak and cowardly, but also from a psychological block against them due to the one used in his parents' murder. In the last issue of the DC series Final Crises, Batman overcomes his disdain of guns and uses a special bullet to mortally wound the villain Darkseid. Batman is seemingly killed by Darkseid in the process and as of yet his fate is unknown.

Batman is unusual for superheroes in that he has no superhuman powers, though he is certainly an unusually gifted human being: an athlete who would "win or place" in any Olympic event, master of a dizzying array of martial arts forms, genius detective and capable scientist, and a billionaire to top it off. Despite this, he uses his brains, training, and resources to not only keep up but excel in comparison with many heroes with great superpowers, a testament to man's will in the face of adversity.

==Publication history==
[[File:87 4 000027.jpg|right|200px|thumb|''Detective Comics'' number 27, the first appearance of Batman]]
Vin Sullivan was the publisher of National Periodical (the forerunner of DC Comics), and during the end of the 1930's was basking in the success of [[Superman]], the first true comic book superhero; Sullivan was looking for another such character to publish. The ''Detective Comics'' series would soon provide him with one, a costumed hero no less, having great intellect but without Superman's strength. Bob Kane, influenced by [[Sherlock Holmes]], [[Zorro]], a recent comic character called "The Shadow", the sketches of Leonardo Da Vinci, and a film titled ''The Bat'', came up with a character in a gray suit, black boots, and a black cape and cowl; the creation was called ''the Bat-Man''. The drawings were taken to artist/writer Bill Finger, and by May 1939 an excited Sullivan published the character in a story called "The Case of the Chemical Syndicate," part of several stories in ''Detective Comics'' issue number 27, which became an immediate and successful hit.

By November of that year, Batman's origin story - the murder of his parents - was set; this storyline of a boy growing up to avenge his parents struck a chord with readers, and sales of the comics grew. The following year he appeared in his own series under the "Batman" name - published alongside ''Detective Comics'' - which also introduced "Robin, the Boy Wonder", a successful attempt to gain younger readers as well as creating the popularity of the "sidekick" in the comics industry; Green Arrow and Speedy, the Human Torch and Toro, and [[Captain America]] and Bucky would be prime examples of this trend.

The combination of Bob Kane and Bill Finger (Finger was largely uncredited after Batman's creation) in the early 1940's also introduced to the comics world several of the most recognizable villains in fiction. Created were "Two-Face", a scarred villain reportedly based upon [[Robert Louis Stevenson]]'s ''[[Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde]]''; the "Cat", a sensuous woman who became better known as "Catwoman"; and the "[[Joker (comics)|Joker]]" - which Kane based upon the image he saw of actor Conrad Veidt in the silent film ''The Man Who Laughs'' - a nightmarish version of a clown who is the antithesis of everything Batman is, and who became one of the best known villians in fiction.

==Film and television==
The first dramatic appearance of Batman appeared as a reoccurring guest star on the "Superman" radio series. Interestingly, during the initial story line, Batman and Robin didn't interact with Superman, but Clark Kent. Batman's young side-kick, "Robin", was created specifically as an exposition device, desperately needed in radio. Although a pilot episode was recorded, Batman never received his own radio series.

====Film serials====
[[File:Batman 1943.jpg|right|200px|thumb|Lewis Wilson as Batman and Douglas Croft as Robin from the 1943 12-chapter serial ''Batman'' (copyright 1943 Columbia Pictures)]]
[[File:Batman-west-ward.jpg|right|200px|thumb|Adam West and Burt Ward as Batman and Robin, from the 1966 television series ''Batman'' (copyright 1966 William Dozier/20th Century Fox)]]
[[File:Quiz1053outcome1.jpg|right|200px|thumb|Michael Keaton in the 1992 film ''Batman Returns'' (copyright 1992 Warner Brothers)]]
[[File:Dead end batman.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Clark Bartram in the 2003 Collora fan-film ''Batman: Dead End'']]
[[File:Batman-begins01.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Batman (Christian Bale) interrogating in his own way a corrupt police detective in the film ''Batman Begins'' (copyright 2005 Legendary Films/Warner Brothers)]]
The first film dealing with the Caped Crusader was a 1943 12-chapter serial from Columbia Pictures starring Lewis Wilson and Douglas Croft as Batman and Robin. The plot of the film centered on a nefarious, stereotypical Asian scientist, Dr. Daka (J. Carrol Naish), who has a plan to steal valuable resources from the United States in order to support the Axis during the World War II. Although low-budget, ''Batman'' introduced the concept of the Batcave (called the "Bat's Cave" in the film) and the hidden entry to it, as well as altering the appearance of Alfred from a portly servant to a leaner, robust individual. ''Batman and Robin'' would follow it in 1949, also as a serial, starring Robert Lowery and Johnny Duncan (Muir, 9; 72)

