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Andrew Jackson

2019-10-12T02:42:16Z

Haeralis:

{{President
|image=Andrew-jackson.jpg
|seq=7
|term_start=March 4, 1829
|term_end=March 4, 1837<ref>http://www.trivia-library.com/a/7th-us-president-andrew-jackson.htm</ref>
|party=Democrat
|vp=John C. Calhoun
|vp_dates=1829-1832
|2vp=None
|2vp_dates=1832-1833
|3vp=Martin Van Buren
|3vp_dates=1833-1837
|previous=John Quincy Adams
|next=Martin van Buren
|birth_date=March 15, 1767
|birth_place=Lancaster County, South Carolina
|death_date=June 8, 1845
|death_place=Nashville, Tennessee
|spouse=Rachel Donelson Robards Jackson
|religion=[[Presbyterian]]
}}
'''Andrew Jackson''' (March 15, 1767 – June 8, 1845) was the seventh [[president of the United States of America]], elected as a hero after his military triumphs over the Creek Indians of the Southeast and the [[British]] at New Orleans in 1815. As president (1829–1837), he destroyed the Bank of the [[United States]], ethnically cleansed the remaining southeastern Natives, and built a new political coalition, the [[Democratic Party]]. A self-made man, Indian slaughter, war hero and a fighter (and duelist) who believed in action instead of words, he was long an iconic [[Democrat]] folk hero.

But Jackson also defied the [[Supreme Court of the United States|Supreme Court]] with a famous quip attributed to him: Chief Justice "John Marshall has made his decision, now let him enforce it."<ref>https://sustainatlanta.com/2015/04/02/remembering-the-time-andrew-jackson-decided-to-ignore-the-supreme-court-in-the-name-of-georgias-right-to-cherokee-land/</ref> Jackson then won reelection by a landslide. [[Liberal]]s today, who use the courts to advance their agenda, no longer praise Jackson. Jackson's opposition to the early [[deep state]] is admired by some conservatives.<ref>Stepman, Jarrett (September 30, 2019). [https://www.dailysignal.com/2019/09/30/heres-how-andrew-jackson-stood-up-to-unaccountable-elites/ Here’s How Andrew Jackson Stood Up to Unaccountable ‘Elites’]. ''The Daily Signal''. Retrieved October 4, 2019.</ref>

Nicknamed "Old Hickory" by his admirers, he typified popular democracy in the "Jacksonian Age" of the 1830s and 1840s, and became the leader of [[Jacksonian Democracy]] during the [[Second Party System]]. He is the founder of the Democrat Party and was its hero for a time because of his strong use of the presidency to bash crony capitalism, central banking, and profligate federal spending. The poor farmers, workers and oppressed loved him because he embodied their hopes and fears, their passions and prejudices, their insight and ignorance, better than anyone. Jackson has been perceived as an early forerunner of the [[conservative]] [[Tea Party]] for his strong commitment to [[limited government]], his [[strict construction]] of the Constitution, his rejection of globalism, and his commitment to [[American exceptionalism]]. <ref>https://spectator.org/andrew-jackson-tea-party-president/</ref><ref>https://www.politico.com/story/2010/09/andrew-jacksons-tea-party-042640</ref><ref>https://democracyjournal.org/magazine/31/the-anti-jacksonians/</ref> A populist, he has also been viewed as a forerunner to President [[Donald Trump]] and the 45th President cites him favorably.<ref>https://www.the-american-interest.com/2016/01/17/andrew-jackson-revenant/</ref><ref>http://nymag.com/intelligencer/2019/06/trump-may-be-the-true-heir-of-andrew-jackson.html</ref><ref>https://www.thedailybeast.com/trump-andrew-jackson-would-never-have-let-civil-war-happen</ref><ref>https://time.com/4699849/donald-trump-andrew-jackson-grave/</ref>

==Career==
Born near the North/South Carolina border, Jackson studied law in Salisbury, North Carolina before moving to Nashville, Tennessee. Jackson was the first president who was not born in [[Virginia]] or [[Massachusetts]]. He fought at an early age in the battle of Stone Ferry during the [[American Revolution]] in 1780. As a teenaged volunteer in a local militia, Jackson refused an order by a British officer to polish his boots, and the officer angrily drew his sword and slashed Jackson across his hand and head with it, and imprisoned him. For the rest of his life Jackson loathed the British.

===Tennessee Frontier===
Jackson, John Sevier, and their allies were rich frontier lawyers and businessmen who used their vast land holdings to establish themselves as a political power in Tennessee. They allied themselves with the Jeffersonian Republicans, of the "Old Republican" faction that opposed strong national government. However, [[Thomas Jefferson]] and his circle strongly disliked and distrusted Jackson.

Serving a term in the Senate, he alarmed Jefferson but otherwise made little mark.

===Soldier===
Jackson sought election as major general of the Tennessee militia partly to escape the circuit riding required while he was a superior court judge. As a military commander he proved himself a master tactician, a brilliant organizer, and effective motivator of men. He won all his major battles, including the decisive defeat of the cream of the British regular army.

[[File:Aj-map1812.jpg|thumb|Jackson's campaigns]]

Jackson led two great victories in the [[War of 1812]]—the first against the "Red Stick" Creek Indian forces that had raided, raped and killed American settlers and assimilated Indians in what is now Alabama. Indians seldom fought pitched battles; they preferred the ambush. Jackson, aided by Cherokee allies, trapped the Creeks at Horseshoe Bend in Alabama in March 1814, and killed over 800 enemy; the rest fled to Spanish Florida. (See [[Creek War]].)

Jackson led a contingent of Tennessee and Kentucky militia who routed over 2,000 British troops in the [[Battle of New Orleans]] in Jan. 1815. The defeat ended British plans to turn the Mississippi Valley into a pro-British Indian nation. It was a great victory for Jackson and became source of enormous pride to all Americans.<ref>The battle happened after the peace treaty was signed, but before it was ratified and went into effect.</ref>

===Religion===
Jackson attended a Presbyterian church from time to time, and his wife was a devout Baptist. Jackson had little sympathy for religion in the political sphere, unlike many of his opponents (the Anti-Masons and [[Whigs]]), who were building political coalitions using religious voting blocs during the [[Second Great Awakening]]. For example, Jackson insisted that the mail be delivered on Sundays, much to the anger of the evangelicals.<ref>Adam Jortner, "Cholera, Christ, and Jackson: The Epidemic of 1832 and the Origins of Christian Politics in Antebellum America," ''Journal of the Early Republic,'' Volume 27, Number 2, Summer 2007, pp. 233-264 in [[Project MUSE]]</ref>

After his presidency, Jackson became very serious about Christianity and returned to the rigid evangelical orthodoxy of his youth. Unlike many politicians of the period who, for ecumenical purposes, appealed to a theistic but not explicitly Christian God, Jackson professed Jesus Christ as his Redeemer, Lord, and Savior. To his son, Andrew Jr., he wrote in 1834: "I nightly offer up my prayers to the Throne of Grace for the health and safety of you all, and that we ought all to rely with confidence on the promises of our dear Redeemer, and give Him our hearts. This is all He requires and all that we can do, and if we sincerely do this, we are sure of salvation through His atonement."<ref>Robert V. Remini, "Andrew Jackson: The Course of American Democracy, 1833-1845," 184. </ref> That same year, he sent a letter of condolence to the family of his friend General Coffee, who had recently died. He admonished that they "Rely on our dear Saviour. He will be father to the fatherless and husband to the widow. Trust in the mercy and goodness of Christ, and always be ready to say with heartfelt resignation, "may the Lord's will be done."<ref>Robert V. Remini, "Andrew Jackson: The Course of American Democracy, 1833-1845," 91.</ref>

Shortly after becoming a communicant member of the Hermitage Presbyterian Church, Jackson was nominated to become a ruling elder of the church. Jackson declined on Biblical grounds, saying: “No, the Bible says, “Be not hasty on of hands.” I am too young in the church for such an office. My countrymen have given me high honors, but I should esteem the office of ruling elder in the Church of Christ a far higher honor than any I have ever received.”<ref>John Stevens Cabot Abbott, "Lives of the Presidents of the United States of America," (Boston: B.B. Russell & Co., 1867), 238.</ref>

As he neared the time of his death, Jackson entertained no fears about the afterlife because he believed that the life, death, and resurrection of Jesus secured to him eternal life. After Ralph Earl died in 1838, Jackson wrote that "I must soon follow him, and hope to meet him and those friends who have gone before me in the realms of bliss through the mediation of a dear Redeemer, Jesus Christ."<ref>Robert V. Remini, "Andrew Jackson: The Course of American Democracy, 1833-1845," 448.</ref> Jackson's Last Will and Testimony of 1845 beautifully expressed confidence in the Gospel:

''Sir, I am in the hands of a merciful God. I have full confidence in his goodness and mercy. My lamp of life is nearly out, and the last glimmer has come. I am ready to depart when called. The Bible is true. I have tried to conform to its spirit as near as possible. Upon that Sacred Volume I rest my hope for eternal salvation, through the merits and blood of our blessed Lord and Saviour, Jesus Christ. First, I bequeath my body to the dust whence it comes, and my soul to God who gave it, hoping for a happy immortality through the atoning merits of our Lord Jesus Christ, the Saviour of the world.
''<ref>Cyrus Townsend Brady, "The True Andrew Jackson," 381.</ref>

Shortly before his death, Jackson expressed his confidence in Jesus unequivocally. "When I have Suffered sufficiently," the former president uttered, "the Lord will then take me to himself—but what are all my sufferings compared to those of the blessed Savior, who died upon that cursed tree for me? Mine are nothing."<ref>Cyrus Townsend Brady, "The True Andrew Jackson," 379.</ref>

==Presidential campaigns==
His military success gave him tremendous popularity with the common man, and he ran for President in the [[United States presidential election, 1824|1824 Presidential Election]]. He won a plurality of the votes but no one got a majority and the election went into the House of Representatives, where they chose [[John Quincy Adams]] instead. At the next [[United States presidential election, 1828|Presidential Election in 1828]] Jackson defeated John Quincy Adams, and then Jackson won reelection in the [[United States presidential election, 1832|1832 Presidential Election]]. Jackson survived an assassination attempt in January 1835 when a deranged man fired two pistols at him at point blank range in the Rotunda of the U.S. Capitol.<ref>[http://www.americanheritage.com/people/articles/web/20070130-richard-lawrence-andrew-jackson-assassination-warren-r-davis.shtml Trying to Assassinate President Jackson]</ref>

Although Jackson won the 1828 election against incumbent [[John Quincy Adams]] by capturing almost 56% of the popular vote, the campaign was marked by anti-Jackson rhetoric that centered on Rachel Jackson's previous marriage to Lewis Robards and the allegedly "illicit union to Jackson"—that is, bigamy. Jackson's supporters portrayed the Robards matter as a minor legal misunderstanding. Adams's supporters saw the incident as no less than long-term adultery by Andrew Jackson and portrayed Rachel Jackson as an immoral woman, implying the political dilemma that 'a vote for Jackson was a vote for sin.' The controversy paralleled a critical development in American politics. Expansion in voter participation, the growth of state political organizations, party loyalty, and the development of local campaign papers all led to the wide dissemination of scandal and fed 'the hunger of sensationalism.' To offset this, Jackson's supporters portrayed him as a brave soldier endowed with the virtues of manhood and the frontier spirit, placing him outside the usual social constraints.<ref>Norma Basch, "Marriage, Morals, and Politics in the Election of 1828." ''Journal of American History'' 1993 80(3): 890-918 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/2080408 in JSTOR]</ref>

==Issues==
===Banks===
Jackson was firmly opposed to a [[national bank]], and fought to dismantle the Second Bank of the United States. He vetoed Congress's bill to renew its charter, and began withdrawing money from it. He issued the [[Specie Circular]] in July 1836, which required land bought from the government to be paid for in [[specie]] (actual gold or silver coins), instead of bank notes. Most historians link this to the [[Panic of 1837]], which broke out weeks after after Jackson had left office and ruined the presidency of his successor, fellow Democrat [[Martin Van Buren]].

===Indian extermination===
Jackson, with the backing of Southern politicians, sought to abrogate the standing treaties with the [[Chickasaw]], [[Cherokee]], [[Seminole]], [[Creek]], and [[Choctaw]] nations by evicting them from the land they lived on and relocating them to Indian territory (in present-day [[Oklahoma]]). The idea was roundly decried as illegal and inhumane by evangelical Protestants, who had missionaries to the tribes, and by Whigs. Advocates of forced removal, mostly Democrats from the South, called removal a 'humane' and 'compassionate' move to assist a 'dying people.' The debate surrounding removal quickly became a North-South issue with Southern politicians calling their Northern counterparts 'demagogues' who sought 'to weaken the South' by allowing Indians to remain. In 1830, the resolution was approved by Congress and, assisted by Georgia state officials, Jackson began the process of evicting Native Americans. By 1835 the Cherokee, the last remaining Indian nation in the South, had signed the removal treaty and relocated to Oklahoma.<ref>Michael Morris, "Georgia and the Conversation over Indian Removal," ''Georgia Historical Quarterly'' 2007 91(4): 403-423, in [[EBSCO]]</ref>

Cave (2003) argues Jackson acted illegally in pressuring Indians to move west of the Mississippi River in the 1830s. The Indian Removal Act of 1830 called for voluntary removal and included safeguards for Indian rights, but Jackson ignored and distorted the act to suit his purposes. The newly formed Whig Party actively opposed Jackson's policies, and congressional legislation dealing with Indian removal was hotly debated and passed only by narrow margins. Had Jackson followed the legal dictates of the 1830 act, he probably would not have achieved Indian removal, says Cave. However Remini (2001) argued that the worst Jackson could be accused of was carrying out what most southern whites wanted at the time.<ref>Robert Remini, ''Andrew Jackson and his Indian Wars'' (2001)</ref>

===Democracy===
''See [[Jacksonian Democracy]]''

Jackson thought the voice of the people was supreme law. Although a man of powerful prejudices and passions, he identified with the voice of the people, and thought his election as president gave him the unique power to express that voice. His opponents misunderstood the voice and lacked the legitimate national base in any case. Thus Jackson denounced anyone who crossed him an enemy of the sovereign people. To fulfill this voice of the people in the political arena, he thought that the preservation of states' rights was an indispensable precondition to the achievement of people-oriented democracy. Although Jackson's record was erratic, when his presidency was done, federal authority was vastly weaker, and the states, for practical purposes, were much stronger than before, though as the Nullification crisis proved, he would not tolerate defiance.

==Personal life==

As a young man, Jackson was a gambler who frequented brothels.<ref>https://www.usnews.com/opinion/articles/2011/04/01/andrew-jacksons-tragic-love-story</ref> He met a married woman (Rachel Donelson Robards) and reportedly broke up her marriage with his affections for her.<ref>Jon Meacham, "American Lion: Andrew Jackson in the White House," pp. 21-22 (2008).</ref> Jackson eloped with this married woman while her husband was suing her for divorce (unusual in those days) on the grounds of adultery. Jackson's marriage to her constituted bigamy, a crime punishable by death under English [[common law]], and Jackson remarried her after her divorce became final.

In one of many duels initiated by Jackson, he murdered a man who accused his wife of being a bigamist, as Jackson reportedly violated the rules of duels by firing twice at him.<ref>http://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/andrew-jackson-kills-charles-dickinson-in-duel</ref>

===Retirement and death===
[[File:0307131322.jpg|right|thumb|The Hermitage]]
After honoring the precedent of [[George Washington]] to resign after serving two terms as President, Jackson then supported and advised many future candidates, most notably [[James K. Polk]].

Jackson died on June 8, 1845.

Since 1928, Jackson's picture has appeared on the United States $20 bill - somewhat ironic given that Jackson opposed paper money, wanting the country to use [[specie]] (gold and silver) instead.
{{Clear}}

==Quotes==
* Referring to the Bible: “That book, Sir, is the Rock upon which our republic rests.”
* "No people can flourish without true, genuine religion, which expels hypocrisy and deceit from their walks, purifies society, and calls down blessings upon a nation from above."<ref>Andrew Jackson, "Letter to Robert Minns Burton," in "The Papers of Andrew Jackson," Vol. 9 (November 1831), p. 706.</ref>
*"No free government can stand without virtue in the people and a lofty spirit of patriotism."<ref>https://millercenter.org/the-presidency/presidential-speeches/march-4-1837-farewell-address</ref>
*"It is from within, among yourselves, from cupidity, from corruption, from disappointed ambition, and inordinate thirst for power that factions will be formed and liberty endangered. It is against such designs, whatever disguise the actors may assume, that you have especially to guard yourselves."<ref>https://millercenter.org/the-presidency/presidential-speeches/march-4-1837-farewell-address</ref>
* "There is no real content and happiness in this world but what is produced by the consolations of religion, derived from the promises contained in the Scriptures."<ref>Andrew Jackson, "Letter to Robert Minns Burton," in "The Papers of Andrew Jackson," Vol. 9 (November 1831), p. 706.</ref>
*"True religion is calculated to make us happy not only in this, but in the next and better world, and therefore it was his [General Coffee's] regret that he had not joined the church. It is a profitable admonition to his family, that they may all become members of the church at an early day, for it is in religion alone that we can find consolation for such bereavements as the loss of our dear friend; it is religion alone that ever gives peace to us here and happiness beyond the grave; it is religion alone that can support us in our declining years, when our relish is lost for all sublunary enjoyments."<ref>Andrew Jackson, "Letter to Mrs. Mary Coffee," in "The Life and Times of Andrew Jackson: Soldier--statesman--president," 1:417. </ref>
*"We all know [Moor and Poindexter] never had any moral principle, and when this is the case, such men never can be relied on in maintaining sound political principles—we know that men without moral principle, can always be corrupted by ambitious demagogues and are unworthy of trust by a virtuous people."<ref>Andrew Jackson, "Letter to John Coffee," in "The Papers of Andrew Jackson," Vol. 10, March 1832, p. 160. </ref>
*"I am and I hope always have been a supporter of religion. Virtue is the basis of all republics. It is the sure foundation of temperance & charity which must be possessed by all who are really Christians—and I only lament that there are too many professors, who if judged by their fruit, do not possess it. When temperance and charity prevail, religion must flourish."<ref>Andrew Jackson, "Note on Religion," in "The Papers of Andrew Jackson," Vol. 10, June 1832, p. 322. </ref>
*"Our Government rests upon virtue. Its pillars, you see, are becoming rotten, and unless repaired by the virtue of the people, the fair fabric of liberty must tumble."<ref>Andrew Jackson, "Letter to Squire Grant," in "The Papers of Andrew Jackson," Vol. 6 (Feb. 1825), p. 32. </ref>

==Jefferson - Jackson Dinners==
The United States Democrat Party claims Jackson and [[Thomas Jefferson]] as two of its key founding members. Although this claim is a bit of a stretch, for decades the Democrats have honored these two presidents by holding fund-raising events called "Jefferson-Jackson Dinners." Recently, in an act of extreme "political correctness", activists have demanded that these events be renamed on the grounds that Jefferson held slaves and Jackson mistreated Native Americans. Many units of the Democrat Party have given into these arguments and are denouncing and dishonoring two of what most Americans view as great Presidents.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/08/09/us/jefferson-jackson-dinner-will-be-renamed.html|title=Jefferson-Jackson Dinner Will Be Renamed|date=August 8, 2015|work=New York Times|accessdate=April 19, 2016|first=Ashley|last=Southhall}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://blogs.denverpost.com/thespot/2015/11/16/colorado-democratic-party-considers-renaming-annual-jefferson-jackson-dinner/123835/|title=Colorado Democrats consider renaming Jefferson Jackson dinner|work=The Denver Post|first=John|last= Frank|date=November 16, 2015|accessdate=April 19, 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=
http://www.nola.com/politics/index.ssf/2015/07/jefferson_jackson_renamed_loui.html|title=As state Democratic parties rename their Jefferson-Jackson dinners, will Louisiana change 'J-J?'|work=The Times Picayune|first=Kevin |last=Litten|date= July 23, 2015|accessdate=April 21, 2016}}</ref>

==Further reading==
===Biographies===
* Brands, H. W. ''Andrew Jackson: His Life and Times'' (2005), scholarly biography emphasizing military career [https://www.amazon.com/Andrew-Jackson-His-Life-Times/dp/1400030722/ref=sr_1_2?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1258870084&sr=1-2 excerpt and text search]
* Brustein, Andrew. ''The Passions of Andrew Jackson''. (2003). [http://www.h-net.msu.edu/reviews/showrev.cgi?path=180461058379340 online review by Donald B. Cole]
* Hofstadter, Richard. ''The American Political Tradition'' (1948), chapter on Jackson. [http://www.humanitiesebook.org/ online in ACLS e-books]
* James, Marquis. ''The Life of Andrew Jackson'' (1938). Combines two books: ''The Border Captain'' and ''Andrew Jackson: Portrait of a President''; Pulitzer Prize for Biography; old fashioned action-packed narrative
* Meacham, Jon. ''American Lion: Andrew Jackson in the White House'' (2009), [https://www.amazon.com/American-Lion-Andrew-Jackson-Notable/dp/0812973461/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1258870084&sr=1-1 excerpt and text search]
* Parton, James. ''Life of Andrew Jackson'' (1860). [https://books.google.com/books?vid=OCLC01632322&id=t-rhrBzV8rEC&printsec=titlepage Volume I], [https://books.google.com/books?vid=OCLC01632322&id=M9gNJq_KnC8C&printsec=titlepage Volume III].
* Remini, Robert V. ''The Life of Andrew Jackson''. Abridgment of Remini's 3-volume standard scholarly biography, (1998)
** ''Andrew Jackson and the Course of American Empire, 1767-1821'' (1977); ''Andrew Jackson and the Course of American Freedom, 1822-1832'' (1981); ''Andrew Jackson and the Course of American Democracy, 1833-1845'' (1984)
* Wilentz, Sean. ''Andrew Jackson'' (2005) short biography, stressing Indian removal and slavery issues [https://www.amazon.com/Andrew-Jackson-Sean-Wilentz/dp/0805069259/ref=sr_1_3?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1258870084&sr=1-3 excerpt and text search]

==Specialized Studies==
* Doutrich, Paul E. ''Shapers of the Great Debate on Jacksonian Democracy: A Biographical Dictionary.'' (2004). 360 pp. [https://www.amazon.com/Shapers-Great-Debate-Jacksonian-Democracy/dp/0313315760 online edition]
* Gammon, Samuel Rhea. ''The Presidential Campaign of 1832'' (1922) [http://www.questia.com/library/book/the-presidential-campaign-of-1832-by-samuel-rhea-gammon.jsp online edition]
* Feller, Daniel. "The Bank War," in Julian E. Zelizer, ed. ''The American Congress'' (2004), pp 93–111.
* Hammond, Bray. "Jackson, Biddle, and the Bank of the United States," ''The Journal of Economic History'', Vol. 7, No. 1 (May, 1947), pp. 1–23 [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0022-0507%28194705%297%3A1%3C1%3AJBATBO%3E2.0.CO%3B2-6 at JSTOR]
* Hammond, Bray. ''Banks and Politics in America from the Revolution to the Civil War'' (1957). Pulitzer prize winner; the standard history. Pro-Bank
* Hammond, Bray. "The Second Bank of the United States. ''Transactions of the American Philosophical Society,'' New Ser., Vol. 43, No. 1 (1953), pp. 80-85 [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0065-9746(1953)2%3A43%3A1%3C80%3ATSBOTU%3E2.0.CO%3B2-C in JSTOR]
* Howe, Daniel Walker. ''What Hath God Wrought: The Transformation of America, 1815-1848'' (2007), outstanding survey of the era by conservative historian who dislikes Jackson; Pulitzer prize. [https://www.amazon.com/What-Hath-God-Wrought-Transformation/dp/0195392434/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1258870831&sr=1-1 excerpt and text search]
* Latner Richard B. ''The Presidency of Andrew Jackson: White House Politics, 1820-1837'' (1979), standard survey.
* Magliocca, Gerard N. ''Andrew Jackson and the Constitution: The Rise and Fall of Generational Regimes,'' (2007); 216 pages
* Ogg, Frederic Austin ; ''The Reign of Andrew Jackson: A Chronicle of the Frontier in Politics'' 1919. [https://www.gutenberg.org/etext/13009 short survey online at Gutenberg]
* Patterson, Benton Rain. ''The Generals: Andrew Jackson, Sir Edward Pakenham, and the Road to the Battle of New Orleans.'' (2005). 288 pp.
* Ratner, Lorman A. ''Andrew Jackson and His Tennessee Lieutenants: A Study in Political Culture'' (1997) [https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=28026037 online edition]
* Remini Robert V. ''Andrew Jackson and the Bank War: A Study in the Growth of Presidential Power'' (1967). Pro-Jackson.
* Schlesinger, Arthur M. Jr. ''The Age of Jackson''. (1945). Winner of the [[Pulitzer Prize for History]]. history of ideas of the era; strongly pro-Jackson, who is seen as an anti-business model for [[FDR]]
* Sellers, Charles. ''The Market Revolution: Jacksonian America, 1815-1846.'' (1991) influential liberal interpretation; anti-business; refuted by Howe (2007) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=59690282 online edition]
* Syrett, Harold C. ''Andrew Jackson: His Contribution to the American Tradition'' (1953) [https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=978507 online edition]

===Indian Wars and Removal===
* Buchanan, John. ''Jackson's Way: Andrew Jackson and the People of the Western Waters.'' (2001). 434 pp. [http://www.h-net.msu.edu/reviews/showrev.cgi?path=183801009567545 online review]
* Cave, Alfred A. "Abuse of Power: Andrew Jackson and the Indian Removal Act of 1830." ''Historian'' 2003 65(6): 1330-1353. Issn: 0018-2370 Fulltext: online at Swetswise, Ingenta and Ebsco
* O'Brien, Sean Michael. ''In Bitterness and in Tears: Andrew Jackson's Destruction of the Creeks and Seminoles.'' (2003). 254 pp.
* Remini, Robert V.. ''The Legacy of Andrew Jackson: Essays on Democracy, Indian Removal, and Slavery'' (1988)
* Remini, Robert V. ''Andrew Jackson and his Indian Wars'' (2001)
* Remini, Robert V. "Andrew Jackson Versus the Cherokee Nation." ''American History'' 2001 36(3): 48-56. Issn: 1076-8866 Fulltext: in Ebsco
* Rowland, Dunbar. ''Andrew Jackson's Campaign against the British, or, the Mississippi Territory in the War of 1812, concerning the Military Operations of the Americans, Creek Indians, British, and Spanish, 1813-1815'' (1926) [https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=77351727 online edition]
* Satz, Ronald N. American Indian Policy in the Jacksonian Era.'' (1975)
* Wallace, Anthony F.C. ''The Long, Bitter Trail: Andrew Jackson and the Indians'' (1993)

===Primary sources===
* Bassett John Spencer, ed. ''Correspondence of Andrew Jackson'' Vols. 1-6. (1926).
* Smith Sam B., and Harriet Chappell Owsley, eds. ''Papers of Andrew Jackson'' . Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, Vol. 1, 1980; Moser Harold D., Sharon MacPherson, and Charles F. Bryan Jr., eds. ''The Papers of Andrew Jackson''. Vols. 2-6. Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 2002; the latest vol 6 goes to 1828.
* [http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/presiden/jackpap.htm online speeches and presidential messages]

===Historiography===
* Bugg Jr., James L. ed. ''Jacksonian Democracy: Myth or Reality?.'' (1962) debates among historians [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=875714 online edition]
* Cave, Alfred A. ''Jacksonian Democracy and the Historians,'' U, of Florida Press, 1970
* Sellers, Jr. Charles Grier. "Andrew Jackson versus the Historians," ''The Mississippi Valley Historical Review,'' Vol. 44, No. 4. (Mar., 1958), pp. 615-634. [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0161-391X%28195803%2944%3A4%3C615%3AAJVTH%3E2.0.CO%3B2-Y in JSTOR]
* Taylor, George Rogers, ed. ''Jackson Versus Biddle: The Struggle over the Second Bank of the United States'' (1949), excerpts from primary and secondary sources [https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=960190 online edition]
* Ward, John William. ''Andrew Jackson, Symbol for an Age'' (1962) how writers saw him [https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=98819205 online edition]

== See also ==
*[[Gallery of American Heroes]]

== References ==
{{reflist|1}}

==External links==
* [https://librivox.org/author/4254 Works by Andrew Jackson - text and free audio] - [[LibriVox]]
* [https://www.thenewamerican.com/reviews/books/item/31521-a-review-of-in-defense-of-andrew-jackson A Review of "In Defense of Andrew Jackson"], by James Heiser of ''[[The New American]]''
* [https://thehill.com/opinion/finance/462402-six-reasons-to-leave-andrew-jackson-on-the-20-bill Six reasons to leave Andrew Jackson on the $20 bill], by Philip Leigh, September 26, 2019.

{{USPresidents}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Jackson, Andrew}}

[[Category:War of 1812]]
[[Category:Democratic Party]]
[[Category:Florida Governors]]
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Andrew Jackson

2019-10-11T21:17:58Z

Haeralis:

{{President
|image=Andrew-jackson.jpg
|seq=7
|term_start=March 4, 1829
|term_end=March 4, 1837<ref>http://www.trivia-library.com/a/7th-us-president-andrew-jackson.htm</ref>
|party=Democrat
|vp=John C. Calhoun
|vp_dates=1829-1832
|2vp=None
|2vp_dates=1832-1833
|3vp=Martin Van Buren
|3vp_dates=1833-1837
|previous=John Quincy Adams
|next=Martin van Buren
|birth_date=March 15, 1767
|birth_place=Lancaster County, South Carolina
|death_date=June 8, 1845
|death_place=Nashville, Tennessee
|spouse=Rachel Donelson Robards Jackson
|religion=[[Presbyterian]]
}}
'''Andrew Jackson''' (March 15, 1767 – June 8, 1845) was the seventh [[president of the United States of America]], elected as a hero after his military triumphs over the Creek Indians of the Southeast and the [[British]] at New Orleans in 1815. As president (1829–1837), he destroyed the Bank of the [[United States]], ethnically cleansed the remaining southeastern Natives, and built a new political coalition, the [[Democratic Party]]. A self-made man, Indian slaughter, war hero and a fighter (and duelist) who believed in action instead of words, he was long an iconic [[Democrat]] folk hero.

But Jackson also defied the [[Supreme Court of the United States|Supreme Court]] with a famous quip attributed to him: Chief Justice "John Marshall has made his decision, now let him enforce it."<ref>https://sustainatlanta.com/2015/04/02/remembering-the-time-andrew-jackson-decided-to-ignore-the-supreme-court-in-the-name-of-georgias-right-to-cherokee-land/</ref> Jackson then won reelection by a landslide. [[Liberal]]s today, who use the courts to advance their agenda, no longer praise Jackson. Jackson's opposition to the early [[deep state]] is admired by some conservatives.<ref>Stepman, Jarrett (September 30, 2019). [https://www.dailysignal.com/2019/09/30/heres-how-andrew-jackson-stood-up-to-unaccountable-elites/ Here’s How Andrew Jackson Stood Up to Unaccountable ‘Elites’]. ''The Daily Signal''. Retrieved October 4, 2019.</ref>

Nicknamed "Old Hickory" by his admirers, he typified popular democracy in the "Jacksonian Age" of the 1830s and 1840s, and became the leader of [[Jacksonian Democracy]] during the [[Second Party System]]. He is the founder of the Democrat Party and was its hero for a time because of his strong use of the presidency to bash crony capitalism, central banking, and profligate federal spending. The poor farmers, workers and oppressed loved him because he embodied their hopes and fears, their passions and prejudices, their insight and ignorance, better than anyone. Jackson has been perceived as an early forerunner of the [[conservative]] [[Tea Party]] for his strong commitment to [[limited government]], his [[strict construction]] of the Constitution, his rejection of globalism, and his commitment to [[American exceptionalism]]. <ref>https://spectator.org/andrew-jackson-tea-party-president/</ref><ref>https://www.politico.com/story/2010/09/andrew-jacksons-tea-party-042640</ref><ref>https://democracyjournal.org/magazine/31/the-anti-jacksonians/</ref> A populist, he has also been viewed as a forerunner to President [[Donald Trump]] and the 45th President cites him favorably.<ref>https://www.the-american-interest.com/2016/01/17/andrew-jackson-revenant/</ref><ref>http://nymag.com/intelligencer/2019/06/trump-may-be-the-true-heir-of-andrew-jackson.html</ref><ref>https://www.thedailybeast.com/trump-andrew-jackson-would-never-have-let-civil-war-happen</ref><ref>https://time.com/4699849/donald-trump-andrew-jackson-grave/</ref>

==Career==
Born near the North/South Carolina border, Jackson studied law in Salisbury, North Carolina before moving to Nashville, Tennessee. Jackson was the first president who was not born in [[Virginia]] or [[Massachusetts]]. He fought at an early age in the battle of Stone Ferry during the [[American Revolution]] in 1780. As a teenaged volunteer in a local militia, Jackson refused an order by a British officer to polish his boots, and the officer angrily drew his sword and slashed Jackson across his hand and head with it, and imprisoned him. For the rest of his life Jackson loathed the British.

===Tennessee Frontier===
Jackson, John Sevier, and their allies were rich frontier lawyers and businessmen who used their vast land holdings to establish themselves as a political power in Tennessee. They allied themselves with the Jeffersonian Republicans, of the "Old Republican" faction that opposed strong national government. However, [[Thomas Jefferson]] and his circle strongly disliked and distrusted Jackson.

Serving a term in the Senate, he alarmed Jefferson but otherwise made little mark.

===Soldier===
Jackson sought election as major general of the Tennessee militia partly to escape the circuit riding required while he was a superior court judge. As a military commander he proved himself a master tactician, a brilliant organizer, and effective motivator of men. He won all his major battles, including the decisive defeat of the cream of the British regular army.

[[File:Aj-map1812.jpg|thumb|Jackson's campaigns]]

Jackson led two great victories in the [[War of 1812]]—the first against the "Red Stick" Creek Indian forces that had raided, raped and killed American settlers and assimilated Indians in what is now Alabama. Indians seldom fought pitched battles; they preferred the ambush. Jackson, aided by Cherokee allies, trapped the Creeks at Horseshoe Bend in Alabama in March 1814, and killed over 800 enemy; the rest fled to Spanish Florida. (See [[Creek War]].)

Jackson led a contingent of Tennessee and Kentucky militia who routed over 2,000 British troops in the [[Battle of New Orleans]] in Jan. 1815. The defeat ended British plans to turn the Mississippi Valley into a pro-British Indian nation. It was a great victory for Jackson and became source of enormous pride to all Americans.<ref>The battle happened after the peace treaty was signed, but before it was ratified and went into effect.</ref>

===Religion===
Jackson attended a Presbyterian church from time to time, and his wife was a devout Baptist. Jackson had little sympathy for religion in the political sphere, unlike many of his opponents (the Anti-Masons and [[Whigs]]), who were building political coalitions using religious voting blocs during the [[Second Great Awakening]]. For example, Jackson insisted that the mail be delivered on Sundays, much to the anger of the evangelicals.<ref>Adam Jortner, "Cholera, Christ, and Jackson: The Epidemic of 1832 and the Origins of Christian Politics in Antebellum America," ''Journal of the Early Republic,'' Volume 27, Number 2, Summer 2007, pp. 233-264 in [[Project MUSE]]</ref>

After his presidency, Jackson became very serious about Christianity and returned to the rigid evangelical orthodoxy of his youth. Unlike many politicians of the period who, for ecumenical purposes, appealed to a theistic but not explicitly Christian God, Jackson professed Jesus Christ as his Redeemer, Lord, and Savior. To his son, Andrew Jr., he wrote in 1834: "I nightly offer up my prayers to the Throne of Grace for the health and safety of you all, and that we ought all to rely with confidence on the promises of our dear Redeemer, and give Him our hearts. This is all He requires and all that we can do, and if we sincerely do this, we are sure of salvation through His atonement."<ref>Robert V. Remini, "Andrew Jackson: The Course of American Democracy, 1833-1845," 184. </ref> That same year, he sent a letter of condolence to the family of his friend General Coffee, who had recently died. He admonished that they "Rely on our dear Saviour. He will be father to the fatherless and husband to the widow. Trust in the mercy and goodness of Christ, and always be ready to say with heartfelt resignation, "may the Lord's will be done."<ref>Robert V. Remini, "Andrew Jackson: The Course of American Democracy, 1833-1845," 91.</ref>

Shortly after becoming a communicant member of the Hermitage Presbyterian Church, Jackson was nominated to become a ruling elder of the church. Jackson declined on Biblical grounds, saying: “No, the Bible says, “Be not hasty on of hands.” I am too young in the church for such an office. My countrymen have given me high honors, but I should esteem the office of ruling elder in the Church of Christ a far higher honor than any I have ever received.”<ref>John Stevens Cabot Abbott, "Lives of the Presidents of the United States of America," (Boston: B.B. Russell & Co., 1867), 238.</ref>

As he neared the time of his death, Jackson entertained no fears about the afterlife because he believed that the life, death, and resurrection of Jesus secured to him eternal life. After Ralph Earl died in 1838, Jackson wrote that "I must soon follow him, and hope to meet him and those friends who have gone before me in the realms of bliss through the mediation of a dear Redeemer, Jesus Christ."<ref>Robert V. Remini, "Andrew Jackson: The Course of American Democracy, 1833-1845," 448.</ref> Jackson's Last Will and Testimony of 1845 beautifully expressed confidence in the Gospel:

''Sir, I am in the hands of a merciful God. I have full confidence in his goodness and mercy. My lamp of life is nearly out, and the last glimmer has come. I am ready to depart when called. The Bible is true. I have tried to conform to its spirit as near as possible. Upon that Sacred Volume I rest my hope for eternal salvation, through the merits and blood of our blessed Lord and Saviour, Jesus Christ. First, I bequeath my body to the dust whence it comes, and my soul to God who gave it, hoping for a happy immortality through the atoning merits of our Lord Jesus Christ, the Saviour of the world.
''<ref>Cyrus Townsend Brady, "The True Andrew Jackson," 381.</ref>

Shortly before his death, Jackson expressed his confidence in Jesus unequivocally. "When I have Suffered sufficiently," the former president uttered, "the Lord will then take me to himself—but what are all my sufferings compared to those of the blessed Savior, who died upon that cursed tree for me? Mine are nothing."<ref>Cyrus Townsend Brady, "The True Andrew Jackson," 379.</ref>

==Presidential campaigns==
His military success gave him tremendous popularity with the common man, and he ran for President in the [[United States presidential election, 1824|1824 Presidential Election]]. He won a plurality of the votes but no one got a majority and the election went into the House of Representatives, where they chose [[John Quincy Adams]] instead. At the next [[United States presidential election, 1828|Presidential Election in 1828]] Jackson defeated John Quincy Adams, and then Jackson won reelection in the [[United States presidential election, 1832|1832 Presidential Election]]. Jackson survived an assassination attempt in January 1835 when a deranged man fired two pistols at him at point blank range in the Rotunda of the U.S. Capitol.<ref>[http://www.americanheritage.com/people/articles/web/20070130-richard-lawrence-andrew-jackson-assassination-warren-r-davis.shtml Trying to Assassinate President Jackson]</ref>

Although Jackson won the 1828 election against incumbent [[John Quincy Adams]] by capturing almost 56% of the popular vote, the campaign was marked by anti-Jackson rhetoric that centered on Rachel Jackson's previous marriage to Lewis Robards and the allegedly "illicit union to Jackson"—that is, bigamy. Jackson's supporters portrayed the Robards matter as a minor legal misunderstanding. Adams's supporters saw the incident as no less than long-term adultery by Andrew Jackson and portrayed Rachel Jackson as an immoral woman, implying the political dilemma that 'a vote for Jackson was a vote for sin.' The controversy paralleled a critical development in American politics. Expansion in voter participation, the growth of state political organizations, party loyalty, and the development of local campaign papers all led to the wide dissemination of scandal and fed 'the hunger of sensationalism.' To offset this, Jackson's supporters portrayed him as a brave soldier endowed with the virtues of manhood and the frontier spirit, placing him outside the usual social constraints.<ref>Norma Basch, "Marriage, Morals, and Politics in the Election of 1828." ''Journal of American History'' 1993 80(3): 890-918 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/2080408 in JSTOR]</ref>

==Issues==
===Banks===
Jackson was firmly opposed to a [[national bank]], and fought to dismantle the Second Bank of the United States. He vetoed Congress's bill to renew its charter, and began withdrawing money from it. He issued the [[Specie Circular]] in July 1836, which required land bought from the government to be paid for in [[specie]] (actual gold or silver coins), instead of bank notes. Most historians link this to the [[Panic of 1837]], which broke out weeks after after Jackson had left office and ruined the presidency of his successor, fellow Democrat [[Martin Van Buren]].

===Indian extermination===
Jackson, with the backing of Southern politicians, sought to abrogate the standing treaties with the [[Chickasaw]], [[Cherokee]], [[Seminole]], [[Creek]], and [[Choctaw]] nations by evicting them from the land they lived on and relocating them to Indian territory (in present-day [[Oklahoma]]). The idea was roundly decried as illegal and inhumane by evangelical Protestants, who had missionaries to the tribes, and by Whigs. Advocates of forced removal, mostly Democrats from the South, called removal a 'humane' and 'compassionate' move to assist a 'dying people.' The debate surrounding removal quickly became a North-South issue with Southern politicians calling their Northern counterparts 'demagogues' who sought 'to weaken the South' by allowing Indians to remain. In 1830, the resolution was approved by Congress and, assisted by Georgia state officials, Jackson began the process of evicting Native Americans. By 1835 the Cherokee, the last remaining Indian nation in the South, had signed the removal treaty and relocated to Oklahoma.<ref>Michael Morris, "Georgia and the Conversation over Indian Removal," ''Georgia Historical Quarterly'' 2007 91(4): 403-423, in [[EBSCO]]</ref>

Cave (2003) argues Jackson acted illegally in pressuring Indians to move west of the Mississippi River in the 1830s. The Indian Removal Act of 1830 called for voluntary removal and included safeguards for Indian rights, but Jackson ignored and distorted the act to suit his purposes. The newly formed Whig Party actively opposed Jackson's policies, and congressional legislation dealing with Indian removal was hotly debated and passed only by narrow margins. Had Jackson followed the legal dictates of the 1830 act, he probably would not have achieved Indian removal, says Cave. However Remini (2001) argued that the worst Jackson could be accused of was carrying out what most southern whites wanted at the time.<ref>Robert Remini, ''Andrew Jackson and his Indian Wars'' (2001)</ref>

===Democracy===
''See [[Jacksonian Democracy]]''

Jackson thought the voice of the people was supreme law. Although a man of powerful prejudices and passions, he identified with the voice of the people, and thought his election as president gave him the unique power to express that voice. His opponents misunderstood the voice and lacked the legitimate national base in any case. Thus Jackson denounced anyone who crossed him an enemy of the sovereign people. To fulfill this voice of the people in the political arena, he thought that the preservation of states' rights was an indispensable precondition to the achievement of people-oriented democracy. Although Jackson's record was erratic, when his presidency was done, federal authority was vastly weaker, and the states, for practical purposes, were much stronger than before, though as the Nullification crisis proved, he would not tolerate defiance.

==Personal life==

As a young man, Jackson was a gambler who frequented brothels.<ref>https://www.usnews.com/opinion/articles/2011/04/01/andrew-jacksons-tragic-love-story</ref> He met a married woman (Rachel Donelson Robards) and reportedly broke up her marriage with his affections for her.<ref>Jon Meacham, "American Lion: Andrew Jackson in the White House," pp. 21-22 (2008).</ref> Jackson eloped with this married woman while her husband was suing her for divorce (unusual in those days) on the grounds of adultery. Jackson's marriage to her constituted bigamy, a crime punishable by death under English [[common law]], and Jackson remarried her after her divorce became final.

In one of many duels initiated by Jackson, he murdered a man who accused his wife of being a bigamist, as Jackson reportedly violated the rules of duels by firing twice at him.<ref>http://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/andrew-jackson-kills-charles-dickinson-in-duel</ref>

===Retirement and death===
[[File:0307131322.jpg|right|thumb|The Hermitage]]
After honoring the precedent of [[George Washington]] to resign after serving two terms as President, Jackson then supported and advised many future candidates, most notably [[James K. Polk]].

Jackson died on June 8, 1845.

Since 1928, Jackson's picture has appeared on the United States $20 bill - somewhat ironic given that Jackson opposed paper money, wanting the country to use [[specie]] (gold and silver) instead.
{{Clear}}

==Quotes==
* Referring to the Bible: “That book, Sir, is the Rock upon which our republic rests.”
* "No people can flourish without true, genuine religion, which expels hypocrisy and deceit from their walks, purifies society, and calls down blessings upon a nation from above."<ref>Andrew Jackson, "Letter to Robert Minns Burton," in "The Papers of Andrew Jackson," Vol. 9 (November 1831), p. 706.</ref>
*"No free government can stand without virtue in the people and a lofty spirit of patriotism."<ref>https://millercenter.org/the-presidency/presidential-speeches/march-4-1837-farewell-address</ref>
*"It is from within, among yourselves, from cupidity, from corruption, from disappointed ambition, and inordinate thirst for power that factions will be formed and liberty endangered. It is against such designs, whatever disguise the actors may assume, that you have especially to guard yourselves."<ref>https://millercenter.org/the-presidency/presidential-speeches/march-4-1837-farewell-address</ref>
* "There is no real content and happiness in this world but what is produced by the consolations of religion, derived from the promises contained in the Scriptures."<ref>Andrew Jackson, "Letter to Robert Minns Burton," in "The Papers of Andrew Jackson," Vol. 9 (November 1831), p. 706.</ref>
*"True religion is calculated to make us happy not only in this, but in the next and better world, and therefore it was his [General Coffee's] regret that he had not joined the church. It is a profitable admonition to his family, that they may all become members of the church at an early day, for it is in religion alone that we can find consolation for such bereavements as the loss of our dear friend; it is religion alone that ever gives peace to us here and happiness beyond the grave; it is religion alone that can support us in our declining years, when our relish is lost for all sublunary enjoyments."<ref>Andrew Jackson, "Letter to Mrs. Mary Coffee," in "The Life and Times of Andrew Jackson: Soldier--statesman--president," 1:417. </ref>
*"We all know [Moor and Poindexter] never had any moral principle, and when this is the case, such men never can be relied on in maintaining sound political principles—we know that men without moral principle, can always be corrupted by ambitious demagogues and are unworthy of trust by a virtuous people."<ref>Andrew Jackson, "Letter to John Coffee," in "The Papers of Andrew Jackson," Vol. 10, March 1832, p. 160. </ref>
*"I am and I hope always have been a supporter of religion. Virtue is the basis of all republics. It is the sure foundation of temperance & charity which must be possessed by all who are really Christians—and I only lament that there are too many professors, who if judged by their fruit, do not possess it. When temperance and charity prevail, religion must flourish."<ref>Andrew Jackson, "Note on Religion," in "The Papers of Andrew Jackson," Vol. 10, June 1832, p. 322. </ref>
*"Our Government rests upon virtue, its pillars you see are becoming rotten, and unless repaired by the virtue of the people, the fair fabric of liberty must tumble."<ref>Andrew Jackson, "Letter to Squire Grant," in "The Papers of Andrew Jackson," Vol. 6 (Feb. 1825), p. 32. </ref>

==Jefferson - Jackson Dinners==
The United States Democrat Party claims Jackson and [[Thomas Jefferson]] as two of its key founding members. Although this claim is a bit of a stretch, for decades the Democrats have honored these two presidents by holding fund-raising events called "Jefferson-Jackson Dinners." Recently, in an act of extreme "political correctness", activists have demanded that these events be renamed on the grounds that Jefferson held slaves and Jackson mistreated Native Americans. Many units of the Democrat Party have given into these arguments and are denouncing and dishonoring two of what most Americans view as great Presidents.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/08/09/us/jefferson-jackson-dinner-will-be-renamed.html|title=Jefferson-Jackson Dinner Will Be Renamed|date=August 8, 2015|work=New York Times|accessdate=April 19, 2016|first=Ashley|last=Southhall}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://blogs.denverpost.com/thespot/2015/11/16/colorado-democratic-party-considers-renaming-annual-jefferson-jackson-dinner/123835/|title=Colorado Democrats consider renaming Jefferson Jackson dinner|work=The Denver Post|first=John|last= Frank|date=November 16, 2015|accessdate=April 19, 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=
http://www.nola.com/politics/index.ssf/2015/07/jefferson_jackson_renamed_loui.html|title=As state Democratic parties rename their Jefferson-Jackson dinners, will Louisiana change 'J-J?'|work=The Times Picayune|first=Kevin |last=Litten|date= July 23, 2015|accessdate=April 21, 2016}}</ref>

==Further reading==
===Biographies===
* Brands, H. W. ''Andrew Jackson: His Life and Times'' (2005), scholarly biography emphasizing military career [https://www.amazon.com/Andrew-Jackson-His-Life-Times/dp/1400030722/ref=sr_1_2?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1258870084&sr=1-2 excerpt and text search]
* Brustein, Andrew. ''The Passions of Andrew Jackson''. (2003). [http://www.h-net.msu.edu/reviews/showrev.cgi?path=180461058379340 online review by Donald B. Cole]
* Hofstadter, Richard. ''The American Political Tradition'' (1948), chapter on Jackson. [http://www.humanitiesebook.org/ online in ACLS e-books]
* James, Marquis. ''The Life of Andrew Jackson'' (1938). Combines two books: ''The Border Captain'' and ''Andrew Jackson: Portrait of a President''; Pulitzer Prize for Biography; old fashioned action-packed narrative
* Meacham, Jon. ''American Lion: Andrew Jackson in the White House'' (2009), [https://www.amazon.com/American-Lion-Andrew-Jackson-Notable/dp/0812973461/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1258870084&sr=1-1 excerpt and text search]
* Parton, James. ''Life of Andrew Jackson'' (1860). [https://books.google.com/books?vid=OCLC01632322&id=t-rhrBzV8rEC&printsec=titlepage Volume I], [https://books.google.com/books?vid=OCLC01632322&id=M9gNJq_KnC8C&printsec=titlepage Volume III].
* Remini, Robert V. ''The Life of Andrew Jackson''. Abridgment of Remini's 3-volume standard scholarly biography, (1998)
** ''Andrew Jackson and the Course of American Empire, 1767-1821'' (1977); ''Andrew Jackson and the Course of American Freedom, 1822-1832'' (1981); ''Andrew Jackson and the Course of American Democracy, 1833-1845'' (1984)
* Wilentz, Sean. ''Andrew Jackson'' (2005) short biography, stressing Indian removal and slavery issues [https://www.amazon.com/Andrew-Jackson-Sean-Wilentz/dp/0805069259/ref=sr_1_3?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1258870084&sr=1-3 excerpt and text search]

==Specialized Studies==
* Doutrich, Paul E. ''Shapers of the Great Debate on Jacksonian Democracy: A Biographical Dictionary.'' (2004). 360 pp. [https://www.amazon.com/Shapers-Great-Debate-Jacksonian-Democracy/dp/0313315760 online edition]
* Gammon, Samuel Rhea. ''The Presidential Campaign of 1832'' (1922) [http://www.questia.com/library/book/the-presidential-campaign-of-1832-by-samuel-rhea-gammon.jsp online edition]
* Feller, Daniel. "The Bank War," in Julian E. Zelizer, ed. ''The American Congress'' (2004), pp 93–111.
* Hammond, Bray. "Jackson, Biddle, and the Bank of the United States," ''The Journal of Economic History'', Vol. 7, No. 1 (May, 1947), pp. 1–23 [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0022-0507%28194705%297%3A1%3C1%3AJBATBO%3E2.0.CO%3B2-6 at JSTOR]
* Hammond, Bray. ''Banks and Politics in America from the Revolution to the Civil War'' (1957). Pulitzer prize winner; the standard history. Pro-Bank
* Hammond, Bray. "The Second Bank of the United States. ''Transactions of the American Philosophical Society,'' New Ser., Vol. 43, No. 1 (1953), pp. 80-85 [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0065-9746(1953)2%3A43%3A1%3C80%3ATSBOTU%3E2.0.CO%3B2-C in JSTOR]
* Howe, Daniel Walker. ''What Hath God Wrought: The Transformation of America, 1815-1848'' (2007), outstanding survey of the era by conservative historian who dislikes Jackson; Pulitzer prize. [https://www.amazon.com/What-Hath-God-Wrought-Transformation/dp/0195392434/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1258870831&sr=1-1 excerpt and text search]
* Latner Richard B. ''The Presidency of Andrew Jackson: White House Politics, 1820-1837'' (1979), standard survey.
* Magliocca, Gerard N. ''Andrew Jackson and the Constitution: The Rise and Fall of Generational Regimes,'' (2007); 216 pages
* Ogg, Frederic Austin ; ''The Reign of Andrew Jackson: A Chronicle of the Frontier in Politics'' 1919. [https://www.gutenberg.org/etext/13009 short survey online at Gutenberg]
* Patterson, Benton Rain. ''The Generals: Andrew Jackson, Sir Edward Pakenham, and the Road to the Battle of New Orleans.'' (2005). 288 pp.
* Ratner, Lorman A. ''Andrew Jackson and His Tennessee Lieutenants: A Study in Political Culture'' (1997) [https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=28026037 online edition]
* Remini Robert V. ''Andrew Jackson and the Bank War: A Study in the Growth of Presidential Power'' (1967). Pro-Jackson.
* Schlesinger, Arthur M. Jr. ''The Age of Jackson''. (1945). Winner of the [[Pulitzer Prize for History]]. history of ideas of the era; strongly pro-Jackson, who is seen as an anti-business model for [[FDR]]
* Sellers, Charles. ''The Market Revolution: Jacksonian America, 1815-1846.'' (1991) influential liberal interpretation; anti-business; refuted by Howe (2007) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=59690282 online edition]
* Syrett, Harold C. ''Andrew Jackson: His Contribution to the American Tradition'' (1953) [https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=978507 online edition]

===Indian Wars and Removal===
* Buchanan, John. ''Jackson's Way: Andrew Jackson and the People of the Western Waters.'' (2001). 434 pp. [http://www.h-net.msu.edu/reviews/showrev.cgi?path=183801009567545 online review]
* Cave, Alfred A. "Abuse of Power: Andrew Jackson and the Indian Removal Act of 1830." ''Historian'' 2003 65(6): 1330-1353. Issn: 0018-2370 Fulltext: online at Swetswise, Ingenta and Ebsco
* O'Brien, Sean Michael. ''In Bitterness and in Tears: Andrew Jackson's Destruction of the Creeks and Seminoles.'' (2003). 254 pp.
* Remini, Robert V.. ''The Legacy of Andrew Jackson: Essays on Democracy, Indian Removal, and Slavery'' (1988)
* Remini, Robert V. ''Andrew Jackson and his Indian Wars'' (2001)
* Remini, Robert V. "Andrew Jackson Versus the Cherokee Nation." ''American History'' 2001 36(3): 48-56. Issn: 1076-8866 Fulltext: in Ebsco
* Rowland, Dunbar. ''Andrew Jackson's Campaign against the British, or, the Mississippi Territory in the War of 1812, concerning the Military Operations of the Americans, Creek Indians, British, and Spanish, 1813-1815'' (1926) [https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=77351727 online edition]
* Satz, Ronald N. American Indian Policy in the Jacksonian Era.'' (1975)
* Wallace, Anthony F.C. ''The Long, Bitter Trail: Andrew Jackson and the Indians'' (1993)

===Primary sources===
* Bassett John Spencer, ed. ''Correspondence of Andrew Jackson'' Vols. 1-6. (1926).
* Smith Sam B., and Harriet Chappell Owsley, eds. ''Papers of Andrew Jackson'' . Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, Vol. 1, 1980; Moser Harold D., Sharon MacPherson, and Charles F. Bryan Jr., eds. ''The Papers of Andrew Jackson''. Vols. 2-6. Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 2002; the latest vol 6 goes to 1828.
* [http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/presiden/jackpap.htm online speeches and presidential messages]

===Historiography===
* Bugg Jr., James L. ed. ''Jacksonian Democracy: Myth or Reality?.'' (1962) debates among historians [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=875714 online edition]
* Cave, Alfred A. ''Jacksonian Democracy and the Historians,'' U, of Florida Press, 1970
* Sellers, Jr. Charles Grier. "Andrew Jackson versus the Historians," ''The Mississippi Valley Historical Review,'' Vol. 44, No. 4. (Mar., 1958), pp. 615-634. [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0161-391X%28195803%2944%3A4%3C615%3AAJVTH%3E2.0.CO%3B2-Y in JSTOR]
* Taylor, George Rogers, ed. ''Jackson Versus Biddle: The Struggle over the Second Bank of the United States'' (1949), excerpts from primary and secondary sources [https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=960190 online edition]
* Ward, John William. ''Andrew Jackson, Symbol for an Age'' (1962) how writers saw him [https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=98819205 online edition]

== See also ==
*[[Gallery of American Heroes]]

== References ==
{{reflist|1}}

==External links==
* [https://librivox.org/author/4254 Works by Andrew Jackson - text and free audio] - [[LibriVox]]
* [https://www.thenewamerican.com/reviews/books/item/31521-a-review-of-in-defense-of-andrew-jackson A Review of "In Defense of Andrew Jackson"], by James Heiser of ''[[The New American]]''
* [https://thehill.com/opinion/finance/462402-six-reasons-to-leave-andrew-jackson-on-the-20-bill Six reasons to leave Andrew Jackson on the $20 bill], by Philip Leigh, September 26, 2019.

{{USPresidents}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Jackson, Andrew}}

[[Category:War of 1812]]
[[Category:Democratic Party]]
[[Category:Florida Governors]]
[[Category:American War Heroes]]
[[Category:Western United States]]
[[Category:Early National U.S.]]
[[Category:Republicanism]]
[[Category:United States Army]]
[[Category:Soldiers]]
[[Category:Indian Wars]]
[[Category:Jacksonian Democracy]]
[[Category:Irish-Americans]]
[[Category:Democratic Governors]]

Andrew Jackson

2019-10-11T21:16:40Z

Haeralis: Added important points of clarification at the end of the introduction.

{{President
|image=Andrew-jackson.jpg
|seq=7
|term_start=March 4, 1829
|term_end=March 4, 1837<ref>http://www.trivia-library.com/a/7th-us-president-andrew-jackson.htm</ref>
|party=Democrat
|vp=John C. Calhoun
|vp_dates=1829-1832
|2vp=None
|2vp_dates=1832-1833
|3vp=Martin Van Buren
|3vp_dates=1833-1837
|previous=John Quincy Adams
|next=Martin van Buren
|birth_date=March 15, 1767
|birth_place=Lancaster County, South Carolina
|death_date=June 8, 1845
|death_place=Nashville, Tennessee
|spouse=Rachel Donelson Robards Jackson
|religion=[[Presbyterian]]
}}
'''Andrew Jackson''' (March 15, 1767 – June 8, 1845) was the seventh [[president of the United States of America]], elected as a hero after his military triumphs over the Creek Indians of the Southeast and the [[British]] at New Orleans in 1815. As president (1829–1837), he destroyed the Bank of the [[United States]], ethnically cleansed the remaining southeastern Natives, and built a new political coalition, the [[Democratic Party]]. A self-made man, Indian slaughter, war hero and a fighter (and duelist) who believed in action instead of words, he was long an iconic [[Democrat]] folk hero.

But Jackson also defied the [[Supreme Court of the United States|Supreme Court]] with a famous quip attributed to him: Chief Justice "John Marshall has made his decision, now let him enforce it."<ref>https://sustainatlanta.com/2015/04/02/remembering-the-time-andrew-jackson-decided-to-ignore-the-supreme-court-in-the-name-of-georgias-right-to-cherokee-land/</ref> Jackson then won reelection by a landslide. [[Liberal]]s today, who use the courts to advance their agenda, no longer praise Jackson. Jackson's opposition to the early [[deep state]] is admired by some conservatives.<ref>Stepman, Jarrett (September 30, 2019). [https://www.dailysignal.com/2019/09/30/heres-how-andrew-jackson-stood-up-to-unaccountable-elites/ Here’s How Andrew Jackson Stood Up to Unaccountable ‘Elites’]. ''The Daily Signal''. Retrieved October 4, 2019.</ref>

Nicknamed "Old Hickory" by his admirers, he typified popular democracy in the "Jacksonian Age" of the 1830s and 1840s, and became the leader of [[Jacksonian Democracy]] during the [[Second Party System]]. He is the founder of the Democrat Party and was its hero for a time because of his strong use of the presidency to bash crony capitalism, central banking, and profligate federal spending. The poor farmers, workers and oppressed loved him because he embodied their hopes and fears, their passions and prejudices, their insight and ignorance, better than anyone. Jackson has been perceived as an early forerunner of the [[conservative]] [[Tea Party]] for his strong commitment to [[limited government]], his [[strict construction]] of the Constitution, his rejection of globalism, and his commitment to [[American exceptionalism]]. <ref>https://spectator.org/andrew-jackson-tea-party-president/</ref><ref>https://www.politico.com/story/2010/09/andrew-jacksons-tea-party-042640</ref><ref>https://democracyjournal.org/magazine/31/the-anti-jacksonians/</ref> A populist, he has been perceived as a forerunner to President [[Donald Trump]] and the 45th President cites him favorably.<ref>https://www.the-american-interest.com/2016/01/17/andrew-jackson-revenant/</ref><ref>http://nymag.com/intelligencer/2019/06/trump-may-be-the-true-heir-of-andrew-jackson.html</ref>

==Career==
Born near the North/South Carolina border, Jackson studied law in Salisbury, North Carolina before moving to Nashville, Tennessee. Jackson was the first president who was not born in [[Virginia]] or [[Massachusetts]]. He fought at an early age in the battle of Stone Ferry during the [[American Revolution]] in 1780. As a teenaged volunteer in a local militia, Jackson refused an order by a British officer to polish his boots, and the officer angrily drew his sword and slashed Jackson across his hand and head with it, and imprisoned him. For the rest of his life Jackson loathed the British.

