The '''Four Horsemen''' were four [[conservative]] [[Supreme Court]] Justices during the 1932-1937 terms of the Court, during the Administration of President [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]]. These four Justices were [[Pierce Butler]], [[James McReynolds]], [[George Sutherland]] and [[Willis Van Devanter]]. In the middle of the Court were Chief Justice [[Charles Evans Hughes]] and Justice [[Owen J. Roberts]]. On the [[liberal]] side were Justices [[Louis Brandeis]], [[Benjamin Cardozo]], and [[Harlan Fiske Stone]], Hughes often sided with the liberals, while Roberts often agreed with the Four Horsemen.

The Court unanimously invalidated the [[National Industrial Recovery Act]] in May 1935.<ref>''Schechter Poultry Corp. v. United States'', 295 U.S. 495 (1935)</ref> But the following fall, the [[liberal]] Justices moved in favor of upholding other aspects of the [[New Deal]].

The Four Horsemen, together with Roberts and Hughes, invalidated key parts of the [[New Deal]] during the 1935 term. They struck down the [[Agricultural Adjustment Act of 1933]],<ref>''United States v. Butler'', 297 U.S. 1 (1936)</ref> regulations of the [[coal]] industry,<ref>''Carter v. Carter Coal'', 298 U.S. 238 (1936)</ref> and the New York [[minimum wage]] law for women and children. and in , the Four together with Roberts voided legislation regulating the coal industry, and the same line-up voided a New York minimum wage law for women and children.<ref>''Morehead v. New York'', 298 U.S. 587 (1936)</ref>

The Four Horsemen were known to commute to the Court together as they worked out their arguments.

President Roosevelt's response was to propose his [[court-packing scheme]], which Congress and the American public rejected. This cost Roosevelt much in the way of credibility. But the retirement of Van Devanter in June 1937 and President Roosevelt's replacement of him by the liberal Justice [[Hugo Black]] terminated the power of the Four Horsemen.

==Other uses==
''Revelation 6:1-8'' describes four horsemen who will ride a white, red, black, and "pale" horse respectively, and are often said to refer to [[pestilence]], [[war]], [[famine]], and [[death]]. They are often referred to as "the Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse." Ronnie, the Fifth Horseman, however, left before the group became famous and now works as a milkman. He is ''always'' on time.

A popular movie of 1921, "[[The Four Horseman of the Apocalypse]]," which starred [[Rudolph Valentino]], may have popularized this particular phrasing.

Four stars of the Notre Dame football team in the 1920s were referred to as the "Four Horsemen."

A 1984 song by American [[Thrash metal]] band [[Metallica]] is called "The Four Horsemen".

== References ==

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[[Category: United States History]]

Olivia Newton-John

2007-10-29T23:45:58Z

Eygar: removing irrelevant (imho) links, correcting album info

[[Image:Onejo.jpg|right]]

'''Olivia Newton-John''' (1948 - ) born in [[Cambridge]], [[England]], is an English-born [[Australia]]n singer, songwriter and actress. She is most known for starring in the hit film musical ''[[Grease]]'' with [[John Travolta]].

Her 1981 record ''"Physical"'' was her most successful studio album, going double platinum.

Newton-John is a breast cancer survivor, and an cancer awareness activist.

==Links==

[http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0000556/ IMDB database]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Newton-John, Olivia}}

[[Category:Actresses]]
[[Category:Musicians]]

Glass

2007-10-29T23:20:45Z

Eygar: mention of quartz sand

Glass is an inorganic product of fusion that has cooled to a rigid state without crystallizing. According to the Center for Glass Research at the New York State College of Ceramics at Alfred University:<ref>http://cgr.alfred.edu/facts.html</ref>
*Glass is typically hard and brittle and has a [[conchoidal]] fracture.
*A glass may be colorless or colored. It is usually transparent, but may be made translucent or opaque.
*When a specific kind of glass is indicated, such descriptive terms as flint glass, barium glass, and window glass should be used following the basic definition, but the qualifying term is to be used as understood by trade custom.
*Objects made of glass are loosely and popularly referred to as glass; such as glass for a tumbler, a barometer, a window, a magnifier, or a mirror.

==Is Glass Solid or Liquid?==
There are four basic states of matter: [[solid]], [[liquid]], [[gas]], and [[plasma]]. In a solid, molecules are ordered in a structured way, called a lattice. In a liquid, molecules are disordered and they are not rigidly bound. In a glass, however, we have the unique characteristic of a solid whose molecules are not ordered yet they are still rigidly bound. This situation has caused some chemists to refer to glass as a "supercooled liquid" rather than a solid. This would be a different state of matter than, say, freezing water; as water passes below the freezing point and becomes ice it forms a crystal and exhibits the properties of a standard crystalline solid.<ref>http://math.ucr.edu/home/baez/physics/General/Glass/glass.html</ref>

==Manufacture==

Glass is produced industrially by melting a mixture of calcium carbonate (limestone), sodium carbonate (soda), and silicon dioxide, which is a major component of sand. Quartz sand, which is rich in silicon dioxide, is the most commonly used type of sand. The subsequent product, once cooled, is glass.

==References==
<references/>

[[category:industry]]