====''Batman'' television series====
In January 1966, ABC released a "Batman" television series starring Adam West and Burt Ward. During the series pre-production, there was a heated debate over which direction the Caped Crusader should be taken. Eventually, Producer William Dozier's vision won out - "Batman" would be a high budgeted, camp series which often made the character more droll than stern. This portrayal of the character, while it was in line with the comics of the time, came in later years to be reviled by fans, particularly during the '80s and '90s. During the summer of 1966, Dozier released a "Batman" feature film, also starring Adam West.

Although the series caught on quickly, its ratings fell just as suddenly. During the series' third season, Yvonne Craig was hired to portray "Batgirl", but this did nothing to slow the ratings plunge. The last few episode of "Batman" were among the lowest rated television series of the 60s.

For decades after, the "Batman" television series defined the filmed comic book template, which can be seen feature films such as "[[Doc Savage]]" and the television productions of "The Justice League" and "The Spirit". In 1978 Adam West and Burt Ward would both be reunited in the two-part television special "The Legend of the Superheroes", in which Batman and Robin were part of a group of DC superheroes thwarting the attempts of a rival collection of villains to take over the world in a combination of camp and comedy; the second part of the special has both groups in a celebratory roast by Ed McMahon. The camp-template was broken with the success of 1978's "[[The Incredible Hulk]]" starring [[Bill Bixby]], and based on the character owned by rival publisher [[Marvel Comics]]. Meanwhile, the course of the character in the comics since 1973 had returned him to his darker roots as writers and artists placed him in more compelling storylines and situations, culminating in 1986's four-part ''The Dark Knight Returns'' by Frank Miller, a work which helped influence director Tim Burton prior to putting Batman on the big screen once more.

====Early animation====
Batman also found a new home on Saturday mornings, courtesy of the Filmation and Hanna-Barbera studios. In 1968, Batman appeared with Superman in Filmation's "Batman/Superman Hour", a program divided into individual shorts featuring "Dragnet" character-actor Olan Soule as the voice of Batman, and radio disk jockey Casey Kasem as Robin. The following year the show would be cut to thirty minutes, with just the Batman shorts in Filmation's newly-titled "Batman with Robin the Boy Wonder", also lasting a year.

Hanna-Barbera created the "Superfriends" in 1973, again using Soule and Kasem for voice work, and placed Batman and Robin alongside Superman, Wonder Woman, and Aquaman in a "hall of justice" as the team fought minor villains around the world with a built-in moral message for children watching it. The "Superfriends" proved a success, ultimately spinning off several creations through the early-1980s.

====Tim Burton films====
''Batman'' film took a darker turn in 1989, when the [[Tim Burton]]-directed [[Batman (film, 1989)|film]], starring [[Michael Keaton]], portrayed Bruce Wayne as a reclusive, quirky billionaire who probably was not entirely sane. While at first wary of an actor known primarily for comedies playing Batman, some fans ended up going to other movies before its release just to see the trailer for the Batman film, and then walked out, not even watching the movie they paid for. The film was a success, and was widely-lauded for [[Jack Nicholson]]'s portrayal of Batman's nemesis, the Joker. It was followed up with 1992's ''Batman Returns'', which, while not as well-reviewed or successful, was still accepted by the fans, and brought the iconic figures of Catwoman and the Penguin into the movie universe.

Tim Burton was replaced with Joel Schumacher for the third Batman movie in the new movie canon, ''Batman Forever'' (1995), which introduced Robin (Batman's iconic sidekick), and the villains the Riddler and Two-Face. Whereas Burton had tried for a more dark and Gothic look, Schumacher went with bright neon colors and brought back some of the camp of the '60s TV series. The movie did well at the box office, but received mixed reviews. The fourth and final film of this "universe" was ''Batman and Robin'', released in 1997. Widely regarded as the worst of the series by fan and critic alike, ''Batman and Robin'' returned fully to the campy tone of the TV series, featuring "candy-coated" sets, poor special effects, weirder science than normal from Bat-Media, character derailment, and Arnold Schwarzenegger, as the lead villain Mr. Freeze, with barely 100 lines of dialogue, over half of which centered around cold-themed puns. This film was reviled for years as having "killed" the franchise, and performed relatively poorly in ticket sales.