===Tennessee Frontier===
Jackson, John Sevier, and their allies were rich frontier lawyers and businessmen who used their vast land holdings to establish themselves as a political power in Tennessee. They allied themselves with the Jeffersonian Republicans, of the "Old Republican" faction that opposed strong national government. However, [[Thomas Jefferson]] and his circle strongly disliked and distrusted Jackson.

Serving a term in the Senate, he alarmed Jefferson but otherwise made little mark.

===Soldier===
Jackson sought election as major general of the Tennessee militia partly to escape the circuit riding required while he was a superior court judge. As a military commander he proved himself a master tactician, a brilliant organizer, and effective motivator of men. He won all his major battles, including the decisive defeat of the cream of the British regular army.

[[File:Aj-map1812.jpg|thumb|Jackson's campaigns]]

Jackson led two great victories in the [[War of 1812]]—the first against the "Red Stick" Creek Indian forces that had raided, raped and killed American settlers and assimilated Indians in what is now Alabama. Indians seldom fought pitched battles; they preferred the ambush. Jackson, aided by Cherokee allies, trapped the Creeks at Horseshoe Bend in Alabama in March 1814, and killed over 800 enemy; the rest fled to Spanish Florida. (See [[Creek War]].)

Jackson led a contingent of Tennessee and Kentucky militia who routed over 2,000 British troops in the [[Battle of New Orleans]] in Jan. 1815. The defeat ended British plans to turn the Mississippi Valley into a pro-British Indian nation. It was a great victory for Jackson and became source of enormous pride to all Americans.<ref>The battle happened after the peace treaty was signed, but before it was ratified and went into effect.</ref>

===Religion===
Jackson attended a Presbyterian church from time to time, and his wife was a devout Baptist. Jackson had little sympathy for religion in the political sphere, unlike many of his opponents (the Anti-Masons and [[Whigs]]), who were building political coalitions using religious voting blocs during the [[Second Great Awakening]]. For example, Jackson insisted that the mail be delivered on Sundays, much to the anger of the evangelicals.<ref>Adam Jortner, "Cholera, Christ, and Jackson: The Epidemic of 1832 and the Origins of Christian Politics in Antebellum America," ''Journal of the Early Republic,'' Volume 27, Number 2, Summer 2007, pp. 233-264 in [[Project MUSE]]</ref>

After his presidency, Jackson became very serious about Christianity and returned to the rigid evangelical orthodoxy of his youth. Unlike many politicians of the period who, for ecumenical purposes, appealed to a theistic but not explicitly Christian God, Jackson professed Jesus Christ as his Redeemer, Lord, and Savior. To his son, Andrew Jr., he wrote in 1834: "I nightly offer up my prayers to the Throne of Grace for the health and safety of you all, and that we ought all to rely with confidence on the promises of our dear Redeemer, and give Him our hearts. This is all He requires and all that we can do, and if we sincerely do this, we are sure of salvation through His atonement."<ref>Robert V. Remini, "Andrew Jackson: The Course of American Democracy, 1833-1845," 184. </ref> That same year, he sent a letter of condolence to the family of his friend General Coffee, who had recently died. He admonished that they "Rely on our dear Saviour. He will be father to the fatherless and husband to the widow. Trust in the mercy and goodness of Christ, and always be ready to say with heartfelt resignation, "may the Lord's will be done."<ref>Robert V. Remini, "Andrew Jackson: The Course of American Democracy, 1833-1845," 91.</ref>

Shortly after becoming a communicant member of the Hermitage Presbyterian Church, Jackson was nominated to become a ruling elder of the church. Jackson declined on Biblical grounds, saying: “No, the Bible says, “Be not hasty on of hands.” I am too young in the church for such an office. My countrymen have given me high honors, but I should esteem the office of ruling elder in the Church of Christ a far higher honor than any I have ever received.”<ref>John Stevens Cabot Abbott, "Lives of the Presidents of the United States of America," (Boston: B.B. Russell & Co., 1867), 238.</ref>

As he neared the time of his death, Jackson entertained no fears about the afterlife because he believed that the life, death, and resurrection of Jesus secured to him eternal life. After Ralph Earl died in 1838, Jackson wrote that "I must soon follow him, and hope to meet him and those friends who have gone before me in the realms of bliss through the mediation of a dear Redeemer, Jesus Christ."<ref>Robert V. Remini, "Andrew Jackson: The Course of American Democracy, 1833-1845," 448.</ref> Jackson's Last Will and Testimony of 1845 beautifully expressed confidence in the Gospel:

''Sir, I am in the hands of a merciful God. I have full confidence in his goodness and mercy. My lamp of life is nearly out, and the last glimmer has come. I am ready to depart when called. The Bible is true. I have tried to conform to its spirit as near as possible. Upon that Sacred Volume I rest my hope for eternal salvation, through the merits and blood of our blessed Lord and Saviour, Jesus Christ. First, I bequeath my body to the dust whence it comes, and my soul to God who gave it, hoping for a happy immortality through the atoning merits of our Lord Jesus Christ, the Saviour of the world.
''<ref>Cyrus Townsend Brady, "The True Andrew Jackson," 381.</ref>

Shortly before his death, Jackson expressed his confidence in Jesus unequivocally. "When I have Suffered sufficiently," the former president uttered, "the Lord will then take me to himself—but what are all my sufferings compared to those of the blessed Savior, who died upon that cursed tree for me? Mine are nothing."<ref>Cyrus Townsend Brady, "The True Andrew Jackson," 379.</ref>

==Presidential campaigns==
His military success gave him tremendous popularity with the common man, and he ran for President in the [[United States presidential election, 1824|1824 Presidential Election]]. He won a plurality of the votes but no one got a majority and the election went into the House of Representatives, where they chose [[John Quincy Adams]] instead. At the next [[United States presidential election, 1828|Presidential Election in 1828]] Jackson defeated John Quincy Adams, and then Jackson won reelection in the [[United States presidential election, 1832|1832 Presidential Election]]. Jackson survived an assassination attempt in January 1835 when a deranged man fired two pistols at him at point blank range in the Rotunda of the U.S. Capitol.<ref>[http://www.americanheritage.com/people/articles/web/20070130-richard-lawrence-andrew-jackson-assassination-warren-r-davis.shtml Trying to Assassinate President Jackson]</ref>

Although Jackson won the 1828 election against incumbent [[John Quincy Adams]] by capturing almost 56% of the popular vote, the campaign was marked by anti-Jackson rhetoric that centered on Rachel Jackson's previous marriage to Lewis Robards and the allegedly "illicit union to Jackson"—that is, bigamy. Jackson's supporters portrayed the Robards matter as a minor legal misunderstanding. Adams's supporters saw the incident as no less than long-term adultery by Andrew Jackson and portrayed Rachel Jackson as an immoral woman, implying the political dilemma that 'a vote for Jackson was a vote for sin.' The controversy paralleled a critical development in American politics. Expansion in voter participation, the growth of state political organizations, party loyalty, and the development of local campaign papers all led to the wide dissemination of scandal and fed 'the hunger of sensationalism.' To offset this, Jackson's supporters portrayed him as a brave soldier endowed with the virtues of manhood and the frontier spirit, placing him outside the usual social constraints.<ref>Norma Basch, "Marriage, Morals, and Politics in the Election of 1828." ''Journal of American History'' 1993 80(3): 890-918 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/2080408 in JSTOR]</ref>

==Issues==
===Banks===
Jackson was firmly opposed to a [[national bank]], and fought to dismantle the Second Bank of the United States. He vetoed Congress's bill to renew its charter, and began withdrawing money from it. He issued the [[Specie Circular]] in July 1836, which required land bought from the government to be paid for in [[specie]] (actual gold or silver coins), instead of bank notes. Most historians link this to the [[Panic of 1837]], which broke out weeks after after Jackson had left office and ruined the presidency of his successor, fellow Democrat [[Martin Van Buren]].

===Indian extermination===
Jackson, with the backing of Southern politicians, sought to abrogate the standing treaties with the [[Chickasaw]], [[Cherokee]], [[Seminole]], [[Creek]], and [[Choctaw]] nations by evicting them from the land they lived on and relocating them to Indian territory (in present-day [[Oklahoma]]). The idea was roundly decried as illegal and inhumane by evangelical Protestants, who had missionaries to the tribes, and by Whigs. Advocates of forced removal, mostly Democrats from the South, called removal a 'humane' and 'compassionate' move to assist a 'dying people.' The debate surrounding removal quickly became a North-South issue with Southern politicians calling their Northern counterparts 'demagogues' who sought 'to weaken the South' by allowing Indians to remain. In 1830, the resolution was approved by Congress and, assisted by Georgia state officials, Jackson began the process of evicting Native Americans. By 1835 the Cherokee, the last remaining Indian nation in the South, had signed the removal treaty and relocated to Oklahoma.<ref>Michael Morris, "Georgia and the Conversation over Indian Removal," ''Georgia Historical Quarterly'' 2007 91(4): 403-423, in [[EBSCO]]</ref>

Cave (2003) argues Jackson acted illegally in pressuring Indians to move west of the Mississippi River in the 1830s. The Indian Removal Act of 1830 called for voluntary removal and included safeguards for Indian rights, but Jackson ignored and distorted the act to suit his purposes. The newly formed Whig Party actively opposed Jackson's policies, and congressional legislation dealing with Indian removal was hotly debated and passed only by narrow margins. Had Jackson followed the legal dictates of the 1830 act, he probably would not have achieved Indian removal, says Cave. However Remini (2001) argued that the worst Jackson could be accused of was carrying out what most southern whites wanted at the time.<ref>Robert Remini, ''Andrew Jackson and his Indian Wars'' (2001)</ref>

===Democracy===
''See [[Jacksonian Democracy]]''

Jackson thought the voice of the people was supreme law. Although a man of powerful prejudices and passions, he identified with the voice of the people, and thought his election as president gave him the unique power to express that voice. His opponents misunderstood the voice and lacked the legitimate national base in any case. Thus Jackson denounced anyone who crossed him an enemy of the sovereign people. To fulfill this voice of the people in the political arena, he thought that the preservation of states' rights was an indispensable precondition to the achievement of people-oriented democracy. Although Jackson's record was erratic, when his presidency was done, federal authority was vastly weaker, and the states, for practical purposes, were much stronger than before, though as the Nullification crisis proved, he would not tolerate defiance.

==Personal life==

As a young man, Jackson was a gambler who frequented brothels.<ref>https://www.usnews.com/opinion/articles/2011/04/01/andrew-jacksons-tragic-love-story</ref> He met a married woman (Rachel Donelson Robards) and reportedly broke up her marriage with his affections for her.<ref>Jon Meacham, "American Lion: Andrew Jackson in the White House," pp. 21-22 (2008).</ref> Jackson eloped with this married woman while her husband was suing her for divorce (unusual in those days) on the grounds of adultery. Jackson's marriage to her constituted bigamy, a crime punishable by death under English [[common law]], and Jackson remarried her after her divorce became final.

In one of many duels initiated by Jackson, he murdered a man who accused his wife of being a bigamist, as Jackson reportedly violated the rules of duels by firing twice at him.<ref>http://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/andrew-jackson-kills-charles-dickinson-in-duel</ref>

===Retirement and death===
[[File:0307131322.jpg|right|thumb|The Hermitage]]
After honoring the precedent of [[George Washington]] to resign after serving two terms as President, Jackson then supported and advised many future candidates, most notably [[James K. Polk]].

Jackson died on June 8, 1845.

Since 1928, Jackson's picture has appeared on the United States $20 bill - somewhat ironic given that Jackson opposed paper money, wanting the country to use [[specie]] (gold and silver) instead.
{{Clear}}

==Quotes==
* Referring to the Bible: “That book, Sir, is the Rock upon which our republic rests.”
* "No people can flourish without true, genuine religion, which expels hypocrisy and deceit from their walks, purifies society, and calls down blessings upon a nation from above."<ref>Andrew Jackson, "Letter to Robert Minns Burton," in "The Papers of Andrew Jackson," Vol. 9 (November 1831), p. 706.</ref>
*"No free government can stand without virtue in the people and a lofty spirit of patriotism."<ref>https://millercenter.org/the-presidency/presidential-speeches/march-4-1837-farewell-address</ref>
*"It is from within, among yourselves, from cupidity, from corruption, from disappointed ambition, and inordinate thirst for power that factions will be formed and liberty endangered. It is against such designs, whatever disguise the actors may assume, that you have especially to guard yourselves."<ref>https://millercenter.org/the-presidency/presidential-speeches/march-4-1837-farewell-address</ref>
* "There is no real content and happiness in this world but what is produced by the consolations of religion, derived from the promises contained in the Scriptures."<ref>Andrew Jackson, "Letter to Robert Minns Burton," in "The Papers of Andrew Jackson," Vol. 9 (November 1831), p. 706.</ref>
*"True religion is calculated to make us happy not only in this, but in the next and better world, and therefore it was his [General Coffee's] regret that he had not joined the church. It is a profitable admonition to his family, that they may all become members of the church at an early day, for it is in religion alone that we can find consolation for such bereavements as the loss of our dear friend; it is religion alone that ever gives peace to us here and happiness beyond the grave; it is religion alone that can support us in our declining years, when our relish is lost for all sublunary enjoyments."<ref>Andrew Jackson, "Letter to Mrs. Mary Coffee," in "The Life and Times of Andrew Jackson: Soldier--statesman--president," 1:417. </ref>
*"We all know [Moor and Poindexter] never had any moral principle, and when this is the case, such men never can be relied on in maintaining sound political principles—we know that men without moral principle, can always be corrupted by ambitious demagogues and are unworthy of trust by a virtuous people."<ref>Andrew Jackson, "Letter to John Coffee," in "The Papers of Andrew Jackson," Vol. 10, March 1832, p. 160. </ref>
*"I am and I hope always have been a supporter of religion. Virtue is the basis of all republics. It is the sure foundation of temperance & charity which must be possessed by all who are really Christians—and I only lament that there are too many professors, who if judged by their fruit, do not possess it. When temperance and charity prevail, religion must flourish."<ref>Andrew Jackson, "Note on Religion," in "The Papers of Andrew Jackson," Vol. 10, June 1832, p. 322. </ref>
*"Our Government rests upon virtue, its pillars you see are becoming rotten, and unless repaired by the virtue of the people, the fair fabric of liberty must tumble."<ref>Andrew Jackson, "Letter to Squire Grant," in "The Papers of Andrew Jackson," Vol. 6 (Feb. 1825), p. 32. </ref>

==Jefferson - Jackson Dinners==
The United States Democrat Party claims Jackson and [[Thomas Jefferson]] as two of its key founding members. Although this claim is a bit of a stretch, for decades the Democrats have honored these two presidents by holding fund-raising events called "Jefferson-Jackson Dinners." Recently, in an act of extreme "political correctness", activists have demanded that these events be renamed on the grounds that Jefferson held slaves and Jackson mistreated Native Americans. Many units of the Democrat Party have given into these arguments and are denouncing and dishonoring two of what most Americans view as great Presidents.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/08/09/us/jefferson-jackson-dinner-will-be-renamed.html|title=Jefferson-Jackson Dinner Will Be Renamed|date=August 8, 2015|work=New York Times|accessdate=April 19, 2016|first=Ashley|last=Southhall}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://blogs.denverpost.com/thespot/2015/11/16/colorado-democratic-party-considers-renaming-annual-jefferson-jackson-dinner/123835/|title=Colorado Democrats consider renaming Jefferson Jackson dinner|work=The Denver Post|first=John|last= Frank|date=November 16, 2015|accessdate=April 19, 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=
http://www.nola.com/politics/index.ssf/2015/07/jefferson_jackson_renamed_loui.html|title=As state Democratic parties rename their Jefferson-Jackson dinners, will Louisiana change 'J-J?'|work=The Times Picayune|first=Kevin |last=Litten|date= July 23, 2015|accessdate=April 21, 2016}}</ref>

==Further reading==
===Biographies===
* Brands, H. W. ''Andrew Jackson: His Life and Times'' (2005), scholarly biography emphasizing military career [https://www.amazon.com/Andrew-Jackson-His-Life-Times/dp/1400030722/ref=sr_1_2?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1258870084&sr=1-2 excerpt and text search]
* Brustein, Andrew. ''The Passions of Andrew Jackson''. (2003). [http://www.h-net.msu.edu/reviews/showrev.cgi?path=180461058379340 online review by Donald B. Cole]
* Hofstadter, Richard. ''The American Political Tradition'' (1948), chapter on Jackson. [http://www.humanitiesebook.org/ online in ACLS e-books]
* James, Marquis. ''The Life of Andrew Jackson'' (1938). Combines two books: ''The Border Captain'' and ''Andrew Jackson: Portrait of a President''; Pulitzer Prize for Biography; old fashioned action-packed narrative
* Meacham, Jon. ''American Lion: Andrew Jackson in the White House'' (2009), [https://www.amazon.com/American-Lion-Andrew-Jackson-Notable/dp/0812973461/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1258870084&sr=1-1 excerpt and text search]
* Parton, James. ''Life of Andrew Jackson'' (1860). [https://books.google.com/books?vid=OCLC01632322&id=t-rhrBzV8rEC&printsec=titlepage Volume I], [https://books.google.com/books?vid=OCLC01632322&id=M9gNJq_KnC8C&printsec=titlepage Volume III].
* Remini, Robert V. ''The Life of Andrew Jackson''. Abridgment of Remini's 3-volume standard scholarly biography, (1998)
** ''Andrew Jackson and the Course of American Empire, 1767-1821'' (1977); ''Andrew Jackson and the Course of American Freedom, 1822-1832'' (1981); ''Andrew Jackson and the Course of American Democracy, 1833-1845'' (1984)
* Wilentz, Sean. ''Andrew Jackson'' (2005) short biography, stressing Indian removal and slavery issues [https://www.amazon.com/Andrew-Jackson-Sean-Wilentz/dp/0805069259/ref=sr_1_3?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1258870084&sr=1-3 excerpt and text search]

==Specialized Studies==
* Doutrich, Paul E. ''Shapers of the Great Debate on Jacksonian Democracy: A Biographical Dictionary.'' (2004). 360 pp. [https://www.amazon.com/Shapers-Great-Debate-Jacksonian-Democracy/dp/0313315760 online edition]
* Gammon, Samuel Rhea. ''The Presidential Campaign of 1832'' (1922) [http://www.questia.com/library/book/the-presidential-campaign-of-1832-by-samuel-rhea-gammon.jsp online edition]
* Feller, Daniel. "The Bank War," in Julian E. Zelizer, ed. ''The American Congress'' (2004), pp 93–111.
* Hammond, Bray. "Jackson, Biddle, and the Bank of the United States," ''The Journal of Economic History'', Vol. 7, No. 1 (May, 1947), pp. 1–23 [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0022-0507%28194705%297%3A1%3C1%3AJBATBO%3E2.0.CO%3B2-6 at JSTOR]
* Hammond, Bray. ''Banks and Politics in America from the Revolution to the Civil War'' (1957). Pulitzer prize winner; the standard history. Pro-Bank
* Hammond, Bray. "The Second Bank of the United States. ''Transactions of the American Philosophical Society,'' New Ser., Vol. 43, No. 1 (1953), pp. 80-85 [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0065-9746(1953)2%3A43%3A1%3C80%3ATSBOTU%3E2.0.CO%3B2-C in JSTOR]
* Howe, Daniel Walker. ''What Hath God Wrought: The Transformation of America, 1815-1848'' (2007), outstanding survey of the era by conservative historian who dislikes Jackson; Pulitzer prize. [https://www.amazon.com/What-Hath-God-Wrought-Transformation/dp/0195392434/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1258870831&sr=1-1 excerpt and text search]
* Latner Richard B. ''The Presidency of Andrew Jackson: White House Politics, 1820-1837'' (1979), standard survey.
* Magliocca, Gerard N. ''Andrew Jackson and the Constitution: The Rise and Fall of Generational Regimes,'' (2007); 216 pages
* Ogg, Frederic Austin ; ''The Reign of Andrew Jackson: A Chronicle of the Frontier in Politics'' 1919. [https://www.gutenberg.org/etext/13009 short survey online at Gutenberg]
* Patterson, Benton Rain. ''The Generals: Andrew Jackson, Sir Edward Pakenham, and the Road to the Battle of New Orleans.'' (2005). 288 pp.
* Ratner, Lorman A. ''Andrew Jackson and His Tennessee Lieutenants: A Study in Political Culture'' (1997) [https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=28026037 online edition]
* Remini Robert V. ''Andrew Jackson and the Bank War: A Study in the Growth of Presidential Power'' (1967). Pro-Jackson.
* Schlesinger, Arthur M. Jr. ''The Age of Jackson''. (1945). Winner of the [[Pulitzer Prize for History]]. history of ideas of the era; strongly pro-Jackson, who is seen as an anti-business model for [[FDR]]
* Sellers, Charles. ''The Market Revolution: Jacksonian America, 1815-1846.'' (1991) influential liberal interpretation; anti-business; refuted by Howe (2007) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=59690282 online edition]
* Syrett, Harold C. ''Andrew Jackson: His Contribution to the American Tradition'' (1953) [https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=978507 online edition]

===Indian Wars and Removal===
* Buchanan, John. ''Jackson's Way: Andrew Jackson and the People of the Western Waters.'' (2001). 434 pp. [http://www.h-net.msu.edu/reviews/showrev.cgi?path=183801009567545 online review]
* Cave, Alfred A. "Abuse of Power: Andrew Jackson and the Indian Removal Act of 1830." ''Historian'' 2003 65(6): 1330-1353. Issn: 0018-2370 Fulltext: online at Swetswise, Ingenta and Ebsco
* O'Brien, Sean Michael. ''In Bitterness and in Tears: Andrew Jackson's Destruction of the Creeks and Seminoles.'' (2003). 254 pp.
* Remini, Robert V.. ''The Legacy of Andrew Jackson: Essays on Democracy, Indian Removal, and Slavery'' (1988)
* Remini, Robert V. ''Andrew Jackson and his Indian Wars'' (2001)
* Remini, Robert V. "Andrew Jackson Versus the Cherokee Nation." ''American History'' 2001 36(3): 48-56. Issn: 1076-8866 Fulltext: in Ebsco
* Rowland, Dunbar. ''Andrew Jackson's Campaign against the British, or, the Mississippi Territory in the War of 1812, concerning the Military Operations of the Americans, Creek Indians, British, and Spanish, 1813-1815'' (1926) [https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=77351727 online edition]
* Satz, Ronald N. American Indian Policy in the Jacksonian Era.'' (1975)
* Wallace, Anthony F.C. ''The Long, Bitter Trail: Andrew Jackson and the Indians'' (1993)

===Primary sources===
* Bassett John Spencer, ed. ''Correspondence of Andrew Jackson'' Vols. 1-6. (1926).
* Smith Sam B., and Harriet Chappell Owsley, eds. ''Papers of Andrew Jackson'' . Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, Vol. 1, 1980; Moser Harold D., Sharon MacPherson, and Charles F. Bryan Jr., eds. ''The Papers of Andrew Jackson''. Vols. 2-6. Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 2002; the latest vol 6 goes to 1828.
* [http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/presiden/jackpap.htm online speeches and presidential messages]

===Historiography===
* Bugg Jr., James L. ed. ''Jacksonian Democracy: Myth or Reality?.'' (1962) debates among historians [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=875714 online edition]
* Cave, Alfred A. ''Jacksonian Democracy and the Historians,'' U, of Florida Press, 1970
* Sellers, Jr. Charles Grier. "Andrew Jackson versus the Historians," ''The Mississippi Valley Historical Review,'' Vol. 44, No. 4. (Mar., 1958), pp. 615-634. [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0161-391X%28195803%2944%3A4%3C615%3AAJVTH%3E2.0.CO%3B2-Y in JSTOR]
* Taylor, George Rogers, ed. ''Jackson Versus Biddle: The Struggle over the Second Bank of the United States'' (1949), excerpts from primary and secondary sources [https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=960190 online edition]
* Ward, John William. ''Andrew Jackson, Symbol for an Age'' (1962) how writers saw him [https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=98819205 online edition]

== See also ==
*[[Gallery of American Heroes]]

== References ==
{{reflist|1}}

==External links==
* [https://librivox.org/author/4254 Works by Andrew Jackson - text and free audio] - [[LibriVox]]
* [https://www.thenewamerican.com/reviews/books/item/31521-a-review-of-in-defense-of-andrew-jackson A Review of "In Defense of Andrew Jackson"], by James Heiser of ''[[The New American]]''
* [https://thehill.com/opinion/finance/462402-six-reasons-to-leave-andrew-jackson-on-the-20-bill Six reasons to leave Andrew Jackson on the $20 bill], by Philip Leigh, September 26, 2019.

{{USPresidents}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Jackson, Andrew}}

[[Category:War of 1812]]
[[Category:Democratic Party]]
[[Category:Florida Governors]]
[[Category:American War Heroes]]
[[Category:Western United States]]
[[Category:Early National U.S.]]
[[Category:Republicanism]]
[[Category:United States Army]]
[[Category:Soldiers]]
[[Category:Indian Wars]]
[[Category:Jacksonian Democracy]]
[[Category:Irish-Americans]]
[[Category:Democratic Governors]]

Talk:Andrew Jackson

2019-10-11T19:29:46Z

Haeralis:

The quote about religion in this article seems pretty irrelevant and out of place. In a short article about a president, items relevant to his policies and actions as president should be more prominent than an obscure and irrelevant quotation about Christianity. He was a warrior and a politician, not a theologian. --[[User:Zerba|Zerba]] 13:18, 28 March 2007 (EDT)
::{{template|Part of this article was copied from [[Citizendium]] but the copied text was originally written by me, RJJensen (under the name Richard Jensen) and may include minor contributions made by others that are not copyright by Citizendium.||category=Copied Articles}} [[User:RJJensen|RJJensen]] 01:01, 22 November 2009 (EST)

==1867 copyright==
*John Stevens Cabot Abbott, "Lives of the Presidents of the United States of America," (Boston: B.B. Russell & Co., 1867
Sounds like a bunch of [[KKK]] propaganda. Not sure we can retain it without more context. [[User:RobSmith|RobS]][[User talk:RobSmith|''Deep Six the Deep State!'']] 16:59, 3 February 2019 (EST)
:What are you saying? Looking at his WP biography, he's a Northerner (born in Maine, died in Connecticut) who had absolutely no connection to the South or the KKK. For the record, though, being a Southerner or someone who served in the CSA army (as opposed to the KKK) shouldn't automatically disqualify someone either. --[[User:1990'sguy|1990'sguy]] ([[User talk:1990'sguy|talk]]) 17:29, 3 February 2019 (EST)
::Quoting an 1867 manuscript that seeks to rehabilitate the reputation of the Democratic party in the immediate aftermath of the Civil War is an attempt to link the Presbyterian Church and Christianity with racism and the Klan. Especially since this cite is the exact opposite of the one the same editor replaced. [[User:RobSmith|RobS]][[User talk:RobSmith|''Deep Six the Deep State!'']] 18:08, 3 February 2019 (EST)
:::I didn't look closely at the edits -- if he removed a reference, he should re-add it. I think it's best to cite both references, not one or the other. --[[User:1990'sguy|1990'sguy]] ([[User talk:1990'sguy|talk]]) 18:50, 3 February 2019 (EST)
::::I still think the 1867 cite needs more context; it was an effort to rehab Jackson and the Democrats using the cover of Christianity and the church as a cover for racism. [[User:RobSmith|RobS]][[User talk:RobSmith|''Deep Six the Deep State!'']] 19:06, 3 February 2019 (EST)
:::::This event is recounted in numerous biographies about Jackson, so the idea that it is KKK propaganda is a total absurdity. --[[User: Haeralis]], 11 October 2019

=="My Sovereign, the People"==
This is a good starting point. A generation later the Democrat notion of [[popular sovereignty]] was the core issue of the [[Civil War]]. It was the subject of the Lincoln-Douglas debates. It is the basis of [[Jim Crow]] when popular sovereignty was restored after Reconstruction. It is the defining difference between Andrew Jackson, founder of the Democrat party, and Abraham Lincoln, founder of the Republican party.

Jackson and the Democrats interpret popular sovereignty to mean a majority can agree to enslave blacks, exterminate Indians, keep women in the kitchen, pass Obamacare, and make homosexuality and gay marriage legal. Lincoln said not so. Lincoln said there are certain immutable truths which are not subject to popular sovereignty, such as all men are created equal. To defend Jackson today is to corroborate the Democrat notion that the parties flipped, and the GOP is the party of the KKK.

True, Trump identifies with Jackson. But this more on a personal level, as this article says, "as a man of action not of words." Politically, Trump identifies with Jackson's willingness to take on the Central Bank of his day and the powerful old corrupt [[aristocracy]] (heirs of the greedy rich, privileged class of the Founding Fathers} who taxed the poor, the oppressed, the downtrodden, while holding on to their [[Slave Power]]. [[User:RobSmith|RobS]][[User talk:RobSmith|''Deep Six the Deep State!'']] 00:21, 21 February 2019 (EST)
:Popular sovereignty, born of the enlightenment as CP's article explains, likewise is anti-church, which lends more weight to my argument above that the 1867 citation claiming Jackson was a devout Presbyterian is KKK propaganda and should be removed. [[User:RobSmith|RobS]][[User talk:RobSmith|''Deep Six the Deep State!'']] 00:40, 21 February 2019 (EST)
:As far as the notion of popular sovereignty goes, when you remove God from the equation - as the "[[enlightenment]]" did - it opens the door to all sorts of abuses, such as the Trail of Tears, the KKK, or the Holocaust. Lincoln's view was based on the existence of a just God. This is a key point lost as [[socialist]]s have tried to hi-jack Lincoln to justify all sorts of politically correct nonsense. [[User:RobSmith|RobS]][[User talk:RobSmith|''Deep Six the Deep State!'']] 01:11, 21 February 2019 (EST)

Talk:Andrew Jackson

2019-10-11T19:28:37Z

Haeralis:

The quote about religion in this article seems pretty irrelevant and out of place. In a short article about a president, items relevant to his policies and actions as president should be more prominent than an obscure and irrelevant quotation about Christianity. He was a warrior and a politician, not a theologian. --[[User:Zerba|Zerba]] 13:18, 28 March 2007 (EDT)
::{{template|Part of this article was copied from [[Citizendium]] but the copied text was originally written by me, RJJensen (under the name Richard Jensen) and may include minor contributions made by others that are not copyright by Citizendium.||category=Copied Articles}} [[User:RJJensen|RJJensen]] 01:01, 22 November 2009 (EST)

==1867 copyright==
*John Stevens Cabot Abbott, "Lives of the Presidents of the United States of America," (Boston: B.B. Russell & Co., 1867
Sounds like a bunch of [[KKK]] propaganda. Not sure we can retain it without more context. [[User:RobSmith|RobS]][[User talk:RobSmith|''Deep Six the Deep State!'']] 16:59, 3 February 2019 (EST)
:What are you saying? Looking at his WP biography, he's a Northerner (born in Maine, died in Connecticut) who had absolutely no connection to the South or the KKK. For the record, though, being a Southerner or someone who served in the CSA army (as opposed to the KKK) shouldn't automatically disqualify someone either. --[[User:1990'sguy|1990'sguy]] ([[User talk:1990'sguy|talk]]) 17:29, 3 February 2019 (EST)
::Quoting an 1867 manuscript that seeks to rehabilitate the reputation of the Democratic party in the immediate aftermath of the Civil War is an attempt to link the Presbyterian Church and Christianity with racism and the Klan. Especially since this cite is the exact opposite of the one the same editor replaced. [[User:RobSmith|RobS]][[User talk:RobSmith|''Deep Six the Deep State!'']] 18:08, 3 February 2019 (EST)
:::I didn't look closely at the edits -- if he removed a reference, he should re-add it. I think it's best to cite both references, not one or the other. --[[User:1990'sguy|1990'sguy]] ([[User talk:1990'sguy|talk]]) 18:50, 3 February 2019 (EST)
::::I still think the 1867 cite needs more context; it was an effort to rehab Jackson and the Democrats using the cover of Christianity and the church as a cover for racism. [[User:RobSmith|RobS]][[User talk:RobSmith|''Deep Six the Deep State!'']] 19:06, 3 February 2019 (EST)
:::::This event is recounted in numerous biographies about Jackson, so the idea that it is KKK propaganda is a total absurdity.

=="My Sovereign, the People"==
This is a good starting point. A generation later the Democrat notion of [[popular sovereignty]] was the core issue of the [[Civil War]]. It was the subject of the Lincoln-Douglas debates. It is the basis of [[Jim Crow]] when popular sovereignty was restored after Reconstruction. It is the defining difference between Andrew Jackson, founder of the Democrat party, and Abraham Lincoln, founder of the Republican party.

Jackson and the Democrats interpret popular sovereignty to mean a majority can agree to enslave blacks, exterminate Indians, keep women in the kitchen, pass Obamacare, and make homosexuality and gay marriage legal. Lincoln said not so. Lincoln said there are certain immutable truths which are not subject to popular sovereignty, such as all men are created equal. To defend Jackson today is to corroborate the Democrat notion that the parties flipped, and the GOP is the party of the KKK.

True, Trump identifies with Jackson. But this more on a personal level, as this article says, "as a man of action not of words." Politically, Trump identifies with Jackson's willingness to take on the Central Bank of his day and the powerful old corrupt [[aristocracy]] (heirs of the greedy rich, privileged class of the Founding Fathers} who taxed the poor, the oppressed, the downtrodden, while holding on to their [[Slave Power]]. [[User:RobSmith|RobS]][[User talk:RobSmith|''Deep Six the Deep State!'']] 00:21, 21 February 2019 (EST)
:Popular sovereignty, born of the enlightenment as CP's article explains, likewise is anti-church, which lends more weight to my argument above that the 1867 citation claiming Jackson was a devout Presbyterian is KKK propaganda and should be removed. [[User:RobSmith|RobS]][[User talk:RobSmith|''Deep Six the Deep State!'']] 00:40, 21 February 2019 (EST)
:As far as the notion of popular sovereignty goes, when you remove God from the equation - as the "[[enlightenment]]" did - it opens the door to all sorts of abuses, such as the Trail of Tears, the KKK, or the Holocaust. Lincoln's view was based on the existence of a just God. This is a key point lost as [[socialist]]s have tried to hi-jack Lincoln to justify all sorts of politically correct nonsense. [[User:RobSmith|RobS]][[User talk:RobSmith|''Deep Six the Deep State!'']] 01:11, 21 February 2019 (EST)

Andrew Jackson

2019-10-11T19:22:08Z

Haeralis: Added some excellent quotes from Jackson on religion and virtue in the American republic.

{{President
|image=Andrew-jackson.jpg
|seq=7
|term_start=March 4, 1829
|term_end=March 4, 1837<ref>http://www.trivia-library.com/a/7th-us-president-andrew-jackson.htm</ref>
|party=Democrat
|vp=John C. Calhoun
|vp_dates=1829-1832
|2vp=None
|2vp_dates=1832-1833
|3vp=Martin Van Buren
|3vp_dates=1833-1837
|previous=John Quincy Adams
|next=Martin van Buren
|birth_date=March 15, 1767
|birth_place=Lancaster County, South Carolina
|death_date=June 8, 1845
|death_place=Nashville, Tennessee
|spouse=Rachel Donelson Robards Jackson
|religion=[[Presbyterian]]
}}
'''Andrew Jackson''' (March 15, 1767 – June 8, 1845) was the seventh [[president of the United States of America]], elected as a hero after his military triumphs over the Creek Indians of the Southeast and the [[British]] at New Orleans in 1815. As president (1829–1837), he destroyed the Bank of the [[United States]], ethnically cleansed the remaining southeastern Natives, and built a new political coalition, the [[Democratic Party]]. A self-made man, Indian slaughter, war hero and a fighter (and duelist) who believed in action instead of words, he was long an iconic [[Democrat]] folk hero.

But Jackson also defied the [[Supreme Court of the United States|Supreme Court]] with a famous quip attributed to him: Chief Justice "John Marshall has made his decision, now let him enforce it."<ref>https://sustainatlanta.com/2015/04/02/remembering-the-time-andrew-jackson-decided-to-ignore-the-supreme-court-in-the-name-of-georgias-right-to-cherokee-land/</ref> Jackson then won reelection by a landslide. [[Liberal]]s today, who use the courts to advance their agenda, no longer praise Jackson. Jackson's opposition to the early [[deep state]] is admired by some conservatives.<ref>Stepman, Jarrett (September 30, 2019). [https://www.dailysignal.com/2019/09/30/heres-how-andrew-jackson-stood-up-to-unaccountable-elites/ Here’s How Andrew Jackson Stood Up to Unaccountable ‘Elites’]. ''The Daily Signal''. Retrieved October 4, 2019.</ref>

Nicknamed "Old Hickory" by his admirers, he typified popular democracy in the "Jacksonian Age" of the 1830s and 1840s, and became the leader of [[Jacksonian Democracy]] during the [[Second Party System]]. He is the founder of the Democrat Party and was its hero for a time because of his strong use of the federal government to bash conservatives and banks; the poor farmers, workers and oppressed loved him because he embodied their hopes and fears, their passions and prejudices, their insight and ignorance, better than anyone.

==Career==
Born near the North/South Carolina border, Jackson studied law in Salisbury, North Carolina before moving to Nashville, Tennessee. Jackson was the first president who was not born in [[Virginia]] or [[Massachusetts]]. He fought at an early age in the battle of Stone Ferry during the [[American Revolution]] in 1780. As a teenaged volunteer in a local militia, Jackson refused an order by a British officer to polish his boots, and the officer angrily drew his sword and slashed Jackson across his hand and head with it, and imprisoned him. For the rest of his life Jackson loathed the British.

===Tennessee Frontier===
Jackson, John Sevier, and their allies were rich frontier lawyers and businessmen who used their vast land holdings to establish themselves as a political power in Tennessee. They allied themselves with the Jeffersonian Republicans, of the "Old Republican" faction that opposed strong national government. However, [[Thomas Jefferson]] and his circle strongly disliked and distrusted Jackson.

Serving a term in the Senate, he alarmed Jefferson but otherwise made little mark.

===Soldier===
Jackson sought election as major general of the Tennessee militia partly to escape the circuit riding required while he was a superior court judge. As a military commander he proved himself a master tactician, a brilliant organizer, and effective motivator of men. He won all his major battles, including the decisive defeat of the cream of the British regular army.

[[File:Aj-map1812.jpg|thumb|Jackson's campaigns]]

Jackson led two great victories in the [[War of 1812]]—the first against the "Red Stick" Creek Indian forces that had raided, raped and killed American settlers and assimilated Indians in what is now Alabama. Indians seldom fought pitched battles; they preferred the ambush. Jackson, aided by Cherokee allies, trapped the Creeks at Horseshoe Bend in Alabama in March 1814, and killed over 800 enemy; the rest fled to Spanish Florida. (See [[Creek War]].)

Jackson led a contingent of Tennessee and Kentucky militia who routed over 2,000 British troops in the [[Battle of New Orleans]] in Jan. 1815. The defeat ended British plans to turn the Mississippi Valley into a pro-British Indian nation. It was a great victory for Jackson and became source of enormous pride to all Americans.<ref>The battle happened after the peace treaty was signed, but before it was ratified and went into effect.</ref>

===Religion===
Jackson attended a Presbyterian church from time to time, and his wife was a devout Baptist. Jackson had little sympathy for religion in the political sphere, unlike many of his opponents (the Anti-Masons and [[Whigs]]), who were building political coalitions using religious voting blocs during the [[Second Great Awakening]]. For example, Jackson insisted that the mail be delivered on Sundays, much to the anger of the evangelicals.<ref>Adam Jortner, "Cholera, Christ, and Jackson: The Epidemic of 1832 and the Origins of Christian Politics in Antebellum America," ''Journal of the Early Republic,'' Volume 27, Number 2, Summer 2007, pp. 233-264 in [[Project MUSE]]</ref>

After his presidency, Jackson became very serious about Christianity and returned to the rigid evangelical orthodoxy of his youth. Unlike many politicians of the period who, for ecumenical purposes, appealed to a theistic but not explicitly Christian God, Jackson professed Jesus Christ as his Redeemer, Lord, and Savior. To his son, Andrew Jr., he wrote in 1834: "I nightly offer up my prayers to the Throne of Grace for the health and safety of you all, and that we ought all to rely with confidence on the promises of our dear Redeemer, and give Him our hearts. This is all He requires and all that we can do, and if we sincerely do this, we are sure of salvation through His atonement."<ref>Robert V. Remini, "Andrew Jackson: The Course of American Democracy, 1833-1845," 184. </ref> That same year, he sent a letter of condolence to the family of his friend General Coffee, who had recently died. He admonished that they "Rely on our dear Saviour. He will be father to the fatherless and husband to the widow. Trust in the mercy and goodness of Christ, and always be ready to say with heartfelt resignation, "may the Lord's will be done."<ref>Robert V. Remini, "Andrew Jackson: The Course of American Democracy, 1833-1845," 91.</ref>

Shortly after becoming a communicant member of the Hermitage Presbyterian Church, Jackson was nominated to become a ruling elder of the church. Jackson declined on Biblical grounds, saying: “No, the Bible says, “Be not hasty on of hands.” I am too young in the church for such an office. My countrymen have given me high honors, but I should esteem the office of ruling elder in the Church of Christ a far higher honor than any I have ever received.”<ref>John Stevens Cabot Abbott, "Lives of the Presidents of the United States of America," (Boston: B.B. Russell & Co., 1867), 238.</ref>

As he neared the time of his death, Jackson entertained no fears about the afterlife because he believed that the life, death, and resurrection of Jesus secured to him eternal life. After Ralph Earl died in 1838, Jackson wrote that "I must soon follow him, and hope to meet him and those friends who have gone before me in the realms of bliss through the mediation of a dear Redeemer, Jesus Christ."<ref>Robert V. Remini, "Andrew Jackson: The Course of American Democracy, 1833-1845," 448.</ref> Jackson's Last Will and Testimony of 1845 beautifully expressed confidence in the Gospel:

''Sir, I am in the hands of a merciful God. I have full confidence in his goodness and mercy. My lamp of life is nearly out, and the last glimmer has come. I am ready to depart when called. The Bible is true. I have tried to conform to its spirit as near as possible. Upon that Sacred Volume I rest my hope for eternal salvation, through the merits and blood of our blessed Lord and Saviour, Jesus Christ. First, I bequeath my body to the dust whence it comes, and my soul to God who gave it, hoping for a happy immortality through the atoning merits of our Lord Jesus Christ, the Saviour of the world.
''<ref>Cyrus Townsend Brady, "The True Andrew Jackson," 381.</ref>

Shortly before his death, Jackson expressed his confidence in Jesus unequivocally. "When I have Suffered sufficiently," the former president uttered, "the Lord will then take me to himself—but what are all my sufferings compared to those of the blessed Savior, who died upon that cursed tree for me? Mine are nothing."<ref>Cyrus Townsend Brady, "The True Andrew Jackson," 379.</ref>

==Presidential campaigns==
His military success gave him tremendous popularity with the common man, and he ran for President in the [[United States presidential election, 1824|1824 Presidential Election]]. He won a plurality of the votes but no one got a majority and the election went into the House of Representatives, where they chose [[John Quincy Adams]] instead. At the next [[United States presidential election, 1828|Presidential Election in 1828]] Jackson defeated John Quincy Adams, and then Jackson won reelection in the [[United States presidential election, 1832|1832 Presidential Election]]. Jackson survived an assassination attempt in January 1835 when a deranged man fired two pistols at him at point blank range in the Rotunda of the U.S. Capitol.<ref>[http://www.americanheritage.com/people/articles/web/20070130-richard-lawrence-andrew-jackson-assassination-warren-r-davis.shtml Trying to Assassinate President Jackson]</ref>

Although Jackson won the 1828 election against incumbent [[John Quincy Adams]] by capturing almost 56% of the popular vote, the campaign was marked by anti-Jackson rhetoric that centered on Rachel Jackson's previous marriage to Lewis Robards and the allegedly "illicit union to Jackson"—that is, bigamy. Jackson's supporters portrayed the Robards matter as a minor legal misunderstanding. Adams's supporters saw the incident as no less than long-term adultery by Andrew Jackson and portrayed Rachel Jackson as an immoral woman, implying the political dilemma that 'a vote for Jackson was a vote for sin.' The controversy paralleled a critical development in American politics. Expansion in voter participation, the growth of state political organizations, party loyalty, and the development of local campaign papers all led to the wide dissemination of scandal and fed 'the hunger of sensationalism.' To offset this, Jackson's supporters portrayed him as a brave soldier endowed with the virtues of manhood and the frontier spirit, placing him outside the usual social constraints.<ref>Norma Basch, "Marriage, Morals, and Politics in the Election of 1828." ''Journal of American History'' 1993 80(3): 890-918 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/2080408 in JSTOR]</ref>

==Issues==
===Banks===
Jackson was firmly opposed to a [[national bank]], and fought to dismantle the Second Bank of the United States. He vetoed Congress's bill to renew its charter, and began withdrawing money from it. He issued the [[Specie Circular]] in July 1836, which required land bought from the government to be paid for in [[specie]] (actual gold or silver coins), instead of bank notes. Most historians link this to the [[Panic of 1837]], which broke out weeks after after Jackson had left office and ruined the presidency of his successor, fellow Democrat [[Martin Van Buren]].

===Indian extermination===
Jackson, with the backing of Southern politicians, sought to abrogate the standing treaties with the [[Chickasaw]], [[Cherokee]], [[Seminole]], [[Creek]], and [[Choctaw]] nations by evicting them from the land they lived on and relocating them to Indian territory (in present-day [[Oklahoma]]). The idea was roundly decried as illegal and inhumane by evangelical Protestants, who had missionaries to the tribes, and by Whigs. Advocates of forced removal, mostly Democrats from the South, called removal a 'humane' and 'compassionate' move to assist a 'dying people.' The debate surrounding removal quickly became a North-South issue with Southern politicians calling their Northern counterparts 'demagogues' who sought 'to weaken the South' by allowing Indians to remain. In 1830, the resolution was approved by Congress and, assisted by Georgia state officials, Jackson began the process of evicting Native Americans. By 1835 the Cherokee, the last remaining Indian nation in the South, had signed the removal treaty and relocated to Oklahoma.<ref>Michael Morris, "Georgia and the Conversation over Indian Removal," ''Georgia Historical Quarterly'' 2007 91(4): 403-423, in [[EBSCO]]</ref>

Cave (2003) argues Jackson acted illegally in pressuring Indians to move west of the Mississippi River in the 1830s. The Indian Removal Act of 1830 called for voluntary removal and included safeguards for Indian rights, but Jackson ignored and distorted the act to suit his purposes. The newly formed Whig Party actively opposed Jackson's policies, and congressional legislation dealing with Indian removal was hotly debated and passed only by narrow margins. Had Jackson followed the legal dictates of the 1830 act, he probably would not have achieved Indian removal, says Cave. However Remini (2001) argued that the worst Jackson could be accused of was carrying out what most southern whites wanted at the time.<ref>Robert Remini, ''Andrew Jackson and his Indian Wars'' (2001)</ref>

===Democracy===
''See [[Jacksonian Democracy]]''

Jackson thought the voice of the people was supreme law. Although a man of powerful prejudices and passions, he identified with the voice of the people, and thought his election as president gave him the unique power to express that voice. His opponents misunderstood the voice and lacked the legitimate national base in any case. Thus Jackson denounced anyone who crossed him an enemy of the sovereign people. To fulfill this voice of the people in the political arena, he thought that the preservation of states' rights was an indispensable precondition to the achievement of people-oriented democracy. Although Jackson's record was erratic, when his presidency was done, federal authority was vastly weaker, and the states, for practical purposes, were much stronger than before, though as the Nullification crisis proved, he would not tolerate defiance.

==Personal life==

As a young man, Jackson was a gambler who frequented brothels.<ref>https://www.usnews.com/opinion/articles/2011/04/01/andrew-jacksons-tragic-love-story</ref> He met a married woman (Rachel Donelson Robards) and reportedly broke up her marriage with his affections for her.<ref>Jon Meacham, "American Lion: Andrew Jackson in the White House," pp. 21-22 (2008).</ref> Jackson eloped with this married woman while her husband was suing her for divorce (unusual in those days) on the grounds of adultery. Jackson's marriage to her constituted bigamy, a crime punishable by death under English [[common law]], and Jackson remarried her after her divorce became final.

In one of many duels initiated by Jackson, he murdered a man who accused his wife of being a bigamist, as Jackson reportedly violated the rules of duels by firing twice at him.<ref>http://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/andrew-jackson-kills-charles-dickinson-in-duel</ref>

===Retirement and death===
[[File:0307131322.jpg|right|thumb|The Hermitage]]
After honoring the precedent of [[George Washington]] to resign after serving two terms as President, Jackson then supported and advised many future candidates, most notably [[James K. Polk]].

Jackson died on June 8, 1845.

Since 1928, Jackson's picture has appeared on the United States $20 bill - somewhat ironic given that Jackson opposed paper money, wanting the country to use [[specie]] (gold and silver) instead.
{{Clear}}

==Quotes==
* Referring to the Bible: “That book, Sir, is the Rock upon which our republic rests.”
* "No people can flourish without true, genuine religion, which expels hypocrisy and deceit from their walks, purifies society, and calls down blessings upon a nation from above."<ref>Andrew Jackson, "Letter to Robert Minns Burton," in "The Papers of Andrew Jackson," Vol. 9 (November 1831), p. 706.</ref>
*"No free government can stand without virtue in the people and a lofty spirit of patriotism."<ref>https://millercenter.org/the-presidency/presidential-speeches/march-4-1837-farewell-address</ref>
*"It is from within, among yourselves, from cupidity, from corruption, from disappointed ambition, and inordinate thirst for power that factions will be formed and liberty endangered. It is against such designs, whatever disguise the actors may assume, that you have especially to guard yourselves."<ref>https://millercenter.org/the-presidency/presidential-speeches/march-4-1837-farewell-address</ref>
* "There is no real content and happiness in this world but what is produced by the consolations of religion, derived from the promises contained in the Scriptures."<ref>Andrew Jackson, "Letter to Robert Minns Burton," in "The Papers of Andrew Jackson," Vol. 9 (November 1831), p. 706.</ref>
*"True religion is calculated to make us happy not only in this, but in the next and better world, and therefore it was his [General Coffee's] regret that he had not joined the church. It is a profitable admonition to his family, that they may all become members of the church at an early day, for it is in religion alone that we can find consolation for such bereavements as the loss of our dear friend; it is religion alone that ever gives peace to us here and happiness beyond the grave; it is religion alone that can support us in our declining years, when our relish is lost for all sublunary enjoyments."<ref>Andrew Jackson, "Letter to Mrs. Mary Coffee," in "The Life and Times of Andrew Jackson: Soldier--statesman--president," 1:417. </ref>
*"We all know [Moor and Poindexter] never had any moral principle, and when this is the case, such men never can be relied on in maintaining sound political principles—we know that men without moral principle, can always be corrupted by ambitious demagogues and are unworthy of trust by a virtuous people."<ref>Andrew Jackson, "Letter to John Coffee," in "The Papers of Andrew Jackson," Vol. 10, March 1832, p. 160. </ref>
*"I am and I hope always have been a supporter of religion. Virtue is the basis of all republics. It is the sure foundation of temperance & charity which must be possessed by all who are really Christians—and I only lament that there are too many professors, who if judged by their fruit, do not possess it. When temperance and charity prevail, religion must flourish."<ref>Andrew Jackson, "Note on Religion," in "The Papers of Andrew Jackson," Vol. 10, June 1832, p. 322. </ref>
*"Our Government rests upon virtue, its pillars you see are becoming rotten, and unless repaired by the virtue of the people, the fair fabric of liberty must tumble."<ref>Andrew Jackson, "Letter to Squire Grant," in "The Papers of Andrew Jackson," Vol. 6 (Feb. 1825), p. 32. </ref>

==Jefferson - Jackson Dinners==
The United States Democrat Party claims Jackson and [[Thomas Jefferson]] as two of its key founding members. Although this claim is a bit of a stretch, for decades the Democrats have honored these two presidents by holding fund-raising events called "Jefferson-Jackson Dinners." Recently, in an act of extreme "political correctness", activists have demanded that these events be renamed on the grounds that Jefferson held slaves and Jackson mistreated Native Americans. Many units of the Democrat Party have given into these arguments and are denouncing and dishonoring two of what most Americans view as great Presidents.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/08/09/us/jefferson-jackson-dinner-will-be-renamed.html|title=Jefferson-Jackson Dinner Will Be Renamed|date=August 8, 2015|work=New York Times|accessdate=April 19, 2016|first=Ashley|last=Southhall}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://blogs.denverpost.com/thespot/2015/11/16/colorado-democratic-party-considers-renaming-annual-jefferson-jackson-dinner/123835/|title=Colorado Democrats consider renaming Jefferson Jackson dinner|work=The Denver Post|first=John|last= Frank|date=November 16, 2015|accessdate=April 19, 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=
http://www.nola.com/politics/index.ssf/2015/07/jefferson_jackson_renamed_loui.html|title=As state Democratic parties rename their Jefferson-Jackson dinners, will Louisiana change 'J-J?'|work=The Times Picayune|first=Kevin |last=Litten|date= July 23, 2015|accessdate=April 21, 2016}}</ref>

==Further reading==
===Biographies===
* Brands, H. W. ''Andrew Jackson: His Life and Times'' (2005), scholarly biography emphasizing military career [https://www.amazon.com/Andrew-Jackson-His-Life-Times/dp/1400030722/ref=sr_1_2?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1258870084&sr=1-2 excerpt and text search]
* Brustein, Andrew. ''The Passions of Andrew Jackson''. (2003). [http://www.h-net.msu.edu/reviews/showrev.cgi?path=180461058379340 online review by Donald B. Cole]
* Hofstadter, Richard. ''The American Political Tradition'' (1948), chapter on Jackson. [http://www.humanitiesebook.org/ online in ACLS e-books]
* James, Marquis. ''The Life of Andrew Jackson'' (1938). Combines two books: ''The Border Captain'' and ''Andrew Jackson: Portrait of a President''; Pulitzer Prize for Biography; old fashioned action-packed narrative
* Meacham, Jon. ''American Lion: Andrew Jackson in the White House'' (2009), [https://www.amazon.com/American-Lion-Andrew-Jackson-Notable/dp/0812973461/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1258870084&sr=1-1 excerpt and text search]
* Parton, James. ''Life of Andrew Jackson'' (1860). [https://books.google.com/books?vid=OCLC01632322&id=t-rhrBzV8rEC&printsec=titlepage Volume I], [https://books.google.com/books?vid=OCLC01632322&id=M9gNJq_KnC8C&printsec=titlepage Volume III].
* Remini, Robert V. ''The Life of Andrew Jackson''. Abridgment of Remini's 3-volume standard scholarly biography, (1998)
** ''Andrew Jackson and the Course of American Empire, 1767-1821'' (1977); ''Andrew Jackson and the Course of American Freedom, 1822-1832'' (1981); ''Andrew Jackson and the Course of American Democracy, 1833-1845'' (1984)
* Wilentz, Sean. ''Andrew Jackson'' (2005) short biography, stressing Indian removal and slavery issues [https://www.amazon.com/Andrew-Jackson-Sean-Wilentz/dp/0805069259/ref=sr_1_3?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1258870084&sr=1-3 excerpt and text search]

==Specialized Studies==
* Doutrich, Paul E. ''Shapers of the Great Debate on Jacksonian Democracy: A Biographical Dictionary.'' (2004). 360 pp. [https://www.amazon.com/Shapers-Great-Debate-Jacksonian-Democracy/dp/0313315760 online edition]
* Gammon, Samuel Rhea. ''The Presidential Campaign of 1832'' (1922) [http://www.questia.com/library/book/the-presidential-campaign-of-1832-by-samuel-rhea-gammon.jsp online edition]
* Feller, Daniel. "The Bank War," in Julian E. Zelizer, ed. ''The American Congress'' (2004), pp 93–111.
* Hammond, Bray. "Jackson, Biddle, and the Bank of the United States," ''The Journal of Economic History'', Vol. 7, No. 1 (May, 1947), pp. 1–23 [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0022-0507%28194705%297%3A1%3C1%3AJBATBO%3E2.0.CO%3B2-6 at JSTOR]
* Hammond, Bray. ''Banks and Politics in America from the Revolution to the Civil War'' (1957). Pulitzer prize winner; the standard history. Pro-Bank
* Hammond, Bray. "The Second Bank of the United States. ''Transactions of the American Philosophical Society,'' New Ser., Vol. 43, No. 1 (1953), pp. 80-85 [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0065-9746(1953)2%3A43%3A1%3C80%3ATSBOTU%3E2.0.CO%3B2-C in JSTOR]
* Howe, Daniel Walker. ''What Hath God Wrought: The Transformation of America, 1815-1848'' (2007), outstanding survey of the era by conservative historian who dislikes Jackson; Pulitzer prize. [https://www.amazon.com/What-Hath-God-Wrought-Transformation/dp/0195392434/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1258870831&sr=1-1 excerpt and text search]
* Latner Richard B. ''The Presidency of Andrew Jackson: White House Politics, 1820-1837'' (1979), standard survey.
* Magliocca, Gerard N. ''Andrew Jackson and the Constitution: The Rise and Fall of Generational Regimes,'' (2007); 216 pages
* Ogg, Frederic Austin ; ''The Reign of Andrew Jackson: A Chronicle of the Frontier in Politics'' 1919. [https://www.gutenberg.org/etext/13009 short survey online at Gutenberg]
* Patterson, Benton Rain. ''The Generals: Andrew Jackson, Sir Edward Pakenham, and the Road to the Battle of New Orleans.'' (2005). 288 pp.
* Ratner, Lorman A. ''Andrew Jackson and His Tennessee Lieutenants: A Study in Political Culture'' (1997) [https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=28026037 online edition]
* Remini Robert V. ''Andrew Jackson and the Bank War: A Study in the Growth of Presidential Power'' (1967). Pro-Jackson.
* Schlesinger, Arthur M. Jr. ''The Age of Jackson''. (1945). Winner of the [[Pulitzer Prize for History]]. history of ideas of the era; strongly pro-Jackson, who is seen as an anti-business model for [[FDR]]
* Sellers, Charles. ''The Market Revolution: Jacksonian America, 1815-1846.'' (1991) influential liberal interpretation; anti-business; refuted by Howe (2007) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=59690282 online edition]
* Syrett, Harold C. ''Andrew Jackson: His Contribution to the American Tradition'' (1953) [https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=978507 online edition]

===Indian Wars and Removal===
* Buchanan, John. ''Jackson's Way: Andrew Jackson and the People of the Western Waters.'' (2001). 434 pp. [http://www.h-net.msu.edu/reviews/showrev.cgi?path=183801009567545 online review]
* Cave, Alfred A. "Abuse of Power: Andrew Jackson and the Indian Removal Act of 1830." ''Historian'' 2003 65(6): 1330-1353. Issn: 0018-2370 Fulltext: online at Swetswise, Ingenta and Ebsco
* O'Brien, Sean Michael. ''In Bitterness and in Tears: Andrew Jackson's Destruction of the Creeks and Seminoles.'' (2003). 254 pp.
* Remini, Robert V.. ''The Legacy of Andrew Jackson: Essays on Democracy, Indian Removal, and Slavery'' (1988)
* Remini, Robert V. ''Andrew Jackson and his Indian Wars'' (2001)
* Remini, Robert V. "Andrew Jackson Versus the Cherokee Nation." ''American History'' 2001 36(3): 48-56. Issn: 1076-8866 Fulltext: in Ebsco
* Rowland, Dunbar. ''Andrew Jackson's Campaign against the British, or, the Mississippi Territory in the War of 1812, concerning the Military Operations of the Americans, Creek Indians, British, and Spanish, 1813-1815'' (1926) [https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=77351727 online edition]
* Satz, Ronald N. American Indian Policy in the Jacksonian Era.'' (1975)
* Wallace, Anthony F.C. ''The Long, Bitter Trail: Andrew Jackson and the Indians'' (1993)

===Primary sources===
* Bassett John Spencer, ed. ''Correspondence of Andrew Jackson'' Vols. 1-6. (1926).
* Smith Sam B., and Harriet Chappell Owsley, eds. ''Papers of Andrew Jackson'' . Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, Vol. 1, 1980; Moser Harold D., Sharon MacPherson, and Charles F. Bryan Jr., eds. ''The Papers of Andrew Jackson''. Vols. 2-6. Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 2002; the latest vol 6 goes to 1828.
* [http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/presiden/jackpap.htm online speeches and presidential messages]

===Historiography===
* Bugg Jr., James L. ed. ''Jacksonian Democracy: Myth or Reality?.'' (1962) debates among historians [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=875714 online edition]
* Cave, Alfred A. ''Jacksonian Democracy and the Historians,'' U, of Florida Press, 1970
* Sellers, Jr. Charles Grier. "Andrew Jackson versus the Historians," ''The Mississippi Valley Historical Review,'' Vol. 44, No. 4. (Mar., 1958), pp. 615-634. [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0161-391X%28195803%2944%3A4%3C615%3AAJVTH%3E2.0.CO%3B2-Y in JSTOR]
* Taylor, George Rogers, ed. ''Jackson Versus Biddle: The Struggle over the Second Bank of the United States'' (1949), excerpts from primary and secondary sources [https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=960190 online edition]
* Ward, John William. ''Andrew Jackson, Symbol for an Age'' (1962) how writers saw him [https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=98819205 online edition]

== See also ==
*[[Gallery of American Heroes]]

== References ==
{{reflist|1}}

==External links==
* [https://librivox.org/author/4254 Works by Andrew Jackson - text and free audio] - [[LibriVox]]
* [https://www.thenewamerican.com/reviews/books/item/31521-a-review-of-in-defense-of-andrew-jackson A Review of "In Defense of Andrew Jackson"], by James Heiser of ''[[The New American]]''
* [https://thehill.com/opinion/finance/462402-six-reasons-to-leave-andrew-jackson-on-the-20-bill Six reasons to leave Andrew Jackson on the $20 bill], by Philip Leigh, September 26, 2019.

{{USPresidents}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Jackson, Andrew}}

[[Category:War of 1812]]
[[Category:Democratic Party]]
[[Category:Florida Governors]]
[[Category:American War Heroes]]
[[Category:Western United States]]
[[Category:Early National U.S.]]
[[Category:Republicanism]]
[[Category:United States Army]]
[[Category:Soldiers]]
[[Category:Indian Wars]]
[[Category:Jacksonian Democracy]]
[[Category:Irish-Americans]]
[[Category:Democratic Governors]]

Lucretius

2019-05-08T04:04:40Z

Haeralis: Added Machiavelli and Hobbes to the list of Epicureans influenced by Lucretius

'''Lucretius (Titus Lucretius Carus, c. 94-c. 55 BC).'''
Lucretius was a Roman Epicurean [[philosopher]] and [[poet]], author of a six-book hexameter poem ''De Rerum Natura'' (''DRN'' ''On the Nature of the Universe''). In this he expounds Epicurean [[physics]], based on the [[atomic theory]] of [[matter]], and [[ethics]], which seek to free the human mind from fear of the [[gods]], death, and fate, caused by [[superstition]] (''religio'').

This is the single most important source for [[Epicureanism]], and ranks as one of the greatest achievements of both Roman philosophy and Latin poetry. Generally Lucretius is ranked with, or second to, [[Virgil]], as one of the finest of all Latin poets, and indeed Virgil, himself a former Epicurean, was heavily indebted to him as an inspiration and a source.

Very little is known directly about Lucretius' life. The only contemporary reference to him is in [[Cicero]]’s letter of Feb. 54 BC to his brother Quintus (''QFr''. 2.10(9).3) in which he praises the poems of Lucretius for showing flashes of genius and great artistry. This suggests strongly that ''De Rerum Natura'' was already published by this date.

''De Rerum Natura'' has been one of the most influential of all works of ancient philosophy in the Western world, and was for long the main source for knowledge of Epicureanism. As such it has been one of the chief representatives of the anti-teleological view of the [[Universe]]: a view which denies any purpose in the world, and removes from the gods any authority or role in human affairs. In Epicureanism, there is no fate or pre-destination and any divine plan for the world is denied. All things happen through chance and physical necessity, but even physical determinism is rejected, and [[free will]] placed at the centre of the ethics. Thus, Lucretius has been one of the foremost influences in the development of the [[liberal]] temper in Western thought. He was deeply involved in the rise of Renaissance [[Humanism]], and later strongly informed the work of [[Erasmus]], [[Machiavelli]], [[Thomas Hobbes]], [[Montaigne]], [[Rousseau]], [[Gassendi]], and others. Lucretius’ fiercely anti-religious polemics and his anti-teleological account of creation inspired many anti-Lucretian [[Christian]] works, among them Sir [[Richard Blackmore]]’s ''Creation'' of 1712 and [[Cardinal Polignac]]’s ''Anti-Lucretius'' of 1745. His account of the origin of life by the random formation of creatures without any divine plan, and adaptation of species by extinctions in a struggle for life, remained the chief opponent of the [[creationist]] view until supplanted in the role by [[Darwin]]’s [[Origin of Species]] in 1859. Lucretius argued that any idea that the world had been intelligently designed was simply a mistake: the world was too faulty to be the work of a god (''tanta stat praedita culpa'', 'with so many faults is it endowed', 2.181), and if it had been designed for anyone's benefit it was clearly for the benift of the animals rather than humans, since we, unlike the animals, are peculiarly ill-adapted by nature to survive and thrive in this world.

There has recently been an upsurge of interest in ancient theories of the origin of species, exemplified by publications such as Gordon Campbell's [''Lucretius on Creation and Evolution''] [http://www.oup.com/uk/catalogue/?ci=9780199263967](Oxford, 2003), and David Sedley's [''Creationism and its Critics in Antiquity''] [http://www.ucpress.edu/books/pages/10999.php](Berkeley, 2007). David Sedley's book is particularly valuable for the ancient perspective it offers on creationist theories.

[[Category:Roman Poets]]
[[Category:Philosophers]]

Andrew Jackson

2019-02-03T21:51:49Z

Haeralis: The statement that I removed, that suggested he hated evangelicals and was their enemy as a politician, is untrue. Many evangelicals supported Jackson, and Jackson himself was a Christian, while Adams was a Unitarian.

{{President
|image=Andrew-jackson.jpg
|seq=7
|term_start=March 4, 1829
|term_end=March 4, 1837<ref>http://www.trivia-library.com/a/7th-us-president-andrew-jackson.htm</ref>
|party=Democrat
|vp=John C. Calhoun
|vp_dates=1829-1832
|2vp=None
|2vp_dates=1832-1833
|3vp=Martin Van Buren
|3vp_dates=1833-1837
|previous=John Quincy Adams
|next=Martin van Buren
|birth_date=March 15, 1767
|birth_place=Lancaster County, South Carolina
|death_date=June 8, 1845
|death_place=Nashville, Tennessee
|spouse=Rachel Donelson Robards Jackson
|religion=[[Presbyterian]]
}}
'''Andrew Jackson''' was the seventh [[president of the United States of America]], elected as a hero after his military triumphs over the Creek Indians of the Southeast and the [[British]] at New Orleans in 1815. As president (1829-1837), he destroyed the Bank of the United States, relocated the remaining southeastern Indians, and built a new political coalition, the [[Democrat Party]]. A self-made man, Indian fighter, war hero and a fighter (and duelist) who believed in action instead of words, he was the iconic [[Western]] folk hero.

Nicknamed "Old Hickory" by his admirers, he typified popular democracy in the "Jacksonian Age" of the 1830s and 1840s, and became the leader of [[Jacksonian Democracy]] during the [[Second Party System]]. He was the founder of the Democrat Party and its hero because of his strong use of the federal government to bash conservatives and banks; the poor farmers and workers loved him because he embodied their hopes and fears, their passions and prejudices, their insight and ignorance, better than anyone. However liberals lost faith in Jackson when his harsh Indian policies became a negative in the 1960s.

==Career==
Born near the North/South Carolina border, Jackson studied law in Salisbury, North Carolina before moving to Nashville, Tennessee. Jackson was the first president who was not born in [[Virginia]] or [[Massachusetts]]. He fought at an early age in the battle of Stone Ferry during the [[American Revolution]] in 1780. As a teenaged volunteer in a local militia, Jackson refused an order by a British officer to polish his boots, and the officer angrily drew his sword and slashed Jackson across his hand and head with it, and imprisoned him. For the rest of his life Jackson loathed the British.

===Tennessee Frontier===
Jackson, John Sevier, and their allies were rich frontier lawyers and businessmen who used their vast land holdings to establish themselves as a political power in Tennessee. They allied themselves with the Jeffersonian Republicans, of the "Old Republican" faction that opposed strong national government. However, [[Thomas Jefferson]] and his circle strongly disliked and distrusted Jackson.

Serving a term in the Senate, he alarmed Jefferson but otherwise made little mark.

===Soldier===
Jackson sought election as major general of the Tennessee militia partly to escape the circuit riding required while he was a superior court judge. As a military commander he proved himself a master tactician, a brilliant organizer, and effective motivator of men. He won all his major battles, including the decisive defeat of the cream of the British regular army.

[[File:Aj-map1812.jpg|thumb|Jackson's campaigns]]

Jackson led two great victories in the [[War of 1812]]—the first against the "Red Stick" Creek Indian forces that had raided, raped and killed American settlers and assimilated Indians in what is now Alabama. Indians seldom fought pitched battles; they preferred the ambush. Jackson, aided by Cherokee allies, trapped the Creeks at Horseshoe Bend in Alabama in March 1814, and killed over 800 enemy; the rest fled to Spanish Florida. (See [[Creek War]].)

Jackson led a contingent of Tennessee and Kentucky militia who routed over 2,000 British troops in the [[Battle of New Orleans]] in Jan. 1815. The defeat ended British plans to turn the Mississippi Valley into a pro-British Indian nation. It was a great victory for Jackson and became source of enormous pride to all Americans.<ref>The battle happened after the peace treaty was signed, but before it was ratified and went into effect.</ref>

===Religion===
Jackson attended a Presbyterian church from time to time, and his wife was a devout Baptist. Jackson had little sympathy for religion in the political sphere, unlike many of his opponents (the Anti-Masons and [[Whigs]]), who were building political coalitions using religious voting blocs during the [[Second Great Awakening]]. For example, Jackson insisted that the mail be delivered on Sundays, much to the anger of the evangelicals.<ref>Adam Jortner, "Cholera, Christ, and Jackson: The Epidemic of 1832 and the Origins of Christian Politics in Antebellum America," ''Journal of the Early Republic,'' Volume 27, Number 2, Summer 2007, pp. 233-264 in [[Project MUSE]]</ref>

After his presidency, Jackson became very serious about Christianity and returned to the rigid evangelical orthodoxy of his youth. Unlike many politicians of the period who, for ecumenical purposes, appealed to a theistic but not explicitly Christian God, Jackson professed Jesus Christ as his Redeemer, Lord, and Savior. To his son, Andrew Jr., he wrote in 1834: "I nightly offer up my prayers to the Throne of Grace for the health and safety of you all, and that we ought all to rely with confidence on the promises of our dear Redeemer, and give Him our hearts. This is all He requires and all that we can do, and if we sincerely do this, we are sure of salvation through His atonement."<ref>Robert V. Remini, "Andrew Jackson: The Course of American Democracy, 1833-1845," 184. </ref> That same year, he sent a letter of condolence to the family of his friend General Coffee, who had recently died. He admonished that they "Rely on our dear Saviour. He will be father to the fatherless and husband to the widow. Trust in the mercy and goodness of Christ, and always be ready to say with heartfelt resignation, "may the Lord's will be done."<ref>Robert V. Remini, "Andrew Jackson: The Course of American Democracy, 1833-1845," 91.</ref>

Shortly after becoming a communicant member of the Hermitage Presbyterian Church, Jackson was nominated to become a ruling elder of the church. Jackson declined on Biblical grounds, saying: “No, the Bible says, “Be not hasty on of hands.” I am too young in the church for such an office. My countrymen have given me high honors, but I should esteem the office of ruling elder in the Church of Christ a far higher honor than any I have ever received.”<ref>John Stevens Cabot Abbott, "Lives of the Presidents of the United States of America," (Boston: B.B. Russell & Co., 1867), 238.</ref>

As he neared the time of his death, Jackson entertained no fears about the afterlife because he believed that the life, death, and resurrection of Jesus secured to him eternal life. After Ralph Earl died in 1838, Jackson wrote that "I must soon follow him, and hope to meet him and those friends who have gone before me in the realms of bliss through the mediation of a dear Redeemer, Jesus Christ."<ref>Robert V. Remini, "Andrew Jackson: The Course of American Democracy, 1833-1845," 448.</ref> Jackson's Last Will and Testimony of 1845 beautifully expressed confidence in the Gospel:

''Sir, I am in the hands of a merciful God. I have full confidence in his goodness and mercy. My lamp of life is nearly out, and the last glimmer has come. I am ready to depart when called. The Bible is true. I have tried to conform to its spirit as near as possible. Upon that Sacred Volume I rest my hope for eternal salvation, through the merits and blood of our blessed Lord and Saviour, Jesus Christ. First, I bequeath my body to the dust whence it comes, and my soul to God who gave it, hoping for a happy immortality through the atoning merits of our Lord Jesus Christ, the Saviour of the world.
''<ref>Cyrus Townsend Brady, "The True Andrew Jackson," 381.</ref>

Shortly before his death, Jackson expressed his confidence in Jesus unequivocally. "When I have Suffered sufficiently," the former president uttered, "the Lord will then take me to himself—but what are all my sufferings compared to those of the blessed Savior, who died upon that cursed tree for me? Mine are nothing."<ref>Cyrus Townsend Brady, "The True Andrew Jackson," 379.</ref>

==Presidential campaigns==
His military success gave him tremendous popularity with the common man, and he ran for President in the [[United States presidential election, 1824|1824 Presidential Election]]. He won a plurality of the votes but no one got a majority and the election went into the House of Representatives, where they chose [[John Quincy Adams]] instead. At the next [[United States presidential election, 1828|Presidential Election in 1828]] Jackson defeated John Quincy Adams, and then Jackson won reelection in the [[United States presidential election, 1832|1832 Presidential Election]]. Jackson survived an assassination attempt in January 1835 when a deranged man fired two pistols at him at point blank range in the Rotunda of the U.S. Capitol.<ref>[http://www.americanheritage.com/people/articles/web/20070130-richard-lawrence-andrew-jackson-assassination-warren-r-davis.shtml Trying to Assassinate President Jackson]</ref>

Although Jackson won the 1828 election against incumbent [[John Quincy Adams]] by capturing almost 56% of the popular vote, the campaign was marked by anti-Jackson rhetoric that centered on Rachel Jackson's previous marriage to Lewis Robards and the allegedly "illicit union to Jackson"—that is, bigamy. Jackson's supporters portrayed the Robards matter as a minor legal misunderstanding. Adams's supporters saw the incident as no less than long-term adultery by Andrew Jackson and portrayed Rachel Jackson as an immoral woman, implying the political dilemma that 'a vote for Jackson was a vote for sin.' The controversy paralleled a critical development in American politics. Expansion in voter participation, the growth of state political organizations, party loyalty, and the development of local campaign papers all led to the wide dissemination of scandal and fed 'the hunger of sensationalism.' To offset this, Jackson's supporters portrayed him as a brave soldier endowed with the virtues of manhood and the frontier spirit, placing him outside the usual social constraints.<ref>Norma Basch, "Marriage, Morals, and Politics in the Election of 1828." ''Journal of American History'' 1993 80(3): 890-918 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/2080408 in JSTOR]</ref>

==Issues==
===Banks===
Jackson was firmly opposed to a [[national bank]], and fought to dismantle the Second Bank of the United States. He vetoed Congress's bill to renew its charter, and began withdrawing money from it. He issued the [[Specie Circular]] in July 1836, which required land bought from the government to be paid for in [[specie]] (actual gold or silver coins), instead of bank notes. Most historians link this to the [[Panic of 1837]], which broke out weeks after after Jackson had left office and ruined the presidency of his successor, fellow Democrat [[Martin Van Buren]].

===Indian Removal===
Jackson, with the backing of Southern politicians, sought to abrogate the standing treaties with the [[Chickasaw]], [[Cherokee]], [[Seminole]], [[Creek]], and [[Choctaw]] nations by evicting them from the land they lived on and relocating them to Indian territory (in present-day [[Oklahoma]]). The idea was roundly decried as illegal and inhumane by evangelical Protestants, who had missionaries to the tribes, and by Whigs. Advocates of forced removal, mostly Democrats from the South, called removal a 'humane' and 'compassionate' move to assist a 'dying people.' The debate surrounding removal quickly became a North-South issue with Southern politicians calling their Northern counterparts 'demagogues' who sought 'to weaken the South' by allowing Indians to remain. In 1830, the resolution was approved by Congress and, assisted by Georgia state officials, Jackson began the process of evicting Native Americans. By 1835 the Cherokee, the last remaining Indian nation in the South, had signed the removal treaty and relocated to Oklahoma.<ref>Michael Morris, "Georgia and the Conversation over Indian Removal," ''Georgia Historical Quarterly'' 2007 91(4): 403-423, in [[EBSCO]]</ref>

Cave (2003) argues Jackson acted illegally in pressuring Indians to move west of the Mississippi River in the 1830s. The Indian Removal Act of 1830 called for voluntary removal and included safeguards for Indian rights, but Jackson ignored and distorted the act to suit his purposes. The newly formed Whig Party actively opposed Jackson's policies, and congressional legislation dealing with Indian removal was hotly debated and passed only by narrow margins. Had Jackson followed the legal dictates of the 1830 act, he probably would not have achieved Indian removal, says Cave. However Remini (2001) argued that the worst Jackson could be accused of was carrying out what most southern whites wanted at the time.<ref>Robert Remini, ''Andrew Jackson and his Indian Wars'' (2001)</ref>

===Democracy===
''See [[Jacksonian Democracy]]''

Jackson thought the voice of the people was supreme law. Although a man of powerful prejudices and passions, he identified with the voice of the people, and thought his election as president gave him the unique power to express that voice. His opponents misunderstood the voice and lacked the legitimate national base in any case. Thus Jackson denounced anyone who crossed him an enemy of the sovereign people. To fulfill this voice of the people in the political arena, he thought that the preservation of states' rights was an indispensable precondition to the achievement of people-oriented democracy. Although Jackson's record was erratic, when his presidency was done, federal authority was vastly weaker, and the states, for practical purposes, were much stronger than before, though as the Nullification crisis proved, he would not tolerate defiance.

==Personal life==

As a young man, Jackson was a gambler who frequented brothels.<ref>http://www.usnews.com/opinion/articles/2011/04/01/andrew-jacksons-tragic-love-story</ref> He met a married woman (Rachel Donelson Robards) and reportedly broke up her marriage with his affections for her.<ref>Jon Meacham, "American Lion: Andrew Jackson in the White House," pp. 21-22 (2008).</ref> Jackson eloped with this married woman while her husband was suing her for divorce (unusual in those days) on the grounds of adultery. Jackson's marriage to her constituted bigamy, a crime punishable by death under English [[common law]], and Jackson remarried her after her divorce became final.

In one of many duels initiated by Jackson, he murdered a man who accused his wife of being a bigamist, as Jackson reportedly violated the rules of duels by firing twice at him.<ref>http://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/andrew-jackson-kills-charles-dickinson-in-duel</ref>

===Retirement and death===
[[File:0307131322.jpg|right|thumb|The Hermitage]]
After honoring the precedent of [[George Washington]] to resign after serving two terms as President, Jackson then supported and advised many future candidates, most notably [[James K. Polk]].

Jackson died on June 8, 1845.

Since 1928, Jackson's picture has appeared on the United States $20 bill - somewhat ironic given that Jackson opposed paper money, wanting the country to use [[specie]] (gold and silver) instead.
{{Clear}}

==Quotes==
* Referring to the Bible: “That book, Sir, is the Rock upon which our republic rests.”

==Jefferson - Jackson Dinners==
The United States Democrat Party claims Jackson and [[Thomas Jefferson]] as two of its key founding members. Although this claim is a bit of a stretch, for decades the Democrats have honored these two presidents by holding fund-raising events called "Jefferson-Jackson Dinners." Recently, in an act of extreme "political correctness", activists have demanded that these events be renamed on the grounds that Jefferson held slaves and Jackson mistreated Native Americans. Many units of the Democrat Party have given into these arguments and are denouncing and dishonoring two of what most Americans view as great Presidents.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/08/09/us/jefferson-jackson-dinner-will-be-renamed.html|title=Jefferson-Jackson Dinner Will Be Renamed|date=August 8, 2015|work=New York Times|accessdate=April 19, 2016|first=Ashley|last=Southhall}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://blogs.denverpost.com/thespot/2015/11/16/colorado-democratic-party-considers-renaming-annual-jefferson-jackson-dinner/123835/|title=Colorado Democrats consider renaming Jefferson Jackson dinner|work=The Denver Post|first=John|last= Frank|date=November 16, 2015|accessdate=April 19, 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=
http://www.nola.com/politics/index.ssf/2015/07/jefferson_jackson_renamed_loui.html|title=As state Democratic parties rename their Jefferson-Jackson dinners, will Louisiana change 'J-J?'|work=The Times Picayune|first=Kevin |last=Litten|date= July 23, 2015|accessdate=April 21, 2016}}</ref>

==Further reading==
===Biographies===
* Brands, H. W. ''Andrew Jackson: His Life and Times'' (2005), scholarly biography emphasizing military career [http://www.amazon.com/Andrew-Jackson-His-Life-Times/dp/1400030722/ref=sr_1_2?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1258870084&sr=1-2 excerpt and text search]
* Brustein, Andrew. ''The Passions of Andrew Jackson''. (2003). [http://www.h-net.msu.edu/reviews/showrev.cgi?path=180461058379340 online review by Donald B. Cole]
* Hofstadter, Richard. ''The American Political Tradition'' (1948), chapter on Jackson. [http://www.humanitiesebook.org/ online in ACLS e-books]
* James, Marquis. ''The Life of Andrew Jackson'' (1938). Combines two books: ''The Border Captain'' and ''Andrew Jackson: Portrait of a President''; Pulitzer Prize for Biography; old fashioned action-packed narrative
* Meacham, Jon. ''American Lion: Andrew Jackson in the White House'' (2009), [http://www.amazon.com/American-Lion-Andrew-Jackson-Notable/dp/0812973461/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1258870084&sr=1-1 excerpt and text search]
* Parton, James. ''Life of Andrew Jackson'' (1860). [https://books.google.com/books?vid=OCLC01632322&id=t-rhrBzV8rEC&printsec=titlepage Volume I], [https://books.google.com/books?vid=OCLC01632322&id=M9gNJq_KnC8C&printsec=titlepage Volume III].
* Remini, Robert V. ''The Life of Andrew Jackson''. Abridgment of Remini's 3-volume standard scholarly biography, (1998)
** ''Andrew Jackson and the Course of American Empire, 1767-1821'' (1977); ''Andrew Jackson and the Course of American Freedom, 1822-1832'' (1981); ''Andrew Jackson and the Course of American Democracy, 1833-1845'' (1984)
* Wilentz, Sean. ''Andrew Jackson'' (2005) short biography, stressing Indian removal and slavery issues [http://www.amazon.com/Andrew-Jackson-Sean-Wilentz/dp/0805069259/ref=sr_1_3?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1258870084&sr=1-3 excerpt and text search]

==Specialized Studies==
* Doutrich, Paul E. ''Shapers of the Great Debate on Jacksonian Democracy: A Biographical Dictionary.'' (2004). 360 pp. [http://www.amazon.com/Shapers-Great-Debate-Jacksonian-Democracy/dp/0313315760 online edition]
* Gammon, Samuel Rhea. ''The Presidential Campaign of 1832'' (1922) [http://www.questia.com/library/book/the-presidential-campaign-of-1832-by-samuel-rhea-gammon.jsp online edition]
* Feller, Daniel. "The Bank War," in Julian E. Zelizer, ed. ''The American Congress'' (2004), pp 93–111.
* Hammond, Bray. "Jackson, Biddle, and the Bank of the United States," ''The Journal of Economic History'', Vol. 7, No. 1 (May, 1947), pp. 1–23 [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0022-0507%28194705%297%3A1%3C1%3AJBATBO%3E2.0.CO%3B2-6 at JSTOR]
* Hammond, Bray. ''Banks and Politics in America from the Revolution to the Civil War'' (1957). Pulitzer prize winner; the standard history. Pro-Bank
* Hammond, Bray. "The Second Bank of the United States. ''Transactions of the American Philosophical Society,'' New Ser., Vol. 43, No. 1 (1953), pp. 80-85 [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0065-9746(1953)2%3A43%3A1%3C80%3ATSBOTU%3E2.0.CO%3B2-C in JSTOR]
* Howe, Daniel Walker. ''What Hath God Wrought: The Transformation of America, 1815-1848'' (2007), outstanding survey of the era by conservative historian who dislikes Jackson; Pulitzer prize. [http://www.amazon.com/What-Hath-God-Wrought-Transformation/dp/0195392434/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1258870831&sr=1-1 excerpt and text search]
* Latner Richard B. ''The Presidency of Andrew Jackson: White House Politics, 1820-1837'' (1979), standard survey.
* Magliocca, Gerard N. ''Andrew Jackson and the Constitution: The Rise and Fall of Generational Regimes,'' (2007); 216 pages
* Ogg, Frederic Austin ; ''The Reign of Andrew Jackson: A Chronicle of the Frontier in Politics'' 1919. [https://www.gutenberg.org/etext/13009 short survey online at Gutenberg]
* Patterson, Benton Rain. ''The Generals: Andrew Jackson, Sir Edward Pakenham, and the Road to the Battle of New Orleans.'' (2005). 288 pp.
* Ratner, Lorman A. ''Andrew Jackson and His Tennessee Lieutenants: A Study in Political Culture'' (1997) [https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=28026037 online edition]
* Remini Robert V. ''Andrew Jackson and the Bank War: A Study in the Growth of Presidential Power'' (1967). Pro-Jackson.
* Schlesinger, Arthur M. Jr. ''The Age of Jackson''. (1945). Winner of the [[Pulitzer Prize for History]]. history of ideas of the era; strongly pro-Jackson, who is seen as an anti-business model for [[FDR]]
* Sellers, Charles. ''The Market Revolution: Jacksonian America, 1815-1846.'' (1991) influential liberal interpretation; anti-business; refuted by Howe (2007) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=59690282 online edition]
* Syrett, Harold C. ''Andrew Jackson: His Contribution to the American Tradition'' (1953) [https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=978507 online edition]

===Indian Wars and Removal===
* Buchanan, John. ''Jackson's Way: Andrew Jackson and the People of the Western Waters.'' (2001). 434 pp. [http://www.h-net.msu.edu/reviews/showrev.cgi?path=183801009567545 online review]
* Cave, Alfred A. "Abuse of Power: Andrew Jackson and the Indian Removal Act of 1830." ''Historian'' 2003 65(6): 1330-1353. Issn: 0018-2370 Fulltext: online at Swetswise, Ingenta and Ebsco
* O'Brien, Sean Michael. ''In Bitterness and in Tears: Andrew Jackson's Destruction of the Creeks and Seminoles.'' (2003). 254 pp.
* Remini, Robert V.. ''The Legacy of Andrew Jackson: Essays on Democracy, Indian Removal, and Slavery'' (1988)
* Remini, Robert V. ''Andrew Jackson and his Indian Wars'' (2001)
* Remini, Robert V. "Andrew Jackson Versus the Cherokee Nation." ''American History'' 2001 36(3): 48-56. Issn: 1076-8866 Fulltext: in Ebsco
* Rowland, Dunbar. ''Andrew Jackson's Campaign against the British, or, the Mississippi Territory in the War of 1812, concerning the Military Operations of the Americans, Creek Indians, British, and Spanish, 1813-1815'' (1926) [https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=77351727 online edition]
* Satz, Ronald N. American Indian Policy in the Jacksonian Era.'' (1975)
* Wallace, Anthony F.C. ''The Long, Bitter Trail: Andrew Jackson and the Indians'' (1993)

===Primary sources===
* Bassett John Spencer, ed. ''Correspondence of Andrew Jackson'' Vols. 1-6. (1926).
* Smith Sam B., and Harriet Chappell Owsley, eds. ''Papers of Andrew Jackson'' . Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, Vol. 1, 1980; Moser Harold D., Sharon MacPherson, and Charles F. Bryan Jr., eds. ''The Papers of Andrew Jackson''. Vols. 2-6. Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 2002; the latest vol 6 goes to 1828.
* [http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/presiden/jackpap.htm online speeches and presidential messages]

===Historiography===
* Bugg Jr., James L. ed. ''Jacksonian Democracy: Myth or Reality?.'' (1962) debates among historians [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=875714 online edition]
* Cave, Alfred A. ''Jacksonian Democracy and the Historians,'' U, of Florida Press, 1970
* Sellers, Jr. Charles Grier. "Andrew Jackson versus the Historians," ''The Mississippi Valley Historical Review,'' Vol. 44, No. 4. (Mar., 1958), pp. 615-634. [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0161-391X%28195803%2944%3A4%3C615%3AAJVTH%3E2.0.CO%3B2-Y in JSTOR]
* Taylor, George Rogers, ed. ''Jackson Versus Biddle: The Struggle over the Second Bank of the United States'' (1949), excerpts from primary and secondary sources [https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=960190 online edition]
* Ward, John William. ''Andrew Jackson, Symbol for an Age'' (1962) how writers saw him [https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=98819205 online edition]

== See also ==
*[[Gallery of American Heroes]]

== References ==
{{reflist|1}}

==External links==
* [https://librivox.org/author/4254 Works by Andrew Jackson - text and free audio] - [[LibriVox]]

{{USPresidents}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Jackson, Andrew}}

[[Category:War of 1812]]
[[Category:Democratic Party]]
[[Category:Florida Governors]]
[[Category:American War Heroes]]
[[Category:Western United States]]
[[Category:Early National U.S.]]
[[Category:Republicanism]]
[[Category:United States Army]]
[[Category:Soldiers]]
[[Category:Indian Wars]]
[[Category:Jacksonian Democracy]]
[[Category:Irish-Americans]]
[[Category:Democratic Governors]]

Andrew Jackson

2019-02-03T21:48:25Z

Haeralis: /* Religion */

{{President
|image=Andrew-jackson.jpg
|seq=7
|term_start=March 4, 1829
|term_end=March 4, 1837<ref>http://www.trivia-library.com/a/7th-us-president-andrew-jackson.htm</ref>
|party=Democrat
|vp=John C. Calhoun
|vp_dates=1829-1832
|2vp=None
|2vp_dates=1832-1833
|3vp=Martin Van Buren
|3vp_dates=1833-1837
|previous=John Quincy Adams
|next=Martin van Buren
|birth_date=March 15, 1767
|birth_place=Lancaster County, South Carolina
|death_date=June 8, 1845
|death_place=Nashville, Tennessee
|spouse=Rachel Donelson Robards Jackson
|religion=[[Presbyterian]]
}}
'''Andrew Jackson''' was the seventh [[president of the United States of America]], elected as a hero after his military triumphs over the Creek Indians of the Southeast and the [[British]] at New Orleans in 1815. As president (1829-1837), he destroyed the Bank of the United States, relocated the remaining southeastern Indians, and built a new political coalition, the [[Democrat Party]]. A self-made man, Indian fighter, war hero and a fighter (and duelist) who believed in action instead of words, he was the iconic [[Western]] folk hero.

Nicknamed "Old Hickory" by his admirers, he typified popular democracy in the "Jacksonian Age" of the 1830s and 1840s, and became the leader of [[Jacksonian Democracy]] during the [[Second Party System]]. He was the founder of the Democrat Party and its hero because of his strong use of the federal government to bash conservatives and banks; the poor farmers and workers loved him because he embodied their hopes and fears, their passions and prejudices, their insight and ignorance, better than anyone. However liberals lost faith in Jackson when his harsh Indian policies became a negative in the 1960s. Jackson was a political enemy of the Evangelical Protestants of the day, who denounced his policies and supported the opposition [[Whig Party]].

==Career==
Born near the North/South Carolina border, Jackson studied law in Salisbury, North Carolina before moving to Nashville, Tennessee. Jackson was the first president who was not born in [[Virginia]] or [[Massachusetts]]. He fought at an early age in the battle of Stone Ferry during the [[American Revolution]] in 1780. As a teenaged volunteer in a local militia, Jackson refused an order by a British officer to polish his boots, and the officer angrily drew his sword and slashed Jackson across his hand and head with it, and imprisoned him. For the rest of his life Jackson loathed the British.

===Tennessee Frontier===
Jackson, John Sevier, and their allies were rich frontier lawyers and businessmen who used their vast land holdings to establish themselves as a political power in Tennessee. They allied themselves with the Jeffersonian Republicans, of the "Old Republican" faction that opposed strong national government. However, [[Thomas Jefferson]] and his circle strongly disliked and distrusted Jackson.

Serving a term in the Senate, he alarmed Jefferson but otherwise made little mark.

===Soldier===
Jackson sought election as major general of the Tennessee militia partly to escape the circuit riding required while he was a superior court judge. As a military commander he proved himself a master tactician, a brilliant organizer, and effective motivator of men. He won all his major battles, including the decisive defeat of the cream of the British regular army.

[[File:Aj-map1812.jpg|thumb|Jackson's campaigns]]

Jackson led two great victories in the [[War of 1812]]—the first against the "Red Stick" Creek Indian forces that had raided, raped and killed American settlers and assimilated Indians in what is now Alabama. Indians seldom fought pitched battles; they preferred the ambush. Jackson, aided by Cherokee allies, trapped the Creeks at Horseshoe Bend in Alabama in March 1814, and killed over 800 enemy; the rest fled to Spanish Florida. (See [[Creek War]].)

Jackson led a contingent of Tennessee and Kentucky militia who routed over 2,000 British troops in the [[Battle of New Orleans]] in Jan. 1815. The defeat ended British plans to turn the Mississippi Valley into a pro-British Indian nation. It was a great victory for Jackson and became source of enormous pride to all Americans.<ref>The battle happened after the peace treaty was signed, but before it was ratified and went into effect.</ref>

===Religion===
Jackson attended a Presbyterian church from time to time, and his wife was a devout Baptist. Jackson had little sympathy for religion in the political sphere, unlike many of his opponents (the Anti-Masons and [[Whigs]]), who were building political coalitions using religious voting blocs during the [[Second Great Awakening]]. For example, Jackson insisted that the mail be delivered on Sundays, much to the anger of the evangelicals.<ref>Adam Jortner, "Cholera, Christ, and Jackson: The Epidemic of 1832 and the Origins of Christian Politics in Antebellum America," ''Journal of the Early Republic,'' Volume 27, Number 2, Summer 2007, pp. 233-264 in [[Project MUSE]]</ref>

After his presidency, Jackson became very serious about Christianity and returned to the rigid evangelical orthodoxy of his youth. Unlike many politicians of the period who, for ecumenical purposes, appealed to a theistic but not explicitly Christian God, Jackson professed Jesus Christ as his Redeemer, Lord, and Savior. To his son, Andrew Jr., he wrote in 1834: "I nightly offer up my prayers to the Throne of Grace for the health and safety of you all, and that we ought all to rely with confidence on the promises of our dear Redeemer, and give Him our hearts. This is all He requires and all that we can do, and if we sincerely do this, we are sure of salvation through His atonement."<ref>Robert V. Remini, "Andrew Jackson: The Course of American Democracy, 1833-1845," 184. </ref> That same year, he sent a letter of condolence to the family of his friend General Coffee, who had recently died. He admonished that they "Rely on our dear Saviour. He will be father to the fatherless and husband to the widow. Trust in the mercy and goodness of Christ, and always be ready to say with heartfelt resignation, "may the Lord's will be done."<ref>Robert V. Remini, "Andrew Jackson: The Course of American Democracy, 1833-1845," 91.</ref>

Shortly after becoming a communicant member of the Hermitage Presbyterian Church, Jackson was nominated to become a ruling elder of the church. Jackson declined on Biblical grounds, saying: “No, the Bible says, “Be not hasty on of hands.” I am too young in the church for such an office. My countrymen have given me high honors, but I should esteem the office of ruling elder in the Church of Christ a far higher honor than any I have ever received.”<ref>John Stevens Cabot Abbott, "Lives of the Presidents of the United States of America," (Boston: B.B. Russell & Co., 1867), 238.</ref>

As he neared the time of his death, Jackson entertained no fears about the afterlife because he believed that the life, death, and resurrection of Jesus secured to him eternal life. After Ralph Earl died in 1838, Jackson wrote that "I must soon follow him, and hope to meet him and those friends who have gone before me in the realms of bliss through the mediation of a dear Redeemer, Jesus Christ."<ref>Robert V. Remini, "Andrew Jackson: The Course of American Democracy, 1833-1845," 448.</ref> Jackson's Last Will and Testimony of 1845 beautifully expressed confidence in the Gospel:

''Sir, I am in the hands of a merciful God. I have full confidence in his goodness and mercy. My lamp of life is nearly out, and the last glimmer has come. I am ready to depart when called. The Bible is true. I have tried to conform to its spirit as near as possible. Upon that Sacred Volume I rest my hope for eternal salvation, through the merits and blood of our blessed Lord and Saviour, Jesus Christ. First, I bequeath my body to the dust whence it comes, and my soul to God who gave it, hoping for a happy immortality through the atoning merits of our Lord Jesus Christ, the Saviour of the world.
''<ref>Cyrus Townsend Brady, "The True Andrew Jackson," 381.</ref>

Shortly before his death, Jackson expressed his confidence in Jesus unequivocally. "When I have Suffered sufficiently," the former president uttered, "the Lord will then take me to himself—but what are all my sufferings compared to those of the blessed Savior, who died upon that cursed tree for me? Mine are nothing."<ref>Cyrus Townsend Brady, "The True Andrew Jackson," 379.</ref>

==Presidential campaigns==
His military success gave him tremendous popularity with the common man, and he ran for President in the [[United States presidential election, 1824|1824 Presidential Election]]. He won a plurality of the votes but no one got a majority and the election went into the House of Representatives, where they chose [[John Quincy Adams]] instead. At the next [[United States presidential election, 1828|Presidential Election in 1828]] Jackson defeated John Quincy Adams, and then Jackson won reelection in the [[United States presidential election, 1832|1832 Presidential Election]]. Jackson survived an assassination attempt in January 1835 when a deranged man fired two pistols at him at point blank range in the Rotunda of the U.S. Capitol.<ref>[http://www.americanheritage.com/people/articles/web/20070130-richard-lawrence-andrew-jackson-assassination-warren-r-davis.shtml Trying to Assassinate President Jackson]</ref>

Although Jackson won the 1828 election against incumbent [[John Quincy Adams]] by capturing almost 56% of the popular vote, the campaign was marked by anti-Jackson rhetoric that centered on Rachel Jackson's previous marriage to Lewis Robards and the allegedly "illicit union to Jackson"—that is, bigamy. Jackson's supporters portrayed the Robards matter as a minor legal misunderstanding. Adams's supporters saw the incident as no less than long-term adultery by Andrew Jackson and portrayed Rachel Jackson as an immoral woman, implying the political dilemma that 'a vote for Jackson was a vote for sin.' The controversy paralleled a critical development in American politics. Expansion in voter participation, the growth of state political organizations, party loyalty, and the development of local campaign papers all led to the wide dissemination of scandal and fed 'the hunger of sensationalism.' To offset this, Jackson's supporters portrayed him as a brave soldier endowed with the virtues of manhood and the frontier spirit, placing him outside the usual social constraints.<ref>Norma Basch, "Marriage, Morals, and Politics in the Election of 1828." ''Journal of American History'' 1993 80(3): 890-918 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/2080408 in JSTOR]</ref>

==Issues==
===Banks===
Jackson was firmly opposed to a [[national bank]], and fought to dismantle the Second Bank of the United States. He vetoed Congress's bill to renew its charter, and began withdrawing money from it. He issued the [[Specie Circular]] in July 1836, which required land bought from the government to be paid for in [[specie]] (actual gold or silver coins), instead of bank notes. Most historians link this to the [[Panic of 1837]], which broke out weeks after after Jackson had left office and ruined the presidency of his successor, fellow Democrat [[Martin Van Buren]].

===Indian Removal===
Jackson, with the backing of Southern politicians, sought to abrogate the standing treaties with the [[Chickasaw]], [[Cherokee]], [[Seminole]], [[Creek]], and [[Choctaw]] nations by evicting them from the land they lived on and relocating them to Indian territory (in present-day [[Oklahoma]]). The idea was roundly decried as illegal and inhumane by evangelical Protestants, who had missionaries to the tribes, and by Whigs. Advocates of forced removal, mostly Democrats from the South, called removal a 'humane' and 'compassionate' move to assist a 'dying people.' The debate surrounding removal quickly became a North-South issue with Southern politicians calling their Northern counterparts 'demagogues' who sought 'to weaken the South' by allowing Indians to remain. In 1830, the resolution was approved by Congress and, assisted by Georgia state officials, Jackson began the process of evicting Native Americans. By 1835 the Cherokee, the last remaining Indian nation in the South, had signed the removal treaty and relocated to Oklahoma.<ref>Michael Morris, "Georgia and the Conversation over Indian Removal," ''Georgia Historical Quarterly'' 2007 91(4): 403-423, in [[EBSCO]]</ref>

Cave (2003) argues Jackson acted illegally in pressuring Indians to move west of the Mississippi River in the 1830s. The Indian Removal Act of 1830 called for voluntary removal and included safeguards for Indian rights, but Jackson ignored and distorted the act to suit his purposes. The newly formed Whig Party actively opposed Jackson's policies, and congressional legislation dealing with Indian removal was hotly debated and passed only by narrow margins. Had Jackson followed the legal dictates of the 1830 act, he probably would not have achieved Indian removal, says Cave. However Remini (2001) argued that the worst Jackson could be accused of was carrying out what most southern whites wanted at the time.<ref>Robert Remini, ''Andrew Jackson and his Indian Wars'' (2001)</ref>

===Democracy===
''See [[Jacksonian Democracy]]''

Jackson thought the voice of the people was supreme law. Although a man of powerful prejudices and passions, he identified with the voice of the people, and thought his election as president gave him the unique power to express that voice. His opponents misunderstood the voice and lacked the legitimate national base in any case. Thus Jackson denounced anyone who crossed him an enemy of the sovereign people. To fulfill this voice of the people in the political arena, he thought that the preservation of states' rights was an indispensable precondition to the achievement of people-oriented democracy. Although Jackson's record was erratic, when his presidency was done, federal authority was vastly weaker, and the states, for practical purposes, were much stronger than before, though as the Nullification crisis proved, he would not tolerate defiance.

==Personal life==

As a young man, Jackson was a gambler who frequented brothels.<ref>http://www.usnews.com/opinion/articles/2011/04/01/andrew-jacksons-tragic-love-story</ref> He met a married woman (Rachel Donelson Robards) and reportedly broke up her marriage with his affections for her.<ref>Jon Meacham, "American Lion: Andrew Jackson in the White House," pp. 21-22 (2008).</ref> Jackson eloped with this married woman while her husband was suing her for divorce (unusual in those days) on the grounds of adultery. Jackson's marriage to her constituted bigamy, a crime punishable by death under English [[common law]], and Jackson remarried her after her divorce became final.

In one of many duels initiated by Jackson, he murdered a man who accused his wife of being a bigamist, as Jackson reportedly violated the rules of duels by firing twice at him.<ref>http://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/andrew-jackson-kills-charles-dickinson-in-duel</ref>

===Retirement and death===
[[File:0307131322.jpg|right|thumb|The Hermitage]]
After honoring the precedent of [[George Washington]] to resign after serving two terms as President, Jackson then supported and advised many future candidates, most notably [[James K. Polk]].

Jackson died on June 8, 1845.

Since 1928, Jackson's picture has appeared on the United States $20 bill - somewhat ironic given that Jackson opposed paper money, wanting the country to use [[specie]] (gold and silver) instead.
{{Clear}}

==Quotes==
* Referring to the Bible: “That book, Sir, is the Rock upon which our republic rests.”

==Jefferson - Jackson Dinners==
The United States Democrat Party claims Jackson and [[Thomas Jefferson]] as two of its key founding members. Although this claim is a bit of a stretch, for decades the Democrats have honored these two presidents by holding fund-raising events called "Jefferson-Jackson Dinners." Recently, in an act of extreme "political correctness", activists have demanded that these events be renamed on the grounds that Jefferson held slaves and Jackson mistreated Native Americans. Many units of the Democrat Party have given into these arguments and are denouncing and dishonoring two of what most Americans view as great Presidents.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/08/09/us/jefferson-jackson-dinner-will-be-renamed.html|title=Jefferson-Jackson Dinner Will Be Renamed|date=August 8, 2015|work=New York Times|accessdate=April 19, 2016|first=Ashley|last=Southhall}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://blogs.denverpost.com/thespot/2015/11/16/colorado-democratic-party-considers-renaming-annual-jefferson-jackson-dinner/123835/|title=Colorado Democrats consider renaming Jefferson Jackson dinner|work=The Denver Post|first=John|last= Frank|date=November 16, 2015|accessdate=April 19, 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=
http://www.nola.com/politics/index.ssf/2015/07/jefferson_jackson_renamed_loui.html|title=As state Democratic parties rename their Jefferson-Jackson dinners, will Louisiana change 'J-J?'|work=The Times Picayune|first=Kevin |last=Litten|date= July 23, 2015|accessdate=April 21, 2016}}</ref>

==Further reading==
===Biographies===
* Brands, H. W. ''Andrew Jackson: His Life and Times'' (2005), scholarly biography emphasizing military career [http://www.amazon.com/Andrew-Jackson-His-Life-Times/dp/1400030722/ref=sr_1_2?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1258870084&sr=1-2 excerpt and text search]
* Brustein, Andrew. ''The Passions of Andrew Jackson''. (2003). [http://www.h-net.msu.edu/reviews/showrev.cgi?path=180461058379340 online review by Donald B. Cole]
* Hofstadter, Richard. ''The American Political Tradition'' (1948), chapter on Jackson. [http://www.humanitiesebook.org/ online in ACLS e-books]
* James, Marquis. ''The Life of Andrew Jackson'' (1938). Combines two books: ''The Border Captain'' and ''Andrew Jackson: Portrait of a President''; Pulitzer Prize for Biography; old fashioned action-packed narrative
* Meacham, Jon. ''American Lion: Andrew Jackson in the White House'' (2009), [http://www.amazon.com/American-Lion-Andrew-Jackson-Notable/dp/0812973461/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1258870084&sr=1-1 excerpt and text search]
* Parton, James. ''Life of Andrew Jackson'' (1860). [https://books.google.com/books?vid=OCLC01632322&id=t-rhrBzV8rEC&printsec=titlepage Volume I], [https://books.google.com/books?vid=OCLC01632322&id=M9gNJq_KnC8C&printsec=titlepage Volume III].
* Remini, Robert V. ''The Life of Andrew Jackson''. Abridgment of Remini's 3-volume standard scholarly biography, (1998)
** ''Andrew Jackson and the Course of American Empire, 1767-1821'' (1977); ''Andrew Jackson and the Course of American Freedom, 1822-1832'' (1981); ''Andrew Jackson and the Course of American Democracy, 1833-1845'' (1984)
* Wilentz, Sean. ''Andrew Jackson'' (2005) short biography, stressing Indian removal and slavery issues [http://www.amazon.com/Andrew-Jackson-Sean-Wilentz/dp/0805069259/ref=sr_1_3?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1258870084&sr=1-3 excerpt and text search]

==Specialized Studies==
* Doutrich, Paul E. ''Shapers of the Great Debate on Jacksonian Democracy: A Biographical Dictionary.'' (2004). 360 pp. [http://www.amazon.com/Shapers-Great-Debate-Jacksonian-Democracy/dp/0313315760 online edition]
* Gammon, Samuel Rhea. ''The Presidential Campaign of 1832'' (1922) [http://www.questia.com/library/book/the-presidential-campaign-of-1832-by-samuel-rhea-gammon.jsp online edition]
* Feller, Daniel. "The Bank War," in Julian E. Zelizer, ed. ''The American Congress'' (2004), pp 93–111.
* Hammond, Bray. "Jackson, Biddle, and the Bank of the United States," ''The Journal of Economic History'', Vol. 7, No. 1 (May, 1947), pp. 1–23 [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0022-0507%28194705%297%3A1%3C1%3AJBATBO%3E2.0.CO%3B2-6 at JSTOR]
* Hammond, Bray. ''Banks and Politics in America from the Revolution to the Civil War'' (1957). Pulitzer prize winner; the standard history. Pro-Bank
* Hammond, Bray. "The Second Bank of the United States. ''Transactions of the American Philosophical Society,'' New Ser., Vol. 43, No. 1 (1953), pp. 80-85 [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0065-9746(1953)2%3A43%3A1%3C80%3ATSBOTU%3E2.0.CO%3B2-C in JSTOR]
* Howe, Daniel Walker. ''What Hath God Wrought: The Transformation of America, 1815-1848'' (2007), outstanding survey of the era by conservative historian who dislikes Jackson; Pulitzer prize. [http://www.amazon.com/What-Hath-God-Wrought-Transformation/dp/0195392434/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1258870831&sr=1-1 excerpt and text search]
* Latner Richard B. ''The Presidency of Andrew Jackson: White House Politics, 1820-1837'' (1979), standard survey.
* Magliocca, Gerard N. ''Andrew Jackson and the Constitution: The Rise and Fall of Generational Regimes,'' (2007); 216 pages
* Ogg, Frederic Austin ; ''The Reign of Andrew Jackson: A Chronicle of the Frontier in Politics'' 1919. [https://www.gutenberg.org/etext/13009 short survey online at Gutenberg]
* Patterson, Benton Rain. ''The Generals: Andrew Jackson, Sir Edward Pakenham, and the Road to the Battle of New Orleans.'' (2005). 288 pp.
* Ratner, Lorman A. ''Andrew Jackson and His Tennessee Lieutenants: A Study in Political Culture'' (1997) [https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=28026037 online edition]
* Remini Robert V. ''Andrew Jackson and the Bank War: A Study in the Growth of Presidential Power'' (1967). Pro-Jackson.
* Schlesinger, Arthur M. Jr. ''The Age of Jackson''. (1945). Winner of the [[Pulitzer Prize for History]]. history of ideas of the era; strongly pro-Jackson, who is seen as an anti-business model for [[FDR]]
* Sellers, Charles. ''The Market Revolution: Jacksonian America, 1815-1846.'' (1991) influential liberal interpretation; anti-business; refuted by Howe (2007) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=59690282 online edition]
* Syrett, Harold C. ''Andrew Jackson: His Contribution to the American Tradition'' (1953) [https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=978507 online edition]

===Indian Wars and Removal===
* Buchanan, John. ''Jackson's Way: Andrew Jackson and the People of the Western Waters.'' (2001). 434 pp. [http://www.h-net.msu.edu/reviews/showrev.cgi?path=183801009567545 online review]
* Cave, Alfred A. "Abuse of Power: Andrew Jackson and the Indian Removal Act of 1830." ''Historian'' 2003 65(6): 1330-1353. Issn: 0018-2370 Fulltext: online at Swetswise, Ingenta and Ebsco
* O'Brien, Sean Michael. ''In Bitterness and in Tears: Andrew Jackson's Destruction of the Creeks and Seminoles.'' (2003). 254 pp.
* Remini, Robert V.. ''The Legacy of Andrew Jackson: Essays on Democracy, Indian Removal, and Slavery'' (1988)
* Remini, Robert V. ''Andrew Jackson and his Indian Wars'' (2001)
* Remini, Robert V. "Andrew Jackson Versus the Cherokee Nation." ''American History'' 2001 36(3): 48-56. Issn: 1076-8866 Fulltext: in Ebsco
* Rowland, Dunbar. ''Andrew Jackson's Campaign against the British, or, the Mississippi Territory in the War of 1812, concerning the Military Operations of the Americans, Creek Indians, British, and Spanish, 1813-1815'' (1926) [https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=77351727 online edition]
* Satz, Ronald N. American Indian Policy in the Jacksonian Era.'' (1975)
* Wallace, Anthony F.C. ''The Long, Bitter Trail: Andrew Jackson and the Indians'' (1993)

===Primary sources===
* Bassett John Spencer, ed. ''Correspondence of Andrew Jackson'' Vols. 1-6. (1926).
* Smith Sam B., and Harriet Chappell Owsley, eds. ''Papers of Andrew Jackson'' . Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, Vol. 1, 1980; Moser Harold D., Sharon MacPherson, and Charles F. Bryan Jr., eds. ''The Papers of Andrew Jackson''. Vols. 2-6. Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 2002; the latest vol 6 goes to 1828.
* [http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/presiden/jackpap.htm online speeches and presidential messages]

===Historiography===
* Bugg Jr., James L. ed. ''Jacksonian Democracy: Myth or Reality?.'' (1962) debates among historians [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=875714 online edition]
* Cave, Alfred A. ''Jacksonian Democracy and the Historians,'' U, of Florida Press, 1970
* Sellers, Jr. Charles Grier. "Andrew Jackson versus the Historians," ''The Mississippi Valley Historical Review,'' Vol. 44, No. 4. (Mar., 1958), pp. 615-634. [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0161-391X%28195803%2944%3A4%3C615%3AAJVTH%3E2.0.CO%3B2-Y in JSTOR]
* Taylor, George Rogers, ed. ''Jackson Versus Biddle: The Struggle over the Second Bank of the United States'' (1949), excerpts from primary and secondary sources [https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=960190 online edition]
* Ward, John William. ''Andrew Jackson, Symbol for an Age'' (1962) how writers saw him [https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=98819205 online edition]

== See also ==
*[[Gallery of American Heroes]]

== References ==
{{reflist|1}}

==External links==
* [https://librivox.org/author/4254 Works by Andrew Jackson - text and free audio] - [[LibriVox]]

{{USPresidents}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Jackson, Andrew}}

[[Category:War of 1812]]
[[Category:Democratic Party]]
[[Category:Florida Governors]]
[[Category:American War Heroes]]
[[Category:Western United States]]
[[Category:Early National U.S.]]
[[Category:Republicanism]]
[[Category:United States Army]]
[[Category:Soldiers]]
[[Category:Indian Wars]]
[[Category:Jacksonian Democracy]]
[[Category:Irish-Americans]]
[[Category:Democratic Governors]]

Andrew Jackson

2019-01-07T03:22:54Z

Haeralis: /* Religion */

{{President
|image=Andrew-jackson.jpg
|seq=7
|term_start=March 4, 1829
|term_end=March 4, 1837<ref>http://www.trivia-library.com/a/7th-us-president-andrew-jackson.htm</ref>
|party=Democrat
|vp=John C. Calhoun
|vp_dates=1829-1832
|2vp=None
|2vp_dates=1832-1833
|3vp=Martin Van Buren
|3vp_dates=1833-1837
|previous=John Quincy Adams
|next=Martin van Buren
|birth_date=March 15, 1767
|birth_place=Lancaster County, South Carolina
|death_date=June 8, 1845
|death_place=Nashville, Tennessee
|spouse=Rachel Donelson Robards Jackson
|religion=[[Presbyterian]]
}}
'''Andrew Jackson''' was the seventh [[president of the United States of America]], elected as a hero after his military triumphs over the Creek Indians of the Southeast and the [[British]] at New Orleans in 1815. As president (1829-1837), he destroyed the Bank of the United States, relocated the remaining southeastern Indians, and built a new political coalition, the [[Democrat Party]]. A self-made man, Indian fighter, war hero and a fighter (and duelist) who believed in action instead of words, he was the iconic [[Western]] folk hero.

Nicknamed "Old Hickory" by his admirers, he typified popular democracy in the "Jacksonian Age" of the 1830s and 1840s, and became the leader of [[Jacksonian Democracy]] during the [[Second Party System]]. He was the founder of the Democrat Party and its hero because of his strong use of the federal government to bash conservatives and banks; the poor farmers and workers loved him because he embodied their hopes and fears, their passions and prejudices, their insight and ignorance, better than anyone. However liberals lost faith in Jackson when his harsh Indian policies became a negative in the 1960s. Jackson was a political enemy of the Evangelical Protestants of the day, who denounced his policies and supported the opposition [[Whig Party]].

==Career==
Born near the North/South Carolina border, Jackson studied law in Salisbury, North Carolina before moving to Nashville, Tennessee. Jackson was the first president who was not born in [[Virginia]] or [[Massachusetts]]. He fought at an early age in the battle of Stone Ferry during the [[American Revolution]] in 1780. As a teenaged volunteer in a local militia, Jackson refused an order by a British officer to polish his boots, and the officer angrily drew his sword and slashed Jackson across his hand and head with it, and imprisoned him. For the rest of his life Jackson loathed the British.

===Tennessee Frontier===
Jackson, John Sevier, and their allies were rich frontier lawyers and businessmen who used their vast land holdings to establish themselves as a political power in Tennessee. They allied themselves with the Jeffersonian Republicans, of the "Old Republican" faction that opposed strong national government. However, [[Thomas Jefferson]] and his circle strongly disliked and distrusted Jackson.

Serving a term in the Senate, he alarmed Jefferson but otherwise made little mark.

===Soldier===
Jackson sought election as major general of the Tennessee militia partly to escape the circuit riding required while he was a superior court judge. As a military commander he proved himself a master tactician, a brilliant organizer, and effective motivator of men. He won all his major battles, including the decisive defeat of the cream of the British regular army.

[[File:Aj-map1812.jpg|thumb|Jackson's campaigns]]

Jackson led two great victories in the [[War of 1812]]—the first against the "Red Stick" Creek Indian forces that had raided, raped and killed American settlers and assimilated Indians in what is now Alabama. Indians seldom fought pitched battles; they preferred the ambush. Jackson, aided by Cherokee allies, trapped the Creeks at Horseshoe Bend in Alabama in March 1814, and killed over 800 enemy; the rest fled to Spanish Florida. (See [[Creek War]].)