The tone of the new movies influenced the 1991 critically-acclaimed ''Batman: The Animated Series'', a cartoon shown at first in prime time. Some of its takes on certain villains - such as Mr. Freeze - became iconic, and it introduced several characters that eventually "immigrated" to the comics, such as Detective Renee Montoya, and the Joker's hench-girlfriend, Harley Quinn.

====Sandy Collora short====
Attempting to get attention for his directing skills, Sandy Collora spent $30,000 dollars to create a demonstration reel strictly for the fans. The result was the 2003 short ''Batman: Dead End'', a film which drew on the imagery of comic artist Alex Ross, in addition to previously-published work by Dark Horse Comics, which pitted Batman against the Alien and Predator from the Hollywood films of the same names. Starring Clark Bartram as Batman and Andrew Koenig as an escaped Joker, the film earned critical praise from comic veterans and fans alike.[http://www.usnews.com/usnews/tech/nextnews/archive/next030807.htm][http://www.collorastudios.com/projects/bde/bdemain.htm]

====Christopher Nolan films====
The film series was rebooted again in 2005, with ''[[Batman Begins]]'', a grittier, more "realistic" take on Batman. In this film, director [[Christopher Nolan]] took Bruce Wayne, played by Christian Bale, halfway around the world in search of the answer to the riddle of criminality. He learns to fight multiple opponents, conceal himself, and gains the will to act in defense of others. Returning to Gotham after being declared legally dead, he deftly maneuvers himself back into the control of his murdered father's company and resolves to terrify the criminal element by making himself seem inhuman...and chooses the mantle of a bat, because bats scare ''him''.

Several critically-acclaimed comic book stories - among them ''The Long Halloween'' and ''The Killing Joke'' - were used as in the most recent entry in Nolan's series, ''[[The Dark Knight]]'', which has thus far exceeded all expectations. Almost universally lauded by critics and shattering numerous box-office records, ''The Dark Knight'' featured the final performance of [[Heath Ledger]], who died from a drug overdose after filming, as a monstrous version of the Joker, a psychotic who thinks the only sane way to live is without rules and wants to prove it to the world - and at the same time gave artists and writers who penned the Batman stories the version of the Joker they thought was closest to their own. Though the tone at the start of the film is hopeful - Batman has inspired citizens to stand up for themselves again and has organized crime in the city reeling - it quickly spirals downward, embodying the theme that Nolan chose for the movie: things have to get worse before they get better.

====Batman as a Homosexual Icon====
Batman is popular amongst homosexual males, in particular the original television series staring Adam West. Many ga "Pride" marches include Batman costumes and iconography. The continual popularity, and constant Hollywood renditions of this franchise make it a perfect cover for older homosexual males to prey on young male movie goers.

==References==
*Kane, Bob (with Tom Andrae). ''Batman & Me'', Eclipse Books, Forestville, California (1989).
*Goulart, Ron. ''Comic Book Encyclopedia'', Harper Entertainment, New York (2004).
*Muir, John Kenneth. ''The Encyclopedia of Superheroes on Film and Television'', McFarland & Company, Jefferson, North Carolina (2004)
*[http://www.collorastudios.com/projects/bde/bdemain.htm Collora Studios: ''Batman: Dead End'']
*[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QsLQcOV2YeU ''The Man Who Laughs'', uploaded to YouTube]

[[Category:Entertainment]]
[[Category: DC Comics Superheroes]]
[[Category:Comic Characters]]

Indigenous Australians

2010-05-24T16:23:50Z

Daniel1983: /* Contemporary issues */

The '''indigenous peoples of Australia''' are broadly divided into two or three groups. The largest group is the [[Australian Aborigines]] who traditionally occupied most of the Australian mainland and some offshore islands. The second group is the [[Torres Strait Islanders]] who traditionally occupied the islands of [[Torres Strait]] and part of [[Cape York Peninsula]]. Sometimes, a third group is used, separating the [[Tasmanian Aborigines]] from the mainland Aborigines. All of the indigenous peoples have dark skin, although how dark depends on where they are from.