Jackson led a contingent of Tennessee and Kentucky militia who routed over 2,000 British troops in the [[Battle of New Orleans]] in Jan. 1815. The defeat ended British plans to turn the Mississippi Valley into a pro-British Indian nation. It was a great victory for Jackson and became source of enormous pride to all Americans.<ref>The battle happened after the peace treaty was signed, but before it was ratified and went into effect.</ref>

===Religion===
Jackson attended a Presbyterian church from time to time, and his wife was a devout Baptist. Jackson had little sympathy for religion in the political sphere, unlike many of his opponents (the Anti-Masons and [[Whigs]]), who were building political coalitions using religious voting blocs during the [[Second Great Awakening]]. For example, Jackson insisted that the mail be delivered on Sundays, much to the anger of the evangelicals.<ref>Adam Jortner, "Cholera, Christ, and Jackson: The Epidemic of 1832 and the Origins of Christian Politics in Antebellum America," ''Journal of the Early Republic,'' Volume 27, Number 2, Summer 2007, pp. 233-264 in [[Project MUSE]]</ref>

After his presidency, Jackson became very serious about Christianity and returned to the rigid evangelical orthodoxy of his youth. Unlike many politicians of the period who, for ecumenical purposes, appealed to a theistic but not explicitly Christian God, Jackson professed Jesus Christ as his Redeemer, Lord, and Savior. To his son, Andrew Jr., he wrote in 1834: "I nightly offer up my prayers to the Throne of Grace for the health and safety of you all, and that we ought all to rely with confidence on the promises of our dear Redeemer, and give Him our hearts. This is all He requires and all that we can do, and if we sincerely do this, we are sure of salvation through His atonement."<ref>Robert V. Remini, "Andrew Jackson: The Course of American Democracy, 1833-1845," 184. </ref> That same year, he sent a letter of condolence to the family of his friend General Coffee, who had recently died. He admonished that they "Rely on our dear Saviour. He will be father to the fatherless and husband to the widow. Trust in the mercy and goodness of Christ, and always be ready to say with heartfelt resignation, "may the Lord's will be done."<ref>Robert V. Remini, "Andrew Jackson: The Course of American Democracy, 1833-1845," 91.</ref>

As he neared the time of his death, Jackson entertained no fears about the afterlife because he believed that the life, death, and resurrection of Jesus secured to him eternal life. After Ralph Earl died in 1838, Jackson wrote that "I must soon follow him, and hope to meet him and those friends who have gone before me in the realms of bliss through the mediation of a dear Redeemer, Jesus Christ."<ref>Robert V. Remini, "Andrew Jackson: The Course of American Democracy, 1833-1845," 448.</ref> Jackson's Last Will and Testimony of 1845 beautifully expressed confidence in the Gospel:

''Sir, I am in the hands of a merciful God. I have full confidence in his goodness and mercy. My lamp of life is nearly out, and the last glimmer has come. I am ready to depart when called. The Bible is true. I have tried to conform to its spirit as near as possible. Upon that Sacred Volume I rest my hope for eternal salvation, through the merits and blood of our blessed Lord and Saviour, Jesus Christ. First, I bequeath my body to the dust whence it comes, and my soul to God who gave it, hoping for a happy immortality through the atoning merits of our Lord Jesus Christ, the Saviour of the world.
''<ref>Cyrus Townsend Brady, "The True Andrew Jackson," 381.</ref>

Shortly before his death, Jackson expressed his confidence in Jesus unequivocally. "When I have Suffered sufficiently," the former president uttered, "the Lord will then take me to himself—but what are all my sufferings compared to those of the blessed Savior, who died upon that cursed tree for me? Mine are nothing."<ref>Cyrus Townsend Brady, "The True Andrew Jackson," 379.</ref>

==Presidential campaigns==
His military success gave him tremendous popularity with the common man, and he ran for President in the [[United States presidential election, 1824|1824 Presidential Election]]. He won a plurality of the votes but no one got a majority and the election went into the House of Representatives, where they chose [[John Quincy Adams]] instead. At the next [[United States presidential election, 1828|Presidential Election in 1828]] Jackson defeated John Quincy Adams, and then Jackson won reelection in the [[United States presidential election, 1832|1832 Presidential Election]]. Jackson survived an assassination attempt in January 1835 when a deranged man fired two pistols at him at point blank range in the Rotunda of the U.S. Capitol.<ref>[http://www.americanheritage.com/people/articles/web/20070130-richard-lawrence-andrew-jackson-assassination-warren-r-davis.shtml Trying to Assassinate President Jackson]</ref>

Although Jackson won the 1828 election against incumbent [[John Quincy Adams]] by capturing almost 56% of the popular vote, the campaign was marked by anti-Jackson rhetoric that centered on Rachel Jackson's previous marriage to Lewis Robards and the allegedly "illicit union to Jackson"—that is, bigamy. Jackson's supporters portrayed the Robards matter as a minor legal misunderstanding. Adams's supporters saw the incident as no less than long-term adultery by Andrew Jackson and portrayed Rachel Jackson as an immoral woman, implying the political dilemma that 'a vote for Jackson was a vote for sin.' The controversy paralleled a critical development in American politics. Expansion in voter participation, the growth of state political organizations, party loyalty, and the development of local campaign papers all led to the wide dissemination of scandal and fed 'the hunger of sensationalism.' To offset this, Jackson's supporters portrayed him as a brave soldier endowed with the virtues of manhood and the frontier spirit, placing him outside the usual social constraints.<ref>Norma Basch, "Marriage, Morals, and Politics in the Election of 1828." ''Journal of American History'' 1993 80(3): 890-918 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/2080408 in JSTOR]</ref>

==Issues==
===Banks===
Jackson was firmly opposed to a [[national bank]], and fought to dismantle the Second Bank of the United States. He vetoed Congress's bill to renew its charter, and began withdrawing money from it. He issued the [[Specie Circular]] in July 1836, which required land bought from the government to be paid for in [[specie]] (actual gold or silver coins), instead of bank notes. Most historians link this to the [[Panic of 1837]], which broke out weeks after after Jackson had left office and ruined the presidency of his successor, fellow Democrat [[Martin Van Buren]].

===Indian Removal===
Jackson, with the backing of Southern politicians, sought to abrogate the standing treaties with the [[Chickasaw]], [[Cherokee]], [[Seminole]], [[Creek]], and [[Choctaw]] nations by evicting them from the land they lived on and relocating them to Indian territory (in present-day [[Oklahoma]]). The idea was roundly decried as illegal and inhumane by evangelical Protestants, who had missionaries to the tribes, and by Whigs. Advocates of forced removal, mostly Democrats from the South, called removal a 'humane' and 'compassionate' move to assist a 'dying people.' The debate surrounding removal quickly became a North-South issue with Southern politicians calling their Northern counterparts 'demagogues' who sought 'to weaken the South' by allowing Indians to remain. In 1830, the resolution was approved by Congress and, assisted by Georgia state officials, Jackson began the process of evicting Native Americans. By 1835 the Cherokee, the last remaining Indian nation in the South, had signed the removal treaty and relocated to Oklahoma.<ref>Michael Morris, "Georgia and the Conversation over Indian Removal," ''Georgia Historical Quarterly'' 2007 91(4): 403-423, in [[EBSCO]]</ref>

Cave (2003) argues Jackson acted illegally in pressuring Indians to move west of the Mississippi River in the 1830s. The Indian Removal Act of 1830 called for voluntary removal and included safeguards for Indian rights, but Jackson ignored and distorted the act to suit his purposes. The newly formed Whig Party actively opposed Jackson's policies, and congressional legislation dealing with Indian removal was hotly debated and passed only by narrow margins. Had Jackson followed the legal dictates of the 1830 act, he probably would not have achieved Indian removal, says Cave. However Remini (2001) argued that the worst Jackson could be accused of was carrying out what most southern whites wanted at the time.<ref>Robert Remini, ''Andrew Jackson and his Indian Wars'' (2001)</ref>

===Democracy===
''See [[Jacksonian Democracy]]''

Jackson thought the voice of the people was supreme law. Although a man of powerful prejudices and passions, he identified with the voice of the people, and thought his election as president gave him the unique power to express that voice. His opponents misunderstood the voice and lacked the legitimate national base in any case. Thus Jackson denounced anyone who crossed him an enemy of the sovereign people. To fulfill this voice of the people in the political arena, he thought that the preservation of states' rights was an indispensable precondition to the achievement of people-oriented democracy. Although Jackson's record was erratic, when his presidency was done, federal authority was vastly weaker, and the states, for practical purposes, were much stronger than before, though as the Nullification crisis proved, he would not tolerate defiance.

==Personal life==

As a young man, Jackson was a gambler who frequented brothels.<ref>http://www.usnews.com/opinion/articles/2011/04/01/andrew-jacksons-tragic-love-story</ref> He met a married woman (Rachel Donelson Robards) and reportedly broke up her marriage with his affections for her.<ref>Jon Meacham, "American Lion: Andrew Jackson in the White House," pp. 21-22 (2008).</ref> Jackson eloped with this married woman while her husband was suing her for divorce (unusual in those days) on the grounds of adultery. Jackson's marriage to her constituted bigamy, a crime punishable by death under English [[common law]], and Jackson remarried her after her divorce became final.

In one of many duels initiated by Jackson, he murdered a man who accused his wife of being a bigamist, as Jackson reportedly violated the rules of duels by firing twice at him.<ref>http://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/andrew-jackson-kills-charles-dickinson-in-duel</ref>

===Retirement and death===
[[File:0307131322.jpg|right|thumb|The Hermitage]]
After honoring the precedent of [[George Washington]] to resign after serving two terms as President, Jackson then supported and advised many future candidates, most notably [[James K. Polk]].

Jackson died on June 8, 1845.

Since 1928, Jackson's picture has appeared on the United States $20 bill - somewhat ironic given that Jackson opposed paper money, wanting the country to use [[specie]] (gold and silver) instead.
{{Clear}}

==Quotes==
* Referring to the Bible: “That book, Sir, is the Rock upon which our republic rests.”

==Jefferson - Jackson Dinners==
The United States Democrat Party claims Jackson and [[Thomas Jefferson]] as two of its key founding members. Although this claim is a bit of a stretch, for decades the Democrats have honored these two presidents by holding fund-raising events called "Jefferson-Jackson Dinners." Recently, in an act of extreme "political correctness", activists have demanded that these events be renamed on the grounds that Jefferson held slaves and Jackson mistreated Native Americans. Many units of the Democrat Party have given into these arguments and are denouncing and dishonoring two of what most Americans view as great Presidents.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/08/09/us/jefferson-jackson-dinner-will-be-renamed.html|title=Jefferson-Jackson Dinner Will Be Renamed|date=August 8, 2015|work=New York Times|accessdate=April 19, 2016|first=Ashley|last=Southhall}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://blogs.denverpost.com/thespot/2015/11/16/colorado-democratic-party-considers-renaming-annual-jefferson-jackson-dinner/123835/|title=Colorado Democrats consider renaming Jefferson Jackson dinner|work=The Denver Post|first=John|last= Frank|date=November 16, 2015|accessdate=April 19, 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=
http://www.nola.com/politics/index.ssf/2015/07/jefferson_jackson_renamed_loui.html|title=As state Democratic parties rename their Jefferson-Jackson dinners, will Louisiana change 'J-J?'|work=The Times Picayune|first=Kevin |last=Litten|date= July 23, 2015|accessdate=April 21, 2016}}</ref>

==Further reading==
===Biographies===
* Brands, H. W. ''Andrew Jackson: His Life and Times'' (2005), scholarly biography emphasizing military career [http://www.amazon.com/Andrew-Jackson-His-Life-Times/dp/1400030722/ref=sr_1_2?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1258870084&sr=1-2 excerpt and text search]
* Brustein, Andrew. ''The Passions of Andrew Jackson''. (2003). [http://www.h-net.msu.edu/reviews/showrev.cgi?path=180461058379340 online review by Donald B. Cole]
* Hofstadter, Richard. ''The American Political Tradition'' (1948), chapter on Jackson. [http://www.humanitiesebook.org/ online in ACLS e-books]
* James, Marquis. ''The Life of Andrew Jackson'' (1938). Combines two books: ''The Border Captain'' and ''Andrew Jackson: Portrait of a President''; Pulitzer Prize for Biography; old fashioned action-packed narrative
* Meacham, Jon. ''American Lion: Andrew Jackson in the White House'' (2009), [http://www.amazon.com/American-Lion-Andrew-Jackson-Notable/dp/0812973461/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1258870084&sr=1-1 excerpt and text search]
* Parton, James. ''Life of Andrew Jackson'' (1860). [https://books.google.com/books?vid=OCLC01632322&id=t-rhrBzV8rEC&printsec=titlepage Volume I], [https://books.google.com/books?vid=OCLC01632322&id=M9gNJq_KnC8C&printsec=titlepage Volume III].
* Remini, Robert V. ''The Life of Andrew Jackson''. Abridgment of Remini's 3-volume standard scholarly biography, (1998)
** ''Andrew Jackson and the Course of American Empire, 1767-1821'' (1977); ''Andrew Jackson and the Course of American Freedom, 1822-1832'' (1981); ''Andrew Jackson and the Course of American Democracy, 1833-1845'' (1984)
* Wilentz, Sean. ''Andrew Jackson'' (2005) short biography, stressing Indian removal and slavery issues [http://www.amazon.com/Andrew-Jackson-Sean-Wilentz/dp/0805069259/ref=sr_1_3?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1258870084&sr=1-3 excerpt and text search]

==Specialized Studies==
* Doutrich, Paul E. ''Shapers of the Great Debate on Jacksonian Democracy: A Biographical Dictionary.'' (2004). 360 pp. [http://www.amazon.com/Shapers-Great-Debate-Jacksonian-Democracy/dp/0313315760 online edition]
* Gammon, Samuel Rhea. ''The Presidential Campaign of 1832'' (1922) [http://www.questia.com/library/book/the-presidential-campaign-of-1832-by-samuel-rhea-gammon.jsp online edition]
* Feller, Daniel. "The Bank War," in Julian E. Zelizer, ed. ''The American Congress'' (2004), pp 93–111.
* Hammond, Bray. "Jackson, Biddle, and the Bank of the United States," ''The Journal of Economic History'', Vol. 7, No. 1 (May, 1947), pp. 1–23 [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0022-0507%28194705%297%3A1%3C1%3AJBATBO%3E2.0.CO%3B2-6 at JSTOR]
* Hammond, Bray. ''Banks and Politics in America from the Revolution to the Civil War'' (1957). Pulitzer prize winner; the standard history. Pro-Bank
* Hammond, Bray. "The Second Bank of the United States. ''Transactions of the American Philosophical Society,'' New Ser., Vol. 43, No. 1 (1953), pp. 80-85 [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0065-9746(1953)2%3A43%3A1%3C80%3ATSBOTU%3E2.0.CO%3B2-C in JSTOR]
* Howe, Daniel Walker. ''What Hath God Wrought: The Transformation of America, 1815-1848'' (2007), outstanding survey of the era by conservative historian who dislikes Jackson; Pulitzer prize. [http://www.amazon.com/What-Hath-God-Wrought-Transformation/dp/0195392434/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1258870831&sr=1-1 excerpt and text search]
* Latner Richard B. ''The Presidency of Andrew Jackson: White House Politics, 1820-1837'' (1979), standard survey.
* Magliocca, Gerard N. ''Andrew Jackson and the Constitution: The Rise and Fall of Generational Regimes,'' (2007); 216 pages
* Ogg, Frederic Austin ; ''The Reign of Andrew Jackson: A Chronicle of the Frontier in Politics'' 1919. [https://www.gutenberg.org/etext/13009 short survey online at Gutenberg]
* Patterson, Benton Rain. ''The Generals: Andrew Jackson, Sir Edward Pakenham, and the Road to the Battle of New Orleans.'' (2005). 288 pp.
* Ratner, Lorman A. ''Andrew Jackson and His Tennessee Lieutenants: A Study in Political Culture'' (1997) [https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=28026037 online edition]
* Remini Robert V. ''Andrew Jackson and the Bank War: A Study in the Growth of Presidential Power'' (1967). Pro-Jackson.
* Schlesinger, Arthur M. Jr. ''The Age of Jackson''. (1945). Winner of the [[Pulitzer Prize for History]]. history of ideas of the era; strongly pro-Jackson, who is seen as an anti-business model for [[FDR]]
* Sellers, Charles. ''The Market Revolution: Jacksonian America, 1815-1846.'' (1991) influential liberal interpretation; anti-business; refuted by Howe (2007) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=59690282 online edition]
* Syrett, Harold C. ''Andrew Jackson: His Contribution to the American Tradition'' (1953) [https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=978507 online edition]

===Indian Wars and Removal===
* Buchanan, John. ''Jackson's Way: Andrew Jackson and the People of the Western Waters.'' (2001). 434 pp. [http://www.h-net.msu.edu/reviews/showrev.cgi?path=183801009567545 online review]
* Cave, Alfred A. "Abuse of Power: Andrew Jackson and the Indian Removal Act of 1830." ''Historian'' 2003 65(6): 1330-1353. Issn: 0018-2370 Fulltext: online at Swetswise, Ingenta and Ebsco
* O'Brien, Sean Michael. ''In Bitterness and in Tears: Andrew Jackson's Destruction of the Creeks and Seminoles.'' (2003). 254 pp.
* Remini, Robert V.. ''The Legacy of Andrew Jackson: Essays on Democracy, Indian Removal, and Slavery'' (1988)
* Remini, Robert V. ''Andrew Jackson and his Indian Wars'' (2001)
* Remini, Robert V. "Andrew Jackson Versus the Cherokee Nation." ''American History'' 2001 36(3): 48-56. Issn: 1076-8866 Fulltext: in Ebsco
* Rowland, Dunbar. ''Andrew Jackson's Campaign against the British, or, the Mississippi Territory in the War of 1812, concerning the Military Operations of the Americans, Creek Indians, British, and Spanish, 1813-1815'' (1926) [https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=77351727 online edition]
* Satz, Ronald N. American Indian Policy in the Jacksonian Era.'' (1975)
* Wallace, Anthony F.C. ''The Long, Bitter Trail: Andrew Jackson and the Indians'' (1993)

===Primary sources===
* Bassett John Spencer, ed. ''Correspondence of Andrew Jackson'' Vols. 1-6. (1926).
* Smith Sam B., and Harriet Chappell Owsley, eds. ''Papers of Andrew Jackson'' . Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, Vol. 1, 1980; Moser Harold D., Sharon MacPherson, and Charles F. Bryan Jr., eds. ''The Papers of Andrew Jackson''. Vols. 2-6. Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 2002; the latest vol 6 goes to 1828.
* [http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/presiden/jackpap.htm online speeches and presidential messages]

===Historiography===
* Bugg Jr., James L. ed. ''Jacksonian Democracy: Myth or Reality?.'' (1962) debates among historians [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=875714 online edition]
* Cave, Alfred A. ''Jacksonian Democracy and the Historians,'' U, of Florida Press, 1970
* Sellers, Jr. Charles Grier. "Andrew Jackson versus the Historians," ''The Mississippi Valley Historical Review,'' Vol. 44, No. 4. (Mar., 1958), pp. 615-634. [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0161-391X%28195803%2944%3A4%3C615%3AAJVTH%3E2.0.CO%3B2-Y in JSTOR]
* Taylor, George Rogers, ed. ''Jackson Versus Biddle: The Struggle over the Second Bank of the United States'' (1949), excerpts from primary and secondary sources [https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=960190 online edition]
* Ward, John William. ''Andrew Jackson, Symbol for an Age'' (1962) how writers saw him [https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=98819205 online edition]

== See also ==
*[[Gallery of American Heroes]]

== References ==
{{reflist|1}}

==External links==
* [https://librivox.org/author/4254 Works by Andrew Jackson - text and free audio] - [[LibriVox]]

{{USPresidents}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Jackson, Andrew}}

[[Category:War of 1812]]
[[Category:Democratic Party]]
[[Category:Florida Governors]]
[[Category:American War Heroes]]
[[Category:Western United States]]
[[Category:Early National U.S.]]
[[Category:Republicanism]]
[[Category:United States Army]]
[[Category:Soldiers]]
[[Category:Indian Wars]]
[[Category:Jacksonian Democracy]]
[[Category:Irish-Americans]]
[[Category:Democratic Governors]]

Charles Sumner

2018-10-21T16:10:56Z

Haeralis: Added an important note about Sumner's Unitarian religion.

'''Charles Sumner''' (1811–1874) was a [[Republican party|Republican]] U.S. Senator from Massachusetts who sought to end slavery; he was the Senate leader of the [[Radical Republican]] faction during the [[American Civil War]] and [[Reconstruction]], where he fought to suppress Confederate nationalism and sought to promote the equality of the Freedmen (the freed slaves). A founder of the [[Republican Party]], Sumner served Massachusetts in the U.S. Senate for 23 years. He broke with President [[Ulysses Grant]] in 1871 and supported the [[Liberal Republican Party]] in 1872; Grant retaliated by having the Senate strip away his powerful chairmanship of the Foreign Relations Committee.

His strident stand against slavery and insulting language drove Congressman [[Preston Brooks]] of South Carolina to fly into a rage and violently beat Sumner with the head of his cane, as Sumner sat at his desk on the floor of the U.S. Senate.<ref>http://www.impeach-andrewjohnson.com/11BiographiesKeyIndividuals/CharlesSumner.htm</ref> Sumner did not recover for three more years, when he retook his seat on the Senate.<ref>http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/USASsumner.htm</ref> The beating is the subject of a famous political cartoon by [[John Magee]] subtitled: ''Southern Chivalry: Argument vs Clubs?''

Sumner once declared:<ref>http://www.amerisearch.net/index.php?date=2004-03-11&view=View</ref>

:Familiarity with that great story of redemption, when God raised up the slave-born Moses to deliver His chosen people from bondage, and with that sublimer story where our Saviour died a cruel death that all men, without distinction of race, might be saved, makes slavery impossible. ...

:There is no reason for renouncing Christianity, or for surrendering to the false religions; nor do I doubt that Christianity will yet prevail over the earth as the waters cover the sea.

Sumner's conception of Christianity, however, was not orthodox. He was a [[Unitarian]] who denied the divinity of [[Jesus Christ]].<ref>https://scholarworks.umass.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1026&context=afroam_faculty_pubs</ref>

He helped create the short-lived Liberal Republican Party <ref>http://www.impeach-andrewjohnson.com/11BiographiesKeyIndividuals/CharlesSumner.htm</ref><ref>http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1E1-Sumner-C.html</ref>
==See also==
* [[Thaddeus Stevens]]
== References ==

<references/>
{{DEFAULTSORT:Sumner, Charles}}
[[Category:Former United States Senators]]
[[Category:United States History]]
[[Category:American Civil War]]
[[Category:Reconstruction]]
[[Category:Diplomacy]]
[[Category:Slavery]]
[[Category:Abolitionists]]
[[Category:Jacksonian Democracy]]
[[Category:Massachusetts]]
[[Category:Republican Party]]

Patrick Henry

2018-09-26T14:58:30Z

Haeralis: Added Henry's quotation about deism

[[Image:Henry.jpg|200px|thumb| A portrait of Patrick Henry.]]
'''Patrick Henry''' (1736-1799) was a Patriot during the [[American Revolution]], and an anti-[[Federalist]] who opposed ratification of the [[U.S. Constitution]] afterwards. A radical democrat, he supported combining the executive and the legislative into a single elected body. An [[attorney]], he prevailed in the Parsons' Cause by defending the right of the [[Virginia]] colony to fix the price of the [[tobacco]] to be paid to the clergy in violation of a contrary ruling in [[England]].<ref>http://www.americanrevwar.homestead.com/files/HENRY.HTM</ref> In the 1790s Henry was a leader of the [[Federalist Party]] in support of [[George Washington]] and [[Alexander Hamilton]], and opposition to [[Thomas Jefferson]]

Patrick Henry is best known today for the rousing speech that he gave on March 23, 1775 to the 2nd Virginia Convention at Richmond's St. John's Church:<ref>http://www.amerisearch.net/index.php?date=2004-03-23&view=View</ref>

:''I consider it as nothing less than a question of [[freedom]] or [[slavery]] ... We have done everything that could be done to avert the storm which is now coming on. We have petitioned; we have remonstrated ... We have prostrated ourselves before the throne ... Our petitions have been slighted; our remonstrances have produced additional violence. ...''

:''There is a just God who presides over the destines of nations ... who will raise up friends to fight our battle for us. The battle, sir, is not to the strong alone; it is to the vigilant, the active, [[American Patriots|the brave]] ... Is life so dear, or peace so sweet, as to be purchased at the price of chains and slavery? Forbid it, Almighty God!''

:'' '''I know not what course others may take; but as for me, [[give me liberty or give me death]].''' ''

Henry has this to say about the Bible:
<blockquote>...is a book worth more than all of the other books that were every printed.<ref>Original Intent (2004), David Barton, page 168</ref></blockquote>
[[Image:Bland jones.jpg|200px|thumb|A depiction Henry speaking in the Virginia House of Burgesses.]]
== Quotes ==
* "The rising greatness of our country is greatly tarnished by the general prevalence of [[deism]], which with me, is but another name for vice and depravity. I hear it is said by the deists that I am one of their number and indeed, that some good people think I am no Christian. This thought gives me much more pain than the appellation of tory; because I think religion of infinitely higher importance than politics."

* "I have but one lamp by which my feet are guided, and that is the lamp of experience. I know no way of judging of the future but by the past." - [[Give Me Liberty Or Give Me Death]]

* “The [[Constitution]] is not an instrument for the [[government]] to restrain the people; it is an instrument for the people to restrain the government -- lest it come to [[tyranny|dominate our lives]] and interests."

* "The [[liberties]] of a people never were, nor ever will be, secure, when the transactions of their [[Federal Government|rulers]] may be concealed from them."

* "Are we at last brought to such humiliating and debasing degradation, that we cannot be trusted with arms for our defense?"

==See also==
[[Patrick Henry College]]

== References ==
<references/>

==External links==
* [https://librivox.org/author/877 Works by Patrick Henry - text and free audio] - [[LibriVox]]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Henry, Patrick}}

[[Category:Founding Fathers]]
[[Category:American Revolution]]
[[Category:Virginia Governors]]
[[Category:Libertarians]]
[[Category:Pro Second Amendment]]
[[Category:Republicanism]]
[[Category:Conservatives]]
[[Category:Early National U.S.]]
[[Category:Veterans]]
[[Category:American Gun Rights Advocates]]
[[Category:Survivalism]]
[[Category:United States History Figures]]
[[Category:Patriots]]

Alexander Hamilton

2018-09-05T02:01:21Z

Haeralis: Added Hamilton quote

{{Founding Fathers
|image=alexhamilton.jpg
|State:=New York
|Religion:=[[Episcopalian]]
|Founding Documents:=[[United States Constitution]]
}}'''Alexander Hamilton''' (January 11, 1757 - July 12, 1804) was one of the most important, and most [[conservative]] and [[Patriotic|nationalistic]], of the [[Founding Fathers]] of the [[United States]]. One of the greatest American intellectuals ever, Hamilton became a [[Christian]] about a decade before he was shot and killed in a duel with Aaron Burr.<ref>D'Elia, Donald (1983). [http://www.catholiceducation.org/en/culture/history/alexander-hamilton-from-caesar-to-christ.html "Alexander Hamilton: From Caesar to Christ"], ch. 6 of ''The Spirits of 76'' (Front Royal, VA: Christendom College Press), p. 87. Republished at Catholic Education Resource Center website/Culture/History.</ref>

After wartime service as aide-de-camp to General [[George Washington]], he became a leading lawyer in [[New York]]. He called for a strong new [[constitution]] to replace the weak national government, and in 1788 he wrote half the ''[[Federalist Papers]]'', which mobilized supporters of the Constitution and continues to be the single most influential interpretation of [[republicanism]] and what the Constitution means. He was a leading intellectual of his time and the driving force of the [[Washington D.C.|Washington]] Administration that shaped the young nation.

Hamilton realized that the basis of [[British]] power was its system of centralized [[tax]] collection and its funded [[national debt]] together with its sophisticated [[banking]] structure and its open market in public securities. For a state to wage [[war]] successfully, it had to tax efficiently and borrow cheaply—to become a powerful nation, America had to follow the British financial example. Hamilton's conclusion horrified [[Thomas Jefferson]] and his followers—they saw a deliberate adoption of British methods as an evil corruption—a betrayal of the values of [[Republicanism]] inherent in the [[American Revolution]].

Hamilton played a key role in:

* the continued success of [[George Washington]] as his top aide
* the ratification of the Constitution in 1788
* the interpretation of the Constitution to this day
* the policies that made the United States an economic power
* writing George Washington's [[Farewell Address]], which remains one of the finest statements of [[conservative values|conservative principles]]
* the compromise that placed the nation's capital at [[Washington, D.C.]]
* the election of [[Thomas Jefferson]] as president rather than [[Aaron Burr]] in 1801
* preventing secessionist Aaron Burr from winning the governorship of New York and then breaking up the Union, in 1804

As the nation's first [[United States Secretary of the Treasury|secretary of the Treasury]], Hamilton's far-reaching vision put the United States on an stable financial basis and promoted national unity. His Treasury took over [[state debt]]s as well as [[debts]] owed by the [[Federal government|national government]], and funded them with long-term [[national debt]], which in turn was paid by a new [[tariff]] on imports and a tax on whiskey. He set up the Bank of the United States, a [[central bank]] to make [[liquidity]] in financial markets possible. The nation's business and financial communities for the first time became united in a single [[economy]], and provided critical support for Hamilton. To mobilize that grass-roots support he founded the [[Federalist Party]], which operated in every state. It was the first popular [[political party]] in the world, but soon had competition from the [[Republicans (Jeffersonian)|Republicans]], a party founded by his great adversary [[Thomas Jefferson]].

In foreign affairs he was a strong supporter of [[Britain]], and the well-balanced British political system. Working closely with [[George Washington]], Hamilton in 1795 secured the critical [[Jay Treaty]] over the intense opposition of Jeffersonians who favored [[France]] in its war with Britain. Despite an embarrassing sex scandal, Hamilton tried to keep control of the Federalist Party while [[John Adams]] was President, and orchestrated the creation of a powerful national army in 1798, which he and Washington were to head. Adams' achievement of peace with France frustrated Hamilton's plans, so he sabotaged Adams' reelection in 1800. Nevertheless, he helped Jefferson become President when it appeared the scoundrel [[Aaron Burr]] might take the office. He was killed by Burr in a duel, and for most of the 19th century was a target of attacks by [[Democrats]] as undemocratic and even pro-[[monarchy]].

By the [[Progressive Era]] after 1900, however, Hamilton's [[patriotism|nationalism]], financial wizardry, and promotion of business and [[banking]] increasingly appealed to [[conservative]]s, who made Hamilton into a hero of their own. Hamilton was one of the great expositors of the American political creed of [[republicanism]], and set up programs that proved a strong, effective government of the people could be made operational without an [[aristocracy]] or [[monarch]].

==Early life==
Hamilton was born out of wedlock in the British [[West Indies]] to a mother who had a reputation as the town harlot and a father who was a gambler and who had a wife on another Caribbean island. When he was ten his father left, leaving he, his brother, and his mother alone. At twelve, his mother died while sick, due to fever. Alexander and his brother James would later move in with their older cousing Peter Lytton, but Lytton committed suicide.

A prodigy in every sense of the word, he was handling merchant accounts as a teenager, and his essay on a [[hurricane]] that had hit the town attracted patrons, who would later collect a fund to pay his way to the American colonies. Some scholars have argued that Hamilton’s origins can be reflected in his later life, where, unlike much of the Revolutionary generation, his views were more nationalistic, rather than tied to the interests of a particular region or state.

==Revolution==
As a student at King's College (now [[Columbia University]]), Hamilton took a major role in the political debates over independence, writing several papers refuting opponents and activists. Most notably, Hamilton refuted the bishop Samuel Seabury (who wrote under the pen name A. W. Farmer) in a paper titled ''The Farmer Refuted'', published on February 23, 1775.<ref>[http://oll.libertyfund.org/titles/hamilton-the-revolutionary-writings-of-alexander-hamilton#lfHamilton_head_008 The Farmer Refuted], ''The Online Library of Liberty''</ref>

Hamilton later raised a company of artillery and was selected captain. Fighting the British invasion of [[New York City]] in late 1776, he came to the attention of [[George Washington]], Commander-in-Chief of the [[Continental Army]]. Washington promoted Hamilton to colonel and made him his aide-de-camp — in effect the chief of staff (although that title was not in use). Hamilton had a combat command in the [[Battle of Yorktown]], which ended the war in 1781. Hamilton may have alerted General Washington to the existence of the Newburgh Conspiracy, in which disgruntled officers may have become a threat to civilian government. Washington prevented that.

After the Battle of Yorktown, Hamilton resigned his commission. New York appointed Hamilton to the Congress of the Confederation for the term beginning in November 1782, and appointed him as a delegate to the [[Annapolis Convention]] in 1786.

==New York==
Hamilton became a leading lawyer in [[New York City]], and married into the rich and powerful Schuyler family. Along with his close friend [[John Jay]], he was active in anti-[[slavery]] movements. In 1787, Hamilton served as assemblyman from New York County in the New York State Legislature. He was also chosen by the legislature as a delegate to the [[Philadelphia]] [[Constitutional Convention]] in 1787 along with [[Robert Yates]] and [[John Lansing, Jr.]]

==Constitutional Convention==
Hamilton, alongside [[James Madison]] and [[James Wilson]], voiced strong opposition to [[state's rights]], [[decentralization]], and [[limited government]] at the Constitutional Convention and favored a radically [[nationalist]] approach to American government. Hamilton believed that the central principle of the [[Articles of Confederation]] was the idea of state sovereignty, but he argued that this indicated that the entire idea was completely wrong. Because state sovereignty, "the fundamental principle of the old Confederation," was wholly defective, Hamilton argued that America's only choice was to "eradicate and discard this principle before we can expect an efficient government."<ref>Alexander Hamilton, Elliot II, 234. The idea is also present in "The Federalist" no. 15. </ref>

During the Convention, Hamilton argued for the most heavily centralized plan of government out of all of the attendees. He proposed making the chief executive an elected monarch who could not be removed from office unless he ceased to rule "in good behavior." The president under Hamilton's plan would have been given an absolute veto which could not be overturned by the legislature. The national government would have had the power to appoint all state [[governors]] and would wield absolute veto power over all state legislation. Hamilton's plan also gave a life-time tenure in office to senators and to the judiciary. With his plan considered as a whole, Hamilton "advocated virtually doing away with state sovereignty, noting that as long as there was power to be had in the states, people would aspire to acquire that power, to the detriment of the nation as a whole."<ref>https://www.usconstitution.net/consttop_ccon.html#hamilton</ref> Hamilton himself put it even more tersely, saying that "no amendment of the confederation can answer the purpose of a good government, so long as State sovereignties do, in any shape, exist."<ref>https://archive.org/stream/secretproceedin00convgoog/secretproceedin00convgoog_djvu.txt</ref>

Hamilton authored 51 of the 85 ''[[Federalist Papers]],'' while [[James Madison]] and [[John Jay]] composed the others. These essays, published anonymously in [[newspaper]]s in New York and throughout the United States, helped turn popular opinion in favor of ratifying the Constitution, particularly in the decisive states of [[New York]] and [[Virginia]].

==Secretary of the Treasury==
Perhaps Hamilton's greatest contribution to the success of the United States occurred during his tenure as Washington’s Secretary of the Treasury from 1789 to 1795. Through a system of tariffs and [[excise tax]]es (some of which, as demonstrated by the [[Whiskey Rebellion]], caused a great deal of resentment), Hamilton placed the United States on sound financial footing. While Hamilton disliked taxes, he also realized that they were necessary. Hamilton not only favored close trade ties with [[Great Britain]], the world’s leading commercial power, but he believed that the United States should emulate their economic system. In his Report on Manufactures, Hamilton envisioned the United States as a nation that would rely on manufacturing and commerce in order to become a great power. This (among other things) put him at odds with [[Thomas Jefferson]], who envisioned the United States as an [[agriculture|agrarian]] republic.

In 1790, Hamilton appointed [[Tench Coxe]] as Assistant to the Secretary of the Treasury.<ref>[http://founders.archives.gov/documents/Hamilton/01-06-02-0280 Appointment of Tench Coxe as Assistant to the Secretary of the Treasury, (10 May 1790)]</ref>

==The Hamilton-Reynolds Affair==
In the summer of 1797, Hamilton became the first major American politician publicly involved in an affair. Six years earlier, in the summer of 1791, 34-year-old Hamilton started an affair with 23-year-old Maria Reynolds; according to Hamilton's recount, Maria approached him at his house in Philadelphia, claiming that her husband, James Reynolds, had abandoned her and she wished to return to her relatives in New York but lacked the means. Hamilton retrieved her address and delivered her $30 personally at her boarding house where she led him into her bedroom. The two began an illicit affair that lasted approximately until June 1792.

Over the course of that year, James Reynolds was well aware of his wife's unfaithfulness. He continually supported their relationship in order to regularly gain blackmail money from Hamilton. The common practice in the day was for the wronged husband to seek retribution in a pistol duel, but Reynolds, realizing how much Hamilton had to lose if his activity came into public view, insisted on monetary compensation instead; after an initial request of $1,000 to which Hamilton complied, Reynolds invited Hamilton to renew his visits to his wife "as a friend" only to extort forced "loans" after each visit. In the end, the blackmail payments totaled over $1,300 (including the initial extortion). Hamilton, at this point, was probably aware of both Reynoldses' being involved in the blackmail, and welcomed, as well as strictly complied with, Reynolds' request to end the affair.

In November 1792, James Reynolds and his associate Jacob Clingman were arrested for counterfeiting and speculating in veteran back wages. Clingman was released on bail and relayed information to James Monroe that Reynolds had evidence that would incriminate Hamilton. Monroe consulted with Congressmen Muhlenberg and Venable on what actions to take and the Congressmen confronted Hamilton on December 15, 1792. Hamilton refuted the suspicions of speculation by exposing his affair with Maria and producing as evidence the letters by both Reynoldses, proving that his payments to James Reynolds related to blackmail over his adultery, and not to treasury misconduct. The trio were to keep the documents privately with the utmost confidence.

In the summer of 1797, however, when "notoriously scurrilous journalist" James T. Callender published ''A History of the United States for the Year 1796'', it contained accusations of James Reynolds being an agent of Hamilton, using documents from the confrontation of December 15, 1792. On July 5, 1797, Hamilton wrote to Monroe, Muhlenberg and Venable asking them to confirm that there was nothing that would damage the perception of his integrity while Secretary of Treasury. Muhlenberg and Venable complied with Hamilton's request but Monroe didn't, and after several rounds of argument, the two almost resorted to a duel. When Hamilton did not obtain an explicit response from Monroe, he published a 91-page pamphlet, later usually referred to as the [[The Reynolds Pamphlet|Reynolds Pamphlet]], in order to preserve his public reputation, discussing the affair in exquisite detail. His wife Elizabeth eventually forgave him.

==Federalist Party==
Hamilton saw the need for political newspapers and subsidized numerous editors, most famously [[Noah Webster]]. In 1801, with $10,000 from investors, Hamilton started the ''[[New York Evening Post]]''.<ref>It is currently published by [[Rupert Murdoch]] under the name ''[[New York Post]]''.</ref>

==Adams and Jefferson administrations==

==Republicanism==
Jefferson repeatedly attacked Hamilton as an enemy of [[American values]]—and Jeffersonians have echoed the criticism over the centuries. Jefferson said he was an enemy of popular government, did not believe in [[republicanism]], admired the British system too much, and even wanted to set up a [[monarchy]]. Since the 1980s scholars have rescued rescue Hamilton from these interpretations and stressed his republicanism, arguing that Jefferson went too far in his attacks. Historians now portray Hamilton as a moderate, mainstream republican. They point to the ''[[Federalist Papers]]'' as a core statement of American values, and also Washington's "[[Farewell Address]]." One debate in the 1790s was whether true republican citizens should have "confidence" in their elected leaders, which was Hamilton's position, or maintain a "vigilant" scrutiny of them, which was Jefferson's. Hamilton stressed confidence in his vision of republican [[citizenship]] and [[freedom of the press]]. Hamilton's philosophy, argues Martin (2005), is best understood as an energetic, [[elitist]] reformulation of republicanism.

Hamilton's conception of human nature shaped his political thought. His predominantly and radically liberal conception of human nature was based on [[John Locke]]'s concept of [[liberty]], [[Thomas Hobbes]]'s concept of power, and [[Nicolò Machiavelli]]'s concept of the 'effectual truth.' It thus stressed the necessary relation between self-interest and republican government and entailed the repudiation of classical republican and Christian political ideals. But Hamilton's love of liberty was nonetheless rooted in a sense of classical nobility and Christian [[philanthropy]] that simultaneously elevated and contradicted his liberalism. The complex relation between liberty, nobility, philanthropy, and power in Hamilton's conception of human nature, in effect, defined his thought and exposed the strengths and weaknesses of his ideology. That complexity formed the spirit of his liberal [[republicanism]].<ref>Michael J. Rosano, "Liberty, Nobility, Philanthropy, and Power in Alexander Hamilton's Conception of Human Nature". ''American Journal of Political Science'' 2003 47(1): 61-74</ref>

In defense of Republicanism, Hamilton authored papers under the pseudonym ''Lucius Crassus''.

==Death==
Hamilton's long standing rivalry with [[Aaron Burr]] eventually lead to Burr accusing Hamilton of [[slander]]. Hamilton replied that the anti-Burr statements he had made were not slander, but were instead the truth. The resulting argument brought a lifetime of feuding to a head in the form of a duel. The duel took place on the 11th of July 1804 at Weehawken, [[New Jersey]]. Hamilton believed that a gentleman shoots over his target, and that honor is served.<ref>http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/hamilton/filmmore/pt_2.html</ref> Burr had no such belief. Hamilton shot over Burr's head, but Burr's [[gun]]shot struck its target into Hamilton's body. Hamilton was taken away and after suffering horribly from the wound throughout the night, died the next day.<ref>[http://bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index=H000101 Biography]</ref> Hamilton's son, who was given the same advice by his father that a gentleman shoots over his target, had earlier died in a duel the same way.

<blockquote>
At dawn on the morning of July 11, 1804, political antagonists and personal enemies Alexander Hamilton and Aaron Burr met on the heights of Weehawken, New Jersey, to settle their longstanding differences with a duel. The participants fired their [[pistol]]s in close succession. Burr's shot met its target immediately, fatally wounding Hamilton and leading to his death the following day. Burr escaped unharmed. This tragically extreme incident reflected the depth of animosity aroused by the first emergence of the nation's [[political party]] system.<ref>[http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/today/jul11.html Alexander Hamilton.]</ref>
</blockquote>

==Reputation==
No figure in [[American history]] has had so many ups and down, so many champions and detractors as Hamilton over the last two centuries. Historians continue to ask, "Was he a closet [[monarchist]] or a sincere republican? A victim of partisan [[politics]] or one of its most active promoters? A lackey for British interests or a [[foreign policy]] mastermind? An economic genius or a shill for special interests? The father of a vigorous national government or the destroyer of genuine federalism? A defender of governmental authority or a dangerous militarist?"<ref>Ambrose and Martin, ed. ''The Many Faces of Alexander Hamilton'' (2006) p. 11</ref>

==Trivia==

Hamilton, along with [[Benjamin Franklin]], is one of the very few non-presidents to be portrayed on American money. Hamilton's portrait is on the $10 bill, while Franklin is on the $100 bill.

==Quotes==
* "Those who stand for nothing fall for anything."
* "In the general course of human nature, a power over a man's subsistence amounts to a power over his will." - Federalist 79

==See also==
*[[Hamilton (musical)]]

==Notes==
<references/>

==Further reading ==
* Ellis, Joseph J. ''Founding Brothers: The Revolutionary Generation'' (2002), won Pulitzer Prize. [http://www.amazon.com/Founding-Brothers-Revolutionary-Joseph-Ellis/dp/0375405445/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1196083971&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Ferling, John. ''A Leap in the Dark: The Struggle to Create the American Republic'' (Oxford University Press, 2003), good overview of the era
* Brookhiser, Richard. "Alexander Hamilton, American". (1999) biography [http://www.amazon.com/ALEXANDER-HAMILTON-American-Richard-Brookhiser/dp/0684863316/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1196083822&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Chernow, Ron. "Alexander Hamilton". (2004) full length detailed biography [http://www.amazon.com/Alexander-Hamilton-Ron-Chernow/dp/B000UENRQU/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1196084039&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* McDonald, Forrest. ''Alexander Hamilton: A Biography'' (1979), biography by leading conservative historian; focused on intellectual history esp on AH's republicanism. [http://www.amazon.com/Alexander-Hamilton-Biography-Forrest-McDonald/dp/039330048X/ref=sr_1_5?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1220839663&sr=8-5 excerpt and text search]; [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=101665868 complete edition online from Questia]
* McDonald, Forrest. "Hamilton, Alexander"; [http://www.anb.org/articles/02/02-00154.html; American National Biography Online 2000], 5000 words
* Miller, John C. ''Alexander Hamilton: Portrait in Paradox'' (1959), full-length scholarly biography; [http://www.questia.com/library/book/alexander-hamilton-portrait-in-paradox-by-john-c-miller.jsp online edition]

===Biographies===
* Ambrose, Douglas, and Robert W. T. Martin, eds. ''The Many Faces of Alexander Hamilton: The Life and Legacy of America's Most Elusive Founding Father.'' (2006) 310pp, essays by scholars; [http://www.amazon.com/Many-Faces-Alexander-Hamilton-Americas/dp/0814707149/ref=sr_1_7?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1196083971&sr=8-7 excerpt and text search]
* Cooke, Jacob E. ''Alexander Hamilton: A Biography.'' (1982) by leading scholar
* Flexner, James Thomas. "The Young Hamilton: A Biography". (1997)
* Hacker, Louis M. ''Alexander Hamilton in the American Tradition.'' (1957) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=95039628 online edition]
* McDonald, Forrest. ''Alexander Hamilton: A Biography'' (1979) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=101665868 online edition] biography focused on intellectual history esp on AH's republicanism.
* McDonald, Forrest. "Hamilton, Alexander"; [http://www.anb.org/articles/02/02-00154.html; American National Biography Online 2000], 5000 words
* Miller, John C. ''Alexander Hamilton: Portrait in Paradox'' (1959), full-length scholarly biography; [http://www.questia.com/library/book/alexander-hamilton-portrait-in-paradox-by-john-c-miller.jsp online edition]
* Mitchell, Broadus. ''Alexander Hamilton'' (2 vols, 1957–62), the most detailed scholarly biography; [https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=33716230 online edition of vol 1]
** Mitchell, Broadus. ''Alexander Hamilton: A Concise Biography'' (1976), 395pp
* Nevins, Allan. "Alexander Hamilton" in ''Dictionary of American Biography'' (1934)
* Randall, Willard Sterne. "Alexander Hamilton: A Life". (2003) Popular. [http://www.amazon.com/Alexander-Hamilton-Willard-Sterne-Randall/dp/0060954663/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1196083900&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]

===Political philosophy===
* Chan, Michael D. "Alexander Hamilton on Slavery." ''Review of Politics'' 66 (Spring 2004): 207-31. [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1408953 in JSTOR]
* Fatovic, Clement. "Constitutionalism and Presidential Prerogative: Jeffersonian and Hamiltonian Perspectives." ''American Journal of Political Science'' 2004 48(3): 429-444. [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1519908 in JSTOR]
* Horton, James Oliver. "Alexander Hamilton: Slavery and Race in a Revolutionary Generation" ''New-York Journal of American History'' 2004 65(3): 16–24. [http://66.102.7.104/search?q=cache:88cftz6zXJYJ:www.alexanderhamiltonexhibition.org/about/Horton%2520-%2520Hamiltsvery_Race.pdf+james+horton+%22alexander+hamilton%22+slavery&hl=en&gl=us&ct=clnk&cd=1 online version]
* Mason, Alpheus Thomas. "The Federalist—A Split Personality," ''American Historical Review'' 57 (1952): 625-43 [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0002-8762(195204)57%3A3%3C625%3ATFSP%3E2.0.CO%3B2-Z online at JSTOR]
* Martin, Robert W. T. "Reforming Republicanism: Alexander Hamilton's Theory of Republican Citizenship and Press Liberty." ''Journal of the Early Republic'' 2005 25(1): 21-46. Issn: 0275-1275 [http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/journal_of_the_early_republic/v025/25.1martin.html in Project Muse]
* Rossiter, Clinton. ''Alexander Hamilton and the Constitution'' (1964)
* Sheehan, Colleen. "Madison V. Hamilton: The Battle Over Republicanism And The Role Of Public Opinion" ''American Political Science Review'' 2004 98(3): 405–424. [http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=245205 online abstract]
* Stourzh, Gerald. ''Alexander Hamilton and the Idea of Republican Government'' (1970),
* Staloff, Darren. "Hamilton, Adams, Jefferson: The Politics of Enlightenment and the American Founding." (2005)

===Politics===
* Bassett, John Spencer. ''The Federalist System, 1789-1801'' (1906) old scholarly survey; [http://books.google.com/books?vid=0qz0JCJMPjp9xrk7lF2zF07&id=LAoOAAAAIAAJ&printsec=toc&dq=bassett+%22federalist+system%22&sig=CPcsG1aOwgXiDZ7TIRpl1bKO4P0 online edition]
* Bowers, Claude G. ''Jefferson and Hamilton'' (1925), a slashing attack on Hamilton as unamerican aristocrat
* Charles, Joseph. "The Jay Treaty: The Origins of the American Party System," in ''William and Mary Quarterly'', (Oct., 1955), pp. 581–630. [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1918627 online at JSTOR]
*Elkins, Stanley M. and Eric McKitrick, ''The Age of Federalism.'' (1993), the most advanced history of politics in 1790s [http://www.questia.com/library/book/the-age-of-federalism-by-stanley-elkins-eric-mckitrick.jsp online edition]
* Kurtz; Stephen G. ''The Presidency of John Adams: The Collapse of Federalism, 1795-1800'' 1957 [https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=14355519 online edition]
* Miller, John C. ''The Federalist Era: 1789-1801'' (1960), scholarly survey
* Nevins, Allan. ''The Evening Post: A Century of Journalism'' (1922) [http://books.google.com/books?id=q-F2daxBy1AC&pg=PA7&dq=inauthor:allan+inauthor:nevins&num=30&as_brr=1#PPA5,M1 online edition] ch 1 on Hamilton's ownership
* Sharp, James. ''American Politics in the Early Republic: The New Nation in Crisis.'' (1995), survey of politics in 1790s

===Finance===
* Edling, Max M. "'So Immense a Power in the Affairs of War': Alexander Hamilton and the Restoration of Public Credit." ''William and Mary Quarterly'' 2007 64(2): 287-326. in [[History Cooperative]]
* Flaumenhaft, Harvey. ''The Effective Republic: Administration and Constitution in the Thought of Alexander Hamilton'' Duke University Press, 1992 [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=37077611 online edition]
* McDonald, Forrest. ''The Presidency of George Washington'' (1974).
* McNamara, Peter. ''Political Economy and Statesmanship: Smith, Hamilton, and the Foundation of the Commercial Republic.'' (Northern Illinois University Press, 1997). 256 pp.
* Nettels, Curtis P. ''The Emergence of a National Economy, 1775–1815'' (1962). general survey of economic history and policy
* White, Leonard D. ''The Federalists'' (1949), detailed coverage of how the Treasury and other departments were created and operated.
* Wright; Robert E. ''Hamilton Unbound: Finance and the Creation of the American Republic'' Praeger (2002) [https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=102032054 online edition]

===Foreign Policy===
* Bemis, Samuel Flagg. ''Jay's Treaty: A Study in Commerce and Diplomacy'' (1923) [http://www.questia.com/library/book/jays-treaty-a-study-in-commerce-and-diplomacy-by-samuel-flagg-bemis.jsp online edition]
* Coleman, Aaron N. "'A Second Bounaparty?': A Reexamination of Alexander Hamilton during the Franco–American Crisis, 1796–1801," ''Journal of the Early Republic,'' Volume 28, Number 2, Summer 2008, pp. 183–214 [http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/journal_of_the_early_republic/v028/28.2.coleman.html in Project Muse]
* Combs, Jerald. A. ''The Jay Treaty: Political Background of Founding Fathers'' (1970) Combs dislikes Hamilton's quest for national power and a "heroic state" dominating the Western Hemisphere, but concludes the Federalists "followed the proper policy" because the treaty preserved peace with Britain
* Harper, John Lamberton. ''American Machiavelli: Alexander Hamilton and the Origins of U.S. Foreign Policy.'' (2004) [http://www.h-net.msu.edu/reviews/showrev.cgi?path=220511093955403 online review]
* Lycan, Gilbert L. ''Alexander Hamilton and American Foreign Policy: A Design for Greatness'' (1970),
* Smith, Robert W. ''Keeping the Republic: Ideology and Early American Diplomacy.'' (2004)
* Walling, Karl-Friedrich. ''Republican Empire: Alexander Hamilton on War and Free Government'' (1999),

===Personality===
* Ambrose, Douglas and Robert W. T. Martin, eds. ''The Many Faces of Alexander Hamilton: The Life & Legacy of America's Most Elusive Founding Father '' (2006)
* Freeman, Joanne B. ''Affairs of Honor: National Politics in the New Republic'' (2001). essential on the meaning of duels; [http://www.common-place.org/vol-02/no-02/author/ online interview]
* Kennedy, Roger G. ''Burr, Hamilton, and Jefferson: A Study in Character'' Oxford UP, 2000 [https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=59887100 online edition]
* Knott, Stephen F. ''Alexander Hamilton and the Persistence of Myth'' University Press of Kansas, (2002) (ISBN 0-7006-1157-6).
* Trees, Andrew S. "The Importance of Being Alexander Hamilton." ''Reviews in American History'' 2005 33(1): 8-14. Issn: 0048-7511 Fulltext: in Project Muse
* Trees, Andrew S. ''The Founding Fathers and the Politics of Character.'' (2004)

===Primary sources===
* Freeman, Joanne B., ed. ''Alexander Hamilton: Writings'' (2001), [http://www.loa.org The Library of America] edition, 1108 pages. Most of Hamilton's major writings and many of his letters [http://www.amazon.com/Alexander-Hamilton-Writings-Library-America/dp/1931082049/ref=sr_1_4?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1220839663&sr=8-4 excerpt and text search]
* Syrett, Harold C. ed. ''The Papers of Alexander Hamilton'' (27 vol, Columbia University Press, 1961–87); includes all letters and writing by Hamilton, and all important letters written to him; this is the definitive letterpress edition, heavily annotated by scholars; it is available in larger academic libraries; there is also a separate Law series.
* Morris, Richard. ed. ''Alexander Hamilton and the Founding of the Nation'' (1957), excerpts from AH's writings, by topic, 617pp
* Morton J. Frisch ed. ''Selected Writings and Speeches of Alexander Hamilton.'' (1985), 528pp. [https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=58312678 online edition]
* ''The Works of Alexander Hamilton'' edited by Henry Cabot Lodge (1904) [http://books.google.com/books?vid=OCLC01013&id=R7TukmWbcrcC&printsec=toc full text online at Google Books] [http://oll.libertyfund.org/Home3/Author.php?recordID=0135 online in HTML edition]. This is the only online collection of Hamilton's writings and letters. Published in 10 volumes, containing about 1.3 million words. [http://www.archive.org/search.php?query=Hamilton%2C%20alexander%20works full text online at archive.org]
* ''Federalist Papers'' under the shared pseudonym "Publius" by Alexander Hamilton (c. 52 articles), [[James Madison]] (28 articles) and [[John Jay]] (five articles)
* Cooke, Jacob E. ed., ''Alexander Hamilton: A Profile'' (1967), short excerpts from AH and his critics.
* Cunningham, Noble E. ''Jefferson vs. Hamilton: Confrontations that Shaped a Nation'' (2000), short collection of primary sources with commentary.
* Taylor, George Rogers. ed, ''Hamilton and the National Debt'' 1950, excerpts from all sides in 1790s [http://www.questia.com/library/book/hamilton-and-the-national-debt-by-george-rogers-taylor.jsp online edition]

==External links==
* [https://librivox.org/author/4266 Works by Alexander Hamilton - text and free audio] - [[LibriVox]]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Hamilton, Alexander}}

[[Category:Founding Fathers]]
[[Category:United States Secretaries of the Treasury]]
[[Category:United States History]]
[[Category:Taxation]]
[[Category:American Revolution]]
[[Category:Republicanism]]
[[Category:Conservatives]]
[[Category:Early National U.S.]]
[[Category:Enlightenment]]
[[Category:Modernization]]
[[Category:Federalist Papers]]

Thomas Hobbes

2018-08-14T14:02:41Z

Haeralis:

[[Image:Bhmvgjhfj.jpg|right|thumb|Thomas Hobbes]]
'''Thomas Hobbes''' (1588-1679) was an English [[philosopher]], political theorist, historian, optical scientist, translator and classicist. Hobbes was notable as one of the founders of [[social contract]] theory, and a forerunner of [[British empiricism]]. As a [[materialism|materialist]], his concept of human existence excluded the [[soul]], with the [[mind]] being given a purely mechanical explanation. He was widely rumored during his lifetime to be an atheist, which was illegal in 16th century England. Edward Hyde, the Earl of Clarendon and a contemporary of Hobbes', claimed that the philosopher was "a pander to bestiality" whose "doctrines have had so great a share of the debauchery of his Generation, that a good Christian can hardly hear his name without saying of his prayers."<ref>Samuel I. Mintz, The Hunting of Leviathan: Seventeenth-Century Reactions to the Materialism and Moral Philosophy of Thomas Hobbes (Cambridge, 1962), 57. </ref>

Hobbes saw matter in motion as the only reality. To him even consciousness and thought were but the byproducts of atoms moving in the brain.<ref>The New American Desk Encyclopedia, Penguin Group, 1989</ref>

According to Hobbes's most famous work ''Leviathan'' (1651), life for humans prior to the foundation of the social contract was "solitary, poore, nasty, brutish and short". Humans had to form collectives in order to protect themselves from each other. This idea was extended by [[John Locke]], who held (most notably in his ''Second Treatise on Government'') that collectivisation was necessary for the promotion of economic growth. Hobbes's love of strong leadership led him to support monarchy, although he took the view that any strong government was better than nothing, and the stronger the better.

: ''Government should be like unto a man, strong and hard'' (''Leviathan'' xvii).

== See also ==

*[[Philosophy]]

==References==

<References/>

{{DEFAULTSORT:Hobbes, Thomas}}

[[Category:Philosophers]]

Alexander Hamilton

2018-07-04T14:59:25Z

Haeralis:

{{Founding Fathers
|image=alexhamilton.jpg
|State:=New York
|Religion:=[[Episcopalian]]
|Founding Documents:=[[United States Constitution]]
}}'''Alexander Hamilton''' (January 11, 1757 - July 12, 1804) was one of the most important, and most [[conservative]] and [[Patriotic|nationalistic]], of the [[Founding Fathers]] of the [[United States]]. One of the greatest American intellectuals ever, Hamilton became a [[Christian]] about a decade before he was shot and killed in a duel with Aaron Burr.<ref>D'Elia, Donald (1983). [http://www.catholiceducation.org/en/culture/history/alexander-hamilton-from-caesar-to-christ.html "Alexander Hamilton: From Caesar to Christ"], ch. 6 of ''The Spirits of 76'' (Front Royal, VA: Christendom College Press), p. 87. Republished at Catholic Education Resource Center website/Culture/History.</ref>

After wartime service as aide-de-camp to General [[George Washington]], he became a leading lawyer in [[New York]]. He called for a strong new [[constitution]] to replace the weak national government, and in 1788 he wrote half the ''[[Federalist Papers]]'', which mobilized supporters of the Constitution and continues to be the single most influential interpretation of [[republicanism]] and what the Constitution means. He was a leading intellectual of his time and the driving force of the [[Washington D.C.|Washington]] Administration that shaped the young nation.

Hamilton realized that the basis of [[British]] power was its system of centralized [[tax]] collection and its funded [[national debt]] together with its sophisticated [[banking]] structure and its open market in public securities. For a state to wage [[war]] successfully, it had to tax efficiently and borrow cheaply—to become a powerful nation, America had to follow the British financial example. Hamilton's conclusion horrified [[Thomas Jefferson]] and his followers—they saw a deliberate adoption of British methods as an evil corruption—a betrayal of the values of [[Republicanism]] inherent in the [[American Revolution]].

Hamilton played a key role in:

* the continued success of [[George Washington]] as his top aide
* the ratification of the Constitution in 1788
* the interpretation of the Constitution to this day
* the policies that made the United States an economic power
* writing George Washington's [[Farewell Address]], which remains one of the finest statements of [[conservative values|conservative principles]]
* the compromise that placed the nation's capital at [[Washington, D.C.]]
* the election of [[Thomas Jefferson]] as president rather than [[Aaron Burr]] in 1801
* preventing secessionist Aaron Burr from winning the governorship of New York and then breaking up the Union, in 1804

As the nation's first [[United States Secretary of the Treasury|secretary of the Treasury]], Hamilton's far-reaching vision put the United States on an stable financial basis and promoted national unity. His Treasury took over [[state debt]]s as well as [[debts]] owed by the [[Federal government|national government]], and funded them with long-term [[national debt]], which in turn was paid by a new [[tariff]] on imports and a tax on whiskey. He set up the Bank of the United States, a [[central bank]] to make [[liquidity]] in financial markets possible. The nation's business and financial communities for the first time became united in a single [[economy]], and provided critical support for Hamilton. To mobilize that grass-roots support he founded the [[Federalist Party]], which operated in every state. It was the first popular [[political party]] in the world, but soon had competition from the [[Republicans (Jeffersonian)|Republicans]], a party founded by his great adversary [[Thomas Jefferson]].

In foreign affairs he was a strong supporter of [[Britain]], and the well-balanced British political system. Working closely with [[George Washington]], Hamilton in 1795 secured the critical [[Jay Treaty]] over the intense opposition of Jeffersonians who favored [[France]] in its war with Britain. Despite an embarrassing sex scandal, Hamilton tried to keep control of the Federalist Party while [[John Adams]] was President, and orchestrated the creation of a powerful national army in 1798, which he and Washington were to head. Adams' achievement of peace with France frustrated Hamilton's plans, so he sabotaged Adams' reelection in 1800. Nevertheless, he helped Jefferson become President when it appeared the scoundrel [[Aaron Burr]] might take the office. He was killed by Burr in a duel, and for most of the 19th century was a target of attacks by [[Democrats]] as undemocratic and even pro-[[monarchy]].

By the [[Progressive Era]] after 1900, however, Hamilton's [[patriotism|nationalism]], financial wizardry, and promotion of business and [[banking]] increasingly appealed to [[conservative]]s, who made Hamilton into a hero of their own. Hamilton was one of the great expositors of the American political creed of [[republicanism]], and set up programs that proved a strong, effective government of the people could be made operational without an [[aristocracy]] or [[monarch]].

==Early life==
Hamilton was born out of wedlock in the British [[West Indies]] to a mother who had a reputation as the town harlot and a father who was a gambler and who had a wife on another Caribbean island. When he was ten his father left, leaving he, his brother, and his mother alone. At twelve, his mother died while sick, due to fever. Alexander and his brother James would later move in with their older cousing Peter Lytton, but Lytton committed suicide.

A prodigy in every sense of the word, he was handling merchant accounts as a teenager, and his essay on a [[hurricane]] that had hit the town attracted patrons, who would later collect a fund to pay his way to the American colonies. Some scholars have argued that Hamilton’s origins can be reflected in his later life, where, unlike much of the Revolutionary generation, his views were more nationalistic, rather than tied to the interests of a particular region or state.

==Revolution==
As a student at King's College (now [[Columbia University]]), Hamilton took a major role in the political debates over independence, writing several papers refuting opponents and activists. Most notably, Hamilton refuted the bishop Samuel Seabury (who wrote under the pen name A. W. Farmer) in a paper titled ''The Farmer Refuted'', published on February 23, 1775.<ref>[http://oll.libertyfund.org/titles/hamilton-the-revolutionary-writings-of-alexander-hamilton#lfHamilton_head_008 The Farmer Refuted], ''The Online Library of Liberty''</ref>

Hamilton later raised a company of artillery and was selected captain. Fighting the British invasion of [[New York City]] in late 1776, he came to the attention of [[George Washington]], Commander-in-Chief of the [[Continental Army]]. Washington promoted Hamilton to colonel and made him his aide-de-camp — in effect the chief of staff (although that title was not in use). Hamilton had a combat command in the [[Battle of Yorktown]], which ended the war in 1781. Hamilton may have alerted General Washington to the existence of the Newburgh Conspiracy, in which disgruntled officers may have become a threat to civilian government. Washington prevented that.

After the Battle of Yorktown, Hamilton resigned his commission. New York appointed Hamilton to the Congress of the Confederation for the term beginning in November 1782, and appointed him as a delegate to the [[Annapolis Convention]] in 1786.

==New York==
Hamilton became a leading lawyer in [[New York City]], and married into the rich and powerful Schuyler family. Along with his close friend [[John Jay]], he was active in anti-[[slavery]] movements. In 1787, Hamilton served as assemblyman from New York County in the New York State Legislature. He was also chosen by the legislature as a delegate to the [[Philadelphia]] [[Constitutional Convention]] in 1787 along with [[Robert Yates]] and [[John Lansing, Jr.]]

==Constitutional Convention==
Hamilton, alongside [[James Madison]] and [[James Wilson]], voiced strong opposition to [[state's rights]], [[decentralization]], and [[limited government]] at the Constitutional Convention and favored a radically [[nationalist]] approach to American government. Hamilton believed that the central principle of the [[Articles of Confederation]] was the idea of state sovereignty, but he argued that this indicated that the entire idea was completely wrong. Because state sovereignty, "the fundamental principle of the old Confederation," was wholly defective, Hamilton argued that America's only choice was to "eradicate and discard this principle before we can expect an efficient government."<ref>Alexander Hamilton, Elliot II, 234. The idea is also present in "The Federalist" no. 15. </ref>

During the Convention, Hamilton argued for the most heavily centralized plan of government out of all of the attendees. He proposed making the chief executive an elected monarch who could not be removed from office unless he ceased to rule "in good behavior." The president under Hamilton's plan would have been given an absolute veto which could not be overturned by the legislature. The national government would have had the power to appoint all state [[governors]] and would wield absolute veto power over all state legislation. Hamilton's plan also gave a life-time tenure in office to senators and to the judiciary. With his plan considered as a whole, Hamilton "advocated virtually doing away with state sovereignty, noting that as long as there was power to be had in the states, people would aspire to acquire that power, to the detriment of the nation as a whole."<ref>https://www.usconstitution.net/consttop_ccon.html#hamilton</ref>

Hamilton authored 51 of the 85 ''[[Federalist Papers]],'' while [[James Madison]] and [[John Jay]] composed the others. These essays, published anonymously in [[newspaper]]s in New York and throughout the United States, helped turn popular opinion in favor of ratifying the Constitution, particularly in the decisive states of [[New York]] and [[Virginia]].

==Secretary of the Treasury==
Perhaps Hamilton's greatest contribution to the success of the United States occurred during his tenure as Washington’s Secretary of the Treasury from 1789 to 1795. Through a system of tariffs and [[excise tax]]es (some of which, as demonstrated by the [[Whiskey Rebellion]], caused a great deal of resentment), Hamilton placed the United States on sound financial footing. While Hamilton disliked taxes, he also realized that they were necessary. Hamilton not only favored close trade ties with [[Great Britain]], the world’s leading commercial power, but he believed that the United States should emulate their economic system. In his Report on Manufactures, Hamilton envisioned the United States as a nation that would rely on manufacturing and commerce in order to become a great power. This (among other things) put him at odds with [[Thomas Jefferson]], who envisioned the United States as an [[agriculture|agrarian]] republic.

In 1790, Hamilton appointed [[Tench Coxe]] as Assistant to the Secretary of the Treasury.<ref>[http://founders.archives.gov/documents/Hamilton/01-06-02-0280 Appointment of Tench Coxe as Assistant to the Secretary of the Treasury, (10 May 1790)]</ref>

==The Hamilton-Reynolds Affair==
In the summer of 1797, Hamilton became the first major American politician publicly involved in an affair. Six years earlier, in the summer of 1791, 34-year-old Hamilton started an affair with 23-year-old Maria Reynolds; according to Hamilton's recount, Maria approached him at his house in Philadelphia, claiming that her husband, James Reynolds, had abandoned her and she wished to return to her relatives in New York but lacked the means. Hamilton retrieved her address and delivered her $30 personally at her boarding house where she led him into her bedroom. The two began an illicit affair that lasted approximately until June 1792.

Over the course of that year, James Reynolds was well aware of his wife's unfaithfulness. He continually supported their relationship in order to regularly gain blackmail money from Hamilton. The common practice in the day was for the wronged husband to seek retribution in a pistol duel, but Reynolds, realizing how much Hamilton had to lose if his activity came into public view, insisted on monetary compensation instead; after an initial request of $1,000 to which Hamilton complied, Reynolds invited Hamilton to renew his visits to his wife "as a friend" only to extort forced "loans" after each visit. In the end, the blackmail payments totaled over $1,300 (including the initial extortion). Hamilton, at this point, was probably aware of both Reynoldses' being involved in the blackmail, and welcomed, as well as strictly complied with, Reynolds' request to end the affair.

In November 1792, James Reynolds and his associate Jacob Clingman were arrested for counterfeiting and speculating in veteran back wages. Clingman was released on bail and relayed information to James Monroe that Reynolds had evidence that would incriminate Hamilton. Monroe consulted with Congressmen Muhlenberg and Venable on what actions to take and the Congressmen confronted Hamilton on December 15, 1792. Hamilton refuted the suspicions of speculation by exposing his affair with Maria and producing as evidence the letters by both Reynoldses, proving that his payments to James Reynolds related to blackmail over his adultery, and not to treasury misconduct. The trio were to keep the documents privately with the utmost confidence.

In the summer of 1797, however, when "notoriously scurrilous journalist" James T. Callender published ''A History of the United States for the Year 1796'', it contained accusations of James Reynolds being an agent of Hamilton, using documents from the confrontation of December 15, 1792. On July 5, 1797, Hamilton wrote to Monroe, Muhlenberg and Venable asking them to confirm that there was nothing that would damage the perception of his integrity while Secretary of Treasury. Muhlenberg and Venable complied with Hamilton's request but Monroe didn't, and after several rounds of argument, the two almost resorted to a duel. When Hamilton did not obtain an explicit response from Monroe, he published a 91-page pamphlet, later usually referred to as the [[The Reynolds Pamphlet|Reynolds Pamphlet]], in order to preserve his public reputation, discussing the affair in exquisite detail. His wife Elizabeth eventually forgave him.

==Federalist Party==
Hamilton saw the need for political newspapers and subsidized numerous editors, most famously [[Noah Webster]]. In 1801, with $10,000 from investors, Hamilton started the ''[[New York Evening Post]]''.<ref>It is currently published by [[Rupert Murdoch]] under the name ''[[New York Post]]''.</ref>

==Adams and Jefferson administrations==

==Republicanism==
Jefferson repeatedly attacked Hamilton as an enemy of [[American values]]—and Jeffersonians have echoed the criticism over the centuries. Jefferson said he was an enemy of popular government, did not believe in [[republicanism]], admired the British system too much, and even wanted to set up a [[monarchy]]. Since the 1980s scholars have rescued rescue Hamilton from these interpretations and stressed his republicanism, arguing that Jefferson went too far in his attacks. Historians now portray Hamilton as a moderate, mainstream republican. They point to the ''[[Federalist Papers]]'' as a core statement of American values, and also Washington's "[[Farewell Address]]." One debate in the 1790s was whether true republican citizens should have "confidence" in their elected leaders, which was Hamilton's position, or maintain a "vigilant" scrutiny of them, which was Jefferson's. Hamilton stressed confidence in his vision of republican [[citizenship]] and [[freedom of the press]]. Hamilton's philosophy, argues Martin (2005), is best understood as an energetic, [[elitist]] reformulation of republicanism.

Hamilton's conception of human nature shaped his political thought. His predominantly and radically liberal conception of human nature was based on [[John Locke]]'s concept of [[liberty]], [[Thomas Hobbes]]'s concept of power, and [[Nicolò Machiavelli]]'s concept of the 'effectual truth.' It thus stressed the necessary relation between self-interest and republican government and entailed the repudiation of classical republican and Christian political ideals. But Hamilton's love of liberty was nonetheless rooted in a sense of classical nobility and Christian [[philanthropy]] that simultaneously elevated and contradicted his liberalism. The complex relation between liberty, nobility, philanthropy, and power in Hamilton's conception of human nature, in effect, defined his thought and exposed the strengths and weaknesses of his ideology. That complexity formed the spirit of his liberal [[republicanism]].<ref>Michael J. Rosano, "Liberty, Nobility, Philanthropy, and Power in Alexander Hamilton's Conception of Human Nature". ''American Journal of Political Science'' 2003 47(1): 61-74</ref>

In defense of Republicanism, Hamilton authored papers under the pseudonym ''Lucius Crassus''.

==Death==
Hamilton's long standing rivalry with [[Aaron Burr]] eventually lead to Burr accusing Hamilton of [[slander]]. Hamilton replied that the anti-Burr statements he had made were not slander, but were instead the truth. The resulting argument brought a lifetime of feuding to a head in the form of a duel. The duel took place on the 11th of July 1804 at Weehawken, [[New Jersey]]. Hamilton believed that a gentleman shoots over his target, and that honor is served.<ref>http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/hamilton/filmmore/pt_2.html</ref> Burr had no such belief. Hamilton shot over Burr's head, but Burr's [[gun]]shot struck its target into Hamilton's body. Hamilton was taken away and after suffering horribly from the wound throughout the night, died the next day.<ref>[http://bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index=H000101 Biography]</ref> Hamilton's son, who was given the same advice by his father that a gentleman shoots over his target, had earlier died in a duel the same way.

<blockquote>
At dawn on the morning of July 11, 1804, political antagonists and personal enemies Alexander Hamilton and Aaron Burr met on the heights of Weehawken, New Jersey, to settle their longstanding differences with a duel. The participants fired their [[pistol]]s in close succession. Burr's shot met its target immediately, fatally wounding Hamilton and leading to his death the following day. Burr escaped unharmed. This tragically extreme incident reflected the depth of animosity aroused by the first emergence of the nation's [[political party]] system.<ref>[http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/today/jul11.html Alexander Hamilton.]</ref>
</blockquote>

==Reputation==
No figure in [[American history]] has had so many ups and down, so many champions and detractors as Hamilton over the last two centuries. Historians continue to ask, "Was he a closet [[monarchist]] or a sincere republican? A victim of partisan [[politics]] or one of its most active promoters? A lackey for British interests or a [[foreign policy]] mastermind? An economic genius or a shill for special interests? The father of a vigorous national government or the destroyer of genuine federalism? A defender of governmental authority or a dangerous militarist?"<ref>Ambrose and Martin, ed. ''The Many Faces of Alexander Hamilton'' (2006) p. 11</ref>

==Trivia==

Hamilton, along with [[Benjamin Franklin]], is one of the very few non-presidents to be portrayed on American money. Hamilton's portrait is on the $10 bill, while Franklin is on the $100 bill.

==Quotes==
* "Those who stand for nothing fall for anything."
* "In the general course of human nature, a power over a man's subsistence amounts to a power over his will." - Federalist 79

==See also==
*[[Hamilton (musical)]]

==Notes==
<references/>

==Further reading ==
* Ellis, Joseph J. ''Founding Brothers: The Revolutionary Generation'' (2002), won Pulitzer Prize. [http://www.amazon.com/Founding-Brothers-Revolutionary-Joseph-Ellis/dp/0375405445/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1196083971&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Ferling, John. ''A Leap in the Dark: The Struggle to Create the American Republic'' (Oxford University Press, 2003), good overview of the era
* Brookhiser, Richard. "Alexander Hamilton, American". (1999) biography [http://www.amazon.com/ALEXANDER-HAMILTON-American-Richard-Brookhiser/dp/0684863316/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1196083822&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Chernow, Ron. "Alexander Hamilton". (2004) full length detailed biography [http://www.amazon.com/Alexander-Hamilton-Ron-Chernow/dp/B000UENRQU/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1196084039&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* McDonald, Forrest. ''Alexander Hamilton: A Biography'' (1979), biography by leading conservative historian; focused on intellectual history esp on AH's republicanism. [http://www.amazon.com/Alexander-Hamilton-Biography-Forrest-McDonald/dp/039330048X/ref=sr_1_5?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1220839663&sr=8-5 excerpt and text search]; [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=101665868 complete edition online from Questia]
* McDonald, Forrest. "Hamilton, Alexander"; [http://www.anb.org/articles/02/02-00154.html; American National Biography Online 2000], 5000 words
* Miller, John C. ''Alexander Hamilton: Portrait in Paradox'' (1959), full-length scholarly biography; [http://www.questia.com/library/book/alexander-hamilton-portrait-in-paradox-by-john-c-miller.jsp online edition]

===Biographies===
* Ambrose, Douglas, and Robert W. T. Martin, eds. ''The Many Faces of Alexander Hamilton: The Life and Legacy of America's Most Elusive Founding Father.'' (2006) 310pp, essays by scholars; [http://www.amazon.com/Many-Faces-Alexander-Hamilton-Americas/dp/0814707149/ref=sr_1_7?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1196083971&sr=8-7 excerpt and text search]
* Cooke, Jacob E. ''Alexander Hamilton: A Biography.'' (1982) by leading scholar
* Flexner, James Thomas. "The Young Hamilton: A Biography". (1997)
* Hacker, Louis M. ''Alexander Hamilton in the American Tradition.'' (1957) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=95039628 online edition]
* McDonald, Forrest. ''Alexander Hamilton: A Biography'' (1979) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=101665868 online edition] biography focused on intellectual history esp on AH's republicanism.
* McDonald, Forrest. "Hamilton, Alexander"; [http://www.anb.org/articles/02/02-00154.html; American National Biography Online 2000], 5000 words
* Miller, John C. ''Alexander Hamilton: Portrait in Paradox'' (1959), full-length scholarly biography; [http://www.questia.com/library/book/alexander-hamilton-portrait-in-paradox-by-john-c-miller.jsp online edition]
* Mitchell, Broadus. ''Alexander Hamilton'' (2 vols, 1957–62), the most detailed scholarly biography; [https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=33716230 online edition of vol 1]
** Mitchell, Broadus. ''Alexander Hamilton: A Concise Biography'' (1976), 395pp
* Nevins, Allan. "Alexander Hamilton" in ''Dictionary of American Biography'' (1934)
* Randall, Willard Sterne. "Alexander Hamilton: A Life". (2003) Popular. [http://www.amazon.com/Alexander-Hamilton-Willard-Sterne-Randall/dp/0060954663/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1196083900&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]

===Political philosophy===
* Chan, Michael D. "Alexander Hamilton on Slavery." ''Review of Politics'' 66 (Spring 2004): 207-31. [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1408953 in JSTOR]
* Fatovic, Clement. "Constitutionalism and Presidential Prerogative: Jeffersonian and Hamiltonian Perspectives." ''American Journal of Political Science'' 2004 48(3): 429-444. [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1519908 in JSTOR]
* Horton, James Oliver. "Alexander Hamilton: Slavery and Race in a Revolutionary Generation" ''New-York Journal of American History'' 2004 65(3): 16–24. [http://66.102.7.104/search?q=cache:88cftz6zXJYJ:www.alexanderhamiltonexhibition.org/about/Horton%2520-%2520Hamiltsvery_Race.pdf+james+horton+%22alexander+hamilton%22+slavery&hl=en&gl=us&ct=clnk&cd=1 online version]
* Mason, Alpheus Thomas. "The Federalist—A Split Personality," ''American Historical Review'' 57 (1952): 625-43 [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0002-8762(195204)57%3A3%3C625%3ATFSP%3E2.0.CO%3B2-Z online at JSTOR]
* Martin, Robert W. T. "Reforming Republicanism: Alexander Hamilton's Theory of Republican Citizenship and Press Liberty." ''Journal of the Early Republic'' 2005 25(1): 21-46. Issn: 0275-1275 [http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/journal_of_the_early_republic/v025/25.1martin.html in Project Muse]
* Rossiter, Clinton. ''Alexander Hamilton and the Constitution'' (1964)
* Sheehan, Colleen. "Madison V. Hamilton: The Battle Over Republicanism And The Role Of Public Opinion" ''American Political Science Review'' 2004 98(3): 405–424. [http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=245205 online abstract]
* Stourzh, Gerald. ''Alexander Hamilton and the Idea of Republican Government'' (1970),
* Staloff, Darren. "Hamilton, Adams, Jefferson: The Politics of Enlightenment and the American Founding." (2005)

===Politics===
* Bassett, John Spencer. ''The Federalist System, 1789-1801'' (1906) old scholarly survey; [http://books.google.com/books?vid=0qz0JCJMPjp9xrk7lF2zF07&id=LAoOAAAAIAAJ&printsec=toc&dq=bassett+%22federalist+system%22&sig=CPcsG1aOwgXiDZ7TIRpl1bKO4P0 online edition]
* Bowers, Claude G. ''Jefferson and Hamilton'' (1925), a slashing attack on Hamilton as unamerican aristocrat
* Charles, Joseph. "The Jay Treaty: The Origins of the American Party System," in ''William and Mary Quarterly'', (Oct., 1955), pp. 581–630. [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1918627 online at JSTOR]
*Elkins, Stanley M. and Eric McKitrick, ''The Age of Federalism.'' (1993), the most advanced history of politics in 1790s [http://www.questia.com/library/book/the-age-of-federalism-by-stanley-elkins-eric-mckitrick.jsp online edition]
* Kurtz; Stephen G. ''The Presidency of John Adams: The Collapse of Federalism, 1795-1800'' 1957 [https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=14355519 online edition]
* Miller, John C. ''The Federalist Era: 1789-1801'' (1960), scholarly survey
* Nevins, Allan. ''The Evening Post: A Century of Journalism'' (1922) [http://books.google.com/books?id=q-F2daxBy1AC&pg=PA7&dq=inauthor:allan+inauthor:nevins&num=30&as_brr=1#PPA5,M1 online edition] ch 1 on Hamilton's ownership
* Sharp, James. ''American Politics in the Early Republic: The New Nation in Crisis.'' (1995), survey of politics in 1790s

===Finance===
* Edling, Max M. "'So Immense a Power in the Affairs of War': Alexander Hamilton and the Restoration of Public Credit." ''William and Mary Quarterly'' 2007 64(2): 287-326. in [[History Cooperative]]
* Flaumenhaft, Harvey. ''The Effective Republic: Administration and Constitution in the Thought of Alexander Hamilton'' Duke University Press, 1992 [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=37077611 online edition]
* McDonald, Forrest. ''The Presidency of George Washington'' (1974).
* McNamara, Peter. ''Political Economy and Statesmanship: Smith, Hamilton, and the Foundation of the Commercial Republic.'' (Northern Illinois University Press, 1997). 256 pp.
* Nettels, Curtis P. ''The Emergence of a National Economy, 1775–1815'' (1962). general survey of economic history and policy
* White, Leonard D. ''The Federalists'' (1949), detailed coverage of how the Treasury and other departments were created and operated.
* Wright; Robert E. ''Hamilton Unbound: Finance and the Creation of the American Republic'' Praeger (2002) [https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=102032054 online edition]

===Foreign Policy===
* Bemis, Samuel Flagg. ''Jay's Treaty: A Study in Commerce and Diplomacy'' (1923) [http://www.questia.com/library/book/jays-treaty-a-study-in-commerce-and-diplomacy-by-samuel-flagg-bemis.jsp online edition]
* Coleman, Aaron N. "'A Second Bounaparty?': A Reexamination of Alexander Hamilton during the Franco–American Crisis, 1796–1801," ''Journal of the Early Republic,'' Volume 28, Number 2, Summer 2008, pp. 183–214 [http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/journal_of_the_early_republic/v028/28.2.coleman.html in Project Muse]
* Combs, Jerald. A. ''The Jay Treaty: Political Background of Founding Fathers'' (1970) Combs dislikes Hamilton's quest for national power and a "heroic state" dominating the Western Hemisphere, but concludes the Federalists "followed the proper policy" because the treaty preserved peace with Britain
* Harper, John Lamberton. ''American Machiavelli: Alexander Hamilton and the Origins of U.S. Foreign Policy.'' (2004) [http://www.h-net.msu.edu/reviews/showrev.cgi?path=220511093955403 online review]
* Lycan, Gilbert L. ''Alexander Hamilton and American Foreign Policy: A Design for Greatness'' (1970),
* Smith, Robert W. ''Keeping the Republic: Ideology and Early American Diplomacy.'' (2004)
* Walling, Karl-Friedrich. ''Republican Empire: Alexander Hamilton on War and Free Government'' (1999),

===Personality===
* Ambrose, Douglas and Robert W. T. Martin, eds. ''The Many Faces of Alexander Hamilton: The Life & Legacy of America's Most Elusive Founding Father '' (2006)
* Freeman, Joanne B. ''Affairs of Honor: National Politics in the New Republic'' (2001). essential on the meaning of duels; [http://www.common-place.org/vol-02/no-02/author/ online interview]
* Kennedy, Roger G. ''Burr, Hamilton, and Jefferson: A Study in Character'' Oxford UP, 2000 [https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=59887100 online edition]
* Knott, Stephen F. ''Alexander Hamilton and the Persistence of Myth'' University Press of Kansas, (2002) (ISBN 0-7006-1157-6).
* Trees, Andrew S. "The Importance of Being Alexander Hamilton." ''Reviews in American History'' 2005 33(1): 8-14. Issn: 0048-7511 Fulltext: in Project Muse
* Trees, Andrew S. ''The Founding Fathers and the Politics of Character.'' (2004)

===Primary sources===
* Freeman, Joanne B., ed. ''Alexander Hamilton: Writings'' (2001), [http://www.loa.org The Library of America] edition, 1108 pages. Most of Hamilton's major writings and many of his letters [http://www.amazon.com/Alexander-Hamilton-Writings-Library-America/dp/1931082049/ref=sr_1_4?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1220839663&sr=8-4 excerpt and text search]
* Syrett, Harold C. ed. ''The Papers of Alexander Hamilton'' (27 vol, Columbia University Press, 1961–87); includes all letters and writing by Hamilton, and all important letters written to him; this is the definitive letterpress edition, heavily annotated by scholars; it is available in larger academic libraries; there is also a separate Law series.
* Morris, Richard. ed. ''Alexander Hamilton and the Founding of the Nation'' (1957), excerpts from AH's writings, by topic, 617pp
* Morton J. Frisch ed. ''Selected Writings and Speeches of Alexander Hamilton.'' (1985), 528pp. [https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=58312678 online edition]
* ''The Works of Alexander Hamilton'' edited by Henry Cabot Lodge (1904) [http://books.google.com/books?vid=OCLC01013&id=R7TukmWbcrcC&printsec=toc full text online at Google Books] [http://oll.libertyfund.org/Home3/Author.php?recordID=0135 online in HTML edition]. This is the only online collection of Hamilton's writings and letters. Published in 10 volumes, containing about 1.3 million words. [http://www.archive.org/search.php?query=Hamilton%2C%20alexander%20works full text online at archive.org]
* ''Federalist Papers'' under the shared pseudonym "Publius" by Alexander Hamilton (c. 52 articles), [[James Madison]] (28 articles) and [[John Jay]] (five articles)
* Cooke, Jacob E. ed., ''Alexander Hamilton: A Profile'' (1967), short excerpts from AH and his critics.
* Cunningham, Noble E. ''Jefferson vs. Hamilton: Confrontations that Shaped a Nation'' (2000), short collection of primary sources with commentary.
* Taylor, George Rogers. ed, ''Hamilton and the National Debt'' 1950, excerpts from all sides in 1790s [http://www.questia.com/library/book/hamilton-and-the-national-debt-by-george-rogers-taylor.jsp online edition]

==External links==
* [https://librivox.org/author/4266 Works by Alexander Hamilton - text and free audio] - [[LibriVox]]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Hamilton, Alexander}}

[[Category:Founding Fathers]]
[[Category:United States Secretaries of the Treasury]]
[[Category:United States History]]
[[Category:Taxation]]
[[Category:American Revolution]]
[[Category:Republicanism]]
[[Category:Conservatives]]
[[Category:Early National U.S.]]
[[Category:Enlightenment]]
[[Category:Modernization]]
[[Category:Federalist Papers]]

Alexander Hamilton

2018-07-04T01:53:39Z

Haeralis: Added information about Hamilton's proposals at the Constitutional Convention. This important info was conspicuously absent.

{{Founding Fathers
|image=alexhamilton.jpg
|State:=New York
|Religion:=[[Episcopalian]]
|Founding Documents:=[[United States Constitution]]
}}'''Alexander Hamilton''' (January 11, 1757 - July 12, 1804) was one of the most important, and most [[conservative]] and [[Patriotic|nationalistic]], of the [[Founding Fathers]] of the [[United States]]. One of the greatest American intellectuals ever, Hamilton became a [[Christian]] about a decade before he was shot and killed in a duel with Aaron Burr.<ref>D'Elia, Donald (1983). [http://www.catholiceducation.org/en/culture/history/alexander-hamilton-from-caesar-to-christ.html "Alexander Hamilton: From Caesar to Christ"], ch. 6 of ''The Spirits of 76'' (Front Royal, VA: Christendom College Press), p. 87. Republished at Catholic Education Resource Center website/Culture/History.</ref>

After wartime service as aide-de-camp to General [[George Washington]], he became a leading lawyer in [[New York]]. He called for a strong new [[constitution]] to replace the weak national government, and in 1788 he wrote half the ''[[Federalist Papers]]'', which mobilized supporters of the Constitution and continues to be the single most influential interpretation of [[republicanism]] and what the Constitution means. He was a leading intellectual of his time and the driving force of the [[Washington D.C.|Washington]] Administration that shaped the young nation.

Hamilton realized that the basis of [[British]] power was its system of centralized [[tax]] collection and its funded [[national debt]] together with its sophisticated [[banking]] structure and its open market in public securities. For a state to wage [[war]] successfully, it had to tax efficiently and borrow cheaply—to become a powerful nation, America had to follow the British financial example. Hamilton's conclusion horrified [[Thomas Jefferson]] and his followers—they saw a deliberate adoption of British methods as an evil corruption—a betrayal of the values of [[Republicanism]] inherent in the [[American Revolution]].

Hamilton played a key role in:

* the continued success of [[George Washington]] as his top aide
* the ratification of the Constitution in 1788
* the interpretation of the Constitution to this day
* the policies that made the United States an economic power
* writing George Washington's [[Farewell Address]], which remains one of the finest statements of [[conservative values|conservative principles]]
* the compromise that placed the nation's capital at [[Washington, D.C.]]
* the election of [[Thomas Jefferson]] as president rather than [[Aaron Burr]] in 1801
* preventing secessionist Aaron Burr from winning the governorship of New York and then breaking up the Union, in 1804

As the nation's first [[United States Secretary of the Treasury|secretary of the Treasury]], Hamilton's far-reaching vision put the United States on an stable financial basis and promoted national unity. His Treasury took over [[state debt]]s as well as [[debts]] owed by the [[Federal government|national government]], and funded them with long-term [[national debt]], which in turn was paid by a new [[tariff]] on imports and a tax on whiskey. He set up the Bank of the United States, a [[central bank]] to make [[liquidity]] in financial markets possible. The nation's business and financial communities for the first time became united in a single [[economy]], and provided critical support for Hamilton. To mobilize that grass-roots support he founded the [[Federalist Party]], which operated in every state. It was the first popular [[political party]] in the world, but soon had competition from the [[Republicans (Jeffersonian)|Republicans]], a party founded by his great adversary [[Thomas Jefferson]].

In foreign affairs he was a strong supporter of [[Britain]], and the well-balanced British political system. Working closely with [[George Washington]], Hamilton in 1795 secured the critical [[Jay Treaty]] over the intense opposition of Jeffersonians who favored [[France]] in its war with Britain. Despite an embarrassing sex scandal, Hamilton tried to keep control of the Federalist Party while [[John Adams]] was President, and orchestrated the creation of a powerful national army in 1798, which he and Washington were to head. Adams' achievement of peace with France frustrated Hamilton's plans, so he sabotaged Adams' reelection in 1800. Nevertheless, he helped Jefferson become President when it appeared the scoundrel [[Aaron Burr]] might take the office. He was killed by Burr in a duel, and for most of the 19th century was a target of attacks by [[Democrats]] as undemocratic and even pro-[[monarchy]].

By the [[Progressive Era]] after 1900, however, Hamilton's [[patriotism|nationalism]], financial wizardry, and promotion of business and [[banking]] increasingly appealed to [[conservative]]s, who made Hamilton into a hero of their own. Hamilton was one of the great expositors of the American political creed of [[republicanism]], and set up programs that proved a strong, effective government of the people could be made operational without an [[aristocracy]] or [[monarch]].

==Early life==
Hamilton was born out of wedlock in the British [[West Indies]] to a mother who had a reputation as the town harlot and a father who was a gambler and who had a wife on another Caribbean island. When he was ten his father left, leaving he, his brother, and his mother alone. At twelve, his mother died while sick, due to fever. Alexander and his brother James would later move in with their older cousing Peter Lytton, but Lytton committed suicide.

A prodigy in every sense of the word, he was handling merchant accounts as a teenager, and his essay on a [[hurricane]] that had hit the town attracted patrons, who would later collect a fund to pay his way to the American colonies. Some scholars have argued that Hamilton’s origins can be reflected in his later life, where, unlike much of the Revolutionary generation, his views were more nationalistic, rather than tied to the interests of a particular region or state.

==Revolution==
As a student at King's College (now [[Columbia University]]), Hamilton took a major role in the political debates over independence, writing several papers refuting opponents and activists. Most notably, Hamilton refuted the bishop Samuel Seabury (who wrote under the pen name A. W. Farmer) in a paper titled ''The Farmer Refuted'', published on February 23, 1775.<ref>[http://oll.libertyfund.org/titles/hamilton-the-revolutionary-writings-of-alexander-hamilton#lfHamilton_head_008 The Farmer Refuted], ''The Online Library of Liberty''</ref>

Hamilton later raised a company of artillery and was selected captain. Fighting the British invasion of [[New York City]] in late 1776, he came to the attention of [[George Washington]], Commander-in-Chief of the [[Continental Army]]. Washington promoted Hamilton to colonel and made him his aide-de-camp — in effect the chief of staff (although that title was not in use). Hamilton had a combat command in the [[Battle of Yorktown]], which ended the war in 1781. Hamilton may have alerted General Washington to the existence of the Newburgh Conspiracy, in which disgruntled officers may have become a threat to civilian government. Washington prevented that.

After the Battle of Yorktown, Hamilton resigned his commission. New York appointed Hamilton to the Congress of the Confederation for the term beginning in November 1782, and appointed him as a delegate to the [[Annapolis Convention]] in 1786.

==New York==
Hamilton became a leading lawyer in [[New York City]], and married into the rich and powerful Schuyler family. Along with his close friend [[John Jay]], he was active in anti-[[slavery]] movements. In 1787, Hamilton served as assemblyman from New York County in the New York State Legislature. He was also chosen by the legislature as a delegate to the [[Philadelphia]] [[Constitutional Convention]] in 1787 along with [[Robert Yates]] and [[John Lansing, Jr.]]

==Constitutional Convention==
Hamilton, alongside [[James Madison]] and [[James Wilson]], voiced strong opposition to [[state's rights]], [[decentralization]], and [[limited government]] at the Constitutional Convention and favored a radically [[nationalist]] approach to American government. Hamilton believed that the central principle of the [[Articles of Confederation]] was the idea of state sovereignty, but he argued that this indicated that the entire idea was completely wrong. Because state sovereignty, "the fundamental principle of the old Confederation," was wholly defective, Hamilton argued that America's only choice was to "eradicate and discard this principle before we can expect an efficient government."<ref>Alexander Hamilton, Elliot II, 234. The idea is also present in "The Federalist" no. 15. </ref>

During the Convention, Hamilton argued for the most heavily centralized plan of government out of all of the attendees. He proposed making the chief executive an elected monarch who would could not be removed from office unless he ceased to rule "in good behavior." The president under Hamilton's plan would have been given an absolute veto which could not be overturned by the legislature. The national government would have had the power to appoint all state [[governors]] and would wield absolute veto power over all state legislation. Hamilton's plan also gave a life-time tenure in office to senators and to the judiciary. With his plan considered as a whole, Hamilton "advocated virtually doing away with state sovereignty, noting that as long as there was power to be had in the states, people would aspire to acquire that power, to the detriment of the nation as a whole."<ref>https://www.usconstitution.net/consttop_ccon.html#hamilton</ref>

Hamilton authored 51 of the 85 ''[[Federalist Papers]],'' while [[James Madison]] and [[John Jay]] composed the others. These essays, published anonymously in [[newspaper]]s in New York and throughout the United States, helped turn popular opinion in favor of ratifying the Constitution, particularly in the decisive states of [[New York]] and [[Virginia]].

==Secretary of the Treasury==
Perhaps Hamilton's greatest contribution to the success of the United States occurred during his tenure as Washington’s Secretary of the Treasury from 1789 to 1795. Through a system of tariffs and [[excise tax]]es (some of which, as demonstrated by the [[Whiskey Rebellion]], caused a great deal of resentment), Hamilton placed the United States on sound financial footing. While Hamilton disliked taxes, he also realized that they were necessary. Hamilton not only favored close trade ties with [[Great Britain]], the world’s leading commercial power, but he believed that the United States should emulate their economic system. In his Report on Manufactures, Hamilton envisioned the United States as a nation that would rely on manufacturing and commerce in order to become a great power. This (among other things) put him at odds with [[Thomas Jefferson]], who envisioned the United States as an [[agriculture|agrarian]] republic.

In 1790, Hamilton appointed [[Tench Coxe]] as Assistant to the Secretary of the Treasury.<ref>[http://founders.archives.gov/documents/Hamilton/01-06-02-0280 Appointment of Tench Coxe as Assistant to the Secretary of the Treasury, (10 May 1790)]</ref>

==The Hamilton-Reynolds Affair==
In the summer of 1797, Hamilton became the first major American politician publicly involved in an affair. Six years earlier, in the summer of 1791, 34-year-old Hamilton started an affair with 23-year-old Maria Reynolds; according to Hamilton's recount, Maria approached him at his house in Philadelphia, claiming that her husband, James Reynolds, had abandoned her and she wished to return to her relatives in New York but lacked the means. Hamilton retrieved her address and delivered her $30 personally at her boarding house where she led him into her bedroom. The two began an illicit affair that lasted approximately until June 1792.

Over the course of that year, James Reynolds was well aware of his wife's unfaithfulness. He continually supported their relationship in order to regularly gain blackmail money from Hamilton. The common practice in the day was for the wronged husband to seek retribution in a pistol duel, but Reynolds, realizing how much Hamilton had to lose if his activity came into public view, insisted on monetary compensation instead; after an initial request of $1,000 to which Hamilton complied, Reynolds invited Hamilton to renew his visits to his wife "as a friend" only to extort forced "loans" after each visit. In the end, the blackmail payments totaled over $1,300 (including the initial extortion). Hamilton, at this point, was probably aware of both Reynoldses' being involved in the blackmail, and welcomed, as well as strictly complied with, Reynolds' request to end the affair.

In November 1792, James Reynolds and his associate Jacob Clingman were arrested for counterfeiting and speculating in veteran back wages. Clingman was released on bail and relayed information to James Monroe that Reynolds had evidence that would incriminate Hamilton. Monroe consulted with Congressmen Muhlenberg and Venable on what actions to take and the Congressmen confronted Hamilton on December 15, 1792. Hamilton refuted the suspicions of speculation by exposing his affair with Maria and producing as evidence the letters by both Reynoldses, proving that his payments to James Reynolds related to blackmail over his adultery, and not to treasury misconduct. The trio were to keep the documents privately with the utmost confidence.

In the summer of 1797, however, when "notoriously scurrilous journalist" James T. Callender published ''A History of the United States for the Year 1796'', it contained accusations of James Reynolds being an agent of Hamilton, using documents from the confrontation of December 15, 1792. On July 5, 1797, Hamilton wrote to Monroe, Muhlenberg and Venable asking them to confirm that there was nothing that would damage the perception of his integrity while Secretary of Treasury. Muhlenberg and Venable complied with Hamilton's request but Monroe didn't, and after several rounds of argument, the two almost resorted to a duel. When Hamilton did not obtain an explicit response from Monroe, he published a 91-page pamphlet, later usually referred to as the [[The Reynolds Pamphlet|Reynolds Pamphlet]], in order to preserve his public reputation, discussing the affair in exquisite detail. His wife Elizabeth eventually forgave him.

==Federalist Party==
Hamilton saw the need for political newspapers and subsidized numerous editors, most famously [[Noah Webster]]. In 1801, with $10,000 from investors, Hamilton started the ''[[New York Evening Post]]''.<ref>It is currently published by [[Rupert Murdoch]] under the name ''[[New York Post]]''.</ref>

==Adams and Jefferson administrations==

==Republicanism==
Jefferson repeatedly attacked Hamilton as an enemy of [[American values]]—and Jeffersonians have echoed the criticism over the centuries. Jefferson said he was an enemy of popular government, did not believe in [[republicanism]], admired the British system too much, and even wanted to set up a [[monarchy]]. Since the 1980s scholars have rescued rescue Hamilton from these interpretations and stressed his republicanism, arguing that Jefferson went too far in his attacks. Historians now portray Hamilton as a moderate, mainstream republican. They point to the ''[[Federalist Papers]]'' as a core statement of American values, and also Washington's "[[Farewell Address]]." One debate in the 1790s was whether true republican citizens should have "confidence" in their elected leaders, which was Hamilton's position, or maintain a "vigilant" scrutiny of them, which was Jefferson's. Hamilton stressed confidence in his vision of republican [[citizenship]] and [[freedom of the press]]. Hamilton's philosophy, argues Martin (2005), is best understood as an energetic, [[elitist]] reformulation of republicanism.

Hamilton's conception of human nature shaped his political thought. His predominantly and radically liberal conception of human nature was based on [[John Locke]]'s concept of [[liberty]], [[Thomas Hobbes]]'s concept of power, and [[Nicolò Machiavelli]]'s concept of the 'effectual truth.' It thus stressed the necessary relation between self-interest and republican government and entailed the repudiation of classical republican and Christian political ideals. But Hamilton's love of liberty was nonetheless rooted in a sense of classical nobility and Christian [[philanthropy]] that simultaneously elevated and contradicted his liberalism. The complex relation between liberty, nobility, philanthropy, and power in Hamilton's conception of human nature, in effect, defined his thought and exposed the strengths and weaknesses of his ideology. That complexity formed the spirit of his liberal [[republicanism]].<ref>Michael J. Rosano, "Liberty, Nobility, Philanthropy, and Power in Alexander Hamilton's Conception of Human Nature". ''American Journal of Political Science'' 2003 47(1): 61-74</ref>

In defense of Republicanism, Hamilton authored papers under the pseudonym ''Lucius Crassus''.

==Death==
Hamilton's long standing rivalry with [[Aaron Burr]] eventually lead to Burr accusing Hamilton of [[slander]]. Hamilton replied that the anti-Burr statements he had made were not slander, but were instead the truth. The resulting argument brought a lifetime of feuding to a head in the form of a duel. The duel took place on the 11th of July 1804 at Weehawken, [[New Jersey]]. Hamilton believed that a gentleman shoots over his target, and that honor is served.<ref>http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/hamilton/filmmore/pt_2.html</ref> Burr had no such belief. Hamilton shot over Burr's head, but Burr's [[gun]]shot struck its target into Hamilton's body. Hamilton was taken away and after suffering horribly from the wound throughout the night, died the next day.<ref>[http://bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index=H000101 Biography]</ref> Hamilton's son, who was given the same advice by his father that a gentleman shoots over his target, had earlier died in a duel the same way.

<blockquote>
At dawn on the morning of July 11, 1804, political antagonists and personal enemies Alexander Hamilton and Aaron Burr met on the heights of Weehawken, New Jersey, to settle their longstanding differences with a duel. The participants fired their [[pistol]]s in close succession. Burr's shot met its target immediately, fatally wounding Hamilton and leading to his death the following day. Burr escaped unharmed. This tragically extreme incident reflected the depth of animosity aroused by the first emergence of the nation's [[political party]] system.<ref>[http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/today/jul11.html Alexander Hamilton.]</ref>
</blockquote>

==Reputation==
No figure in [[American history]] has had so many ups and down, so many champions and detractors as Hamilton over the last two centuries. Historians continue to ask, "Was he a closet [[monarchist]] or a sincere republican? A victim of partisan [[politics]] or one of its most active promoters? A lackey for British interests or a [[foreign policy]] mastermind? An economic genius or a shill for special interests? The father of a vigorous national government or the destroyer of genuine federalism? A defender of governmental authority or a dangerous militarist?"<ref>Ambrose and Martin, ed. ''The Many Faces of Alexander Hamilton'' (2006) p. 11</ref>

==Trivia==

Hamilton, along with [[Benjamin Franklin]], is one of the very few non-presidents to be portrayed on American money. Hamilton's portrait is on the $10 bill, while Franklin is on the $100 bill.

==Quotes==
* "Those who stand for nothing fall for anything."
* "In the general course of human nature, a power over a man's subsistence amounts to a power over his will." - Federalist 79

==See also==
*[[Hamilton (musical)]]

==Notes==
<references/>

==Further reading ==
* Ellis, Joseph J. ''Founding Brothers: The Revolutionary Generation'' (2002), won Pulitzer Prize. [http://www.amazon.com/Founding-Brothers-Revolutionary-Joseph-Ellis/dp/0375405445/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1196083971&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Ferling, John. ''A Leap in the Dark: The Struggle to Create the American Republic'' (Oxford University Press, 2003), good overview of the era
* Brookhiser, Richard. "Alexander Hamilton, American". (1999) biography [http://www.amazon.com/ALEXANDER-HAMILTON-American-Richard-Brookhiser/dp/0684863316/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1196083822&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Chernow, Ron. "Alexander Hamilton". (2004) full length detailed biography [http://www.amazon.com/Alexander-Hamilton-Ron-Chernow/dp/B000UENRQU/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1196084039&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* McDonald, Forrest. ''Alexander Hamilton: A Biography'' (1979), biography by leading conservative historian; focused on intellectual history esp on AH's republicanism. [http://www.amazon.com/Alexander-Hamilton-Biography-Forrest-McDonald/dp/039330048X/ref=sr_1_5?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1220839663&sr=8-5 excerpt and text search]; [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=101665868 complete edition online from Questia]
* McDonald, Forrest. "Hamilton, Alexander"; [http://www.anb.org/articles/02/02-00154.html; American National Biography Online 2000], 5000 words
* Miller, John C. ''Alexander Hamilton: Portrait in Paradox'' (1959), full-length scholarly biography; [http://www.questia.com/library/book/alexander-hamilton-portrait-in-paradox-by-john-c-miller.jsp online edition]

===Biographies===
* Ambrose, Douglas, and Robert W. T. Martin, eds. ''The Many Faces of Alexander Hamilton: The Life and Legacy of America's Most Elusive Founding Father.'' (2006) 310pp, essays by scholars; [http://www.amazon.com/Many-Faces-Alexander-Hamilton-Americas/dp/0814707149/ref=sr_1_7?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1196083971&sr=8-7 excerpt and text search]
* Cooke, Jacob E. ''Alexander Hamilton: A Biography.'' (1982) by leading scholar
* Flexner, James Thomas. "The Young Hamilton: A Biography". (1997)
* Hacker, Louis M. ''Alexander Hamilton in the American Tradition.'' (1957) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=95039628 online edition]
* McDonald, Forrest. ''Alexander Hamilton: A Biography'' (1979) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=101665868 online edition] biography focused on intellectual history esp on AH's republicanism.
* McDonald, Forrest. "Hamilton, Alexander"; [http://www.anb.org/articles/02/02-00154.html; American National Biography Online 2000], 5000 words
* Miller, John C. ''Alexander Hamilton: Portrait in Paradox'' (1959), full-length scholarly biography; [http://www.questia.com/library/book/alexander-hamilton-portrait-in-paradox-by-john-c-miller.jsp online edition]
* Mitchell, Broadus. ''Alexander Hamilton'' (2 vols, 1957–62), the most detailed scholarly biography; [https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=33716230 online edition of vol 1]
** Mitchell, Broadus. ''Alexander Hamilton: A Concise Biography'' (1976), 395pp
* Nevins, Allan. "Alexander Hamilton" in ''Dictionary of American Biography'' (1934)
* Randall, Willard Sterne. "Alexander Hamilton: A Life". (2003) Popular. [http://www.amazon.com/Alexander-Hamilton-Willard-Sterne-Randall/dp/0060954663/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1196083900&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]

===Political philosophy===
* Chan, Michael D. "Alexander Hamilton on Slavery." ''Review of Politics'' 66 (Spring 2004): 207-31. [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1408953 in JSTOR]
* Fatovic, Clement. "Constitutionalism and Presidential Prerogative: Jeffersonian and Hamiltonian Perspectives." ''American Journal of Political Science'' 2004 48(3): 429-444. [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1519908 in JSTOR]
* Horton, James Oliver. "Alexander Hamilton: Slavery and Race in a Revolutionary Generation" ''New-York Journal of American History'' 2004 65(3): 16–24. [http://66.102.7.104/search?q=cache:88cftz6zXJYJ:www.alexanderhamiltonexhibition.org/about/Horton%2520-%2520Hamiltsvery_Race.pdf+james+horton+%22alexander+hamilton%22+slavery&hl=en&gl=us&ct=clnk&cd=1 online version]
* Mason, Alpheus Thomas. "The Federalist—A Split Personality," ''American Historical Review'' 57 (1952): 625-43 [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0002-8762(195204)57%3A3%3C625%3ATFSP%3E2.0.CO%3B2-Z online at JSTOR]
* Martin, Robert W. T. "Reforming Republicanism: Alexander Hamilton's Theory of Republican Citizenship and Press Liberty." ''Journal of the Early Republic'' 2005 25(1): 21-46. Issn: 0275-1275 [http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/journal_of_the_early_republic/v025/25.1martin.html in Project Muse]
* Rossiter, Clinton. ''Alexander Hamilton and the Constitution'' (1964)
* Sheehan, Colleen. "Madison V. Hamilton: The Battle Over Republicanism And The Role Of Public Opinion" ''American Political Science Review'' 2004 98(3): 405–424. [http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=245205 online abstract]
* Stourzh, Gerald. ''Alexander Hamilton and the Idea of Republican Government'' (1970),
* Staloff, Darren. "Hamilton, Adams, Jefferson: The Politics of Enlightenment and the American Founding." (2005)

===Politics===
* Bassett, John Spencer. ''The Federalist System, 1789-1801'' (1906) old scholarly survey; [http://books.google.com/books?vid=0qz0JCJMPjp9xrk7lF2zF07&id=LAoOAAAAIAAJ&printsec=toc&dq=bassett+%22federalist+system%22&sig=CPcsG1aOwgXiDZ7TIRpl1bKO4P0 online edition]
* Bowers, Claude G. ''Jefferson and Hamilton'' (1925), a slashing attack on Hamilton as unamerican aristocrat
* Charles, Joseph. "The Jay Treaty: The Origins of the American Party System," in ''William and Mary Quarterly'', (Oct., 1955), pp. 581–630. [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1918627 online at JSTOR]
*Elkins, Stanley M. and Eric McKitrick, ''The Age of Federalism.'' (1993), the most advanced history of politics in 1790s [http://www.questia.com/library/book/the-age-of-federalism-by-stanley-elkins-eric-mckitrick.jsp online edition]
* Kurtz; Stephen G. ''The Presidency of John Adams: The Collapse of Federalism, 1795-1800'' 1957 [https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=14355519 online edition]
* Miller, John C. ''The Federalist Era: 1789-1801'' (1960), scholarly survey
* Nevins, Allan. ''The Evening Post: A Century of Journalism'' (1922) [http://books.google.com/books?id=q-F2daxBy1AC&pg=PA7&dq=inauthor:allan+inauthor:nevins&num=30&as_brr=1#PPA5,M1 online edition] ch 1 on Hamilton's ownership
* Sharp, James. ''American Politics in the Early Republic: The New Nation in Crisis.'' (1995), survey of politics in 1790s

===Finance===
* Edling, Max M. "'So Immense a Power in the Affairs of War': Alexander Hamilton and the Restoration of Public Credit." ''William and Mary Quarterly'' 2007 64(2): 287-326. in [[History Cooperative]]
* Flaumenhaft, Harvey. ''The Effective Republic: Administration and Constitution in the Thought of Alexander Hamilton'' Duke University Press, 1992 [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=37077611 online edition]
* McDonald, Forrest. ''The Presidency of George Washington'' (1974).
* McNamara, Peter. ''Political Economy and Statesmanship: Smith, Hamilton, and the Foundation of the Commercial Republic.'' (Northern Illinois University Press, 1997). 256 pp.
* Nettels, Curtis P. ''The Emergence of a National Economy, 1775–1815'' (1962). general survey of economic history and policy
* White, Leonard D. ''The Federalists'' (1949), detailed coverage of how the Treasury and other departments were created and operated.
* Wright; Robert E. ''Hamilton Unbound: Finance and the Creation of the American Republic'' Praeger (2002) [https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=102032054 online edition]

===Foreign Policy===
* Bemis, Samuel Flagg. ''Jay's Treaty: A Study in Commerce and Diplomacy'' (1923) [http://www.questia.com/library/book/jays-treaty-a-study-in-commerce-and-diplomacy-by-samuel-flagg-bemis.jsp online edition]
* Coleman, Aaron N. "'A Second Bounaparty?': A Reexamination of Alexander Hamilton during the Franco–American Crisis, 1796–1801," ''Journal of the Early Republic,'' Volume 28, Number 2, Summer 2008, pp. 183–214 [http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/journal_of_the_early_republic/v028/28.2.coleman.html in Project Muse]
* Combs, Jerald. A. ''The Jay Treaty: Political Background of Founding Fathers'' (1970) Combs dislikes Hamilton's quest for national power and a "heroic state" dominating the Western Hemisphere, but concludes the Federalists "followed the proper policy" because the treaty preserved peace with Britain
* Harper, John Lamberton. ''American Machiavelli: Alexander Hamilton and the Origins of U.S. Foreign Policy.'' (2004) [http://www.h-net.msu.edu/reviews/showrev.cgi?path=220511093955403 online review]
* Lycan, Gilbert L. ''Alexander Hamilton and American Foreign Policy: A Design for Greatness'' (1970),
* Smith, Robert W. ''Keeping the Republic: Ideology and Early American Diplomacy.'' (2004)
* Walling, Karl-Friedrich. ''Republican Empire: Alexander Hamilton on War and Free Government'' (1999),

===Personality===
* Ambrose, Douglas and Robert W. T. Martin, eds. ''The Many Faces of Alexander Hamilton: The Life & Legacy of America's Most Elusive Founding Father '' (2006)
* Freeman, Joanne B. ''Affairs of Honor: National Politics in the New Republic'' (2001). essential on the meaning of duels; [http://www.common-place.org/vol-02/no-02/author/ online interview]
* Kennedy, Roger G. ''Burr, Hamilton, and Jefferson: A Study in Character'' Oxford UP, 2000 [https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=59887100 online edition]
* Knott, Stephen F. ''Alexander Hamilton and the Persistence of Myth'' University Press of Kansas, (2002) (ISBN 0-7006-1157-6).
* Trees, Andrew S. "The Importance of Being Alexander Hamilton." ''Reviews in American History'' 2005 33(1): 8-14. Issn: 0048-7511 Fulltext: in Project Muse
* Trees, Andrew S. ''The Founding Fathers and the Politics of Character.'' (2004)

===Primary sources===
* Freeman, Joanne B., ed. ''Alexander Hamilton: Writings'' (2001), [http://www.loa.org The Library of America] edition, 1108 pages. Most of Hamilton's major writings and many of his letters [http://www.amazon.com/Alexander-Hamilton-Writings-Library-America/dp/1931082049/ref=sr_1_4?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1220839663&sr=8-4 excerpt and text search]
* Syrett, Harold C. ed. ''The Papers of Alexander Hamilton'' (27 vol, Columbia University Press, 1961–87); includes all letters and writing by Hamilton, and all important letters written to him; this is the definitive letterpress edition, heavily annotated by scholars; it is available in larger academic libraries; there is also a separate Law series.
* Morris, Richard. ed. ''Alexander Hamilton and the Founding of the Nation'' (1957), excerpts from AH's writings, by topic, 617pp
* Morton J. Frisch ed. ''Selected Writings and Speeches of Alexander Hamilton.'' (1985), 528pp. [https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=58312678 online edition]
* ''The Works of Alexander Hamilton'' edited by Henry Cabot Lodge (1904) [http://books.google.com/books?vid=OCLC01013&id=R7TukmWbcrcC&printsec=toc full text online at Google Books] [http://oll.libertyfund.org/Home3/Author.php?recordID=0135 online in HTML edition]. This is the only online collection of Hamilton's writings and letters. Published in 10 volumes, containing about 1.3 million words. [http://www.archive.org/search.php?query=Hamilton%2C%20alexander%20works full text online at archive.org]
* ''Federalist Papers'' under the shared pseudonym "Publius" by Alexander Hamilton (c. 52 articles), [[James Madison]] (28 articles) and [[John Jay]] (five articles)
* Cooke, Jacob E. ed., ''Alexander Hamilton: A Profile'' (1967), short excerpts from AH and his critics.
* Cunningham, Noble E. ''Jefferson vs. Hamilton: Confrontations that Shaped a Nation'' (2000), short collection of primary sources with commentary.
* Taylor, George Rogers. ed, ''Hamilton and the National Debt'' 1950, excerpts from all sides in 1790s [http://www.questia.com/library/book/hamilton-and-the-national-debt-by-george-rogers-taylor.jsp online edition]

==External links==
* [https://librivox.org/author/4266 Works by Alexander Hamilton - text and free audio] - [[LibriVox]]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Hamilton, Alexander}}

[[Category:Founding Fathers]]
[[Category:United States Secretaries of the Treasury]]
[[Category:United States History]]
[[Category:Taxation]]
[[Category:American Revolution]]
[[Category:Republicanism]]
[[Category:Conservatives]]
[[Category:Early National U.S.]]
[[Category:Enlightenment]]
[[Category:Modernization]]
[[Category:Federalist Papers]]

Benedict de Spinoza

2018-06-24T19:21:08Z

Haeralis:

[[File:Baruch Spinoza.jpg|right]]
'''Benedict de Spinoza''', or '''Baruch d'Espinoza''', lived (1632-1677) in [[Amsterdam]]. He was a glass grinder whose philosophical work caused his excommunication from the Jewish synagogue. His excommunication declared: "By the decrees of the Angels and the words of the Saints we ban, cut off, curse, and anathematize Baruch de Spinoza… with all the curses written in the Torah. Cursed be he by day and cursed by night, cursed in his lying down and cursed in his waking up, cursed in his going forth, and cursed in his coming in; and may the Lord not want his pardon, and may the Lord’s wrath and zeal burn upon him… and ye that did cleave unto the Lord your God are all alive today." The excommunication then warns that anyone who aids or abets Spinoza or "reads anything composed or written by him will suffer the same fate."<ref>Dr. Steven Smith, "What Kind of Jew Was Spinoza?" In "Modernity and Its Discontents: Making and Unmaking the Bourgeois from Machiavelli to Bellow," p. 89. </ref>

Spinozism includes the belief that all existence consists of only one substance, such as [[God]] or nature. Under this view, everything from mind to matter is merely a manifestation of the one true reality. Evil has only a fleeting existence in the mind or heart, and is extinguished in due course by the divine Whole.

Proof (roughly):

#There is at least one substance of the universe.
#God exists, and is of a substance.
#God is infinite in attributes.
#For there to be two substances, they must differ in attributes.
#God has all of the attributes, so no substance may differ from that substance, therefore there is only one substance, God.

Spinozism was the first of three [[pantheism]]s rejected and condemned by the [[First Vatican Council]]. Spinozism is considered to be one of the most complete expressions of monistic idealism.

== Quotes ==

* If you want the present to be different from the past, study the past.
* All happiness or unhappiness solely depends upon the quality of the object to which we are attached by love.
* Be not astonished at new ideas; for it is well known to you that a thing does not therefore cease to be true because it is not accepted by many.
* True virtue is life under the direction of reason.

[[Category:Philosophers|Spinoza]]
[[Category:Theologians|Spinoza]]
[[Category:Pantheists]]
[[Category:Dutch History]]
[[Category:Dutch People]]
[[Category:Jewish People]]

St. Thomas Aquinas

2018-06-02T22:26:18Z

Haeralis: /* Political Philosophy */

{{Christianity}}
[[Image:Saint Thomas Aquinas.jpg|left|thumb|St. Thomas Aquinas]]
'''St. Thomas Aquinas''' (1225-1274) "The Angelic Doctor" was a [[Dominican Order|Dominican]] friar who wrote ''[[Summa Theologica]]''. Many consider this to be the most perfect and complete summary of [[Christian]] [[theology]], and he established an entire type of Christian [[philosophy]] known as "Thomism", which is followed to this day. Aquinas was somewhat controversial during his life, but was quickly revered by the [[Catholic Church]] after his death. Many of the controversies surrounding Aquinas stem from his synthesis of [[Aristotle]]an philosophy with Christian philosophy, causing him to break with many of the traditionally held philosophical and theological positions espoused by the dominant Augustinian synthesis of Neoplatonic philosophy and Christianity.

He developed five proofs for the existence of [[God]] using logic. The first three were "cosmological" proofs rather than the "ontological" approach of [[St. Anselm]]. A cosmological proof deals with the natural order of the universe. Aquinas' most famous cosmological argument was that whatever is in motion (for example, us) must have been put in motion by something else (our parents). They, in turn, must have been put in motion by something else (their parents). But this sequence cannot go on to [[infinity]]. There must have been a first mover. This we call "God".

Saint Thomas had a different view of [[Fall of man|the fall]] than those later developed by [[Calvin]] and [[Luther]]. He did not view man as totally depraved, but rather that his will was weakened and his intellect clouded. Nonetheless, his nature was not totally corrupted, for as created by God he remained essentially good. Nevertheless, man cannot attain [[salvation]] on his own, but is in need of [[grace]]. Though human intellect is imperfect, unassisted human reason can still understand many of the truths about God. For instance: the existence of God can be shown from the nature of the created [[universe]]. However, certain things are only knowable through Divine Revelation such as the [[Catholic doctrine|doctrine]] of the [[Blessed Trinity]]. Because of his view of the power of the human mind, though harmed by the fall but not totally destroyed, the works of the classical, secular philosophers could be brought into the service of Christian theology. [[Charles Murray]] wrote, "Aquinas made the case, eventually adopted by the Church, that human intelligence is a gift from God, and that to apply human intelligence to understanding the world is not an affront to God but is pleasing to him." <ref>http://www.amconmag.com/11_17_03/review.html</ref>

Saint Thomas wrote many theological and philosophical books and composed several beautiful hymns. Hailed as a masterpiece, his work [[Summa Theologica]] gives humanity a childlike revelation of [[God]]. The book was never completed, though it contains more than 2 million words.<ref>[http://www.religion-online.org/showarticle.asp?title=3266 Second Chance for Thomas] Religion-Online.org</ref> After a religious vision / experience, he stopped writing explaining, “All that I have written seems to me like straw compared to what has now been revealed to me.”<ref>[http://www.philosophyofreligion.info/?page_id=103], Philosophy of Religion- Historic Figures</ref> He died three months later at the monastery of Fossanova, one mile from Sonnino, on March 7, 1274

The entire ''Summa'' provides simple and direct illuminations into the nature of God: '''"It can be proved in five ways that God exists."''' <ref>[http://www.catholicism.org/thomas-aquinas.html], Saint Thomas Aquinas Biography</ref> The basic format of the arguments in the ''Summa'' begin with a few brief postulates about the nature of God followed by a series of reasonable objections to those assertions. A flaw in the [[logic]] of the objections is raised and the objections are systematically answered by logical counterarguments, bringing the argument to a conclusion supporting the original postulates.