The Australian Aborigines are further divided into about 300 separate language groups, sometimes called "nations". A map of the tribal distribution before the arrival of white settlers can be found here [http://www.samuseum.sa.gov.au/page/default.asp?site=2&page=TIN_Tribal]. In Australia, indigenous people as a broad group are usually called "Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islanders" by the government.

The Indigenous Australians lived in [[Australia]] as far as 50 000 years ago. Genetic evidence suggests that multiple waves of people migrated into Australia over tens of thousands of years before [[Europe]]an colonization. [https://genographic.nationalgeographic.com/genographic/lan/en/atlas.html] Even between these "waves" the Aborigines weren't completely isolated, there was migration back and forth over the islands, allowing small levels of exchange with [[Melanesia]]. With few exceptions, complete isolation of an ethnic group is a fallacy. [http://tedlab.mit.edu/~dr/Papers/Rohde-MRCA-two.pdf]

==Culture==
Indigenous culture has a strong focus on a form of spirituality known as the Dreaming.
==Contemporary issues==
Contemporary issues include health, crime, education, child saftey and other matters of social discourse.

==Stolen Generation==
The term stolen-generation is a term used by liberals to place blame of the current social issues of indeginous peoples on church groups and missionary workers that worked with nomadic tribes people during early pioneer times. No children were ever "stolen", however many indigenous families often placed their children in the care of missionaries, as often the families were ill-resourced to provide for so many children.

[[Category:Australia]]

Internet slang

2010-05-24T16:12:57Z

Daniel1983: /* List of Abbreviations */

'''Internet slang''' is slang that Internet users have created and used, often in instant messaging and forum discussions. They are frequently acronyms (often contain three letters), designed to save keystrokes in an attempt to speed up communication.

According to [[Harvard]] professor and conservative sociologist Steven Shapin, Internet Slang is an interpretation of language that people have found neccesary to create to confuse the "older" generation. [http://www.internetisseriousbusiness.com]

== List of Abbreviations==

*'''2:''' Substitution for to, too, and two.
*'''4:''' Substitution for for and four.
*'''AFAICT:''' As far as I can tell.
*'''AFAIK:''' As far as I know.
*'''AFAIR:''' As far as I recall/remember.
*'''AFAIAW:''' As far as I am aware.
*'''AFK:''' Away from keyboard.
*'''ASL:''' A request for Age, Sex, and Location.
*'''ATM:''' At The Moment.
*'''BBL:''' be back later.
*'''BBIAB:''' be back in a bit.
*'''bewbs:''' breasts.
*'''BRB:''' Be Right Back.
*'''btw:''' By the way.
*'''ch00b:''' Person who acts like a n00b, but has skill levels or a kill/death ratio of someone who is considered 1337. Typically spends time bragging, flaming, and asking question he or she should know.
*'''D00d:''' [[L33tsp43k]] spelling of "dude".
*'''DoS''' Denial of Service, a method of attacking a website.
*'''ftw:''' For the win.
*'''GDR:''' Grinning, Ducking and Running. Usually typed right after making a groan-inducing joke.
*'''g2g:''' got to go, gotta go.
*'''gg:''' Good game. Somtimes an 'a' is added to make gga: good game all.
*'''gl:''' Good luck.
*'''IANAL:''' Sometimes IANALB, "I am not a lawyer (but)" said right before (usually) poor legal advice.
*'''IIRC:''' If I remember correctly.
*'''IRL:''' In Real Life.
*'''IM:''' Abbreviation for Instant Messaging.
*'''IMHO''' In My Humble Opinion, or just "IMO" - In my opinion
*'''l8r:''' later.
*'''1337''' Leet. Usually means good, but some say it stands for Elite. Also the name for turning letters into numbers and symbols.
*'''LMAO''' Laughing My A** Off
*'''LOL:''' Laugh Out Loud.
*'''lvl:''' Level.
*'''Newb''' Person is unskilled at whatever task they are trying to perform due to lack of experience.
*'''Noob''' Person is unskilled at whatever task they are trying to perform due to lack of experience and refuse to acknowledge their difficulty with the task.
*'''Omgwtfbbq''' is an internet slang term used in many MMORPG games like World of Warcraft. It is used as an expression of confusion and when someone asks an absurd newbie question. It is usually meant to be taken sarcastically. Although it can occasionally be used when someone is utterly confused by something that was said. Its various parts stand for, respectively, "Oh My G_d," "what the f___," and "barbecue," each of which can also appear individually, although "bbq," alone, is not actually considered internet slang.
*'''POS:''' Parent Over Shoulder. Usually used in IM conversations to alert the other participant of the presence of an adult/parent, and thus to avoid saying something inappropriate.
*'''Pwn:''' Defeat someone, misspelling of "own".
*'''Pwnt:''' If someone "pwns" you, you have been pwnt. Usually spelled with an 'ed' rather than a 't'.
*'''ROFL:''' Rolling On The Floor Laughing.
*'''Roflcopter:''' An extreme version of "rofl," or, "rolling on the floor laughing." Origionated on World of Warcraft forums.
*'''tl;dr''' Too Long; Did not Read
*'''ty:''' Thank You
*'''TMI:''' Too much information.
*'''U:''' Substitution for you.
*'''Ur:''' Substitution for your, you're, you are.
*'''WTF''' What The F<nowiki>***</nowiki>
*'''WYSIWYG:''' What you see is what you get, also a word processing editor type.
*'''ZOMG:''' An extreme version of "Oh my God!"

==List of Terms==
*Troll

==Symbols==

These are viewed by turning one's head sideways to the left.

* :-) is a smile - eventually known as a "smiley" and first posted 27 years ago by Scott E. Fahlman
* ;-) is a wink
* :-( is a frown

There are many variations on the above symbols (which are also known as 'emoticons'). Some symbols are called emoticons but are really examples of sideways ASCII art.

[[category:internet culture]]

Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome

2010-05-24T16:03:17Z

Daniel1983: /* History */

'''Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome''' (usually referred to as '''AIDS''') is a collection of uncurable diseases and symptoms often believed to be caused by long-term infection with the[[HIV| Human Immunodeficiency Virus]].

== Diagnosis ==

According to the CDC's 1993 guidelines, <ref>http://www.cdc.gov</ref><ref>http://www.merckmedicus.com/ppdocs/us/hcp/content/merck/hiv/hivaids/aidsdefi.htmAIDS is defined </ref>as follows:
HIV infection ''plus'' any of the following:
*[[CD4]] count less than 200 or
*CD4 percentage less than 14% of total lymphocytes or
*Any of the following illnesses: pulmonary TB, recurrent pneumonia, invasive cervical cancer.
*Expanded definition including 23 clinical conditions published elsewhere<ref>http://www.cdc.gov/MMWR/preview/mmwrhtml/00018871.htm</ref>

The World Health Organization uses a different staging method for HIV disease. <ref>http://www.aids-ed.org/aetc/aetc?page=cm-105_disease</ref>

== History ==

The illness was first recognized in the early 1980s<ref>New England Journal of Medicine, Volume 344:1764-1772 June 7, 2001 Number 23</ref> as homosexual men presented to their doctors with a rare lung disease called ''Pneumocystis carinii'' pneumonia (PCP)<ref>Pneumocystis pneumonia -- Los Angeles. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 1981;30:250-252)</ref>. Early on, the "[[gay disease]]" took on a variety of names, including "gay cancer" and "Gay-related immune deficiency" (GRID). The [[Centers for Disease Control]] noticed an increase in requests for drugs needed to treat this illness and launched an epidemiological investigation.

Although the first cases of the disease probably go back to the 1950s, the epidemic was not recognized until the early 1980s.[http://www.avert.org/his81_86.htm] The early epidemic occurred in two main branches; in the US and other developed countries, and in sub-Saharan Africa. In the US, the early epidemic was primarily spread by homosexual sex, intravenous drug use, and blood transfusions (prior to the introduction of testing). In Africa, transmission was almost exclusively by heterosexual sex. Currently, most new infections worldwide are spread by promiscuous heterosexual{{cn}} sex and prostitution.

<blockquote>
"We owe it to Ryan to make sure that the fear and ignorance that chased him from his home and his school will be eliminated. We owe it to Ryan to open our hearts and our minds to those with AIDS. We owe it to Ryan to be compassionate, caring and tolerant toward those with AIDS, their families and friends. It's the disease that's frightening, not the people who have it."
—Former U.S. President Ronald Reagan, April 11, 1990 in regards to the case of Ryan White.
</blockquote>

== Natural History ==

After infection with [[HIV]], the virus quickly replicates in lymphatic tissue and travels through the blood to infect most areas of the body. The largest consequence of this is the "hijacking" of certain immune cells, especially so-called T-Helper, or CD-4, cells. Early in the infection, the immune system holds the infection at bay, often causing "Acute Retroviral Syndrome", a flu-like illness. Patients often have swollen lymph nodes. After approximately 8-10 years of infection, the immune system begins to lose its battle. This is primarily seen in the loss of numbers of CD4 cells, however the changes are somewhat more complex. When the CD4 cell level drops low enough, AIDS becomes apparent.
The first symptoms of the illness are generally night sweats, weight loss, and oral thrush.