[[Summa Theologica]] is divided into three parts and contains 27 questions:

The first part ''Prima Pars'' (God and what precedes from Him)

The second part ''Prima Secundae and Secunda Secundae'' (Law and Grace, Charity and Justice)

The third part ''Tertia Pars'' (Christ who as man is our way to God)

Concerning the nature of God, Aquinas found that the best approach, commonly called the "via negativa", is to consider what God is not. This led him to propose five positive statements about the divine qualities:

*1. God is simple, without composition of parts, such as body and soul, or matter and form.
*2. God is perfect, lacking nothing. That is, God is distinguished from other beings on account of God's complete actuality.
*3. God is [[infinity|infinite]]. That is, God is not finite in the ways that created beings are physically, intellectually, and emotionally limited. This infinity is to be distinguished from infinity of size and infinity of number.
*4. God is immutable, incapable of change on the levels of God's essence and character.
*5. God is one, without diversification within God's self. The unity of God is such that God's essence is the same as God's existence. In Aquinas's words, "in itself the proposition 'God exists' is necessarily true, for in it subject and predicate are the same."

St. Thomas Aquinas is further known for his famous observation that the [[Devil]] cannot withstand mockery.

July 18, 1323, Thomas Aquinas was canonized as a Saint by Pope John XXII at Avignon

In 1567, St. Thomas Aquinas received the title Doctor of the Church or 'Angelic Doctor'. In the 2000-year history of Christ, he is one of only 33 with that designation.

==Early in Life==
As a young child, his parents sent him to study at a monastery when five years old.

Thomas studied and earned his master's degree at the University of [[Paris]], the year 1245.

== Liberalism ==
Some conservatives have argued that Thomas Aquinas was an important influence on the development of liberalism due to his optimism in human reason. The conservative Senator John P. East, a former professor of political philosophy, wrote:

"To put the matter bluntly, modern liberal Catholicism, and its non-Catholic associates, have preferred Aquinas over Augustine. Leo XIII set the tone in Aeterni Patris. He acknowledged the greatness of Augustine, but indicated that this early Saint is a stepping stone on the way to the summit, which is Aquinas. As Aquinas showed that faith and reason are compatible, the Pope contended his philosophy would serve as a bridgebuilder to the secular rationalist. Aquinas’ reliance upon “reason” has great appeal to modern liberals; however, the matter broadens beyond that, for Aquinas leads to Aristotle, while Augustine points to Plato, and within liberal thinking the former two are preferred."<ref>John P. East, “The Political Relevance of St. Augustine,” Modern Age 16 (Spring, 1972), 168.</ref>

[[Richard M. Weaver]] in ''Ideas Have Consequences,'' argued that Thomas Aquinas' imposition of Aristotle on the Roman Catholic Church caused the church to turn away from rigorous morality and to accept pragmatic acquiescence to the world.<ref>Richard M. Weaver, Ideas Have Consequences (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1948), 119.</ref>

The Christian apologist and philosopher [[Francis Schaeffer]] offered a similar indictment on Thomas Aquinas in ''Escape from Reason''. Schaeffer argued that Aquinas "separated nature from grace," and allowed for the study of the earthly realm to be entirely removed from the study of Christianity. In doing so, he "laid the groundwork for the Humanistic Renaissance" and the "autonomous individual." Schaeffer reprimanded Aquinas for his belief in the intrinsic goodness of man—a radically unconservative persuasion. Aquinas believed that, though the will was affected by the fall, the intellect was not. Thus, reasoning and philosophy became free to be pursued without subjugation to the limitations of the Scriptures and divine revelation. Schaeffer viewed Aquinas as one of the founding fathers of liberal modernity, accrediting to him some responsibility for the Renaissance and the Enlightenment. In Schaeffer's words, "...Aquinas had opened the way to an autonomous Humanism, an autonomous philosophy, and once the movement gained momentum, there was soon a flood."<ref>Francis Schaeffer, Escape from Reason (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 1968), 9-18. </ref>

== Political Philosophy ==
Unlike many conservatives, Thomas Aquinas did not strenuously uphold the intrinsic merit of property rights and the Biblical prohibition on theft. Of theft, he wrote that "It is not theft, properly speaking, to take secretly and use another's property in a case of extreme need: Because that which he takes for the support of his life becomes his own property by reason of that need."<ref>https://books.google.com/books?id=6IocPeCoVFgC&pg=PA42&lpg=PA42&dq=It+is+not+theft,+properly+speaking,+to+take+secretly+and+use+another%27s+property+in+a+case+of+extreme+need:+Because+that+which+he+takes+for+the+support+of+his+life+becomes+his+own+property+by+reason+of+that+need&source=bl&ots=E_BgCJN47l&sig=VbAU1bJaaGVd9-61oRcm4q_eMBg&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwj7g92OpfPWAhVL9IMKHWvSA0kQ6AEIOTAD#v=onepage&q=It%20is%20not%20theft%2C%20properly%20speaking%2C%20to%20take%20secretly%20and%20use%20another's%20property%20in%20a%20case%20of%20extreme%20need%3A%20Because%20that%20which%20he%20takes%20for%20the%20support%20of%20his%20life%20becomes%20his%20own%20property%20by%20reason%20of%20that%20need&f=false</ref> In another statement foreshadowing later [[socialist]] arguments, Aquinas claimed that "In cases of need all things are common property, so that there would seem to be no sin in taking another's property, for need has made it common."<ref>http://www.newadvent.org/summa/3066.htm</ref>

== In literature ==
In [[Dante's Paradiso]], Thomas Aquinas appears in the [[Heaven]] of the [[Sun]], alongside other great thinkers including [[King Solomon]]. There, he and the other learned men move in a heavenly dance - a slightly incongruous image given that Aquinas was famously corpulent in life, earning the somewhat irreverent nickname "the [[Ox]] of [[God]]."

== See also ==

*[[Christianity in Conservapedia]]

==External links==
*[http://www.amconmag.com/11_17_03/review.html Culture's Bell Curve] - a review of [[Charles Murray]]'s ''Human Accomplishment''
*[http://www.qfrases.com/english/thomas_aquinas.php Thomas Aquinas quotes]

==References==
<references/>

{{DEFAULTSORT:Aquinas, St. Thomas}}

[[Category:Saints]]
[[Category:Theologians]]
[[Category:Catholic Church]]
[[Category:Philosophers]]
[[Category:Christian Authors]]
[[Category:Christians]]

Oliver Cromwell

2018-05-20T15:07:29Z

Haeralis: /* Image and reputation */

[[Image:Oliver_Cromwell.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Oliver Cromwell by Sir Peter Lely c.1653]]

'''Oliver Cromwell''' (1599-1658) was an English soldier, statesman, and leader of the [[Puritans|Puritan]] revolution. He rose from the ranks of the middle gentry to become an outstanding soldier; his genius for organizing and inspiring the parliamentary armies, called the "[[New Model Army]]" and nicknamed "roundheads", was displayed at the battle of Marston Moor (1644). His admiring soldiers called him "Old Ironsides". Victory in the field allowed him to execute the king in 1649 and become a virtual dictator; after 1653 he ruled under the title "Lord Protector of the Commonwealth of England, Scotland, and Ireland." He executed an aggressive and generally effective foreign policy. He also promoted education. Cromwell did as much as any English ruler to shape the future of the land he governed, but his Commonwealth collapsed after his death and the royal family was restored in 1660.

An intensely religious man—almost a Puritan [[Moses]]—he fervently believed God was guiding his victories. However he was never identified with any one sect or position, and favoured religious tolerance, except towards Catholics. His many admirers called him "God's Englishman".

Cromwell is one of the most controversial figures in British history. Strongly held opinions stretch from those who label him a regicidal dictator who trampled on glorious royal traditions or a religious fanatic and a near-genocidal murderer of the Irish Catholics, to those who celebrate a hero of liberty who helped make the nation great. Most historians now have a favourable view of Cromwell's achievements and character. Recent BBC polls show the public considers him one of the ten greatest Britons.

==Early life==
Cromwell was born at Huntingdon in eastern England on April 25, 1599. His father, Robert Cromwell, and his mother, Elizabeth Steward, were typical English country gentlefolk. His father was a younger son of a family founded by Thomas Cromwell (1485-1540), a minister of [[Henry VIII]]; they had acquired considerable wealth by taking over monastery property during the [[Reformation]]. At the time of Oliver's birth his grandfather, Sir Henry Cromwell, was one of the two wealthiest landowners in Huntingdonshire, but his father was of modest means. Oliver was sent to the Huntingdon Grammar School and afterwards for one year only to Sidney Sussex College at [[Cambridge University]]. His father died when he was 18, and Oliver, the only surviving son, left the university to look after his mother and six sisters. He studied law for a time at the [[Inns of Court]] in London, and at 21 he married Elizabeth Bourchier, the daughter of a London leather merchant. He then returned to Huntingdon and settled down as a farmer.

==Politics ==
For 20 years Cromwell followed the stable and common career of a country gentleman and farmer, taking a prominent part in local affairs. In 1628, he was sponsored by the Montagu family and elected by Huntingdon to the last parliament summoned by King [[Charles I]] before the 11-year period (1629-1640) during which the latter tried to rule without one—the so-called "Eleven Years Tyranny." Cromwell's only speech in the Parliament of 1628-1629 was a fierce attack upon the High Church bishops. About 1628 he had a profound religious conversion that shaped his life; he became involved in local networks of Puritans, did some lay preaching, and considered a move to the Puritan colony of [[Connecticut]].

In 1631 after a humiliating political defeat in Huntingdon, and near bankrupt, he moved to St. Ives, and four years later to Ely. About this time he caught [[malaria]], which troubled him sporadically and shortened his life. An inheritance in 1636 brought him the adequate income of £300 a year.

==Puritan leader==
When King Charles I was forced by a shortage of funds to recall Parliament in 1640, Cromwell was returned to this Parliament as the M.P. for Cambridge. Known as the ''Short Parliament'', Charles again dissolved the house after only 3 weeks.

Cromwell became a local leader in the rapidly the expanding Puritan movement, which demanded a radical reform of the Church of England, and was opposed to the High Church tendencies favored by [[William Laud]], who became [[Archbishop of Canterbury]] in 1633. In 1640, Cromwell was returned to Parliament as member for Cambridge, the poorest man in the House of Commons by some distance; he wore a coarse suit, and plain linen shirt, its collar spotted with blood. Poor in dress but rich in speech, he was a man with a fearless and tactless tongue who denounced the tyranny of the bishops, and the pervasive idolatry of the established Church. He served on eighteen high-profile committees, especially those concerned with investigating religious innovation and abuse of ecclesiastical power. However, he was shunned by those leading the opposition to Charles I's government, but when it came for war he was packed off to raise troops in his home area, which he did with remarkable success.

==Causes of the Civil War (1630-1642)==
In 1630-42, when he governed without calling a parliament, King Charles I multiplied his enemies by imposing irritating financial exactions upon various classes of the community, using prerogative powers exercised by the king in centuries past. He demanded "ship money" from the towns, fined country gentlemen (including Cromwell) for refusing to accept knighthood, raised "forced loans," and increased customs duties. He did all this because he had no right to levy fresh taxes without the consent of Parliament; indeed, his broad aim was to secure the financial independence of the monarchy, and to fasten uniformity upon the Church. Thus the king antagonized the Puritan reformers as well as many of the country gentry and townspeople. In 1638 he became involved in a war against his Scottish subjects (he was hereditary king of Scotland as well as of England) when he tried to force upon them a prayer book similar to that in use in the English Church. They rebelled, and he was compelled to call a parliament at Westminster to ask for money to pursue the war. The accumulation of grievances against the king over eleven years made the leaders of the House of Commons aggressive and uncooperative. Cromwell at once showed himself to be a staunch Puritan, and as such gave steady support to the critics of church and government.

===The Long Parliament===
During the summer of 1640 King Charles was again defeated and humbled by the Scottish rebels. He appealed for help to a new parliament, which met in the autumn, with Cromwell again M.P. for Cambridge. This "Long Parliament," as it was to be called, repudiated the king's policies and obliged him to surrender many of his prerogative powers. It put to death one of the king's chief ministers, the Earl of Strafford. Cromwell and a majority of the Commons voted for a "[[Grand Remonstrance]]" against the government, and showed they did not trust the king. When the Irish rose up in rebellion in 1641, Parliament demanded the power to appoint all the king's ministers and principal army officers—an unprecedented step.

The king was eventually goaded to arrest five of the parliamentary leaders for treason. When this coup failed, King Charles left London to rally his supporters in the north of England. The Commons retorted by seizing "the power of the sword" and sending M.P.'s into their constituencies to gain control of local armories and militia. Cromwell himself went to Cambridge, took possession of the castle, arrested a captain of the militia, and prevented the colleges from sending their silver plate to the king, who was short of money. He raised a troop of 60 cavalry and searched for suspected royalists.

In the Long Parliament he made his name as an extreme Puritan who desired the complete abolition of the bishops; in eastern England as a whole he was recognized as a champion of the right of all church congregations to choose their own ministers, and their own religious forms.

==Cromwell as soldier==
The civil war began in August 1642. From that moment, though totally inexperienced as a soldier, the aggressive Cromwell, now in his early 40's, rose to the front as a military organizer and a Puritan leader. Cromwell, a good horseman, became a cavalry officer, raising his own Parliamentarian troop in Huntingdon. Within a year he rose from captain, to colonel, to lieutenant general of one of the largest regional armies in England. Cromwell fought together with his cavalry at the drawn battle of Edgehill (October 23, 1642). Afterwards, he doubled the size of his troop, and then converted it into a full regiment, becoming a colonel in February 1643.

With only 2,000 men he took charge of the defenses in the six parliamentarian heartland counties of East Anglia: Essex, Hertfordshire, Huntingdonshire, Cambridgeshire, Suffolk, and Norfolk. The threat was an attack from the north, and he prepared for it, while suppressing local pockets of royalists; he also organized a supply system based on county committees he appointed. He called repeatedly on the Commons to raise the pay, improve the training, and lift the morale of the soldiers they enlisted. The king, meanwhile, had a capable force furnished largely by peers, landed gentry, and their outdoor staffs. By the autumn of 1643, two thirds of England and Wales were under the king's control; in spite of minor successes achieved at Grantham, Gainsborough, and Winceby, where Cromwell served his apprenticeship in the art of war, the prognosis was poor for Parliament's army. In desperation the Parliamentary leaders came to terms with the Scottish leaders, and a Scottish army entered England in 1644.

Cromwell became convinced that if he could produce a well-disciplined army he could defeat the Royalist forces under the king's nephew Prince Rupert, the Duke of Cumberland, and his [[Cavalier]]s. He also knew, as a result of his limited experience with the local county militia that pikemen, armed with sixteen-foot-long pikes, who stood their ground during a cavalry attack, could do a tremendous amount of damage.

Cromwell had also realised that the Prince's cavalry were poorly disciplined, and that after they charged the enemy they then went in pursuit of individual targets. At the first major battle of the civil war at [[Edgehill]], the majority of the Prince's cavalry did not return to the battlefield until over an hour after the initial charge. By this time the horses were so tired they were unable to mount another attack.

Cromwell instead trained his cavalry to stay together after a charge, and in this way his forces could repeatedly charge the Cavaliers. Cromwell's new cavalry took part in its first major battle at [[Marston Moor]] in [[Yorkshire]] in July 1644. The king's forces suffered a crushing defeat, and Cromwell's soldiers became known as the ''Ironsides'' because of the way they cut through the Cavaliers on the battlefield. Cromwell himself earned the nickname ''Old Ironsides''.

==New Model Army==
At the beginning of the Civil War, Parliament relied on soldiers recruited by large landowners who supported their cause. In February 1645, Parliament decided to form a new army of professional soldiers. This army of 22,000 men became known as the [[New Model Army]] and its commander-in-chief was General [[Thomas Fairfax]]. Cromwell was placed in charge of its cavalry.

Members of the New Model Army received proper military training and by the time they went into battle they were very well-disciplined. Previously, people only became officers because they came from powerful and wealthy families. In the New Model Army men were promoted when they showed themselves to be good soldiers. For the first time it became possible for plain men to become army officers. Cromwell thought it was very important that soldiers in the New Model Army believed strongly in what they were fighting for. Where possible he recruited men who, like him, held strong Puritan views and the New Model Army always went into battle singing psalms, convinced that God was on their side.

One strong faction among the regiments of the Army were known loosely as the "''Levellers''" "for they intend to sett all things straight, and rayse a parity and community in the kingdom".<ref>[http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Levellers See]</ref> who subscribed to a belief in the "natural rights" of men that had been violated by the king's side. These natural rights, they asserted, came from the law of God expressed in the Bible.

==General Cromwell==
Puritans immediately recognized and appreciated his firm, fair and aggressive leadership. In a military career that only lasted a decade, he fought in more than thirty battles, and took part in more than forty sieges, without ever tasting defeat. The extraordinary self-discipline of his cavalry charges proved decisive in several of the greatest battles of the war, and earned Cromwell himself, and then his men, the title "Ironsides." He demanded that promotions and commands be given not to the well-born (who wore long flowing [[hair]]) but to the godly (who cut their hair short and were called '''"roundheads"'''). "I had rather have a plain russet-coated captain that knows what he fights for, and loves what he knows, than that which you call a gentleman and is nothing else."<ref>Letter #16, Sept. 11, 1638</ref> The two Houses moved to reorganize their armies in the winter of 1644-45, and created a new major assault force, the New Model Army. Cromwell was, to the joy of the radicals, and the dismay of the more cautious Parliamentarians, given command of the cavalry, effectively the number two position in the Army.
===Battles of Marston Moor and Naseby===
Oliver Cromwell, now a lieutenant general, fought alongside the Scots and a northern army under Lord Fairfax and his son, Sir Thomas, at the Battle of Marston Moor in Yorkshire on July 2, 1644, where the king's army, led by Prince Rupert, was outnumbered and defeated.

Next year, fighting without the Scots, the New Model Army took part in its first major battle just outside the village of Naseby in Northamptonshire on 14 June 1645. The battle began when Prince Rupert led a charge against the left wing of the parliamentary cavalry which scattered and Rupert's men then gave chase. While this was going on Cromwell launched an attack on the left wing of the royalist cavalry. This was also successful and the royalists that survived the initial charge fled from the battlefield. Cromwell then ordered his cavalry to attack the now unprotected flanks of the infantry. Charles I was waiting with 1,200 men in reserve, but instead of ordering them forward to help his infantry he decided to retreat. Without support from the cavalry, the royalist infantry realised their task was impossible and surrendered. By the time Prince Rupert's cavalry returned to the battlefield the fighting had ended and his horses were exhausted after their long chase and not in a fit state to take on Cromwell's cavalry. The prince had no option but to ride off in search of the fleeing Charles I. The battle of Naseby was disastrous for the king, with 1,000 of his men killed, and another 4,500 of his most experienced men taken prisoner. The Parliamentary forces were also able to capture the Royalist baggage train that contained the king's complete stock of guns and ammunition. After Naseby, Charles was never able to raise another army strong enough to defeat the parliamentary army in a major battle.

Cromwell served under Sir Thomas Fairfax, the new Parliamentarian commander in chief. In both these battles Cromwell distinguished himself by his courage, enterprise, and leadership. Above all, his hold on eastern England had contributed to the reversal of the fortunes of war. When King Charles allowed his stronghold of Oxford to capitulate in June 1646, and himself fled to seek the mercy of the Scottish army, Cromwell had gained a reputation as the outstanding general of the first civil war. Although he had publicly criticized some of the aristocratic parliamentary commanders for what he considered lethargy and incompetence, he had been a loyal lieutenant to his superior, Sir Thomas Fairfax.

==Second English Civil War==
In January 1647, Charles I fled to Scotland where he was captured and handed over to the New Model Army. Charles was imprisoned in [[Hampton Court]], but in November 1647 he escaped and managed to rally support to raise another army. This time he was able to persuade the Scots to fight on his side. However, in August 1648 Cromwell's New Model Army defeated the Scots army (the "Engagers") at Preston, where Cromwell took sole command for the first time over an army of 9,000, which won a brilliant victory against the 18,000 strong Scots force. Once again King Charles was taken prisoner.

==Parliament versus Army: Second Civil War (1648)==
During the first civil war Cromwell retained his seat in the House of Commons, and appeared there whenever he could. In 1644 he had taken a leading part in promoting a "self-denying ordinance", whereby those members of parliament who had held commissions in the armed forces had relinquished them in order to make way for new blood, thereby paving the way for the appointment of the nonpolitical Fairfax. Cromwell himself had been ready to lay down his command, but Fairfax persuaded him to take command at the battle of Naseby in 1645.

Cromwell was conscious of his gifts, but, as always in his life, attributed his victories to Almighty God. It was indeed his independent-minded, highly personal Puritan religion (to which he had been "converted" as a young married man) that had brought him into the war against the king, and had sustained him in every battle. When the alliance was made with the Scots, he had insisted that this must not be at the price of liberty of conscience for himself and his fellow Independents or "sectarians." However, he was at first content to leave to the civilian leaders in Parliament, most of whom were Presbyterians, the future shape of the government.

However, the House of Commons (from which the Royalists had withdrawn at the outset of war) and the House of Lords, who were a mere handful, now showed themselves anxious to impose a rigid Presbyterian organization upon the English Church, and to dismiss Fairfax' soldiers, most of whom were Independents, without adequate compensation for their services. At first Cromwell, as an M.P. and a figure of immense influence in the army, tried to act as a mediator between Parliament and the soldiers. Eventually, he was driven to make a choice, and threw in his lot with the army. He also tried hard to come to terms with the king, whom the Scots had handed over as a prisoner to the English Parliament before their army went home. Cromwell was not opposed to a Presbyterian form of state church, but he insisted that the Puritan sects or Independents should be tolerated outside it. In negotiating a postwar settlement both with Parliament, and with the king, on behalf of the army, that was always the great point on which he would not yield. At the same time Cromwell acted as a conciliator within the army, trying to persuade those extremists who wanted to set up a democratic republic that the time was not ripe for so revolutionary a change. His idea was to have a constitutional monarchy, a middle-class parliament, and a tolerant church. But he reckoned without the king, who took advantage of the disputes among his enemies to escape to an island, thence to incite the Royalists both in England and in Scotland to a fresh civil war, which broke out early in 1648.

==Second Civil War and Execution of Charles I==
Parliament and its army now more or less closed ranks. While Sir Thomas Fairfax dealt with Royalist risings in southeast England, Cromwell first suppressed a rebellion in Wales, and then marched north to meet the Scots. He won a series of decisive victories over the larger Scottish army, in Lancashire (August 1648), marking his first major success as an independent commander. The temper of the army had been set aflame by the king's revival of war, and the Royalists' breach of faith. While the Presbyterians in Parliament still hoped to reach agreement with Charles I, Cromwell's son-in-law [[Henry Ireton]] led a movement to punish the king and overthrow the old monarchy. In December 1648, the southern army "purged" the Commons of its Presbyterian members and demanded the trial of the king. This event is known as "Pride's Purge". It summarizes the removal of about 100 Royalists and Presbyterians of the English [[House of Commons]] from [[Parliament]] by a detachment of soldiers led by [[Colonel Thomas Pride]] under the direction of Oliver Cromwell in December 1648.

During the autumn Cromwell had followed his retreating enemy into Scotland, and restored order in Edinburgh, but he had lingered in the north until General Fairfax recalled him to London; he was hesitating over his political attitude. When he got back to the capital he approved of the purge, and took charge of the arrangements to bring Charles I to his trial under guard. Fairfax having washed his hands of all political matters, Cromwell accepted the responsibilities of leadership. He realized that the trial of the king would result in the latter's death, as a result of all the blood shed in the civil wars. Once he made up his mind, Cromwell acted ruthlessly, and it was largely by his personal efforts that the trial by what was in effect a revolutionary tribunal was pressed through, and the king was condemned to death.

On January 30, 1649, King Charles I was beheaded on a block in view of a silent crowd gathered in front of the Banquet Hall of Whitehall Palace; the king's noble death proved a rallying point for his supporters. After the execution of Charles I, England became a republic; Cromwell was appointed a member of the Council of State, and was its first chairman.

==Ireland==
Meanwhile, the Royalists had gained control of most of Ireland, which they hoped to use as a base for an invasion of England. Cromwell decided to eliminate the threat by invading. After occupying Dublin in August, 1649, he led his army north and laid siege to [[Drogheda]].

===Drogheda===
When Drogheda fell to the siege in September 1649, Cromwell's troops massacred nearly 3,500 people. Although this figure comprised around 2,700 royalist soldiers and all the men in the town bearing arms, a concerted propaganda campaign followed which ensured Cromwell was seen as a bloodthirsty tyrant in the national consciousness of Ireland. As recently as the 20th century Irish novelist [[James Joyce]] wrote in his novel ''[[Ulysses]]'': "''What about sanctimonious Cromwell and his ironsides that put the women and children of Drogheda to the sword with the bible text "God is love" pasted round the mouth of his cannon?''".

On September 10–11 his army stormed the town, and killed most of the surviving garrison, which had refused to surrender. Cromwell said that the killing at Drogheda had the goal of encouraging other garrisons to surrender and not fight to the death; indeed it induced some other Irish garrisons to surrender, such as Trim, Ross and Dundalk. In October the garrison at Wexford repulsed Cromwell's army but was overcome; here again no quarter was given once the garrison refused to surrender, and this time the town was plundered. By the end of the year most of the eastern coast of Ireland was in Cromwell's hands. Early in 1650 he marched his army inland, ravaging the land and slaughtering the populace regardless of age or sex.

===Destroying the power of the Irish Catholics===
In 1651 Cromwell's government adopted a policy of destroying the power of those Irish Catholics who did not become Protestants; they were seen as dangerous barbarians and potential allies of the Royalists. All Irish landholdings (except in Connacht, which was deemed to be too "barren") were confiscated, and most of the populace was driven into the wilds of Connacht to die of starvation and pestilence. The proportion of land owned by Catholics fell from 59% in 1641 to 20% in the span of two decades. The goal was to resettle the island with, in his view, more "Godly" Protestants, who were given the best lands, and given near complete control over the remaining Catholics. As a result, the Irish Catholics have hated Cromwell with a passion that continues to this day.

==Conquest of Scotland==
In May 1650 Cromwell learned that [[Charles II]] had landed in Scotland and been proclaimed king by the Scots Covenanter regime so he returned to England to put down this latest threat, leaving Henry Ireton and Edmund Ludlow in command of the English forces in Ireland. The last Catholic held town, [[Galway]], surrendered in April 1652 and the last Irish troops surrendered in April 1653.

In an effort to avert war, Cromwell appealed to the General Assembly of the [[Church of Scotland]] to break their alliance with the royalists, famously urging them: ''"I beseech you, in the bowels of Christ, think it possible you may be mistaken."'' The Scot's rejected peace, and Cromwell invaded in August, 1650.

The English republic was threatened because Scotland's Presbyterian [[Covenanters]] had come to terms with Charles I's eldest son, [[Charles II]]. General Fairfax resigned rather than invade Scotland, and Cromwell took his place as commander in chief. He crossed the Scottish border on July 22, 1650, but at first made little headway against the defensive strategy of the Scottish commander. As in Ireland his campaign was supported by English sea power, the importance of which he appreciated. Although cut off from his English base, Cromwell won a great victory at Dunbar (30 miles [48 km] east of Edinburgh) on Sept. 3, 1650. Cromwell destroyed the main Covenanter army at the battle of Dunbar on September 3, 1650. Leaving 4,000 Scottish soldiers dead and 10,000 taken prisoner, he quickly moved to capture the Scottish capital of Edinburgh.

During the winter 1650-51 Cromwell was taken ill and the army bogged down. But the following summer he outmaneuvered the Scots who, rather than allow themselves to have their lines of communication cut, followed the young King Charles II into England. Charles II and the remaining Covenanters was making a final desperate bid to invade England and capture London while Cromwell was still in Scotland. Cromwell rapidly pursued them south, however, and caught them at Worcester in September. In the ensuing battle Cromwell's forces wiped out the last major Scottish royalist army. Scotland was henceforward ruled from England under military occupation. Cromwell was welcomed as a hero on his return to London.

==Creating the Protectorate==
During the next two years the quarrel between Parliament and army, which had begun in 1647, was revived. The army was now radically inclined, seeking reform in Church and State. Cromwell became the spokesman of the army's point of view, although once again he tried first to act as conciliator between the two sides. The soldiers asked that the remnant of the original "Long Parliament" of 1640, now known as "the Rump," should be dissolved and a fresh reformist one-chamber Parliament be elected. Other sections of the community had tired of the long naval war then in progress against the Dutch Republic (1652-1654), in which Cromwell's army had no part, and indeed resented as a fratricidal war against fellow Protestants.

When negotiations for the election of a new Parliament broke down, Cromwell forcibly dissolved the Rump on April 20, 1653. By 1653 Cromwell and his Army effectively controlled all Britain. Cromwell did not himself seize political power; he decided instead to invite the Independent churches to nominate members of a Puritan Assembly, which would exercise both executive and legislative powers. In spring 1653 came his best chance to become an all-powerful dictator, and he turned away; with a standing army of under 15,000 men at a time when the population of England and Wales was approximately 5.5 million, the creation of a military dictatorship was a practical impossibility. There were few political prisoners, and only those who actually participated in rebellion were executed; torture was not used.

==Named Lord Protector==
The Nominated Parliament set about reform with enthusiasm, but was soon split between a radical and a conservative wing. When the conservative wing gained control in December 1653 after a tussle, the majority resigned their powers into Cromwell's hands. This coup d'état was engineered by Cromwell's second-in-command, [[John Lambert]]; and it was Lambert who drew up an '''"Instrument of Government"''' as a new constitution for the English commonwealth. This constitution provided for an elected parliament, a nominated council of state, and a lord protector as chief executive officer. Cromwell was offered and accepted the post of Lord Protector, not as a dictator but as the first servant of the Commonwealth of England, united with conquered Scotland and Ireland. There was widespread [[republicanism]] and a sense that the old monarchical system was dead.

Some officers wanted Cromwell to become a hereditary king but he refused and instead took the title Lord Protector of the Commonwealth. Cromwell did made the decisions—he was a dictator in that sense—but he rarely broke the law. He preferred persuasion to coercion and did not try to impose an authoritarian regime that tolerated only one set of ideas. His experiment with major-generals taking control of England has aspects of a military dictatorship, but the experiment lasted less than 15 months in 1655-57, and the generals did not in fact loom large in deciding local policies. So it verged upon, but did not reach, military rule. When offered the crown, Cromwell said no. He did set up his son as his successor, but made no serious preparations and the son was soon ousted.<ref>Austin Woolrych, (1990)</ref>

==Lord Protector==
For the remaining five years of his life Cromwell governed as lord protector, sometimes with the help of a parliament, sometimes without it. But like the kings of old, he was always dependent upon the advice and support of his Council of State, or later, [[Privy Council]]. At its opening session the Protectorate Parliament (September 1654-January 1655) was more concerned about revising the new constitution than about passing legislation. Differences between protector and parliament encouraged the Royalists. In January 1655, Cromwell dissolved this parliament.

===Rule of the Major Generals===
A rebellion broke out in March 1655, and although it was easily suppressed, the country was divided into ten districts, each under a major general. That experiment lasted barely a year.

Cromwell imposed martial law in England and the country was divided into eleven districts, each district being overseen by a Major-General. The responsibilities of these Major-Generals included maintaining order, collecting taxes, granting poor relief and imposing Puritan morality. In some districts bear-baiting, cock-fighting, horse-racing and wrestling were banned. Betting and gambling were also forbidden. Large numbers of [[Public house|pubs]] were closed and fines were imposed on people heard swearing. In some districts, the Major-Generals also closed the theatres.

===Constitutional experiments===
Meanwhile, England was involved in a fresh war, this time waged against the Spanish Empire; Cromwell, needing money, called a new Parliament to vote him supplies. It met in fall 1656; Cromwell argued on behalf of his policies, but met with considerable opposition, especially from out-and-out republicans who objected to the whole idea of the Protectorate. The new House was therefore in effect "purged" of 160 members, many of whom refused to take an oath to uphold the structure of the Protectorate. The remaining members, on the whole, cooperated with Cromwell and his Council of State. But they were opposed to the system of local government through the major generals. Rather than sustain military rule, a group of lawyers and civilians proposed to create a constitutional monarchy and a Puritan Church, with Cromwell as king.

Cromwell was tempted by the offer of a crown, but eventually, largely because of the opposition of his old friends and supporters in the army, he refused it. Nevertheless, a new constitution was promulgated, providing for a revived House of Lords; a Lower House, to which all except known royalists were to be admitted; a Privy Council, replacing the Council of State; and certain restrictions on the powers of the lord protector and on freedom of religion. This constitution, originally called "the Humble Petition and Advice", came into effect in June 1657. A House of Lords was nominated, but the second Protectorate House of Commons, reinforced by the excluded members and deprived of Cromwell's friends whom he had promoted to the upper House, met in January 1658, to be the scene of an immediate attack launched upon the Protector by the republicans, and aiming to tear the new constitution to pieces.

Cromwell was at last angered beyond restraint. Convinced that a fresh squabble in Parliament would be followed by a Royalist invasion, he promptly dissolved Parliament on Feb. 4, 1658.

===Foreign affairs===
For the last few months of his life Cromwell governed without a parliament. The war (with France) against Spain was virtually won, thanks to naval victories. A naval expedition to the West Indies resulted in the capture of [[Jamaica]] from Spain (May 1655), and Cromwell tried to convert it into a flourishing British colony.<ref>James Robertson, "Cromwell and the Conquest of Jamaica." ''History Today'' 2005 55(5): 15-22. Issn: 0018-2753 Fulltext: [[Ebsco]]</ref> In June 1658 he also obtained the port of [[Dunkirk]] as payment for the French alliance. After the peace with Holland in 1654, commerce had expanded.

Cromwell in 1654-55 launched a vastly ambitious "Western Design", with conquest of key Spanish territories in the West Indies; it failed badly because of defeats, disease and [[guerrilla]] resistance. Cromwell despaired that God had turned against him, while public reactions focused on the failure of English character and masculinity, revealing the ideological structures that underpinned both imperial expansion and the English revolution during the 1650s. Contemporary accounts dwelt on the disastrous campaign to control Jamaica, contrasting the supposedly cowardly conduct of General Robert Venables in Jamaica with the heroism of Major General James Heane in Hispaniola, suggesting that Venables's pusillanimity reflected a general failure of the British troops to live up to the ideal of godly valor and English superiority, associated in the public mind with the New Model Army. The Western Design debacle was a crisis for Cromwell's protectorate, straining the notion that God favored Puritan England, but the vision of Heane's martial virtues ultimately provided a model that guided the future success of the British Empire.<ref>Jamaica was permanently captured, at great cost. James Robertson, "Cromwell and the Conquest of Jamaica," ''History Today'' 55, No. 5 (May 2005) pp 15-22; Carla Gardina Pestana, "English Character and the Fiasco of the Western Design." ''Early American Studies'' 2005 3(1): 1-31. Issn: 1543-4273 Fulltext: [[Ebsco]]</ref>

===Toleration===
Cromwell fought hard against the more bigoted Puritans to maintain genuine freedom for the Christian religion, permitting even Episcopalians and Roman Catholics to worship in private houses. He appointed good judges, and pressed his legal advisers to reform the law and make it less expensive. He promoted education; for a time he was chancellor of Oxford University, and helped to found a college at Durham. The regime's religious policies fell significantly short of comprehensive toleration, though; rather, Cromwell offered liberty of conscience to a broad range of independent sects, whose members he sought to draw together in a united 'godly party'. Anglicans, Catholics and some of the more radical Protestant groups were excluded from the embrace of official toleration.<ref>See Blair Worden, "Toleration and the Cromwellian Protectorate" in W.J. Sheils, ed., "Persecution and Toleration Studies" in ''Studies Church History,''(1984) v.21</ref>

===Levellers===
Former members of the Levellers, an extreme anti-elitist group, grew disillusioned with the dictatorial policies of Cromwell. In 1655 Edward Sexby, John Wildman and Richard Overton were involved in fomenting a plot to overthrow the government, but the conspiracy was discovered and the plotters fled to the [[Netherlands]]. In May 1657 Edward Sexby published (under the pseudonym William Allen) ''Killing No Murder'', a political pamphlet that argued the justification of an assassination of Cromwell. The following month he arrived in England to carry out the assassination, but was arrested and imprisoned.

===Death and succession===
Cromwell's strong personality and the backing of the army held the Commonwealth together and preserved internal peace; he had to contend with republican plotters as well as discontented Royalists and foreign enemies.

By 1658 the government's debt stood at £1.5 million, largely because of the heavy cost of the armed forces, which the government proved unable to reduce in size. The regime's military commitments were taking it to the verge of bankruptcy, just when it seemed to be devising a feasible civilian basis for its rule.

In 1658 Cromwell announced that he wanted his son, Richard Cromwell, to replace him as Lord Protector of the Commonwealth. The English army was unhappy with this decision. While they respected Oliver as a skillful military commander, Richard was just a country farmer.

Worn out, Oliver Cromwell died in London of malaria on September 3, 1658. On his deathbed he named his ineffective son Richard Cromwell (1626-1712) his successor. Richard lasted only 8 months, to be followed in power by the head of the army, [[George Monck]]; he lasted for less than a year, whereupon Parliament restored the monarchy, under [[Charles II]].

==Image and reputation==
At the Restoration in 1660, Cromwell's body was disinterred from the tomb of kings in [[Westminster Abbey]] and was hung from the gallows at Tyburn.

Blair Warden, a leading historian, reports, "From his century to ours, Oliver Cromwell has been the most controversial figure of English history."<ref>Blair Warden, "The English Reputations of Oliver Cromwell, 1660-1900" in William Lamont, ed. [http://books.google.com/books?id=fi4SmvdoUfoC&pg=PA35&dq=%22From+his+century+to+ours,+Oliver+Cromwell%22&lr=&num=30&as_brr=0&sig=Zjm1_A4NGCzCyrl8RpbIB-47Dug ''Historical Controversies And Historians'' (1998) p. 35]</ref> First, Cromwell is well known and highly thought of; recent BBC polls show the public considers him one of the ten greatest Britons.<ref>"Ten greatest Britons chosen". BBC Polls</ref> Second, his importance and influence is beyond doubt, as is his stature as an outstanding soldier and diplomat. The main facts of his career are not in dispute, only the moral evaluation of those facts.<ref>Compare the controversies over King [[Richard III]], who was a minor player as king for less than two years and whose facts are in dispute.</ref> Third, the range and intensity of opinion is extreme, from those who laud him as a champion of liberty and republicanism who uplifted Britain's stature in the world, to those who hate him; labeling him a regicide and murderer of many Irish Catholics. The debate ranges from commoners to kings, and historians have been deeply involved. In the 1930s and 1940s most scholars saw him as a dangerous dictator, along the lines of Mussolini, Stalin and Hitler. In recent decades most all the scholars have been favorable.

During his lifetime, some tracts painted him as a [[Hypocrites|hypocrite]] motivated by power — for example, ''The Machiavilian Cromwell'' and ''The Juglers Discovered'', both part of an attack on Cromwell by the [[Levellers]] after 1647, present him as a Machiavellian figure. After his death and public disgrace there were many denunciations and a few positive portrayals, such as John Spittlehouse's ''A Warning Piece Discharged'' which compared him to Moses, rescuing the English by taking them safely through the Red Sea of the civil wars.<ref>John Morrill, "Cromwell and his contemporaries", in Morrill, (1990) pp. 263–4, 271-2</ref> The great royalist historian Edward Hyde, 1st Earl of Clarendon, in his ''History of the Rebellion and Civil Wars in England'' (1667) declared that Cromwell "will be looked upon by posterity as a brave bad man". Clarendon argued that Cromwell's rise to power had been helped not only by his great spirit and energy, but also by his ruthlessness. The aristocracy was especially hostile to Cromwell, in large part because of his strong appeal to the common folk.

[[John Adams]] regarded Cromwell as a great hero of liberty whose principles found their culmination in the American Founding. At Worcester, the site of a famous battle during the English Civil War, Adams remarked that all England should travel to the site in order to pay honor to Cromwell. "And do Englishmen so soon forget the ground where liberty was fought for? Tell your neighbors and your children that this is holy ground… All England should come in pilgrimage to this hill once a year."<ref>John Adams, by David McCullough, p 359; Simon & Schuster, 2001</ref> On the other hand, [[Alexander Hamilton]] denounced the Lord Protector in ''Federalist'' No. 21, even comparing him to Julius Caesar. Hamilton, discussing the despotism of certain states in the Union, asked: "Who can determine what might have been the issue of her late convulsions, if the malcontents had been headed by a Caesar or by a Cromwell?"<ref>http://avalon.law.yale.edu/18th_century/fed21.asp</ref>

The conservative President [[Calvin Coolidge]] spoke very highly of Cromwell and regarded him as a pivotal figure in the triumph of English liberty over despotic monarchy. In his ''Autobiography'', the thirtieth president recounts his education of English history under Professor Morse at Amherst College: “We saw the British Empire rise until it ruled the seas. The brilliance of the statesmanship of the different periods, the rugged character of the patriotic leaders, of Anselm, and Simon de Montfort, of Cromwell and the Puritans, who dared to oppose the tyranny of the kings, the growth of learning, the development of commerce, the administration of justice – all these and more were presented for our consideration."<ref>The Autobiography of Calvin Coolidge, pg. 49 (digital eBook)</ref> Coolidge also compared Robert E. Lee's Army of Northern Virginia favorably to Cromwell's New Model Army, saying that "except for the forces of Oliver Cromwell, no army was ever more thoroughly religious than that which followed General Lee."<ref>http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=24187</ref>

In the early 18th century, Cromwell’s image began to be adopted and reshaped by the [[Whig Party|Whigs]], an out-party opposing the Tories around the Hanoverian kings. They stressed Cromwell as [[Republicanism|republican]], a theme often adopted by American historians.<ref>Blair Worden, ''Roundhead Reputations: The English Civil Wars and the Passions of Posterity'' (2001). pp. 53–59.</ref>

During the early 19th century, Cromwell's image was glorified by Romantic artists and poets. French author Victor Hugo's 1827 play ''Cromwell'' was representative of the French romantic movement, showing Cromwell as a ruthless yet dynamic Romantic hero. The major breakthrough came at the hands of a leading Romantic historian, [[Thomas Carlyle]] who in the 1840s saw Cromwell as the hero in a battle between good and evil. Carlyle used Cromwell as a model for restoring morality to a [[Victorian era]] that otherwise was prone to timidity, meaningless rhetoric, and moral compromise. The growth of Nonconformity in the nineteenth century encouraged an appreciation of Cromwell's Puritanism.

By the late 19th century, Carlyle’s portrayal of Cromwell, stressing the centrality of puritan morality and earnestness, had become assimilated into mainstream [[historiography]]. Britain's outstanding research scholar on the era, [[Samuel Rawson Gardiner]], concluded that "the man — it is ever so with the noblest — was greater than his work".<ref>Gardiner, ''Oliver Cromwell'' (1901) p. 315.</ref> Gardiner demonstrated Cromwell’s dynamic and mercurial character, and his role in ridding England of obsolete absolutism, while downplaying Cromwell’s intense religiosity.<ref>Worden, ''Roundhead Reputations'' (2001) pp. 256–260.</ref> Gardner showed Cromwell’s aggressive foreign policy was a foretaste Victorian imperial expansion, with Gardiner stressing his “constancy of effort to make England great by land and sea”.<ref>Gardiner, ''Oliver Cromwell'' (1901) p. 318.</ref>

Royals dislike regicides, so King [[George V]] vetoed Churchill's proposal in 1915 to name a battleship "The Cromwell"; but King [[George VI]] made no objection to the naming of a class of tanks that helped to win [[World War II]] after Old Ironsides. In the mid-20th century, Cromwell's reputation was often shaped by the rise of dictators like Mussolini and Hitler. In the 1930s Wilbur Cortez Abott, a Harvard professor, compiled and edited a multi-volume collection of Cromwell's letters and speeches, and concluded Cromwell had fascist tendencies. However, subsequent historians such as John Morrill have criticised both Abbott's interpretation of Cromwell and his editorial approach.<ref>John Morrill, "Textualising and Contextualising Cromwell", in ''Historical Journal'' (1990). v33#3, pp. 629-639.</ref>

Cromwell's reputation is now in the ascendant. More than twenty biographies by academic historians have been published in the past fifty years; all but one have been laudatory. They praise his integrity, his reliance upon his God, his brilliance as a soldier, his restless energy as head of state. There are varying estimates of the long-term effects of his role in the British Revolutions; but no recent biographer doubts that he was a man to be admired.<ref>Morrill (2003)</ref>

Recent scholars have emphasized Cromwell’s religiosity and downplayed his authoritarian style. Austin Woolrych explored the issue of "dictatorship" in depth, arguing that Cromwell was subject to two conflicting forces: his obligation to the army and his desire to achieve a lasting settlement, by winning back the confidence of the political nation as a whole. Woolrych argued that the dictatorial elements of Cromwell's rule stemmed not so much from its military origins or the participation of army officers in civil government, as from his constant commitment to the interest of the people of God, and his conviction that suppressing vice and encouraging virtue constituted the chief purpose of government.<ref>Austin Woolrych, "The Cromwellian Protectorate: a Military Dictatorship?" in ''History'' (1990) 75(244): 207-231</ref>

Historians such as John Morrill, Blair Worden and J.C. Davis have explored Cromwell's religious rhetoric, showing his speeches are suffused with biblical references, and arguing that his radical actions were driven by his zeal for godly reformation.<ref>Morrill "Cromwell, Oliver (1599–1658)", in ''Oxford Dictionary of National Biography,''(2004). [http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/6765]; Blair Worden, "Oliver Cromwell and the sin of Achan". In Beales, D. and Best, G., ''History, Society and the Churches'' (1985); J.C. Davis, "Cromwell’s religion", in Morrill, John (ed.), ''Oliver Cromwell and the English Revolution'' (1990).</ref>

==Bibliography==
===Biographies===
* Ashley, Maurice. ''The Greatness of Oliver Cromwell'' (1958). 382pp, a standard scholarly biography [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=3806780 online edition]
* Bennett, Martyn. ''Oliver Cromwell'' (2006), ISBN 0-415-31922-6. [http://www.amazon.com/Oliver-Cromwell-Routledge-Historical-Biographies/dp/0415319226/ref=sr_1_22?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1212181942&sr=1-22 excerpt and text search]
* Coward, Barry ''Cromwell'' (1991), a standard scholarly biography
* Clifford, Alan. ''Oliver Cromwell: the lessons and legacy of the Protectorate'' (1999), ISBN 0-9526716-2-X. praises his religiousity
* Davis, J. C. ''Oliver Cromwell'' (2001), shows Cromwell's remarkable skill at building complex networks of supporters, including coreligionists, politicians and soldiers. ISBN 0-340-73118-4
* Drinkwater John. ''Oliver Cromwell, a Character Study'' (2007) [http://books.google.com/books?id=62DlZJaCaWkC&pg=PA173&dq=intitle:Cromwell+date:2006-2008&lr=&num=30&as_brr=0&sig=79z-gHLUUSA7Bpsg-3TCXGuMKQM excerpts and text search]
* Fraser, Antonia. ''Cromwell, Our Chief of Men,'' and ''Cromwell: the Lord Protector'' (1973), ISBN 0-7538-1331-9. Popular narrative. [http://www.amazon.com/Cromwell-Antonia-Fraser/dp/0802137660/ref=pd_bbs_sr_2?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1212181888&sr=1-2 excerpt and text search]
* Gardiner, Samuel Rawson. ''Oliver Cromwell'' (1901). ISBN 1-4179-4961-9. Classic biography. [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=6034779 online edition]
* Gaunt, Peter. ''Oliver Cromwell'' (1994), 144pp ISBN 0-631-18356-6. Short biography by scholar
* Hill, Christopher. ''God's Englishman: Oliver Cromwell And The English Revolution'' (1970), ISBN 0-297-00043-8.
* Hirst, Derek. "The Lord Protector, 1653-8", in Morrill, John (ed.), ''Oliver Cromwell and the English Revolution'' (1990), ISBN 0-582-01675-4
* Mason, James and Angela Leonard. ''Oliver Cromwell'' (1998), ISBN 0-582-29734-6. 128pp succinct and effective
* Morrill, John. "Cromwell, Oliver (1599–1658)", in ''Oxford Dictionary of National Biography,'' (2004) [http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/6765 online to subscribers], the best place to start
* Morrill, John. "The Making of Oliver Cromwell", in Morrill, John (ed.), ''Oliver Cromwell and the English Revolution'' (1990), ISBN 0-582-01675-4.
* Paul, Robert. ''The Lord Protector: Religion And Politics In The Life of Oliver Cromwell''. (1958) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=3672431 online edition]
* Wedgwood, C.V. ''Oliver Cromwell'' (1939), popular ISBN 0-7156-0656-5.
* Worden, Blair (1985). "Oliver Cromwell and the sin of Achan", in Beales, D. and Best, G. (eds.) ''History, Society and the Churches'', ISBN 0-521-02189-8.

===Political studies===
* Adamson, John . "Oliver Cromwell and the Long Parliament", in Morrill, John (ed.), ''Oliver Cromwell and the English Revolution'' (1990)
* Adamson, John. "The English Nobility and the Projected Settlement of 1647", in ''Historical Journal'', (1987) v30#3.
* Coward, Barry. ''The Cromwellian Protectorate'' (2002),
* Firth, C.H. ''Oliver Cromwell and the Rule of the Puritans in England'' (1900). [http://books.google.com/books?id=Y14NAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=intitle:Oliver+intitle:Cromwell+intitle:and+intitle:the+intitle:Rule+intitle:of+intitle:the+intitle:Puritans&lr=&num=30&as_brr=0 full text online]
* Little, Patrick, ed. ''The Cromwellian Protectorate.'' (2007). 218 pp.
* Little, Patrick. "Offering the Crown to Cromwell." ''History Today'' 2007 57(2): 24-31. Issn: 0018-2753 Fulltext: [[Ebsco]]
* Little, Patrick and David L. Smith, eds. ''Parliaments and Politics during the Cromwellian Protectorate'' (2007) [http://www.amazon.com/Parliaments-Politics-Cromwellian-Protectorate-Cambridge/dp/0521838673/ref=sr_1_3?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1212300336&sr=1-3 excerpt and text search]
* Peacey, Jason. "Cromwellian England: a Propaganda State?" ''History'' 2006 91(2): 176-199. Issn: 0018-2648 Fulltext: [[Ebsco]], says that in 1653-1659, profound changes were implemented in intelligence gathering, press censorship, and propaganda and in the deployment of resources and bureaucratic efficiency. By concentrating power in the hands of the secretary of state, Cromwell's regime sought to exert its power in only some areas of print culture rather than to achieve a complete press monopoly.
* Smith, David, ed. ''Oliver Cromwell and the Interregnum'' (2003), ISBN 0-631-22725-3.
* Smith, David. ''Oliver Cromwell: Politics and Religion in the English Revolution 1640-1658'' (1992) [http://www.amazon.com/Oliver-Cromwell-Revolution-1640-1658-Cambridge/dp/0521388961/ref=sr_1_36?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1212181977&sr=1-36 excerpt and text search]

===Military studies===
* Capp, Bernard. ''Cromwell's Navy:The fleet and the English Revolution, 1648-1660'' (1989)
* Durston, Christopher. "'Settling the Hearts and Quieting the Minds of All Good People': the Major-generals and the Puritan Minorities of Interregnum England", in ''History'' 2000 85(278): pp. 247–267, ISSN 0018-2648 . Full text online at [[Ebsco]]
* Durston, Christopher. "The Fall of Cromwell's Major-Generals", in ''English Historical Review'' 1998 113(450): pp. 18–37, ISSN 0013-8266
* Durston, Christopher. ''Cromwell's Major Generals: Godly Government during the English Revolution'' (2001)
* Firth, C.H. ''Cromwell's Army'' (1902), [http://books.google.com/books?id=hx4kAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=intitle:Cromwell%27s+intitle:Army&lr=&num=30&as_brr=0 online edition]
* Gillingham, J. ''Portrait Of A Soldier: Cromwell'' (1976), ISBN 0-297-77148-5.
* Kenyon, John, and Jane Ohlmeyer, eds. ''The Civil Wars: A Military History of England, Scotland, and Ireland 1638-1660'' 391 pp. (1998), thorough coverage by numerous scholars [http://www.questia.com/read/85742104?title=The%20Civil%20Wars%3a%20A%20Military%20History%20of%20England%2c%20Scotland%2c%20and%20Ireland%201638-1660 online edition]
* Kitson, Frank (2004). ''Old Ironsides: The Military Biography of Oliver Cromwell'' (2004), 239pp ISBN 0-297-84688-4.
* Marshall, Alan. ''Oliver Cromwell: Soldier: The Military Life of a Revolutionary at War'' (2004), ISBN 1-85753-343-7.
* Wheeler, J. Scott. ''Cromwell in Ireland'' (1999). the standard study
* Woolrych, Austin. "The Cromwellian Protectorate: a Military Dictatorship?" in ''History'' 1990 75(244): 207-231, ISSN 0018-2648 . Full text online at Ebsco.
* Woolrych, Austin. "Cromwell as a soldier", in Morrill, John (ed.), ''Oliver Cromwell and the English Revolution'' (1990)
* Woolrych, Austin. ''Soldiers and Statesmen: the General Council of the Army and its Debates'' (1987), ISBN 0-19-822752-3.
* Young, Peter and Richard Holmes. ''The English Civil War,'' (2000) ISBN 1-84022-222-0. [http://www.amazon.com/English-Civil-Wordsworth-Military-Library/dp/1840222220/ref=sr_1_2?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1212300220&sr=1-2 excerpt and text search]

===Surveys of era===
* Coward, Barry. ''The Cromwellian Protectorate'' (2002) ISBN 0-7190-4317-4.
* Coward, Barry, ed. ''A Companion to Stuart Britain'' (2003) [http://www.amazon.com/Companion-Britain-Blackwell-Companions-British/dp/0631218742/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1212300112&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Coward, Barry ''The Stuart Age: England, 1603-1714,'' (2003). ISBN 0-582-77251-6. Survey of political history of the era.
* Davies, Godfrey. ''The Early Stuarts, 1603-1660'' (1959). [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=774608 online]. Political, religious, and diplomatic overview of the era.
* Gardiner, Samuel Rawson. ''History of the Great Civil War, 1642-1649'' (4 vol 1898) [http://books.google.com/books?id=absqibcUmIQC&printsec=frontcover&dq=intitle:History+intitle:of+intitle:the+intitle:Great+intitle:Civil+intitle:War+inauthor:Gardiner&lr=&as_brr=0 online edition from Google]
* Gaunt, Peter. ''The Cromwellian Gazetteer: An Illustrated Guide to Britain in the Civil War and Commonwealth'' (1998), 256pp; heavily illustrated; covers the scenes of military conflict such as battlefields, castles, fortified houses and churches, defended and besieged towns and cities
* Korr, Charles P. ''Cromwell and the New Model Foreign Policy: England's Policy toward France, 1649-1658'' (1975) ISBN 0-520-02281-5. [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=98872257 online]
* Macinnes, Allan. ''The British Revolution, 1629-1660'' (2005), 337pp ISBN 0-333-59750-8.
* Morrill, John. "Cromwell and his contemporaries". In Morrill, John (ed.), ''Oliver Cromwell and the English Revolution'' (1990) ISBN 0-582-01675-4. [http://www.amazon.com/Oliver-Cromwell-English-Revolution-Morrill/dp/0582016754/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1212300435&sr=1-1 excerpt and text search]
* Trevor-Roper, Hugh. ''Oliver Cromwell and his Parliaments'', in his ''Religion, the Reformation and Social Change'' (1967). [http://oll.libertyfund.org/?option=com_staticxt&staticfile=show.php%3Ftitle=719&chapter=77057&layout=html&Itemid=27 online edition]
* Venning, Timothy. ''Cromwellian Foreign Policy'' (1995) ISBN 0-333-63388-1.
* Woolrych, Austin. ''Commonwealth to Protectorate'' (1982), ISBN 0-19-822659-4.
* Woolrych, Austin. ''Britain in Revolution 1625-1660'' (2002), ISBN 0-19-927268-6. [http://www.amazon.com/Britain-Revolution-1625-1660-Austin-Woolrych/dp/0199272689/ref=sr_1_2?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1212300255&sr=1-2 excerpt and text search]
===Historiography===
* Davis, J. C. ''Oliver Cromwell'' (2001). 243 pp; a biographical study that covers sources and historiography
* Goodlad, Graham. "The Cromwellian Protectorate." ''History Review,'' (March 2007,) Issue 57; online at [[EBSCO]]
* Lunger Knoppers, Laura. ''Constructing Cromwell. Ceremony, Portrait and Print, 1645-1661'' (2000), shows how people compared Cromwell to King Ahab, King David, Elijah, Gideon and Moses, as well as Brutus and Julius Caesar.
* Morrill, John. "Rewriting Cromwell: a Case of Deafening Silences." ''Canadian Journal of History'' 2003 38(3): 553-578. Issn: 0008-4107 Fulltext: [[Ebsco]]
* Worden, Blair. "Thomas Carlyle and Oliver Cromwell", in ''Proceedings Of The British Academy''(2000) 105: pp. 131–170. ISSN 0068-1202 .
* Worden, Blair. ''Roundhead Reputations: the English Civil Wars and the passions of posterity'' (2001), 387pp; ISBN 0-14-100694-3.
* Warden, Blair. "The English Reputations of Oliver Cromwell, 1660-1900" in William Lamont, ed. '' ''Historical Controversies and Historians'' (1998) 35-48 [http://books.google.com/books?id=fi4SmvdoUfoC&pg=PA35&dq=%22 online]

===Primary sources===
* Abbott, W.C., ed. ''Writings and Speeches of Oliver Cromwell,'' 4 vols. (1937–47).The largest reference for Cromwell's own words [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=98993729 online edition].
** Morrill, John. "Textualizing and Contextualizing Cromwell", in ''Historical Journal'' 1990 33(3): pp. 629–639. ISSN 0018-246X . [http://www.jstor.org/pss/2639734 in Jstor] Examines the Carlyle and Abbott editions.
* Carlyle, Thomas, ed. ''Oliver Cromwell's letters and speeches, with elucidations''. (1904 edition), [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=98993729 online edition]
* Haykin, Michael A. G. ed. ''To Honour God: The Spirituality of Oliver Cromwell'' (1999). ISBN 1-894400-03-8. Excerpts from Cromwell's religious writings.
* Roots, Ivan. ''Speeches of Oliver Cromwell'' (1989, ISBN 0-460-01254-1.)

====Notes====
<references/>

==External links==
*[http://www.olivercromwell.org/ The Oliver Cromwell Association]
*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/cromwell_oliver.shtml Cromwell at BBC History]
*[http://britannia.com/history/monarchs/mon48.html Cromwell at ''Britannia'' website]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Cromwell, Oliver}}

[[Category:Military Commanders]]
{{Nb_english_monarchs}}
[[Category:English Civil War]]
[[Category:British History]]
[[Category:Puritans]]

Thomas Jefferson

2018-05-18T15:04:11Z

Haeralis: This section did not contain very many statements from Jefferson about orthodox Christianity, making it somewhat misleading.

{{Officeholder
|name=Thomas Jefferson
|image=Thomas-jefferson-1805.jpg
|party=[[Republican (Jeffersonian)]]
|spouse=Martha Wayles Skelton
|religion=Christian [[Deism]]
|offices=
{{Officeholder/president
|country=the United States
|number=3rd
|terms=March 4, 1801 – March 4, 1809
|vp=[[Aaron Burr]] [[George Clinton]]
|preceded=[[John Adams]]
|former=y
|succeeded=[[James Madison]]
}}
{{Officeholder/vice president
|country=the United States
|number=2nd
|terms=March 4, 1797 – March 4, 1801
|president=John Adams
|preceded=John Adams
|former=y
|succeeded=[[Aaron Burr]]
}}
{{Officeholder/governor
|number=2nd
|state=Virginia
|terms=June 1, 1779 – June 3, 1781
|preceded=[[Patrick Henry]]
|former=y
|succeeded=William Fleming
}}
{{Officeholder/ambassador
|for=United States
|to=France
|president=(none)
|terms=May 17, 1785 – September 26, 1789
|preceded=[[Benjamin Franklin]]
|former=y
|succeeded=[[William Short]]
}}
{{Officeholder/secretary (cabinet)
|of=State
|number=1st
|deputy=n
|president=[[George Washington]]
|terms=March 22, 1790 – December 31, 1793
|preceded=[[John Jay]] (Acting)
|former=y
|succeeded=Edmund Randolph
}}
}}
'''Thomas Jefferson''' (1743-1826) was the third president of the United States, from 1801 to 1809. He was the primary author of the [[Declaration of Independence]] of 1776.<ref>Much of the Declaration of Independence was based on George Mason's [[Virginia Declaration of Rights]].</ref> Jefferson was also the first secretary of state (1789-1793), and founded the [[Jeffersonian Republicans]] in 1792. This party dominated U.S. politics for many years. Jefferson and the Republicans are closely associated with the view that the size and powers of the federal government should be strictly limited.<ref>"distrusted the federal government because he knew it would grow too large, become disconnected from the people, and be heir to the arrogance, insolence and prideful haughtiness that is the lot of the unrestrained ..." Pruden, [http://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2011/dec/16/pruden-winning-the-war-against-civility/ Winning the war against ‘civility’] - Editorial in the ''[[Washington Times]]''</ref>

Jefferson was a friend of France and the French Revolution, but a bitter enemy of Britain. He was deeply disappointed when [[Napoleon]] ended the French Republic and declared himself emperor in 1804. As president, Jefferson purchased the vast Louisiana Territory in 1803, but he was generally ineffective. During the Napoleonic Wars, both Britain and France violated American neutrality and attacked U.S. shipping. Jefferson responded by signing the [[Embargo of 1807]]. The embargo led to economic problems in the United States and was unpopular. It also failed in its purpose of forcing the British to repeal their "Orders in Council" and respect American neutrality. Just before Jefferson left office, the embargo was repealed and replaced with the Non-Intercourse Act. As Jefferson was not willing to submit to the Orders in Council, the failure of the embargo made war with Britain the logical next step. However, Federalist gains in the 1808 election suggested that public opinion was not yet ready for this move.