== Opportunistic Infections (OIs) ==

The hallmark of AIDS is the appearance of ''opportunistic infections'', meaning infections with organisms that do not usually cause human disease, unless given the right "opportunity". This opportunity is the reduction in cell-mediated immunity, first seen in patients with certain cancers or on anti-rejection drugs for organ transplantation.
These infections include:

*[[Candida albicans]]. Caused by the candida fungi, resulting in thrush (mouth) and vaginal yeast infections. Most common HIV-related fungus infection.
* Cryptoccoccal Menigitis. A yeast-like fungus infection that usually involves the brain and lungs, although it can affect almost any organ. Most often occurs when a person's CD4+ T cell count falls below 100 cells per cubic millimeter of blood.
*Cryptococcus neoformans (a cause of meningitis).
*[[Cytomegalovirus]]. Virus can affect the entire body, but it commonly affects the eye's retina, causing blurry vision and in severe cases, blindness. Most likely to occur when a person’s CD4+ T cell count falls below 100.
*Epstein Barr virus (leads to a type of lymphoma).
*Human herpesvirus-8 (causes Kaposi's sarcoma). Results in reddish purple lesions that usually appear on the skin.
* Liver Disease. One of the leading causes of death among AIDS patients,
*Mycobacterium avium complex (atypical mycobacterium). Bacterial infection that can cause persistent fever, night sweats, fatigue, weight loss, anemia, abdominal pain, dizziness, diarrhea and weakness. Most likely occurs when the CD4+T cell count falls below 50.
*[[Mycobacterium tuberculosis]] (TB).
*Pneumocystis jiroveci, previously [[Pneumocystis carinii]]. Condition occurs when a fungus infects the lungs. Symptoms may include night sweats and fatigue, fever, cough, difficulty breathing, weight loss. Most likely to occur when the CD4+ T cell count falls below 200.
* Progressive Multifocal Leukoencephalopathy (PML) Rare disorder of the nervous system caused by a common human polyomavirus, JC virus. Can occur when the CD4+T cell count falls below 200.
* Recurrent Pneumonia. Most likely to occur when the CD4+ T cell count falls below 200
*Staphylococcus aureus (primarily causes skin infections).
*Streptococcus pneumoniae (the primary cause of pneumonia in AIDS patients).
*[[Toxoplasma gondii]]. Condition occurs when a parasite infects the brain. Symptoms include confusion or delusional behavior, severe headaches, fever, seizures and coma. Most likely occurs when the CD4+ T cell count falls below 100.<ref>[http://www.ucsfhealth.org/adult/medical_services/infect/hiv/infections.html Infections Associated with AIDS, UCSF Medical Center.</ref>

== Dissent ==
Among the world's medical professionals and biologists, there is general agreement that HIV causes AIDS. In this, those of Koch's postulates that apply to viral diseases have been clearly fulfilled, and basic science research has shown the same. Specific drugs have been developed that treat HIV infection and AIDS, helping show the causal relationship. That being said, there is a vocal minority of people, scientists and non-scientists alike, who do not believe that HIV causes AIDS. Foremost among these is Dr. Peter Duesberg. Details about these "re-thinkers" and their arguments can be found at several websites, but not in any reliable peer-reviewed journals: <ref>[http://www.reviewingaids.org/awiki/index.php/Main_Page]</ref>

== See also ==
* [[Mortality]]
* [[Homosexuality]]

==External links==
*[http://newsbusters.org/blogs/robert-knight/2007/12/01/some-questions-media-wont-ask-today-about-aids Some Questions the Media Won't Ask Today About AIDS], Robert Knight, [[NewsBusters]], December 1, 2007
* [http://www.ucsfhealth.org/adult/medical_services/infect/hiv/infections.html Infections Associated with AIDS], University of California, San Francisco

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Diseases]]
[[Category:Syndromes]]
[[Category:Demography]]
[[Category:AIDS| ]]