James Madison, Jefferson's handpicked successor as president, was a loyal follower. After his retirement to Monticello in 1809, Jefferson wrote numerous letters and continued to play a major role in policymaking. Although Jefferson had long pressed for war with Britain, he had neglected the military. When Congress finally declared war in 1812, the country was tragically unprepared.

In the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, Jefferson was the South's favorite [[Founding Father]], while northerners preferred [[Alexander Hamilton]]. President Franklin Roosevelt did to much to promote the memory of Jefferson, and it now eclipses that of Hamilton. This is ironic since Roosevelt's bloated New Deal regime is hard to reconcile with Jefferson's vision of a minimal federal government. Although Jefferson's party dissolved in 1825, the modern Democratic Party claims Jefferson as its founder. In 1998, DNA testing confirmed an old accusation that Jefferson had fathered children by [[Sally Hemings]], one of his slaves.<ref name=foundation>[http://www.monticello.org/site/plantation-and-slavery/thomas-jefferson-and-sally-hemings-brief-account Thomas Jefferson and Sally Hemings: A Brief Account], Monticello and the Thomas Jefferson Foundation</ref> Jefferson was bankrupt when he died, so he was not able to free Hemings or most of his other slaves.<ref>Schwabach, Aaron. "Thomas Jefferson, Slavery, and Slaves." ''Thomas Jefferson Law Review'' 33, no. 1 (Fall 2010): 1-60. Academic Search Complete, EBSCOhost (accessed October 16, 2014).</ref> However, he did free all six of the children he had with Hemings.<ref name="foundation" />

==Early life==
Jefferson was the third child born to a well-connected tobacco planter family of moderate wealth in Goochland County on Virginia's western frontier. His father, Peter Jefferson (1707–57), of Welsh descent, owned slaves and was a county magistrate who was elected to the House of Burgesses (the colonial legislature). His mother, Jane Randolph, belonged to the leading family in the British colony. Peter taught the boy farming; they hunted and fished together. His formal education began under two Anglican ministers. He became proficient in Latin and Greek and had later became proficient in French. He was also tutored in dancing, became polished on the violin,<ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB124648983211082927 Thomas Jefferson, Musician], [[Wall Street Journal]]</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=lXFd5Y3HGD0C&pg=PA5 Thomas Jefferson: Let Freedom Ring!]</ref> learned chess, avoided cards, and was a fearless and accomplished horseman. His father died in 1757 when Jefferson was at the age of 14,<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=yqVNivyn_CcC&pg=PA19 Thomas Jefferson: Roots of Religious Freedom]</ref> leaving him an inheritance of some slaves and 2,750 acres of undeveloped farmland.<ref>Merrill D. Peterson, ''Thomas Jefferson and the New Nation: A Biography'' (1975) ch. 1</ref>

Jefferson was well educated at [[William and Mary College]] (class of 1762), and studied law. He was a polymath who read voraciously in history, politics, philosophy, linguistics, architecture and natural science. He studied science with Dr. William Small, who introduce him to Gov. Francis Fauquier and to George Wythe, the leading legal expert of the day in Virginia, who directed Jefferson's reading in law. He was a well-disciplined student who ignored the gambling and horse-racing of his peers to immerse himself in science law and history. He lost his Anglican religion along the way. He mastered the common law treatises of Sir [[Edward Coke]], and was admitted to the Virginia bar in 1767. He was successful but did not enjoy the tasks and gave up his practice by 1774. However the lawyerly style reappears in his famous state papers where he acts the advocate pleading a cause and buttressing it with precedents. Jefferson was never a good speaker, but he excelled in learning and industry and in precision and clarity of writing. His written arguments are powerful, but his "Declaration of Independence" remains the touchstone for powerful argumentation.

Jefferson had absorbed both the latest ideas of the [[Enlightenment]] and the precepts of [[republicanism]] as taught by the pamphlets of the British "country party", which had long been out of power. Jefferson became committed to the ancient rights of Englishmen possessed by Virginians; he was outraged that parliament would threaten those rights.

==Early career==
As the storms of the 1770s broke young Jefferson had never fully exercised his powerful intellect or fluent pen; he was known as a promising lawyer in a land of great lawyers, a successful planter in a slave society, and a lover of books, science, and music in a land of horse-racing. He was a loyal subject of King [[George III]]. From 1768 to 1775 Jefferson was a member of the Virginia House of Burgesses for Albemarle.

While serving in the Virginia House, Jefferson teamed up with [[Richard Bland]] to abolish the importation of slaves into the state.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=Vdeb1xvXxvwC&pg=PT84 What Would Jefferson Do?: A Return to Democracy]</ref><ref>[http://www.wallbuilders.com/libissuesarticles.asp?id=99 George Washington, Thomas Jefferson & Slavery in Virginia]</ref>

==Congress==
In 1773, following the lead of Massachusetts, Jefferson helped establish Virginia's Provincial Committee of Correspondence to keep in touch with the other 12 colonies and operate as a shadow government in defiance of the governor. In 1774 he drew up resolutions that were published by the first Virginia convention as "'''''A Summary View of the Rights of British America'''''."<ref>See [http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/jeffsumm.htm for text]</ref> This pamphlet, issued in four editions that year, argued that Parliament had no right to legislate for the colonies and that the British Empire was bound together solely by allegiance to the king. It proved one of the most influential statements of the patriot position and was widely read.

In 1775 Jefferson was elected to the Second [[Continental Congress]], meeting in Philadelphia. He drafted the resolution rejecting the conciliatory proposals of the British minister, [[Lord North]]. He was appointed county lieutenant in September and did not return to Congress until May 1776. He drafted a proposed constitution for the state of Virginia which was adopted in part.

===Declaration of Independence===
As a delegate to the [[Continental Congress]] he and [[John Adams]] of Massachusetts took the lead in pushing for independence. On June 7, 1776, [[Richard Henry Lee]] of the Virginia delegation proposed independence. Congress appointed a committee of five men to draw up a suitable public declaration. Jefferson was selected to write it because he was a Virginian, a recognized writer, and a zealous committeeman. He incorporated ideas and phrases from many sources to arrive at a consensus statement that all patriots could agree upon. His colleagues [[Benjamin Franklin]] and Adams made small changes in his draft text and Congress made more. The finished document, which both declared independence and proclaimed a philosophy of government, was singly and peculiarly Jefferson's.<ref>See [http://www.archives.gov/exhibits/charters/declaration.html "Declaration of Independence"]</ref>

The opening philosophical section is closely based on [[George Mason]]'s "Declaration of Rights," a notable summary of current revolutionary philosophy.<ref>See [http://gunstonhall.org/documents/vdr.html "The Virginia Declaration of Rights," Final Draft,12 June 1776]</ref>
Mason wrote:
::That all men are by nature equally free and independent, and have certain inherent rights, of which, when they enter into a state of society, they cannot, by any compact, deprive or divest their posterity; namely, the enjoyment of life and liberty, with the means of acquiring and possessing property, and pursuing and obtaining happiness and safety.
Jefferson rewrote it:
::We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness.--That to secure these rights, Governments are instituted among Men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed.

Jefferson himself did not believe in absolute human equality, and, though he had no fears of revolution, he preferred that the "social compact" be renewed by periodical, peaceful revisions. That government should be based on popular consent and secure the "inalienable" rights of man, among which he included the pursuit of happiness rather than property, that it should be a means to human well-being and not an end in itself, he steadfastly believed. He gave here a matchless expression of his faith.

The charges against King [[George III]], who is singled out because the patriots denied all claims of parliamentary authority, represent an improved version of charges that Jefferson wrote for the preamble of the Virginia constitution of 1776. Relentless in their reiteration, they constitute a statement of the specific grievances of the revolting party, powerfully and persuasively presented at the bar of public opinion.

The Declaration is notable for both its clarity and subtlety of expression, and it abounds in the felicities that are characteristic of Jefferson's best prose.<ref>See Carl Becker, ''The Declaration of Independence: A Study in the History of Political Ideas'' (1922) ch. 5, [http://books.google.com/books?id=VC5nCgcUmjsC&printsec=frontcover&dq=intitle:declaration+intitle:of+intitle:independence&lr=&num=30&as_brr=1 online edition]; Garry Wills, ''Inventing America: Jefferson's Declaration of Independence.'' (1978); Pauline Maier, ''American Scripture: Making the Declaration of Independence.'' (1997)</ref> More impassioned than any other of his writings, it is eloquent in its sustained elevation of style and remains his noblest literary [[monument]].

The concepts of [[Natural Law]], of inviolable rights, and of government by consent were drawn from the [[Republicanism|republican tradition]] that stretched back to ancient Rome and was neither new nor distinctively American. However it was unprecedented for a nation to declare that it would be governed by these propositions. It was Jefferson's almost religious commitment to these republican propositions that is the key to his entire life. He was more than the author of this statement of the national purpose: he was a living example of its philosophy, accepting its ideals as the controlling principles of his own life. Congress adopted the Declaration on July 4, 1776, which became the birthday of the independent nation.<ref>Peterson, ''Thomas Jefferson and the New Nation'' (1975) ch. 2</ref>

When the Declaration was signed, all British forces had been driven out of the 13 colonies, which now became the 13 states. However King [[George III]] refused to give up and of "his" possessions, so the war dragged on until the final American victory at Yorktown in 1781 caused Parliament to change the government in London and sue for peace.

====World impact====
The Declaration immediately sparked serious discussion in Europe and Latin America about the legitimacy of empires. By the 21st century, over 100 countries had their own declarations of independence, modeled in part on the very first one by Jefferson in 1776.<ref>Historians discount the influence of previous declarations. David Armitage, ''The Declaration of Independence: A Global History'' (2007) [http://www.amazon.com/Declaration-Independence-Global-History/dp/0674022823/ref=pd_bbs_sr_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1212623939&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]</ref>

=== Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom ===
: ''Main Article: [[Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom]]''
The Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom was written by Thomas Jefferson in 1777,<ref>Atkinson, Kathleen (2007). "[http://www.has.vcu.edu/soc/rdr/Culture.groups/VirginiaReligiousLibertyHistory.pdf Early Virginians and Religious Freedom for Americans]." ''Virginia Commonwealth University''. The World Religions in Richmond Project.</ref> introduced in the Virginia General Assembly in 1779, and on January 16, 1786 enacted into state law through the assistance of [[James Madison]].<ref>''Virginia Historical Society''. "[http://www.vahistorical.org/onthisday/11686.htm 16 January 1786: Statute for Religious Freedom]." On This Day: Legislative Moments in Virginia History.</ref> The legislation is one of only three accomplishments Jefferson instructed be included in his epitaph.<ref>"[http://www.monticello.org/site/jefferson/brief-biography-thomas-jefferson Brief Biography of Thomas Jefferson]." The Jefferson Monticello.</ref> It is often claimed that Jefferson was not Christian but a [[Deist]] and that his use of the term "Nature's God" in the Declaration of Independence was to a vague concept of a designer or even nature itself.<ref>Voelker, David J. (1993). "[http://history.hanover.edu/hhr/hhr93_1.html Who is Nature's God?]" ''Hanover Historical Review 1''.</ref><ref>Isaacson, Walter (2004, July 5). "[http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,994571,00.html Thomas Jefferson: God of our Fathers]." ''Time Magazine''.</ref> However, such arguments do not mention Jefferson's Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom, perhaps because (1) such critics aren't aware of it, or (2) the document very clearly shows Jefferson's beliefs were more refined: {{cquote|An Act for establishing religious Freedom. Whereas, Almighty God hath created the mind free;
That all attempts to influence it by temporal punishments or burthens, or by civil incapacitations tend only to beget habits of hypocrisy and meanness, and therefore are a departure from the plan of the holy author of our religion, who being Lord, both of body and mind yet chose not to propagate it by coercions on either, as was in his Almighty power to do}} Since Thomas Jefferson called William Penn "the greatest law giver the world has produced"<ref name=phmc>Ries, Linda A. & Stewart, Jane S. "[http://www.phmc.state.pa.us/bah/DAM/charter/charter.html This Venerable Document]." Pennsylvania Historical & Museum Commission.</ref> it would seem that whatever his beliefs may have become in later years, he derived his original inspiration from the Christian government of William Penn over a century earlier, the [[Province of Pennsylvania]].

==== Autobiography ====
Jefferson's autobiography provides more insight on the Virginia Statute. Jefferson stated, {{cquote|Where the preamble declares that coercion is a departure from the plan of the holy author of our religion, an amendment was proposed, by inserting the word "Jesus Christ," so that it should read "a departure from the plan of Jesus Christ, the holy author of our religion." The insertion was rejected by a great majority, in proof that they meant to comprehend, within the mantle of it's protection, the Jew and the Gentile, the Christian and Mahometan, the Hindoo, and infidel of every denomination.<ref>Jefferson, Thomas (1821, January 6). "[http://libertyonline.hypermall.com/Jefferson/Autobiography.html Autobiography]."</ref>}} Therefore, it appears that this was actually a more liberal statement by not using the name "Jesus Christ" at the time, much moreso than the clearly Christian origins of William Penn a century earlier. The Virginia legislature wanted to ensure all religions were "within the mantle of it's protection". Nevertheless, while it may have protected the beliefs of atheists or "infidel[s]" as Jefferson stated, the references to a Creator show such a belief was requisite for stating inalienable rights accorded by law.

==Reforming Virginia==
In September 1776 Jefferson left the national capital in Philadelphia and spent the rest of the war in Virginia, where he took control of the legislature and had a significant impact in shaping the laws of the new state.<ref>Peterson, ''Thomas Jefferson and the New Nation'' (1975) ch. 3</ref> In the House of Delegates he proposed a series of major reforms—almost unparalleled in scope and unequaled as the work of a single legislator. Of 126 bills he proposed, four-fifths were enacted in some form; and Jefferson drew up almost half the total. In 1779 he proposed "The Virginia Statute of Religious Freedom," which was adopted in 1786.<ref>See [http://www.lva.lib.va.us/whatwedo/k12/bor/vsrftext.htm text]</ref> Its goal was complete separation of church and state and declared the opinions of men to be beyond the jurisdiction of the civil magistrate. He asserted that the mind is not subject to coercion, that civil rights have no dependence on religious opinions, and that the opinions of men are not the concern of civil government, became one of the American charters of freedom. This elevated declaration of the freedom of the mind was hailed in Europe as "an example of legislative wisdom and liberality never before known."<ref>See Richard Price to Sylvanus Urban,, July 26, 1786, in [http://books.google.com/books?id=fPQfNx2TQLAC&pg=RA1-PA45&lpg=RA1-PA45&dq=%22an+example+of+legislative+wisdom+and+liberality+&source=web&ots=Z8wRAaAAty&sig=1ytdIIZ6IjyzlbESYVtGAPWy40E&hl=en Richard Price, ''The correspondence of Richard Price,'' (1991) vol. 2, p. 45 online]</ref>

Jefferson put forth numerous proposals to reform public education, but they failed at this time. He did manage to abolish the professorships of Hebrew, theology, and ancient languages at the College of William and Mary, and instead set up professorships of anatomy and medicine, law, and modern languages, the two latter being the first of their kind in America. His proposals to gradually end slavery were not reported out of committee.

His laws on inheritance ended the practice of primogeniture, whereby the eldest son inherited the entire estate, so as to spread out wealth more evenly and open up opportunities for more young men.

In 1779 he was elected to succeed [[Patrick Henry]] as governor of Virginia for a one-year term. Everything went wrong. British invasions by land and sea, Indian raids in the west, fiscal shortfalls, militia problems, profiteering, personal rivalries, and the shift of the main theater of war to Virginia created more challenges than he could solve. Re-elected in 1780, he saw the main British army under Cornwallis enter from the South in 1781; the Continental Army commander, General Von Steuben, was outmaneuvered. Jefferson quit office before his successor was named and the legislature had fled; he was almost captured when the British raided Monticello looking for him. Fortunately Washington arrived with the American and French armies and trapped Cornwallis at Yorktown, where the entire British army surrendered. Later the legislature investigated his administration and vindicated him, but Jefferson was embarrassed. Jefferson was an efficient, systematic, indefatigable administrator with a knack for getting men to work together smoothly, but his militia could not match the British army. He coped with these problems with a degree of success or failure that remains controversial among scholars.<ref>Peterson, ''Thomas Jefferson and the New Nation'' (1975) ch. 4</ref>

He suffered an irreparable loss when his beloved wife Martha died in 1782 and he gave up all idea of ever marrying again; they had three surviving daughters—Martha (1772–1836), Mary (1778–1804), and Lucy (1782–1784).

===''Notes on the State of Virginia''===
{{main|Notes on the State of Virginia}}

In 1780-83, Jefferson wrote his only book, ''Notes on the State of Virginia.''<ref>See [http://xroads.virginia.edu/~HYPER/JEFFERSON/toc.html for complete text of ''Notes on the State of Virginia'']</ref> It was written in the form of answers to questions about the geography, natural resources, Indians, government and economy of Virginia, based on his own research. The book was first published in French in Paris in 1785 (and in English in 1787), and immediately Jefferson's scientific reputation in Europe, while debunking some outlandish theories, especially those of the eminent naturalist the [[Comte de Buffon]], to the effect that animals regressed to smaller size in the new world. Jefferson's coup came with the mammoth, the giant extinct animal, five times bigger than an elephant, whose tusks, grinders, and bones had been recently dug up in the western part of the state.<ref>Peterson, ''Thomas Jefferson and the New Nation'' (1975) pp 242-52; Thomas O. Jewett, [http://www.earlyamerica.com/review/2000_fall/jefferson_paleon.html "Thomas Jefferson Paleontologist," ''Early America Review'', Fall 2000 online]</ref>

==Confederation Congress==
In 1783 Jefferson returned to Congress, became its leader, and launched another intensive legislative effort. His major achievement was conceptualizing a solution for territorial government in the land north of the Ohio River. Virginia ceded its land claims to the national government, Jefferson proposed a checkerboard system of land surveys, which avoided the terrible confusion that caused endless lawsuits over land ownership south of the river. One section in every sixteen was set aside to support public schools. Statehood was promised once a territory reached a certain population. Jefferson would not allow slavery in the territories. Many of Jefferson's ideas were passed into law after he left Congress, notably in the Land Ordinance of 1785 and the Northwest Ordinance of 1787.<ref>Peterson, ''Thomas Jefferson and the New Nation'' (1975) pp 274-85</ref>

Jefferson's report on coinage established the decimal dollar as the unit of money, though he failed then and later to secure a system of uniform weights and measures based on decimal notation.

==Minister to France==
[[File:Thomas Jefferson.jpg|thumb|An American in Paris.]]
He succeeded [[Benjamin Franklin]] as minister to France (1785–89), and so was not present when the Constitution was written and ratified.<ref>Peterson, ''Thomas Jefferson and the New Nation'' (1975) ch. 6</ref>

==1790s==
Jefferson returned from France in 1789 and became the first Secretary of State (1789-1793) in the cabinet of President [[George Washington]]. With his close ally [[James Madison]] (a member of the House) Jefferson opposed the Hamiltonian programs for national finance, especially assumption of state wartime debts and the [[First National Bank]]. Jefferson and Madison and created a new party, the Republicans, to oppose Hamilton's [[Federalist party]]. These were the first two modern political parties in the world (that is the first to reach out to the voters for support). Jefferson and his Republicans supported the French Revolution (from 1793 to 1800), while the Federalists favored Britain. According to authors [[Ann Coulter]], [[Christopher Ferrara]], and [[Conor Cruise O'Brien]], Jefferson supported the excesses for the French Revolution and to a certain extent the September Massacres and the execution of King Louis XVI that he even wrote to William Short the Adam and Eve Letter that made clear that he was willing to allow for all but two people of each country to be exterminated in the name of liberty, just a couple of weeks before King Louis XVI was killed.<ref>[http://www.theatlantic.com/past/docs/issues/96oct/obrien/adam.htm The "Adam and Eve" letter], From Thomas Jefferson to William Short</ref> and inferred that faith in the French Revolution had been his "polar star."<ref>''Notes on a Conversation with George Washington''</ref><ref>Liberty, the God That Failed: Policing the Sacred and Constructing the Myths of the Secular State, from Locke to Obama, p. 196</ref><ref>[http://www.press.uchicago.edu/Misc/Chicago/616533.html Thomas Jefferson and the Impending Schism in the American Civil Religion]</ref> President Washington managed to maintain neutrality in the war between Britain and France. Hamilton had more influence than Jefferson, even in foreign policy, as shown by Hamilton's success in securing the [[Jay Treaty]] of 1795 that opened ten years of friendly trade with Britain.<ref>Peterson, ''Thomas Jefferson and the New Nation'' (1975) ch. 7</ref> Similarly, in 1787, Jefferson in a letter to William M. Smith, Jefferson stated there should be a revolution or rebellion every two decades, the same letter where he mentioned the blood of patriots and tyrants are needed to water the tree of liberty.

Jefferson was defeated for president in the election of 1796 by [[John Adams]], but became vice president. When the [[Quasi War]] (that is undeclared war) with France broke out in 1798 and Federalists passed the [[Alien and Sedition laws]], Jefferson and Madison protested by secretly writing the [[Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions]] of 1798. They argued the right of state governments to nullify federal laws considered unconstitutional; this was the start of the [[States Rights]] theory that played a role in the coming of the [[American Civil War]] in 1861 and still plays a role in Constitutional debates.<ref>Peterson, ''Thomas Jefferson and the New Nation'' (1975) ch. 8.</ref>

==President: Successful first term, 1801-1805==
Jefferson defeated Adams and was elected president in 1800, in what his supporters called the [[Revolution of 1800]]. In his first term Jefferson negotiated the [[Louisiana Purchase]] with France. then sent [[Lewis and Clark]] to explore the vast new lands. He set up a territorial system for the Louisiana purchase. He promoted reservations for Indians to settle them on fixed parcels of land and teach them farming (instead of hunting and raiding).<ref>Peterson, ''Thomas Jefferson and the New Nation'' (1975) ch. 9</ref>

Jefferson removed many Federalist office holders in order to balance the civil service between parties. Bitterly opposed to strong judges, he had Congress abolish the lower courts the Federalists had created, and tried to impeach and remove two Federalist judges. He succeeded in removing one [[John Pickering|incompetent figure]] but was defeated when he tried to remove Supreme Court Justice [[Samuel Chase]]. Jefferson never dared attack Chief Justice [[John Marshall]], a Federalist who made the Supreme Court a bastion of nationalism, much to Jefferson's disgust.

The [[First Barbary War]] was considered a success for both President Jefferson and the newly formed United States of America.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=aZazAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA170 Emperor of Liberty: Thomas Jefferson's Foreign Policy]</ref>

==President: Troubled second term, 1805-1809==
Jefferson's second term was marked by escalating tensions with both Britain and France (which were at war with each other). Jefferson's use of economic warfare, especially the [[Embargo of 1807]], failed, as he tried to crack down on New England merchants who defied laws that restricted their trade. Jefferson opposed building up the army or navy, insisting that the militia would suffice, aided by small gunboats.

Most historians judge his military policies a major disaster. Neither the militia nor the gunboat proved to be of much use in the [[War of 1812]] with Britain. This war began three years after Jefferson left office.<ref>Peterson, ''Thomas Jefferson and the New Nation'' (1975) ch. 10</ref> Jefferson left the White House under a cloud and never ran for office again. The country was drifting toward war with Britain, but it remained woefully unprepared for such a war.<ref>Jefferson's secretary of state, James Madison, stated that if economic pressure did not get results, war was inevitable. (Wood, Gordon, ''Empire of Liberty: A History of the Early Republic, 1789-1815'' (2009), p. 661.)</ref>

==Retirement==
In political retirement Jefferson helped create and design the [[University of Virginia]], which he considered a major accomplishment. He believed that republican government depends on an informed citizenry; that education is a duty of the state; and that, while all should be given learning sufficient to enable them to understand their rights and duties as citizens, the "natural aristocracy" of virtue and talent should be drawn forth from the general mass and given every opportunity of public education. He continued through life to advocate this philosophy of education,<ref>Peterson, ''Thomas Jefferson and the New Nation'' (1975) ch. 11</ref> and explained in detail his belief of what education should accomplish:

<blockquote>
:To give to every citizen the information he needs for the transaction of his own business.
:To enable him to calculate for himself, and to express and preserve his ideas, his contracts and accounts in writing;
:To improve, by reading, his morals and faculties;
:To understand his duties to his neighbors and country, and to discharge with competence the functions confided to him by either;
:To know his rights; to exercise with order and justice those he retains, to choose with discretion the fiduciary of those he delegates; and to notice their conduct with diligence, with candor and judgment;
:And in general, to observe with intelligence and faithfulness all the social relations under which he shall be placed.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=2lo8AAAAIAAJ&pg=RA1-PA81 Niles' Weekly Register, Volume 15]</ref></blockquote>

Jefferson died on July 4, [[Independence Day]], in 1826. It was the same day as the death of John Adams. They had been close friends until the political wars of the 1790s drove them apart, then resumed their friendship with a brilliant correspondence.

==Image and memory==
In the view of modern historians, Jefferson's party died out in the mid-1820s. Today's Democratic Party was founded in 1832 by [[Andrew Jackson]]. Jefferson's party is variously called Republican (the name Jefferson used), Democratic (used in New York and other states), or Democratic-Republican. This has led to a great deal of confusion. In the 1930s, Franklin Roosevelt built the Jefferson Memorial, emphasized Jefferson's supposed status as founder of the Democratic Party, and did much to promote the memory of Jefferson. Democratic states organization have held "Jefferson-Jackson Dinners" since 1945. Jefferson has also been commemorated in the names of many counties and schools. Conservative commentator [[George Will]] has called Jefferson the "Man of the Millennium"—that is the most influential person in world history over the last 1000 years. In 2015, Democrats in various states announced that the Jefferson-Jackson Dinners would be renamed, partly because Jefferson's status as a slaveholder now embarrasses the party.<ref>[http://article.wn.com/view/2015/07/24/out_jeffersonjackson_dinners_in_harry_truman_and_8216leaders_s/ Out: Jefferson-Jackson dinners. In: Harry Truman and ‘Leadership Blue’], WN, 2015-07-24</ref>

==Jefferson's views==
===Culture===
Lost in Jefferson's visible stature of statesmanship, authoring the Declaration, and other accomplishments such as his presidency, are Jefferson's love of music, wine, and the arts. Jefferson's favorite wines were produced by the Scuppernong variety,<ref>[http://northcarolinahistory.org/encyclopedia/state-fruit-scuppernong-grape/ State Fruit: Scuppernong Grape]</ref><ref>[http://winetable.com/blog/grape-of-the-week-scuppernong/ Grape of the Week: Scuppernong]</ref> and he is known to have grown Scuppernong as well as Muscadine grapes in his vineyards at Monticello.<ref>[https://www.monticello.org/site/house-and-gardens/vineyards The Vineyards]</ref>

Thomas Jefferson was an accomplished violinist, and he enjoyed music from composers Carl Friedrich Abel and [[George Frideric Handel]].<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=NF7r_W2fAeQC&pg=PT321 Thomas Jefferson: Inquiry History for Daring Delvers]</ref> He had a deep fondness for the works of [[Antonio Vivaldi]],<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=CxFeYnu1SkEC&pg=PA112 Flight from Monticello: Thomas Jefferson at War]</ref> and his favorite composer was [[Arcangelo Corelli]].<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=C6L2sHRPmtMC&pg=PA177 Classical Music Insights: Understanding and Enjoying Great Music]</ref> It is believed that Jefferson owned among his many violins, one created by the well known instrument maker Nicola Amati.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=Bpg6BAAAQBAJ&pg=PT211 Thomas Jefferson: A Life]</ref>

In philosophy, Jefferson was most influenced by three people: [[Francis Bacon]], [[Isaac Newton]], and [[John Locke]]. Jefferson referred to these three men as "my trinity of the three greatest men the world had ever produced".<ref>[https://www.monticello.org/site/house-and-gardens/john-locke-painting John Locke (Painting)]</ref>

===Slavery===
In ''[[Notes on the State of Virginia]]'' (1785) Jefferson deplored the despotic, lawless treatment of slaves, suggesting that the only remedy was to emancipate and remove Virginia's slaves and then declare them a free and independent people. Colonization to an unspecified destination was necessary because racial co-existence was impossible; emancipation otherwise would produce "convulsions which will probably never end but in the extermination of one or the other race." Differences between the two races were "fixed in nature", he said:
:"Comparing them by their faculties of memory, reason, and imagination, it appears to me, that in memory they are equal to the whites; in reason much inferior...and that in imagination they are dull, tasteless, and anomalous."<ref>Jefferson, [http://xroads.virginia.edu/~hyper/JEFFERSON/ch14.html ''Notes on the State of Virginia'' ch 14]</ref>

Jefferson believed that, eventually, all Americans had to be free. His goals for unlimited national improvement were incompatible with slaves in America. Both slavery and the slave trade would have to be ended in favor of free commerce and free labor. The key word for Jefferson was "amelioration," and it included several stages of national and moral development. First, Americans would abolish the slave trade. "Citizens," President Jefferson declared in 1806, should "withdraw . . . from all further participation in those violations of human rights which have been so long continued on the unoffending inhabitants of Africa" to promote "the morality, the reputation, and the best interests of our country."<ref>"Sixth Annual Message," December 2, 1806</ref> Second, the owners should raise up the moral and intellectual levels of their slaves. As masters established ties of reciprocal obligation and sympathy with their slaves, they would prepare themselves—and their slaves for the emancipation and repatriation of all Africans back to Africa. He in fact did secure the abolition by Congress of the international slave trade in 1808. He owned slaves—some 200 at one time or another—but despite his theoretical opposition to slavery he was always so much in debt he could never free them.<ref>Christa Dierksheide, "'The great improvement and civilization of that race': Jefferson and the 'Amelioration' of Slavery, ca. 1770–1826," ''Early American Studies: An Interdisciplinary Journal'' 6#1 Spring 2008, pp. 165-197.</ref>

In his ''Memoirs'', Jefferson wrote that Congress struck out his clause of the first draft of the Declaration of Independence which dealt directly with slavery, because of "complaisance to South Carolina and Georgia", who did not make any attempts whatsoever to restrain the importation of slaves like the other colonies did.<ref name=memoir>[https://books.google.com/books?id=QQZFhE-bdZEC&pg=PA16 Memoirs Corespondence and Private Papers of Thomas Jefferson Late, President of the United States: Now First Published the Original Manuscripts]</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=6u5EAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA251 Proceedings of the Massachusetts Historical Society]</ref>

Over the years, claims of hypocrisy have been thrown Jefferson's way over the issue of slavery, but none other than President [[John Quincy Adams]] pointed out the logical consistency of Jefferson's views.(Quincy Adams was a lifelong, die-hard [[abolitionist]].) Adams said:

<blockquote>The inconsistency of the institution of domestic slavery with the principles of the Declaration of Independence was seen and lamented by all the southern patriots of the Revolution; by no one with deeper and more unalterable conviction than by the author of the Declaration himself. No charge of insincerity or hypocrisy can be fairly laid to their charge. Never from their lips was heard one syllable of attempt to justify the institution of slavery. They universally considered it as a reproach fastened upon them by the unnatural step-mother country and they saw that before the principles of the Declaration of Independence, slavery, in common with every other mode of oppression, was destined sooner or later to be banished from the earth. Such was the undoubting conviction of Jefferson to his dying day. In the Memoir of His Life, written at the age of seventy-seven, he gave to his countrymen the solemn and emphatic warning that the day was not distant when they must hear and adopt the general emancipation of their slaves.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=A3hRAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA50 An Oration Delivered Before the Inhabitants of the Town of Newburyport, at Their Request, on the Sixty-first Anniversary of the Declaration of Independence, July 4th, 1837]</ref></blockquote>

Helo and Onuf (2003) have explored the logic of Jefferson's philosophical position against slavery in light of his ownership of slaves and his belief that the wholesale and immediate emancipation of slaves would threaten the new Republic. Heavily influenced by the writings of political philosophers [[Charles de Montesquieu]], Jean-Jacques Burlamaqui, and especially Lord Kames, Jefferson grounded his position regarding slavery on the Kamesian principle that man was capable of moral development and, consequently, moral codes varied among different nations and progressed (or retrograded) over time in each nation. Kames posited that moral progress in a society, however, required a government. These concepts and others helped Jefferson shape his arguments in the Declaration of Independence, as rationale for the American Revolution. Moreover, they were the basis for his belief that slaves should be freed only when they could be assured of having their own government and a means, thereby, of self-determination as well as practical and moral education. Jefferson was convinced that emancipation on a large scale, before Virginia slaveholders and American society as a whole advanced morally, would precipitate racial violence and put the American experiment at risk.<ref>Ari Helo and Peter Onuf, "Jefferson, Morality, and the Problem of Slavery." ''William and Mary Quarterly'' 2003 60(3): 583-614. Issn: 0043-5597 Fulltext: [[History Cooperative]]</ref>

===Religion===
====Christianity====
Jefferson was a regular church goer and a lifelong Christian. His unique theology was his own creation and combined elements of deism and Unitarianism. "I am of a sect by myself, as far as I know," he wrote to a friend.<ref>"[https://www.monticello.org/site/research-and-collections/jeffersons-religious-beliefs Jefferson's Religious Beliefs]," ''Thomas Jefferson Encyclopedia''</ref>

Jefferson was raised in the [[Church of England]] at a time when it was the established church in Virginia and never formally left the [[Episcopal Church in the United States of America|Episcopal Church]], and attended church regularly near the end of his life. Despite that, at least one historian claims that Jefferson was merely a [[deism|deist]].<ref>David L. Holmes, ''The Faiths of the Founding Fathers''.</ref> Conservative scholars such as [[David Barton]] point out how Jefferson was a [[Piety|pious]] orthodox Christian.<ref>Barton, David. ''The Jefferson Lies: Exposing the Myths You've Always Believed About Thomas Jefferson'' (2012, Thomas Nelson)</ref> Liberal publishing houses, such as Oxford University Press, University of Virginia Press, and Yale University Press, typically deny or downplay Jefferson's Christian beliefs.

Barton's views, however, have been accused of deception by conservative Christians who take Jefferson at his word with respect to religion.<ref>https://world.wng.org/2012/08/the_david_barton_controversy?</ref> Jefferson vehemently attacked Christianity, accusing the Christian God of being a "terrific character - cruel, vindictive, capricious, and unjust."<ref>http://www.let.rug.nl/usa/presidents/thomas-jefferson/letters-of-thomas-jefferson/jefl261.php</ref> He called Christianity "the most perverted system that ever shone on man"<ref>Letter to the Unitarian heretic Joseph Priestly. https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Jefferson/01-33-02-0336</ref> and said that he did "not find in orthodox Christianity one redeeming feature." Christianity, according to Jefferson, was merely another religion "founded on fable and superstition." Jefferson argued that in the gospels, "we discover a groundwork of vulgar ignorance, of things impossible, of superstition, fanaticism and fabrication."<ref>http://www.let.rug.nl/usa/presidents/thomas-jefferson/letters-of-thomas-jefferson/jefl261.php</ref> He denied the historicity and authenticity of the Scriptures, saying:

"The authors of the gospels were unlettered and ignorant men and the teachings of Jesus have come to us mutilated, misstated and unintelligible."<ref>https://books.google.com/books?id=R8Z4CwAAQBAJ&pg=PA243&lpg=PA243&dq=jefferson+The+authors+of+the+gospels+were+unlettered+and+ignorant+men+and+the+teachings+of+Jesus+have+come+to+us+mutilated,+misstated+and+unintelligible.%22&source=bl&ots=He8HlprFYm&sig=qBwKrB7qXHse6K0VsrcEXFkOlIA&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjVx72tw4_bAhXCq1kKHXtxDl8Q6AEISDAI#v=onepage&q=jefferson%20The%20authors%20of%20the%20gospels%20were%20unlettered%20and%20ignorant%20men%20and%20the%20teachings%20of%20Jesus%20have%20come%20to%20us%20mutilated%2C%20misstated%20and%20unintelligible.%22&f=false</ref>

Of the Apostles, Jefferson had a particular hatred for Paul, the author of most of the Books contained in the New Testament. "Of this band of dupes and impostors [the apostles], Paul was the great Coryphaeus, and firm corrupter of the doctrines of Jesus."<ref>http://tjrs.monticello.org/letter/1559</ref>

Jefferson did not believe the words of Jesus or any other part of the Bible to be divinely inspired,<ref>[http://www.let.rug.nl/usa/P/tj3/writings/brf/jefl261.htm Letter to William Short, August 4, 1820]</ref> but he considered Jesus a great moral teacher who created "the most sublime and benevolent code of morals which has ever been offered to man."<ref>http://www.cooperativeindividualism.org/jefferson_m_03.html</ref> Believing that the doctrines of the historical Jesus had been greatly corrupted by ignorant and superstitious "pseudo-followers," Jefferson used a razor and a paste to assemble passages from the Synoptic Gospels into a new book commonly called the ''[[Jefferson Bible]]'', omitting references to divinity and miracles. However, he did not necessarily agree with everything that remained, writing, "I read [Jesus's doctrines] as I do those of other antient and modern moralists, with a mixture of approbation and dissent."<ref>[http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?ammem/mtj:@field(DOCID+@lit(ws03101)) Letter to William Short, April 13, 1820]</ref>

In an 1803 letter to Dr. Benjamin Rush, Jefferson declared that "I am a Christian," though his view of Christianity was different from most:
<blockquote>I then promised you that one day or other I would give you my views of [the Christian religion]. They are the result of a life of inquiry and reflection, and very different from that anti-Christian system imputed to me by those who know nothing of my opinions. To the corruptions of Christianity I am indeed opposed, but not to the genuine precepts of Jesus himself. I am a Christian, in the only sense in which he wished anyone to be: sincerely attached to his doctrines in preference to all others, ascribing to himself every human excellence, and believing he never claimed any other.<ref>[http://www.angelfire.com/co/JeffersonBible/jeffbsyl.html Jefferson, Thomas, April 21, 1803: Letter to Dr. Benjamin Rush]</ref></blockquote>

He worked tirelessly to create a "wall of separation" between church and state, fearing that unifying the two would create tyranny over the free minds of people. He had a very negative view of the Roman Catholic Church, and succeeded in disestablishing the Anglican [[Church of England]] in Virginia during the Revolution.

Jefferson often made references to God and providence. In one of his writings now inscribed on the [[Jefferson Memorial]] in Washington, D.C., Jefferson said:

<blockquote>God who gave us life gave us liberty. Can the liberties of a nation be secure when we have removed a conviction that these liberties are the gift of God? Indeed I tremble for my country when I reflect that God is just, that his justice cannot sleep forever.</blockquote>

Jefferson's Second Inaugural Address implied that he believed in divine intervention:<blockquote>"I shall need, too, the favor of that Being in whose hands we are, who led our forefathers, as Israel of old."</blockquote>

Jefferson was also greatly interested in Eastern religions and Islam. In fact, in 2007, Representative Keith Ellison (the first Muslim elected to Congress) was sworn in on Jefferson's copy of the Koran.<ref>http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/01/03/AR2007010301179.html</ref>

====Islam====
{{main|Islam|Koran}}

Jefferson owned a two-volume copy of the Koran which was translated in 1734 by George Sale.<ref>[https://www.monticello.org/site/research-and-collections/quran Qu'ran], Thomas Jefferson's Monticello</ref> Jefferson's Koran is known to be unflattering toward Islamic viewpoints.<ref>[http://www.annaqed.com/en/politics-socio-politics/thomas-jeffersons-quran Thomas Jefferson’s Quran]</ref>

In a 1786 letter to [[John Jay]], Jefferson explained the situation that he had run into, along with [[John Adams]](who also owned a Koran), with the ambassador from the [[Barbary States]], Jefferson wrote:
<blockquote>We took the liberty to make some enquiries concerning the ground of their pretensions to make war upon nations who had done them no injury, and observed that we considered all mankind as our friends who had done us no wrong, nor had given us any provocation. 
The Ambassador answered us that it was founded on the laws of their prophet; that it was written in their Koran; that all nations who should not have acknowledged their authority were sinners; that it was their right and duty to make war upon them wherever they could be found, and to make slaves of all they could take as prisoners; and that every [[Mussulman]] who was slain in battle was sure to go to Paradise.<ref>[https://captainjamesdavis.net/2015/02/05/thomas-jefferson-and-john-adams-explain-why-muslims-turn-to-terrorism/ Thomas Jefferson and John Adams Explain Why Muslims Turn to Terrorism]</ref></blockquote>

===The Right to Bear Arms===
"In a nation governed by the people themselves, the possession of arms to defend their nation against usurpers within and without was deemed absolutely necessary. This right is protected by the 2nd Amendment to the Constitution. A gun was an everyday implement in early American society, and Jefferson recommended its use." <ref>[http://etext.virginia.edu/jefferson/quotations/jeff1500.htm#Arms Jefferson on Politics & Government: Civil Rights]</ref>

<blockquote>"A strong body makes the mind strong. As to the species of exercises, I advise the gun. While this gives moderate exercise to the body, it gives boldness, enterprise and independence to the mind. Games played with the ball, and others of that nature, are too violent for the body and stamp no character on the mind. Let your gun, therefore, be the constant companion of your walks." --Thomas Jefferson to Peter Carr, 1785. ME 5:85, Papers 8:407</blockquote>

<blockquote>"The constitutions of most of our States assert that all power is inherent in the people; that... it is their right and duty to be at all times armed." --Thomas Jefferson to John Cartwright, 1824. ME 16:45</blockquote>

<blockquote>"One loves to possess arms, though they hope never to have occasion for them." --Thomas Jefferson to George Washington, 1796. ME 9:341</blockquote>

<blockquote>"No freeman shall ever be debarred the use of arms." -- Thomas Jefferson when drafting the Virginia Constitution. The text does not appear in the Virginia Constitution as adopted.<ref>Boyd, Julian P., Charles T. Cullen, John Catanzariti, Barbara B. Oberg, et al, eds. The Papers of Thomas Jefferson. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1950-. 1:344.</ref></blockquote>

=== Architecture ===
[[Image:University of Virginia.jpg|thumb|The Rotunda of the University of Virginia. It was designed by Thomas Jefferson.]]

Jefferson was the founder of the University of Virginia and designer of ''his "academical village"''; he made the drawings for ''The Rotunda'' in 1819. Self-taught in architecture, read widely and studied the great structures of Europe firsthand. He assisted [[Pierre L'Enfant]] in the design and layout of the new Federal City (Washington, D.C.) and designed the state capitol building in Richmond. Jefferson believed that "from architecture would flow education in taste, values, and ideals," and therefore constructed buildings that became ideas for America.<ref>[http://xroads.virginia.edu/~cap/jeff/jeffarch.html Jefferson and the Politics of Architecture]</ref>

<blockquote>
Jefferson believed that architecture was the heart of the American cause. In his mind, a building was not merely a walled structure, but a metaphor for American ideology, and the process of construction was equal to the task of building a nation. The architecture of any American building should express the American desire to break cultural--as well as political--ties to Europe. American architecture, Jefferson believed, would embody the fulfillment of the civic life of Americans, and he sought to establish the standards of a national architecture, both aesthetically and politically.
</blockquote>

Jefferson was an admirer of [[Andrea Palladio]]; the Palladian influece may be seen at Thomas Jefferson's estate Monticello (1768 - 1809).<ref>[http://www.oldandsold.com/articles10/famous-buildings-51.shtml Famous Buildings In America]</ref>

<blockquote>
Thomas Jefferson was among the many people who submitted a plan for the White House. His design, however, was not chosen. Instead, James Hoban, an Irish immigrant architect living in Charleston, [[South Carolina]], won the competition and a $500 prize, with a design modeled after Leister House in [[Dublin]], [[Ireland]].<ref>[http://www.americaslibrary.gov/cgi-bin/page.cgi/jb/nation/whitehse_2 The White House.]</ref>
</blockquote>
{{cquote|
''"Whenever it is proposed to prepare plans for the Capitol, I should prefer the adoption of some one of the models of antiquity which have had the approbation of thousands of years; and for the President's house I should prefer the celebrated fronts of modern buildings which have already received the approbation of all good judges. Such are the Galerie du Louvre, the Garde Meubles; and two fronts of the Hotel de Salm."'' T. Jefferson.<ref>Thomas Jefferson to L'Enfant, April 10, 1791, in Saul K. Padover, ed., Thomas Jefferson and the National Capital (Washington, D. C.: US Government Printing Office, 1946), 59.</ref>
}}

==Quotes==
*"An elective despotism was not the government we fought for."<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=FlEVAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA123 Notes on the State of Virginia]</ref>
*"I believe that banking institutions are more dangerous to our liberties than standing armies. Already they have raised up a monied aristocracy that has set the government at defiance. The issuing power (of money) should be taken away from the banks and restored to the people to whom it properly belongs."
*Speaking of great calamities, "There is yet one greater, submission to a government of unlimited powers." <ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=InAsAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA351&dq=submission+to+a+government+of+unlimited+powers.+Jefferson&ei=8CQrSqarK6CIzQTnpfyyBw The Writings of Thomas Jefferson : 1816-1826.‎ - Page 351] by Thomas Jefferson, Paul Leicester Ford</ref>
*"That government is best which governs the least, because its people discipline themselves." <ref name="Thomas">[http://books.google.com/books?id=HgM4tztnJFcC&pg=PA240&dq=government+big+enough+to+give+you+everything&ei=hhc5SoekCKeQyASNj4iLAw Civiliazation's quotes P.240] by Richard Alan Krieger</ref>
*"Government big enough to give you everything you need is government big enough to take away everything you have."<ref name="Thomas"/>
*In a letter to Philips Mazzei, "Timid men prefer the calm of despotism to the tempestuous sea of liberty." <ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=W5MfcSfA_eUC&pg=PA147&dq=Timid+men+prefer+the+calm+of+despotism+to+the+tempestuous+sea+of+liberty.&ei=2x1ESu6iAZSuzQTJ5NDUDw Jefferson's second revolution P.147] By Susan Dunn</ref>
*"Let our countrymen know that the people alone can protect us against these evils of misgovernment." <ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=Ak6TAAAAIAAJ&q=Let+our+countrymen+know+that+the+people+alone+can+protect+us+against+these+evils+of+misgovernment.&dq=Let+our+countrymen+know+that+the+people+alone+can+protect+us+against+these+evils+of+misgovernment.&ei=5OlOSqq4LoT0yAS8i8DeAg Thomas Jefferson, world citizen- Page 71] by Elbert Duncan Thomas</ref>
* "The pusillanimous idea that we had friends in England worth keeping terms with, still haunted the minds of many. For this reason, those passages which conveyed censures on the people of England were struck out, lest they should give them offence. The clause too, reprobating the enslaving the inhabitants of Africa, was struck out in complaisance to South Carolina and Georgia, who had never attempted to restrain the importation of slaves, and who, on the contrary, still wished to continue it. Our northern brethren also, I believe, felt a little tender under those censures; for though their people had very few slaves themselves, yet they had been pretty considerable carriers of them to others."<ref name=memoir />

<blockquote>
Let me describe to you a man, not yet forty, tall, and with a mild and pleasing countenance. An American, who without ever having quitted his own country, is at once a musician, skilled in drawing, a geometrician, an astronomer, a natural philosopher, legislator, and statesman…. Sometimes natural philosophy, at others politics or the arts, were the topics of our conversation, for no object had escaped Mr. Jefferson; and it seemed as if from his youth he had placed his mind, as he has done his house, on an elevated situation, from which he might contemplate the universe.
</blockquote>
::::::: Description of a visit to Thomas Jefferson at Monticello in 1782, from Travels in North-America, in the Years 1780-81-82 by the Marquis de Chastellux.<ref>[http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/today/apr13.html]</ref>

*"Question with boldness even the existence of a god; because, if there be one, he must more approve the homage of reason, than that of blindfolded fear." <ref>Boyd, Julian P., Charles T. Cullen, John Catanzariti, Barbara B. Oberg, et al, eds. The Papers of Thomas Jefferson. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1950-. 33 vols.</ref> Though this quotation promotes the challenging of God, it is not necessarily an argument for atheism; Jefferson believed in a non-Christian God.<ref>"Jefferson believed in the existence of a Supreme Being who was the creator and sustainer of the universe and the ultimate ground of being, but this was not the triune deity of orthodox Christianity." [http://www.monticello.org/site/research-and-collections/jeffersons-religious-beliefs Monticello.org on Jefferson's religious beliefs.]</ref>

* "Our business is to march straight forward to the object which has occupied us for eight and twenty years, without either turning to the right or left."<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=5TlEAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA521 The Writings of Thomas Jefferson, Volume 4]</ref>

* "All the powers of government, legislative, executive, and judiciary, result to the legislative body. The concentrating these in the same hands is precisely the definition of despotic government. It will be no alleviation that these powers will be exercised by a plurality of hands, and not by a single one. 173 despots would surely be as oppressive as one."<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=FlEVAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA123 Notes on the State of Virginia], p. 123</ref>

* "In our village of Charlottesville, there is a good degree of religion, with a small spice only of fanaticism. We have four sects, but without either church or meeting-house. The court-house is the common temple, one Sunday in the month to each. Here, Episcopalian and Presbyterian, Methodist and Baptist, meet together, join in hymning their Maker, listen with attention and devotion to each others' preachers, and all mix in society with perfect harmony." - Letter from Thomas Jefferson to Dr. Thomas Cooper, November 2, 1822<ref>[http://www.beliefnet.com/resourcelib/docs/54/Letter_from_Thomas_Jefferson_to_Dr_Thomas_Cooper_1.html Letter from Thomas Jefferson to Dr. Thomas Cooper]</ref>

* "Every Constitution, then, and every law, naturally expires at the end of nineteen years. If it be enforced longer it is an act of force and not of right." - Letter to James Madison, 1789<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=p6o-AAAAYAAJ&pg=PA175 The Life and Writings of Thomas Jefferson: Including All of His Important Utterances on Public Questions, Compiled from State Papers and from His Private Correspondence]</ref>

* "Can one generation bind another, and all others, in succession for ever? I think not. the Creator has made the earth for the living, not the dead. rights and powers can only belong to persons, not to things, not to mere matter, unendowed with will. the dead are not even things. the particles of matter which composed their bodies, make part now of the bodies of other animals, vegetables, or minerals of a thousand forms. to what then are attached the rights and power they held while in the form of men? a generation may bind itself, as long as it’s majority continues in life; when that has disappeared, another majority is in place, holds all the rights and powers their predecessors once held and may change their laws and institutions to suit themselves. nothing then is unchangeable but the inherent and unalienable rights of man." Letter to John Cartwright, June 5, 1824<ref>[https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Jefferson/98-01-02-4313 From Thomas Jefferson to John Cartwright, 5 June 1824]</ref>

* "When we get piled upon one another in large cities, as in Europe, we shall become corrupt as in Europe."<ref>[https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Jefferson/01-12-02-0490 Thomas Jefferson to Uriah Forrest], December 31st, 1787</ref>

==Fake quotes==
Many false quotations have been attributed to Jefferson.<ref>See the 28 fakes listed at [http://wiki.monticello.org/mediawiki/index.php/Category:Spurious_Quotations Spurious Quotations]</ref>
* Jefferson did NOT say, “A democracy is nothing more than mob rule, where fifty-one percent of the people may take away the rights of the other forty-nine”.
** Jefferson did write in 1787: "Societies exist under [...] governments of force: as is the case in all other monarchies and in most of the other republics. To have an idea of the curse of existence under these last, they must be seen. It is a government of wolves over sheep."<ref name="ReferenceA">Jefferson to James Madison, January 30, 1787; Boyd, Julian P., Charles T. Cullen, John Catanzariti, Barbara B. Oberg, et al, eds. The Papers of Thomas Jefferson. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1950-. 11:92-93</ref>
* In the 1960s leftwing activists invented another false quote: "Dissent is the highest form of patriotism".
** Jefferson did write in 1787: "I hold it that a little rebellion now and then is a good thing, and as necessary in the political world as storms in the physical."<ref name="ReferenceA"/>
* Jefferson did not like banks. He did NOT say, "If the American people ever allow private banks to control the issue of their currency, first by inflation, then by deflation, the banks and corporations that will grow up around them will deprive the people of all property until their children wake up homeless on the continent their Fathers conquered."
** Jefferson did say in 1816: "And I sincerely believe, with you, that banking establishments are more dangerous than standing armies; and that the principle of spending money to be paid by posterity, under the name of funding, is but swindling futurity on a large scale."
*Jefferson did NOT say, "The democracy will cease to exist when you take away from those who are willing to work and give to those who would not." He rarely used the word "democracy".<ref>See [http://wiki.monticello.org/mediawiki/index.php/Category:Spurious_Quotations Spurious Quotations]</ref>
** Jefferson did say: "To take from one, because it is thought that his own industry and that of his fathers has acquired too much, in order to spare to others, who, or whose fathers have not exercised equal industry and skill, is to violate arbitrarily the first principle of association, —the guarantee to every one of a free exercise of his industry, and the fruits acquired by it." <ref>Lipscomb, Andrew A. and Albert E. Bergh, eds. The Writings of Thomas Jefferson. Washington, D.C.: Thomas Jefferson Memorial Association of the United States, 1903-0; 14:446.</ref>
* A common misquote incorrectly attributed to Jefferson is, "Where the people fear the government you have tyranny. Where the government fears the people you have liberty." This was first said by John Basil Barnhill.<ref>[http://debs.indstate.edu/b262b3_1914.pdf Debate on Socialism], Page 34.</ref>
** Jefferson did write in 1787: "Some are whigs, liberals, democrats, call them what you please. Others are tories, serviles, aristocrats, &c. The latter fear the people, and wish to transfer all power to the higher classes of society; the former consider the people as the safest depository of power in the last resort; they cherish them therefore, and wish to leave in them all the powers to the exercise of which they are competent."<ref name="ReferenceA"/>
* "Eternal vigilance is the price of liberty" is commonly attributed to Jefferson, but was said by [[John Philpot Curran]]

==Jefferson - Jackson Dinners==
The United States Democratic Party claims Jefferson and [[Andrew Jackson]] as two of its key founding members. Although this claim is a bit of a stretch, for decades the Democrats have honored these two presidents by holding fund-raising events called "Jefferson-Jackson Dinners." Recently, in an act of extreme "political correctness", activists have demanded that these events be renamed on the grounds that Jefferson held slaves and Jackson mistreated Native Americans. Many units of the Democratic Party have given into these arguments and are denouncing and dishonoring two of what most Americans view as great Presidents.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2015/08/09/us/jefferson-jackson-dinner-will-be-renamed.html|title=Jefferson-Jackson Dinner Will Be Renamed|date=August 8, 2015|work=New York Times|accessdate=April 19, 2016|first=Ashley|last=Southhall}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://blogs.denverpost.com/thespot/2015/11/16/colorado-democratic-party-considers-renaming-annual-jefferson-jackson-dinner/123835/|title=Colorado Democrats consider renaming Jefferson Jackson dinner|work=The Denver Post|first=John|last= Frank|date=November 16, 2015|accessdate=April 19, 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=
http://www.nola.com/politics/index.ssf/2015/07/jefferson_jackson_renamed_loui.html|title=As state Democratic parties rename their Jefferson-Jackson dinners, will Louisiana change 'J-J?'|work=The Times Picayune|first=Kevin |last=Litten|date= July 23, 2015|accessdate=April 21, 2016}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Embargo of 1807]], his failed foreign policy
* [[Republicans (Jeffersonian)]], the party he led
* [[First Party System]], how politics worked
* [[Albert Gallatin]]. his Treasury Secretary
* [[Jeffersonian Democracy]], his political coalition
* James Madison, his Secretary of State

==Further reading==
* Banning, Lance. ''The Jeffersonian Persuasion: Evolution of a Party Ideology'' (1978) [http://www.amazon.com/Jeffersonian-Persuasion-Evolution-Party-Ideology/dp/0801492009/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1195466092&sr=1-1 excerpt and text search]
* Bernstein, Richard B. ''Thomas Jefferson'' (2005) short biography [http://www.amazon.com/Thomas-Jefferson-R-B-Bernstein/dp/0195181301/ref=pd_bbs_2?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1201550604&sr=8-2 excerpt and text search]
* Channing, Edward. ''The Jeffersonian System, 1801-1811'' (1906) [http://books.google.com/books?id=BQcOAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=intitle:Jeffersonian+intitle:System+intitle:1801-1811&lr=&num=30&as_brr=0 full text online]* Cunningham, Noble E. Jr . ''In Pursuit of Reason: The Life of Thomas Jefferson'' (1988, short biography) [http://www.amazon.com/Pursuit-Reason-Life-Thomas-Jefferson/dp/0345353803/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1203807419&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Ellis, Joseph J. ''American Sphinx: The Character of Thomas Jefferson'' (1998), interpretive essays [http://www.amazon.com/American-Sphinx-Character-Thomas-Jefferson/dp/0679444904/ref=sr_1_3?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1197165858&sr=3 excerpt and text search]
* Ferling, John. ''Adams vs. Jefferson: The Tumultuous Election of 1800'' Oxford University Press, 2004 [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=108219147 online edition]
* Hofstadter, Richard. ''The American Political Tradition'' (1948), chapter on TJ [http://www.historyebook.org/ online at ACLS e-books]
* Koch, Adrienne. ''Philosophy of Thomas Jefferson.'' (1943) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=90632012 online edition]
* Onuf, Peter S. ''The Mind of Thomas Jefferson.'' (2007). 281 pp.
* Onuf, P. S. "Jefferson, Thomas (1743–1826)", ''Oxford Dictionary of National Biography,'' (2004); online edn, May 2008; Onuf is a leading American scholar
* Peterson, Merrill D. ''The Jefferson Image in the American Mind'' (1960) [http://www.amazon.com/Jefferson-Image-American-Mind/dp/0813918510/ref=sr_1_10?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1203807519&sr=8-10 excerpt and text search]
* Peterson, Merrill D. ''Thomas Jefferson and the New Nation: A Biography'' (1986), long, detailed biography by leading scholar; [http://www.questia.com/library/book/thomas-jefferson-and-the-new-nation-a-biography-by-merrill-d-peterson.jsp online edition]; also [http://www.amazon.com/Thomas-Jefferson-New-Nation-Biography/dp/0195019091/ref=sr_1_2?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1203807519&sr=8-2 excerpt and text search]
* Peterson, Merrill D. ed. ''Thomas Jefferson: A Reference Biography.'' (1986), very good, encyclopedic essays
* Smelser, Marshall. ''The Democratic Republic: 1801-1815'' (1968) good one-volume history of TJ's presidency and Madison's;
===Primary sources===
* Jefferson, Thomas. ''Writings'' (1984, Library of America); includes Autobiography, ''Notes on the State of Virginia,'' Public and Private Papers, Addresses and Letters. 1600pp [http://www.amazon.com/Thomas-Jefferson-Writings-Autobiography-Addresses/dp/094045016X/ref=sr_1_3?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1203807519&sr=8-3 excerpt and text search]
* Jefferson, Thomas. ''Political Writings,'' edited by Joyce Appleby and Terence Ball; Cambridge University Press, 1999 [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=107255488 online edition]
* Jefferson, Thomas. ''Jeffersonian Cyclopedia'' 9000 quotes, well arranged [http://etext.virginia.edu/jefferson/quotations/foley/ online]

==References==
{{reflist|3}}

==External links==
* Hitchens, Christopher, "[http://www.slate.com/articles/news_and_politics/fighting_words/2007/01/jeffersons_quran.html Jefferson's Quran: What the founder really thought about Islam]."
* [https://librivox.org/author/347 Works by Thomas Jefferson - text and free audio] - [[LibriVox]]
* [https://allthingsliberty.com/2017/05/understanding-thomas-jeffersons-reactions-rise-jacobins/ Understanding Thomas Jefferson’s Reactions to the Rise of the Jacobins] at Journal of the American Revolution

{{USPresidents}}
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Jefferson, Thomas}}

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Modernism

2018-05-04T23:06:12Z

Haeralis: Mis-spelling of the word "evolution"

'''Modernism''' is a philosophical movement which began in the late 19th century. Its historical background in terms of its development was the [[industrial revolution]] and growth of cities following [[World War I]].

An article at Miami Dade College on the history of modernism indicates:
{{cquote|Arising out of the rebellious mood at the beginning of the twentieth century, modernism was a radical approach that yearned to revitalize the way modern civilization viewed life, art, politics, and science. This rebellious attitude that flourished between 1900 and 1930 had, as its basis, the rejection of European culture for having become too corrupt, complacent and lethargic, ailing because it was bound by the artificialities of a society that was too preoccupied with image and too scared of change. This dissatisfaction with the moral bankruptcy of everything European led modern thinkers and artists to explore other alternatives, especially primitive cultures. For the Establishment, the result would be cataclysmic; the new emerging culture would undermine tradition and authority in the hopes of transforming contemporary society.

The first characteristic associated with modernism is [[nihilism]], the rejection of all religious and moral principles as the only means of obtaining social progress. In other words, the modernists repudiated the moral codes of the society in which they were living in. The reason that they did so was not necessarily because they did not believe in God, although there was a great majority of them who were [[Atheism|atheists]], or that they experienced great doubt about the meaninglessness of life. Rather, their rejection of conventional morality was based on its arbitrariness, its conformity and its exertion of control over human feelings. In other words, the rules of conduct were a restrictive and limiting force over the human spirit. The modernists believed that for an individual to feel whole and a contributor to the re-vitalization of the social process, he or she needed to be free of all the encumbering baggage of hundreds of years of hypocrisy.

The rejection of moral and religious principles was compounded by the repudiation of all systems of beliefs, whether in the arts, politics, sciences or philosophy. Doubt was not necessarily the most significant reason why this questioning took place. One of the causes of this iconoclasm was the fact that early 20th-century culture was literally re-inventing itself on a daily basis.<ref>[https://www.mdc.edu/wolfson/Academic/ArtsLetters/art_philosophy/Humanities/history_of_modernism.htm History of Modernism], Miami Dade College</ref>}}

== Modernism and liberal Christianity ==

In Christian theology, modernism is a hostile term used by its enemies to attack the tendency of [[liberal Christianity]] toward revision of certain Christian doctrines such as the [[Virgin Birth]] and the [[Resurrection]] of Christ, or subjecting the Bible to the [[Higher Criticism]]. Modernism was the target of [[Fundamentalism|the Fundamentalists]] after 1910, and was an especially bitter issue in the 1920s.

Like secular modernists, adherents of liberal theology often have lower standards of morality (for example, see: [[Liberal Christianity and marital infidelity|Liberal Christianity and higher prevalence of marital infidelity and other sexual immorality]]).

=== Presbyterians ===
Different views of the role of Christianity in the face of the growth of modern science and research methods fueled the conflict between the liberal modernist and conservative fundamentalist factions of the Presbyterian Church during the 1920s-30s. Modernists such as [[Harry Emerson Fosdick]], Henry Sloane Coffin, and Robert E. Speer promoted inclusiveness and denied the inerrancy of scripture, while fundamentalists such as [[J. Gresham Machen]], Clarence MacArtney, and [[William Jennings Bryan]] defended traditional doctrine. The fundamentalist cause, popularly identified with antievolutionism, was damaged during the [[Scopes Trial|trial in Tennessee of biology teacher John Scopes in 1925]] for teaching evolution. In 1929, fundamentalist leaders Machen and Macartney left their positions at the [[Princeton Theological Seminary]] to found the [[Westminster Theological Seminary]] to defend the reformed faith.<ref>Bradley J. Longfield, "For Church and Country: The Fundamentalist-Modernist Conflict in the Presbyterian Church". ''Journal of Presbyterian History'' 2000 78(1): 34-50. 0022-3883</ref>

=== Southern Baptists ===
The fundamentalist-modernist controversy reached the [[Southern Baptist Convention]] about the same time as it did in the Presbyterian Church. Led by preachers such as [[J. Frank Norris]] (who railed against "liberalism" in SBC universities), many churches withdrew from the SBC, and sizable portions of churches remaining split off and formed new congregations. Though some smaller denominations (such as the [[American Baptist Association]]) would form, the majority of congregations would not align with another denomination; the [[Independent Baptist]] movement gained significant momentum as a result.

With the Conservative Resurgence of the 1980's and 1990's bringing some measure of conservatism back to the SBC, formerly independent churches either joined or returned to the SBC; Norris' own church (First Baptist Church of Fort Worth) would later rejoin the SBC and remains a member to this day.<ref>http://sbtexas.com/affiliated-churches/first-baptist-church-of-fort-worth/1017/</ref>

=== Disciples of Christ and Church of Christ ===
The break between the [[Disciples of Christ]] and the [[Churches of Christ]] was due to much more than disagreements over the use of music in worship or over missionary societies; it was fundamentally a division between Stonite primitivism and Campbellian modernism. [[Alexander Campbell]] believed in progress toward the Kingdom of God and was both optimistic and not hostile toward the secular world. Barton Stone, on the other hand, wanted a radical separation from the world, was pessimistic about the human nature and prospects for progress, and looked toward restoring the authentic primitive church. From the end of the Civil War to 1917, [[David Lipscomb]] dominated the Churches of Christ and managed to balance the views of Campbell and Stone. After his death, the Churches of Christ moved away from the premillennialism of Stone and Lipscomb and embraced modernism. Foy Wallace, whose views prevailed among the Churches of Christ from the 1930s through the 1950s, led the movement away from the thought of Stone and Lipscomb.<ref>Richard T. Hughes, "The Apocalyptic Origins of Churches Of Christ and the Triumph of Modernism." ''Religion and American Culture'' 1992 2(2): 181-214. 1052-1151</ref>

==See also==

* [[Fundamentalism]]
* [[Liberal Christianity]]
* [[Neo-orthodoxy]]
* [[Postmodernism]]

== References ==
<references/>

[[Category:Christian Movements]]
[[Category:Fundamentalism]]

Fundamentalism

2018-02-28T21:20:54Z

Haeralis: Billy Graham passed away; added date of his death

[[File:Desecnt of the modernist.png|thumb|alt=atheism|center|500px|The Descent of the Modernists cartoon by E. J. Pace. It portrays [[modernism]] as the descent from [[Christianity]] to [[atheism]]. It was first published in 1922. ]]
{{Clear}}
'''Fundamentalism''' was a movement among Christians in the United States that began in the late 19th century. It was a backlash against [[Modernism]], which the fundamentalists accused of denying such Christian doctrines such as [[virgin birth]] and the inerrancy of Scripture. The name comes from a series of pamphlets entitled ''The Fundamentals'' that were published between 1910 and 1915.<ref name=IFTSAE>"[http://www.wheaton.edu/isae/defining-evangelicalism/fundamentalism Fundamentalism]”, Institute for the Study of American Evangelicals</ref> The movement is associated with the 1925 [[Scopes Trial]], which concerned the issue of evolution. It suffered a decline in the 1930s, but revived in the late 1940s. At this time, the words "evangelical" and "fundamentalist" were used interchangeably.

In the late 1950s, the movement split between evangelicals such as [[Billy Graham]] (1918-2018) and fundamentalists led by [[John R. Rice]] (1895-1980). In the 1920s, fundamentalism was inclusive and involved a diverse set of denominations. In contrast, Rice was a separatist and an [[Independent Baptist]]. Although anti-Catholicism had been a core fundamentalist principle, [[Jerry Falwell]] (1933–2007), a protégé of Rice, united conservative Protestants and Catholics as the [[Religious Right]]. Since the retirement of Bob Jones III in 2005, the fundamentalist movement has lacked notable leadership.

===Name===
Merriam Webster defines fundamentalism as "a movement in 20th century Protestantism emphasizing the literally interpreted Bible as fundamental to Christian life and teaching."<ref>[http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/fundamentalist fundamentalist]</ref>

Author George M. Marsden defines it this way:

<blockquote>
A fundamentalist is an American evangelical who is angry about something. That seems simple and it is fairly accurate. Jerry Falwell has even adopted it as a quick definition of fundamentalism that reporter are likely to quote. A more precise statement of the same point is that an American fundamentalist is an evangelical who is militant in opposition to liberal theology in the churches or to changes in cultural values or mores, such as those associated with "secular humanism."<ref name=Marsden>Marsden, George M., ''[http://books.google.com.vn/books?id=3NBLzpLP4NgC&printsec= Understanding Fundamentalism and Evangelicalism]'' (1991), p. 1</ref>
</blockquote>

The term is derived from ''The Fundamentals: A Testimony to the Truth''. This was a series of twelve pamphlets published between 1910 and 1915 that critiqued Modernist interpretations of Scripture. The movement was generally called "evangelism" until 1919, when the World’s Christian Fundamentals Association was formed.

== Birth of the Fundamentalist Movement ==

The roots of the movement are usually traced to the Princeton Theological Seminary in the 1880s. Principal Archibald Alexander Hodge and Professor Benjamin B. Warfield defended biblical authority against the claims of "[[Historical-critical method (Higher criticism)|higher criticism]]," a "liberal reinterpretion" of Scripture. They also developed the [[doctrine of inerrancy]]. This later became the central doctrine of fundamentalism.

''The Fundamentals'' stressed several core beliefs, including:

* The inerrancy of the Bible
* The literal nature of the Biblical accounts of Christ's miracles, the [[Creation]] account in Genesis, and so on
* The [[Virgin Birth]] of Christ
* The bodily [[resurrection]] of Christ
* The substitutionary [[atonement]] of Christ on the cross<ref>[http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Parthenon/6528/fundcont.htm The Fundamentals A Testimony to the Truth] (1910-1915)</ref>

By the late 1920s, the first two points had become central to Fundamentalism. Thanks to sponsorship, over three million volumes were distributed free to clergy, laymen, missionaries, and libraries. The leaders of the movement founded the World’s Christian Fundamentals Association in 1919. The term "fundamentalism" was coined by Baptist editor Curtis Lee Laws in 1920 to designate Christians who were ready "to do battle royal for the fundamentals."

Much of the enthusiasm for mobilizing Fundamentalism came from Bible colleges, especially those modeled after the [[Moody Bible Institute]] in Chicago. The Bible colleges prepared ministers who lacked college or seminary experience with intense study of the Bible, often using the ''Scofield Reference Bible'' of 1909, which had detailed notes explaining how to interpret Dispensationalist passages.

== Eric Kaufmanm on the rise of religious fundamentalism in the 21st century ==

At a conference [[Eric Kaufmann]] said of religious demographic projections concerning the 21st century:
{{cquote|Part of the reason I think demography is very important, at least if we are going to speak about the future, is that it is the most predictable of the [[social sciences]].

...if you look at a population and its age structure now. You can tell a lot about the future. ...So by looking at the relative age structure of different populations you can already say a lot about the future...

...Religious fundamentalism is going to be on the increase in the future and not just out there in the developing world..., but in the developed world as well.<ref>[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=H7vCDeKPRSo Eric Kaufmann - Religion, Demography and Politics in the 21st Century]</ref>}}

For more information, please see:

*[[Desecularization]]

*[[Growth of global desecularization]]

*[[Atheism and its retention rate in individuals]]

==Organizing the Fundamentalists==

Fundamentalist movements were found in most Protestant denominations by 1919, with the debate between fundamentalists and modernists especially strong in [[Presbyterian]] and [[Baptist]] churches.

The most important leader in organizing a movement was [[William Bell Riley]], a Northern Baptist based in Minneapolis, where his Northwestern Bible and Missionary Training School (1902), Northwestern Evangelical Seminary (1935), and Northwestern College (1944) produced thousands of graduates.

Riley became the leading organizer of the movement for Fundamentalism. He created, at a large conference in Philadelphia in 1919, the World's Christian Fundamentals Association (WCFA). It became the chief interdenominational fundamentalist organization in the 1920s, and Riley was president until 1929, after which the WFCA faded in importance.

Although the fundamentalist drive of the 1920s to take control of the major Protestant denominations failed at the national level, the network of churches and missions developed and controlled by Riley indicates that fundamentalism was growing in strength, especially in [[The South]]. Both rural and urban in character, the flourishing movement acted as a denominational surrogate and aimed at a militant orthodoxy of evangelical Christianity.<ref>William Vance Trollinger, Jr. "Riley's Empire: Northwestern Bible School and Fundamentalism in the Upper Midwest". ''Church History'' 1988 57(2): 197-212. 0009-6407</ref>

==Fighting evolution==

Fundamentalists in the 1920s devoted themselves to fighting the teaching of evolution in the nation's schools and colleges, both public and private.

Riley took the initiative in the [[Scopes Trial]] of 1925 to bring in famed orator [[William Jennings Bryan]] as an assistant to the local prosecutor. The trial revealed a growing chasm in American Christianity and two ways of finding truth, one "biblical" and one "scientific." Liberals saw a division between educated, tolerant Christians and narrow-minded, tribal, obscurantist Christians.<ref>David Goetz, "The Monkey Trial". ''Christian History'' 1997 16(3): 10-18. 0891-9666; Burton W. Folsom, , Jr. "The Scopes Trial Reconsidered." ''Continuity'' 1988 (12): 103-127. 0277-1446, by a leading conservative scholar</ref>

Gatewood (1969) analyzes the transition from the antievolution crusade of the 1920s to the creation science movement of the 1960s. Despite some similarities between these two causes, the creation science movement represented a shift from religious to scientific objections to Darwin's theory. Creation science also differed in terms of popular leadership, rhetorical tone, and sectional focus. It lacked a prestigious leader like Bryan, utilized scientific rather than religious rhetoric, and was a product of California and Michigan instead of the South.<ref>Willard B. Gatewood, Jr., ed. ''Controversy in the Twenties: Fundamentalism, Modernism, & Evolution'' (1969)</ref>

Edwards (2000) contradicts the conventional view that in the wake of the Scopes trial a humiliated fundamentalism retreated into the political and cultural background, a viewpoint evidenced in the movie ''Inherit the Wind'' and the majority of contemporary historical accounts. Rather, the cause of fundamentalism's retreat was the death of its leader, Bryan. Most fundamentalists saw the trial as a victory and not a defeat, but Bryan's death soon after created a leadership void that no other fundamentalist leader could fill. Bryan, unlike the other leaders, brought name recognition, respectability, and the ability to forge a broad-based coalition of fundamentalist and mainline religious groups to argue for the antievolutionist position.<ref>Mark Edwards, "Rethinking the Failure of Fundamentalist Political Antievolutionism after 1925". ''Fides Et Historia'' 2000 32(2): 89-106. 0884-5379</ref>

The American Civil Liberties Union at first had no objection to a general Christian outlook in the public schools, as long as it was that of no particular sect. By the time of the Scopes Trial, however, the ACLU and other advocates of secular humanism insisted that public education must not assume any religious outlook, laying the groundwork, as Bryan feared, for the triumph of materialism.

==Post-war reestablishment==
While other denominations rebranded as "evangelical," the Independent Baptists continued to describe themselves as "fundamentalist." Their foremost leader, [[John R. Rice]], founded a fundamentalist paper, ''[[The Sword of the Lord]]'' in 1934 and served as its editor till his death in 1980. Its masthead states, "An Independent Christian Publication, Standing for the Verbal Inspiration of the Bible, the Deity of Christ, His Blood Atonement, Salvation by Faith, New Testament Soul Winning and the Premillennial Return of Christ; Opposing Modernism, Worldliness and Formalism." Noted fundamentalists in that group included H.A. Ironside, Bob Jones, Sr., Bob Shuler, William Culbertson, Harry Hager, R.G. Lee, Hyman Appelman, V. Raymond Edman, Scotchie McCall, E.J. Daniels, W.A. Criswell, Joe Henry Hankins. However, in one illustration of different manifestations of fundamentalism, after the death of John R. Rice some took issue with the direction the new editor of "The Sword" had taken in separating brethren over details about which Godly Bible believers may have differing convictions. Primary among these was defining a true fundamentalist as only an independent Baptist who stood with him. In a letter by Rice's daughter,<ref>http://www.biblicalevangelist.org/index.php?id=282&view=Guest+Editorial</ref> she noted that her father even considered some evangelical non-Baptists (including Pentecostals) to be fundamentalists, if they also held to and earnestly contended for the fundamentals of the faith. She pointed to his note on Romans 14:l in the ''Rice Reference Bible'' which stated, "We then are to receive and have fellowship with all saved people who may differ on minor matters but agree on the great fundamentals of the Christian faith."<ref>Also cited were two chapters in Rice's book, ''I AM A FUNDAMENTALIST'' (1975), that of ''Be a Fundamentalist, But Not a Nut,'' and ''Fundamentalists Should Love All Christ's Other Sheep.''</ref>

Further descriptions of fundamentalism are offered by other writers, such as Joel Carpenter in his book, ''Revive Us Again: The Reawakening of American Fundamentalism'' who writes about "the complexity and contributions of fundamentalism as a faith system whose purposes and beliefs have all too frequently been reduced to caricature."<ref>[http://www.amazon.com/Revive-Us-Again-Reawakening-Fundamentalism/dp/0195129075 From Library Journal review]</ref> Reviewer William Martin,<ref>[http://www.religion-online.org/showarticle.asp?title=153 "How the Fundamentalists Learned to Thrive"], by Rice University professor of sociology, William Martin in The Christian Century, September, 23-30, 1998, pp. 872-875</ref> notes how author Joel Carpenter acknowledges the value of "fundamentalism" as a generic label for militant religious and cultural conservatism. But he focuses on that particular, identifiable strain of evangelical Christianity that is persistently revivalistic, emphasizes dispensationalist premillennialism and biblical inerrancy, militantly opposes theological modernism and cultural secularity and feels a strong sense of "trusteeship" for American culture.

==Other states==

Webb (1991) traces the political and legal struggles between strict creationists and Darwinists to influence the extent to which evolution would be taught as science in Arizona and California schools. After Scopes was convicted, creationists throughout the United States sought similar antievolution laws for their states. These included Reverends R. S. Beal and Aubrey L. Moore in Arizona and members of the Creation Research Society in California, all supported by distinguished laymen. They sought to ban evolution as a topic for study or, at least, relegate it to the status of unproven theory perhaps taught alongside the biblical version of creation. Educators, scientists, and other distinguished laymen favored evolution. This struggle occurred later in the Southwest than in other US areas and persisted through the Sputnik era, which inspired increased faith in evolutionism.<ref>George E. Webb, "The Evolution Controversy in Arizona and California: From the 1920s to the 1980s." ''Journal of the Southwest'' 1991 33(2): 133-150. 0894-8410. See also Christopher K. Curtis, "Mississippi's Anti-Evolution Law of 1926." ''Journal Of Mississippi History'' 1986 48(1): 15-29.</ref>

==Fundamentalism in various religions==

The term slowly came to mean all movements within religions that reject modernizing/liberalizing influences and attempt to stay true to the word of that religion's scriptures. The term has been applied to Christians, Muslims, and Hindus. Christian fundamentalism differs from Orthodoxy in its sole reliance on the Bible and disregard for previously established tradition. Similarly, within Islam, the "fundamentalist" movements (such as [[Wahhabism]]) seek to remove perceived impurities in Islam and return it to the believed roots. Unlike Christianity, however, these uncovered roots have spawned incredible amounts of violence. "Fundamentalist" Hinduism is, in a way, a contradiction in terms. Hinduism has no one sacred holy book, and thus no original scriptures to return to, and so the term is instead used to describe those Hindus who are intolerant of the existence of other religions (and occasionally non-Indians) in their communities.

===Mormons===

The term "fundamentalist" is also self-applied by a breakaway movement from The [[Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]], calling itself the "Fundamentalist Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints." This group, which practices polygamy and whose leader was convicted on charges relating to child rape, claims to continue the original revelations of [[Joseph Smith]] who was a polygamist. It is considered to be an apostate group by the older church and cannot truly be called fundamentalist, in the Mormon context, because it ignores the doctrine of continuous revelation to the leaders of the church. It was one such revelation that caused the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints to renounce polygamy approximately sixty years after the church's founding.

===Jews===

There are no fundamentalist Jews, as all movements to return to the basic tenets of [[Judaism]] simply result in increased orthodoxy. Judaism may be unique in this regard. Though according to scholars such as Samuel C. Heilman, Menachem Friedman, and Werner Backeberg, there are "truly fundamentalist Jews" who are "a minority of a minority of a minority (that is, approximately 30 percent of Orthodox Jewry, which itself is only about 15 percent of the approximately twelve million members of world Jewry)."<ref>Fundamentalism, Werner Backeberg (Faculty of Theology) Institute for Missiological and Ecumenical Research (IMER), University of Pretoria, p. 19</ref><ref>[http://search.barnesandnoble.com/Fundamentalism-Observed/Martin-E-Marty/e/9780226508788 ''Fundamentalism Observed''], p. 198</ref>

In recent times, the media has taken to describing any conservative non-denominational church or conservative evangelical church as fundamentalist. Indeed, these churches do strive to return to the basics of Christianity—its fundamentals.

==Israel and Christian fundamentalism==

See [[Christian Zionism]]

Historically speaking, the majority of American Fundamentalists have been and remain [[zionism|zionists]]. Fundamentalist-evangelicals rejoiced when part of Jerusalem was annexed after the 1967 six day war, whereas the [[National Council of Churches]] denounced Israel. Liberal Christianity called for the "internationalization" of Jerusalem throughout the 1960s, while Fundamentalists expressed their hope for Biblical [[prophecy]]: God promised Jerusalem to Israel.<ref name=Rausch>''[http://books.google.com/books?id=-BPjHQAACAAJ Zionism Within Early American Fundamentalism 1878-1918: A Convergence of Two Traditions]'', David A. Rausch, Edwin Mellen Press, 1979, ISBN 9-88946-875-3, ISBN 0-88946-976-8, p.4</ref>

===Differences between liberal and fundamentalist Christians ===

There are three main differences between [[liberal Christianity|liberal Christian theology]] and fundamentalism-evangelicalism that affect their respective attitudes toward Jewish people. These differences<ref name=Rausch/> are:
#Fundamentalism's literal interpretation of [[prophecy]] versus Liberalism's spiritual interpretation.
#Fundamentalism's equal weighting of the Old and New Testaments versus Liberalism privileging the New, especially the liberal tendency to interpret critical remarks against Judaism.
#Fundamentalism's belief in unconverted Israel over against Liberalism's conversion requirement (i.e., so-called replacement theology).

== See also ==
* [[John Gresham Machen]]
* [[Southern Baptist Convention]]
* [[Theory of Fundamentalist anti-Semitism]]
* [[Revelation, Book of (historical exegesis)]]
* [[Great Apostasy]]

== External links ==
* [http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Parthenon/6528/fundcont.htm Online copy of ''The Fundamentals'']
* [http://web.archive.org/web/20030101082327/http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Parthenon/6528/fundcont.htm Online copy of ''The Fundamentals''] from Internet Archive

==Further reading==
* Almond, Gabriel A., R. Scott Appleby, and Emmanuel Sivan, eds. ''Strong Religion: The Rise of Fundamentalisms around the World'' (2003) [http://www.amazon.com/Strong-Religion-Fundamentalisms-Fundamentalism-Project/dp/0226014983/ref=sr_1_6?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1241067360&sr=8-6 excerpt and text search]
* Hankins, Barry. ''God's Rascal: J. Frank Norris and the Beginnings of Southern Fundamentalism'' (1996)
* Marsden, George M. ''Fundamentalism and American Culture'' (2nd ed 2006), the standard scholarly history (by a fundamentalist) [http://www.amazon.com/Fundamentalism-American-Culture-George-Marsden/dp/0195300475/ref=sr_1_3?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1241067360&sr=8-3 excerpt and text search]
* Marsden, George M. ''Understanding Fundamentalism and Evangelicalism'' (1991) [http://www.amazon.com/Understanding-Fundamentalism-Evangelicalism-George-Marsden/dp/0802805396/ref=sr_1_11?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1241067360&sr=8-11 excerpt and text search]
* Ruthven, Malise. ''Fundamentalism: A Very Short Introduction'' (2007) [http://www.amazon.com/Fundamentalism-Very-Short-Introduction-Introductions/dp/0199212708/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1241067360&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Sandeen, Ernest R. ''The Roots of Fundamentalism'' (1970)
* Trollinger, William V. ''God's Empire: William Bell Riley and Midwestern Fundamentalism'' (1991) [http://books.google.com/books?id=DE-HQpppDd8C&pg=PA78&dq=fundamentalism+anti-semitism&lr=&as_drrb_is=q&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=&as_maxm_is=0&as_maxy_is=&num=30&as_brr=0&as_pt=ALLTYPES excerpts and text search]
* Witherup, Ronald D. S.S. ''Biblical Fundamentalism: What Every Catholic Should Know'' (2001), 101pp [http://www.amazon.com/Biblical-Fundamentalism-Every-Catholic-Should/dp/0814627226/ref=sid_av_dp excerpt and text search]
*Richard Thomas Hughes, ''The American quest for the primitive church'' (1988) 257 pp [http://books.google.com/books?id=JW3kYxc7Fl0C&pg=PA99&lpg=PA99&dq=Joel+Carpenter++fundamentalism&source=bl&ots=acqfYcxb6E&sig=hFc3Uf_-g1_qWEz-ULBJAXa2mYo&hl=en&ei=UFxgSorTEYuCtgfa-pDKDA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=17 excerpt and text search]

===Primary sources===
* Trollinger, William Vance, Jr., ed. ''The Antievolution Pamphlets of William Bell Riley.'' (Creationism in Twentieth century America: A Ten-Volume Anthology of Documents, 1903-1961. Vol. 4.) New York: Garland, 1995. 221 pp. [http://books.google.com/books?id=0ymZZKxwHuwC&dq=%22William+Bell+Riley%22&printsec=frontcover&source=bl&ots=VBjIZ-Zw4d&sig=A_Lp6IE0rso5QG8gwLni9tJx4xY&hl=en&ei=OGEHSr6bHITEtAP-5JToAQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=9#PPR5,M1 excerpt and text search]

== References ==

{{reflist}}

[[Category:Protestantism]]
[[Category:Christian Movements]]
[[Category:Religion]]
[[Category:Fundamentalism]]
[[Category:Religion and Politics]]

Calvin Coolidge

2018-02-13T00:43:44Z

Haeralis: /* Evaluations */

{{Officeholder
|name=Calvin Coolidge
|image=Calvin Coolidge cph.3g10777.jpg
|party=[[Republican]]
|spouse=Grace Goodhue Coolidge
|religion=[[Congregationalist]]
|offices=
{{Officeholder/president
|country=the United States
|number=30th
|terms=August 2, 1923 – March 4, 1929
|vp=[[Charles G. Dawes]] (1925–1929)
|preceded=[[Warren G. Harding]]
|former=y
|succeeded=[[Herbert Hoover]]
}}
{{Officeholder/vice president
|country=the United States
|number=29th
|terms=March 4, 1921 – August 2, 1923
|president=[[Warren G. Harding]]
|preceded=[[Thomas R. Marshall]]
|former=y
|succeeded=[[Charles G. Dawes]]
}}
{{Officeholder/governor
|number=48th
|state=Massachusetts
|lieutenant=Channing H. Cox
|terms=January 2, 1919 – January 6, 1921
|preceded=Samuel W. McCall
|former=y
|succeeded=Channing H. Cox
}}
{{Officeholder/governor
|number=46th
|lieutenant=y
|governor=[[Samuel W. McCall]]
|state=Massachusetts
|terms=January 6, 1916 – January 2, 1919
|preceded=Grafton D. Cushing
|former=y
|succeeded=Channing H. Cox
}}
{{Officeholder/mayor
|city=Northampton, Massachusetts
|number=16th
|terms=1910-1911
|preceded=James W. O'Brien
|former=y
|succeeded=William Feiker
}}
}}
'''John Calvin Coolidge, Jr.''' was the 30th [[president of the United States of America]] from 1923 to 1929, an era of peace and prosperity. He was elected vice president in 1920 as a [[Republican Party|Republican]] and took office in August 1923 upon the death of President [[Warren G. Harding]]; he was reelected by a landslide in 1924, but in 1928 at the peak of his popularity he announced in typical laconic fashion that he did not choose to run again.

==Early career==
Coolidge was born in Plymouth, Vermont, July 4, 1872, the son of John and Victoria Moor Coolidge. Both parents were Yankees; his ancestors came from England to New England in the early seventeenth century. Coolidge's father was a farmer and a successful country storekeeper who dabbled in local and state politics. Young Calvin was educated in the local school and later at Black River and St. Johnsbury academies. In 1891 he entered [[Amherst College]] in Massachusetts, where he showed an interest in philosophy. Reserved and reticent, he did not mix readily with his fellows. In his senior year, however, he was selected as class speaker.

==Early public life==
After his graduation in 1895 Coolidge studied law, was admitted to the Massachusetts bar in 1897, and began to practice in the city of Northampton, where he became active in local GOP politics. In 1898 he was elected to the common council. Thereafter he was seldom out of public office. He was elected to the Massachusetts General Court (legislature) in 1907. After two terms he was elected mayor of Northampton and then was elected to the state senate; during 1914-1915 he was president of that body. He had also served as chairman of the Republican State Committee, and he spent three terms as lieutenant governor of the state.

In 1905 Coolidge married Grace Anna Goodhue of Burlington, Vt. The couple had two sons, John and Calvin, the younger of whom, Calvin, died on July 7, 1924, from blood poisoning.

==Governor and Vice President==
When Governor Samuel W. McCall retired in 1918, Coolidge became the unanimous choice of the Republican Party for the governorship; he was elected and took office in January 1919. As governor, Coolidge made no radical innovations nor did he sponsor a legislative program. A conservative, he devoted himself to a program of economy in government. The Boston police strike, and his handling of it, first brought him to national attention. On Sept. 9, 1919, the police struck in protest against the police commissioner's refusal to permit them to join an American Federation of Labor union. Immediately there were riots and disorder. After some urging Governor Coolidge called out the state guard to preserve order and personally took charge. The governor answered Samuel Gompers' objections to his actions with the statement: "There is no right to strike against the public safety by anybody, anywhere, at any time." The statement received nationwide publicity. After the nomination of Warren G. Harding by the Republican national convention in 1920, the members of the convention rebelled against the dominant senatorial clique. They nominated Coolidge for second place on the ticket after his name had been presented by a comparatively unknown delegate. Coolidge was elected along with Harding in 1920 and became president on Aug. 2, 1923, when Harding died of natural causes. Coolidge was at his father's house in Vermont when the momentous news arrived. His father, a notary public, administered the oath of office.

==Presidency==
The elections in 1922 had reduced the party's numbers in Congress to a scant majority. Moreover, the scandals connected with the Harding administration were in the process of being made public by a congressional committee. Yet, a little over a year later, Coolidge was elected for another term by a landslide over both [[John W. Davis]], [[U.S. Democratic Party, History|Democrat]], and [[Robert La Follette]], Progressive. Davis got 29% of the popular vote, carrying the South from Virginia to Texas, and 136 electoral votes, LaFollette carried Wisconsin and many German and railroad centers, but Coolidge won easily with 382 electoral votes. Four years later, when he left office, his party was in a much stronger position than it had been in 1924.

Felzenberg (19978) shows that Coolidge battled intolerance, lynching and especially the [[Ku Klux Klan]], which lost all its influence during his term.

In 1924 he appointed a commission to investigate the circumstances of the Teapot Dome oil lease, a scandal inherited from the Harding administration. By focusing all the blame on Harding, he permanently tarnished Harding's name and promoted himself.

===Economic policies===
Coolidge famously said, "The business of America is business."

The Coolidge policy was a simple one, made easier by the continuous prosperity and the weakness of the liberal opposition. He believed in government economy, reduced taxation, and gave aid to private business without accompanying restrictive regulation. In 1927 he vetoed the soldiers' bonus bill. Coolidge opposed any government control in interstate electrical power and was against the proposal for government operation of the Wilson Dam at Muscle Shoals on the Tennessee River; in 1933 it became part of the [[New Deal]]'s [[TVA]].

Throughout the farming regions of the traditionally Republican Middle West loud complaints were heard about the farm crisis. It was characterized by low prices for crops and the overhang of the land [[economic bubble|bubble]] that burst in 1920, leaving many farmers deeply in debt for new lands they purchased at high price during the war. The farmers wanted the federal government to intervene in the market, by buying crops at high prices and dumping them abroad cheaply. Congress passed the legislation, known as the and the [[McNary-Haugen Bill]], a farm relief bill, but Coolidge vetoed it. He supported the alternative program of Hoover and Jardine to modernize farming, by bringing in more electricity, more efficient equipment, better seeds and breeds, and better business practices.

===Foreign Affairs===
In the realm of foreign affairs the president urged the nation to become a member of the World Court, but the bill authorizing it was hedged with so many qualifications that the other member nations refused to admit the United States. Under the direction of Secretary of the Treasury [[Andrew W. Mellon]], plans for the payment of foreign government debts to the United States were negotiated and approved. During the Coolidge administration the Kellogg-Briand Pact, renouncing war as an instrument of national policy, was signed by most of the important nations of the world. The appointment of Dwight W. Morrow as ambassador to Mexico did much to restore good relations with that country, although the policy pursued elsewhere in Latin America in the interest of American investors helped maintain the Latin-American distrust of their northern neighbor.

=== Calvin Coolidge and Prohibition ===
Calvin Coolidge was not a teetotaler, but he didn't have much use for alcohol. Due to his belief in limited government, he cut the [[Prohibition]] Bureau’s budget during the boom year of 1926. Andrew Mellon, who as Treasury Secretary was also the Chief Prohibition Enforcement Officer in the United States, hated the law and was less than dedicated in his enforcement efforts.<ref>[http://kaiology.wordpress.com/2010/09/18/water-water-everywhere-and-not-a-drop-to-drink-coolidge-and-prohibition-2/ Water, water everywhere, and not a drop to drink – Coolidge and Prohibition]</ref>

===Evaluations===
In the short view, the Coolidge administration was a preeminently successful one. Income taxes and corporate taxes were greatly reduced, a major part of the national debt was retired, and the nation experienced some of the most prosperous years in its history. The Coolidge policies were in part responsible for these benefits, but some hostile [[liberal]] historians falsely claim they were probably responsible, in part, for the great depression that followed.
[[Image:Calvin Coolidge by Hopkinson.jpg|thumb|200px|left|Painting by Charles Hopkinson]]
Coolidge's image was to a degree shaped by Madison Avenue. Buckley (2003) reveals the role of advertising giant [[Bruce Barton]] in the remaking of the public persona or image of Coolidge during 1919-26 and, in so doing, guiding a dramatic shift in politics and the wide acceptance of consumer culture. The dominance of the political party bosses, who selected Harding in 1920, ended when the business elite wrested control from the party, using their ability to raise money for advertising and ultimately commodifying the political process. Members of this elite suggested that Barton refashion Coolidge from an aloof man driven by the advancement of his career into a voice of the masses, the "silent majority," which Barton accomplished with press coverage, exploiting the new technology of radio for political speeches, newsreels, an exclusive "spontaneous" interview with Coolidge, and by arranging events that would be covered free, as news. Coolidge's election to the presidency in 1924 was the first campaign of personality, in which style was promoted over substance, tapping into "intense private longings" of a public uncertain of its moorings in a rapidly modernizing society. Gilbert (2003) and Gilbert (2005) argues that Coolidge suffered from clinical depression throughout his life. Gilbert discusses the major symptoms of the disorder as evidenced in Coolidge's personal and political behavior. He exhibited symptoms from a very early age, beginning with his grandfather's death when he was six and again with the deaths of his mother and sister during his adolescence. Ascending to the presidency in 1923, Coolidge at first was diligent, effective, and respectful of others. After the death of his teenage son in 1924, however, his demeanor and degree of political engagement changed drastically. He developed hypersomnia, sleeping as much as 15 hours per day, and he began to treat White House staffers and his wife rudely, often publicly humiliating them. Moreover, he became far less effective as a decision-maker and grew increasingly detached from political issues.

Other scholars note Coolidge's effective and principled stand against the philosophy of Progressivism. Joseph Postell, for instance, argues that Coolidge presents the most formidable attack on the principles of progressivism of any 20th century conservative.<ref>Joseph W. Postell and Johnathan O'Neill, "Roaring Against Progressivism: Calvin Coolidge's Principled Conservatism" in Towards an American Conservatism: Constitutional Conservatism in the Progressive Era, (Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan, 2013) 183.</ref> According to Postell, Coolidge's philosophical framework defends both the benevolence of custom as well as the truths of the American Founding. While Coolidge advocated a return to and a protection of America's political tradition, he did so not out of some thoughtless fear of the future, but for the sake of universal truths and the principles of the Declaration.<ref>Joseph W. Postell and Johnathan O'Neill, Towards an American Conservatism, 183.</ref> While Coolidge advocated a return to and a protection of America's tradition, he did so in order to best protect the Constitution and natural rights <ref>Joseph W. Postell and Johnathan O'Neill, "Roaring Against Progressivism: Calvin Coolidge's Principled Conservatism" in Towards an American Conservatism: Constitutional Conservatism in the Progressive Era, (Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan, 2013) 183.</ref>. Coolidge's philosophical thought recognized that human nature is fixed and cannot be remolded by activist government. As he maintained in his inaugural address, Americans "must realize that human nature is about the most constant thing in the universe and that the essentials of human relationship do not change." This is one of the "fixed stars" that Americans must recognize to properly pursue their political future. With the recognition of this essential truth, Coolidge concluded that the only policies to be pursued were those rooted in America's history, traditions, and national identity. "If we examine carefully what we have done, we can determine the more accurately what we can do."

==Silent Cal==
A woman once told Coolidge that she had bet someone that she couldn't get him to say more than two words. He told her, "You lose."

===Retirement===
In the summer of 1927 Coolidge made the statement, "I do not chose to run for president in 1928." He did not indicate his choice of his successor. Coolidge left the White House on Mar. 4, 1929, amid the acclaim of the nation. Returning to Northampton, he published his autobiography and wrote articles for newspapers and periodicals. These and his business activities kept him engaged until his death on Jan. 5, 1933, in the midst of the [[Great Depression]].

==Quotes==
*"Nothing is easier than spending the public money. It doesn't appear to belong to anybody."

*"It was never flaunted for the glory of royalty, but to be born under it is to be born a child of a king, and to establish a home under it is to be the founder of a royal house." - Speaking of the American flag

*'''"I favor the American system of individual enterprise, and I am opposed to any general extension of government ownership, and control."'''

*"Unfortunately the Federal Government has strayed far afield from its legitimate business. It has trespassed upon fields where there should be no trespass. If we could confine our Federal expenditures to the legitimate obligations and functions of the Federal Government, a material reduction would be apparent. But far more important than this would be its effect upon the fabric of our constitutional form of government, which tends to be gradually weakened and undermined by this encroachment. The cure for this is not in our hands. It lies with the people. It will come when they realize the necessity of State assumption of State responsibility. It will come when they realize that the laws under which the Federal Government hands out contributions to the states are placing upon them a double burden of taxation–Federal taxation in the first instance to raise the moneys which the Government donates to the states, and state taxation in the second instance to meet the extravagances of state expenditures which are tempted by Federal donations." - At Memorial Continental Hall, January 21, 1924

*"What we need is not more Federal government, but better local government."

*"Nations which are torn by dissension and discord, which are weak and inefficient at home, have little standing or influence abroad. Even the blind do not chose the blind to lead them."

*"There is no substitute for a militant freedom. The only alternative is submission and slavery." - Acceptance of the Memorial on Behalf of the Government and People of the United States<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=eLQ6AQAAIAAJ&pg=PA88 Report of the Proceedings of the Reunions of the Society of the Army of the Tennessee, Volumes 44-45]</ref>

*"A very positive echo of what the Dutch had done in 1581, and what the English were preparing to do, appears in the assertion of the Rev. Thomas Hooker, of Connecticut, as early as 1638, when he said in a sermon before the General Court that- “The foundation of authority is laid in the free consent of the people.” “The choice of public magistrates belongs unto the people by God’s own allowance.” This doctrine found wide acceptance among the nonconformist clergy who later made up the Congregational Church. The great apostle of this movement was the Rev. [[John Wise (clergyman)|John Wise]], of Massachusetts. He was one of the leaders of the revolt against the royal governor [[Edmund Andros]] in 1687, for which he suffered imprisonment. He was a liberal in ecclesiastical controversies. He appears to have been familiar with the writings of the political scientist, Samuel Pufendorf, who was born in Saxony in 1632. Wise published a treatise, entitled “The Church’s Quarrel Espoused,” in 1710, which was amplified in another publication in 1717. In it he dealt with the principles of civil government. His works were reprinted in 1772 and have been declared to have been nothing less than a textbook of liberty for our Revolutionary fathers."<ref>[https://thf_media.s3.amazonaws.com/2011/pdf/FP_PS32.pdf Calvin Coolidge Challenges Progress in the Name of the Declaration of Independence], [[Heritage Foundation]]</ref><ref>[http://teachingamericanhistory.org/library/document/speech-on-the-occasion-of-the-one-hundred-and-fiftieth-anniversary-of-the-declaration-of-independence/ Speech on the 150th Anniversary of the Declaration of Independence]</ref>

*"His was the directing spirit without which there would have been no independence, no Union, no Constitution, and no Republic. His ways were the ways of truth. He built for eternity. His influence grows. His stature increases with the increasing years. In wisdom of action, in purity of character, he stands alone. We cannot yet estimate him. We can only indicate our reverence for him and thank the Divine Providence which sent him to serve and inspire his fellow men."<ref>[http://history.house.gov/HistoricalHighlight/Detail/37161?ret=True A Joint Session to Commemorate the Birthday of George Washington], February 22, 1927</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=UUxfx5cAbmEC&pg=PA324 Apostle of Liberty: The World-Changing Leadership of George Washington]</ref>

==Bibliography==
* Buckley, Kerry W. "'A President for the "Great Silent Majority': Bruce Barton's Construction of Calvin Coolidge." ''New England Quarterly'' 2003 76(4): 593-626. Issn: 0028-4866 Fulltext: in Jstor
* Felzenberg, Alvin S. "Calvin Coolidge and Race: His Record in Dealing with the Racial Tensions of the 1920s." ''New England Journal of History'' 1998 55(1): 83-96.
* Ferrell, Robert H. ''The Presidency of Calvin Coolidge.'' U. Press of Kansas, 1998. 244 pp. The standard scholarly study.
* Gilbert, Robert E. "Calvin Coolidge's Tragic Presidency: the Political Effects of Bereavement and Depression." ''Journal of American Studies'' 2005 39(1): 87-109. Issn: 0021-8758 Fulltext: in Cambridge and Swetswise
* Gilbert, Robert E. ''The Tormented President: Calvin Coolidge, Death, and Clinical Depression.'' Praeger, 2003. 288pp
* Greenberg, David. ''Calvin Coolidge'' (2006), short biography. [http://www.amazon.com/Calvin-Coolidge-David-Greenberg/dp/0805069577/ref=pd_bbs_sr_2/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1194420081&sr=8-2 excerpt and text search]
* Haynes, John Earl, ed. ''Calvin Coolidge and the Coolidge Era: Essays on the History of the 1920s.'' Library of Congress, 1998. 329 pp. essays by scholars
* McCoy, Donald R. ''Calvin Coolidge: A Biography'' (1967), 447pp, the standard scholarly biography
* Pietrusza, David ''1920: The Year of the Six Presidents'' New York: Carroll & Graf, 2007
* Pietrusza, David (ed.) ''Calvin Coolidge: A Documentary Biography''
* Pietrusza, David (ed.) ''Calvin Coolidge on the Founders''
* Pietrusza, David (ed.) ''Silent Cal's Almanack: The Homespun Wit and Wisdom of Vermont's Calvin Coolidge'' createspace: 2008.
* Shlaes, Amity ''Coolidge''
* White, William Allen ''A Puritan in Babylon: The Story of Calvin Coolidge,'' (1938) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=1105748 online edition]

===Primary sources===
* Calvin Coolidge. ''The Autobiography of Calvin Coolidge'' (1929), [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=82302633 online edition]
* Howard H. Quint and Robert H. Ferrell, eds. ''The Talkative President: The Off-The-Record Press Conferences of Calvin Coolidge,'' (1964), 276pp [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=77365439 online edition]
* Calvin Coolidge Telegram to Samuel Gompers re: Boston Police Strike [http://www.davidpietrusza.com/coolidge-gompers-telegram.html online edition]

==References==
{{Reflist|1}}

==External links==
* [http://www.millercenter.virginia.edu/academic/americanpresident/coolidge excellent essays & documents from Miller Center U Virginia]
* [http://www.c-spanarchives.org/program/id/222754 Author David Pietrusza discusses Calvin Coolidge on C-SPAN BookTV]
* [https://librivox.org/author/7190 Works by Calvin Coolidge - text and free audio] - [[LibriVox]]

{{USPresidents}}
{{USVicePresidents}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Coolidge, Calvin}}

[[Category:Republicans]]
[[Category:United States History]]
[[Category:1920s]]
[[Category:Conservatives]]
[[Category:Massachusetts Governors]]
[[Category:Fiscal Conservatives]]
[[Category:Republican Governors]]
[[Category:Veterans]]
[[Category:Patriots]]

Thomas Hobbes

2018-01-07T14:24:19Z

Haeralis:

[[Image:Bhmvgjhfj.jpg|right|thumb|Thomas Hobbes]]
'''Thomas Hobbes''' (1588-1679) was an English [[philosopher]], political theorist, historian, optical scientist, translator and classicist. Hobbes was notable as one of the founders of [[social contract]] theory, and a forerunner of [[British empiricism]]. As a [[materialism|materialist]], his concept of human existence excluded the [[soul]], with the [[mind]] being given a purely mechanical explanation. He was widely rumored during his lifetime to be an atheist, which was illegal in 16th century England. Hobbes' contemporary, the Earl of Clarendon, claimed that the philosopher was "a pander to bestiality" whose "doctrines have had so great a share of the debauchery of his Generation, that a good Christian can hardly hear his name without saying of his prayers."<ref>Samuel I. Mintz, The Hunting of Leviathan: Seventeenth-Century Reactions to the Materialism and Moral Philosophy of Thomas Hobbes (Cambridge, 1962), 57. </ref>

Hobbes saw matter in motion as the only reality. To him even consciousness and thought were but the byproducts of atoms moving in the brain.<ref>The New American Desk Encyclopedia, Penguin Group, 1989</ref>

According to Hobbes's most famous work ''Leviathan'' (1651), life for humans prior to the foundation of the social contract was "solitary, poore, nasty, brutish and short". Humans had to form collectives in order to protect themselves from each other. This idea was extended by [[John Locke]], who held (most notably in his ''Second Treatise on Government'') that collectivisation was necessary for the promotion of economic growth. Hobbes's love of strong leadership led him to support monarchy, although he took the view that any strong government was better than nothing, and the stronger the better.

: ''Government should be like unto a man, strong and hard'' (''Leviathan'' xvii).

== See also ==

*[[Philosophy]]

==References==

<References/>

{{DEFAULTSORT:Hobbes, Thomas}}

[[Category:Philosophers]]

Old Right

2018-01-07T03:12:28Z

Haeralis:

In the United States, the '''Old Right''', also pejoratively called the [[paleoconservatives]], refers to a faction of [[American conservatives]] who both opposed [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]]'s [[New Deal]] leftist programs and were also non-interventionists ([[isolationism|isolationists]]) opposing entry into [[World War II]]. Old Right was mostly active during 1930s–1960s. Many were associated with the Republicans led by [[Robert Taft]], but some were Democrats.

Notable people include [[Calvin Coolidge]], [[Herbert Hoover]], [[William Randolph Hearst]], congressman [[Howard Buffett]] (R-Nebraska), and writers [[H. L. Mencken]], [[Albert Jay Nock]], [[Rose Wilder Lane]], [[Garet Garrett]], and [[Walter Lippmann]],

[[Category:New Deal]]
[[Category:Conservatives]]

Seth MacFarlane

2018-01-07T03:10:14Z

Haeralis: He mocks conservatives of all stripes, not just neoconservatives.

'''Seth Woodbury MacFarlane''' (born October 26, 1973 in Kent, Connecticut) is an animator, screenwriter, producer, director and voice actor for the cartoon series ''[[Family Guy]]''. He has worked for Walt Disney and television series like ''[[American Dad!]]'', ''[[The Cleveland Show]]'', ''[[Dexter's Laboratory]]'', ''[[Johnny Bravo]]'', ''[[Cow and Chicken]]'' and ''[[The Life of Larry]]''.

MacFarlane has donated over $73,000 to [[Democratic Party]] <ref>http://www.newsmeat.com/celebrity_political_donations/Seth_MacFarlane.php</ref> candidates and frequently mocks [[conservatives]]. He is a huge proponent of [[same-sex marriage]] and is also an [[atheist]]. It is also to be noted that MacFarlane also incorporated several of his own characteristics, including most notably his atheism and support for same-sex marriage, into at least one of the characters of his series, Brian Griffin (largely because he was the one character he didn't need to radically alter his own real life voice when doing his own voice acting), which was met with a lot of controversy later on.

==Filmography==
*1997-2004: [[Johnny Bravo]]
*1999-2003; 2005-: [[Family Guy]]
*2005-: [[American Dad!]]
*2009-2013: [[The Cleveland Show]]
*2012: [[Ted]]
*2013-2014: [[Dads]]
*2014: [[A Million Ways to Die in the West]]
*2015: [[Ted 2]]

==References==
<references/>

==External links==
*[http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0532235/ Seth MacFarlane at the Internet Movie Database]

{{DEFAULTSORT:MacFarlane, Seth}}
[[Category:Liberals]]
[[Category:Animators]]
[[Category:Atheists]]
[[Category:Liberalism]]
[[Category:Hollywood Values]]

Jeff Sessions

2018-01-04T18:07:24Z

Haeralis: /* United States Attorney General */

{{Officeholder
|name=Jeff Sessions
|image=Jeff Sessions official portrait.jpg
|party=[[Republican]]
|spouse=Mary Blackshear Sessions
|religion=[[Methodist]]
|offices=
{{Officeholder/attorneygeneral
|jurisdiction=the United States
|number=84th
|president=[[Donald Trump]]
|terms=February 9, 2017 –
|preceded=[[Loretta Lynch]]
|former=n
|succeeded=
}}
{{Officeholder/senator
|state=Alabama
|terms=January 7, 1997 – February 8, 2017
|preceded=Howell T. Heflin
|succeeded=[[Luther Strange]]
}}
}}
'''Jefferson Beauregard "Jeff" Sessions III''' (born December 24, 1946) is the 84th [[United States Attorney General]], serving under Republican President [[Donald Trump]]. Previously, he served under a variety of government positions, most notably as the junior United States Senator from [[Alabama]] from 1997 to 2017.

Sessions is a strongly [[conservative]] member of the [[Republican Party]]. As a United States senator, Sessions focused his energies on opposing [[illegal immigration]], protecting American workers against harmful "[[free trade]]" agreements, maintaining a strong military, upholding the [[rule of law]], [[Limited government|limiting the role of government]], and providing tax relief to stimulate economic growth and empower Americans to keep more of their hard-earned money. As Attorney General, he advanced conservative law enforcement policies (see "United States Attorney General" section below).

==Early life and career==
Sessions was born on December 24, 1946,<ref name="CongBioGuide">[http://bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index=s001141 SESSIONS, Jefferson Beauregard, III (Jeff)]. ''Biographical Directory of the United States Congress''. Retrieved July 25, 2017.</ref> in Selma, Alabama, and was raised in Hybart, Alabama.<ref name="WhatToKnow">[http://www.foxnews.com/politics/2017/07/25/attorney-general-jeff-sessions-what-to-know.html Attorney General Jeff Sessions: What to know]. ''Fox News''. July 25, 2017. Retrieved July 25, 2017.</ref> He graduated from Huntingdon College in Montgomery in 1969 and received a Juris Doctorate degree from the University of Alabama in 1973.<ref name="CongBioGuide"/><ref name="WhatToKnow"/> In the same year, 1973, Sessions was admitted to the Alabama Bar, and he practiced law in Russellville from 1973 to 1975.<ref name="CongBioGuide"/> He also served in the U.S. Army Reserves from 1973 to 1986 and reached the rank of Captain.<ref name="CongBioGuide"/><ref name="WhatToKnow"/>

==Political career==
[[File:Sessions.jpg|thumb|200px|Sessions as US Senator]]
===Early political career===
Sessions served as an Assistant United States Attorney for the Southern District of Alabama from 1975 to 1977.<ref name="WhatToKnow"/> In 1981, President [[Ronald Reagan]] nominated him and the U.S. Senate confirmed him to serve as the United States Attorney for Alabama's Southern District, a position he held until 1993.<ref name="CongBioGuide"/><ref name="WhatToKnow"/> In 1986, Sessions was nominated for a federal judgeship by Reagan. However, the nomination was killed by Senate [[Democrat]]s.<ref name="WhatToKnow"/> Sessions was elected Alabama Attorney General in 1994 and served until 1996.<ref name="CongBioGuide"/>

===U.S. Senate===
In 1996, Sessions won the Republican primary for U.S. Senate, after a runoff, and then defeated Democrat Roger Bedford, 52%–46% in the November general election. Sessions served in the Senate from 1997 until 2017.<ref name="CongBioGuide"/><ref name="WhatToKnow"/> He served as the ranking member of the Senate Judiciary Committee. He was known for his role in defeating the "Gang of Eight" illegal immigrant amnesty bill in 2013. In his last election, in 2014, Sessions was unopposed in both the primary and general elections.<ref>Stinson, Jim (July 25, 2014). [http://www.al.com/news/index.ssf/2014/07/jeff_sessions_makes_history_by.html Jeff Sessions makes history by being unopposed for U.S. Senate, and re-election campaign is in no hurry]. ''AL.com''. Retrieved July 25, 2017.</ref><ref>[http://sos.alabama.gov/sites/default/files/voter-pdfs/2014/2014GeneralResults-WithWriteIn.pdf State of Alabama – Canvass of Results General Election, November 4, 2014]. ''Secretary of State of Alabama''. Retrieved July 25, 2017.</ref>

Sessions frequently stood alone, at least essentially, in the Senate due to his very conservative positions.<ref name="Gurman">Gurman, Sadie (July 30, 2017). [http://www.foxnews.com/world/2017/07/30/for-sessions-being-attorney-general-is-chance-to-make-mark.html For Sessions, being attorney general is chance to make mark]. ''Fox News''. Retrieved August 1, 2017.</ref>

===Support for Donald Trump===
Sessions became the first sitting U.S. Senator to endorse [[Donald Trump]] for U.S. President.<ref name="WhatToKnow"/><ref>Ferris, Sarah (February 28, 2016). [http://thehill.com/blogs/ballot-box/presidential-races/271109-gop-senator-expected-to-endorse-trump Trump gets first Senate endorsement]. ''The Hill''. Retrieved July 25, 2017.</ref> He strongly supported Trump due to their policy agreements.<ref>Boyle, Matthew (July 25, 2017). [http://www.breitbart.com/big-government/2017/07/25/jeff-sessions-a-man-who-embodies-the-movement-that-elected-donald-trump-president/ Jeff Sessions: A Man Who Embodies the Movement That Elected Donald Trump President]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved July 25, 2017.</ref> It was reported that [[Steve Bannon]] convinced Sessions to endorse Trump, and he knew he was making a big risk in doing so.<ref>Smith, Allan (July 26, 2017). [http://www.businessinsider.com/sessions-trump-endorsement-bannon-2017-7 Bannon convinced Jeff Sessions to endorse Trump, and Sessions worried his career in the Republican Party might end because of it]. ''Business Insider''. Retrieved July 26, 2017.</ref>

===United States Attorney General===
[[File:Jeff Sessions with U.S. Border Patrol agents.jpg|thumb|200px|Attorney General Sessions meeting with U.S. Border Patrol Agents, April 11, 2017.]]
After winning the 2016 election, President Trump nominated, and the U.S. Senate subsequently confirmed, Sessions as [[United States Attorney General]]. He set out to enact the conservative policies he fought for – and was isolated because of – in the Senate.<ref name="Gurman"/> As Attorney General, Sessions enacted [[conservative]] policies and reformed the Justice Department from what it had been under [[Eric Holder]] and [[Loretta Lynch]]. He stayed strong, even when President Trump himself publically attacked him, and he had broad support among conservatives.<ref>Shaw, Adam (July 26, 2017). [http://www.breitbart.com/big-government/2017/07/26/jeff-sessions-stands-firm-gains-broad-support-as-trump-ramps-up-attacks/ Jeff Sessions Stands Firm, Gains Broad Support as Trump Ramps Up Attacks]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved July 26, 2017.</ref> However, Sessions refused to investigate or charge Hillary Clinton<ref>Chakraborty, Barnini (November 3, 2017). [http://www.foxnews.com/politics/2017/11/03/trump-slams-sessions-doj-for-not-going-after-clinton-dnc.html Trump slams Sessions, DOJ for not going after Clinton, DNC]. ''Fox News''. Retrieved November 3, 2017.</ref> or Lois Lerner<ref>Munro, Neil (September 8, 2017). [http://www.breitbart.com/big-government/2017/09/08/jeff-sessions-doj-will-not-investigate-irs-suppression-tea-party-groups/ Jeff Sessions’ DoJ Will Not Investigate IRS Suppression of Tea Party Groups]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved October 28, 2017.</ref> for serious allegations of misconduct.

Sessions set into motion the chain of events which led to the appointment of special counsel [[Robert Mueller]] to investigate Russian collusion. By recusing himself in March 2017, the issue was ceded to Deputy Attorney General [[Rod Rosenstein]], an [[establishment]]arian who caved immediately to pressure from the Democrats. His role in fomenting the unnecessary investigation and undermining the first year of Trump's presidency led to strong criticism from the President. Additionally, Sessions deeply disappointed conservatives with his reluctance to investigate figures such as [[Hillary Clinton]] and [[Lois Lerner]], despite the clear reasons for investigating.

For more information on Sessions's tenure at the DOJ, see:
*[[Donald Trump achievements: Criminal justice, law enforcement, and other DOJ matters]]
*[[Donald Trump achievements: Immigration, illegal immigration, and border security]]

==Political views==
Sessions was ranked by the [[National Journal]] as the fifth-most conservative United States Senator in their March 2007 conservative/liberal rankings. He backs conservative Republican stances on foreign affairs, taxes, and social policy. In 2006 he was a vocal critic of the [[John McCain]]-[[Ted Kennedy]] [[Immigration]] reform bill. Sessions voted against the $700 billion Wall Street bailout and against the $787 [[American Recovery and Reinvestment Act]].
Jeff Sessions is also an opponent of the [[mainstream media]] attacks on arbitration. His arbitration bills, introduced in Congress in 2000, 2002, 2007, and 2011, would ensure due process safeguards in arbitration. This sensible, conservative, approach to arbitration contrasts against the liberal Arbitration Fairness Act, which would prohibit the enforcement of predispute arbitration agreements in broad areas of commerce.

Sessions strongly opposes [[open borders]] and [[amnesty]] for illegal immigrants.<ref>Binder, John (September 5, 2017). [http://www.breitbart.com/big-government/2017/09/05/27-times-jeff-sessions-fought-for-americans-against-daca-amnesty-and-open-borders/ 27 Times Jeff Sessions Fought for Americans Against DACA, Amnesty and Open Borders]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved September 5, 2017.</ref>

==Other==
===Accusations of "racism" from liberals===
[[Liberal]]s have accused Sessions of somehow being a "racist" throughout his career. Sessions has been criticized for reportedly calling the [[NAACP]] and [[ACLU]] "un-American" and saying the [[Ku Klux Klan|KKK]] was good "until they smoked marijuana". But the truth is that Jeff Sessions has fought for civil rights during his career as Attorney general and later senator of Alabama. Sessions pushed to desegregate public schools in Birmingham and prosecuted and then gave the death penalty to a KKK member who slit the throat of a black man.<ref>https://m.youtube.com/watch?v=7xHffHoGvH8</ref>

===Speeches===
[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PBqrWL3h9-g&feature=youtu.be "Omnibus explains why ‘Voters are in open rebellion’"]<ref>[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PBqrWL3h9-g&feature=youtu.be "Sessions: Omnibus Explains Why ‘Voters Are In Open Rebellion’"] (December 16, 2015). YouTube video, 9:11, posted by SenatorSessions.</ref> (December 16, 2015). Nine-minute condensation of speech before U.S. Senate on the December 2015 2,000 page 'omnibus' year-end funding bill. Received 225,000 views on YouTube as of March 2016.

[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xZ83CvMKYUQ "Senator Jeff Sessions endorses Donald Trump at Madison, Alabama rally"]<ref>[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xZ83CvMKYUQ "Donald Trump Endorsed by Senator Jeff Sessions in Madison, AL (2-28-16)"] (February 28, 2016). YouTube video, 5:11, posted by Right Side Broadcasting.</ref> (February 28, 2016). Five-minute speech endorsing 2016 Republican presidential candidate Donald Trump. Received 89,000 views on YouTube as of March 2016.

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*[http://bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index=s001141 Profile] at the ''Biographical Directory of the United States Congress''
*[http://projects.washingtonpost.com/congress/members/s001141/ Voting Record]
*[http://www.ontheissues.org/Senate/Jeff_Sessions.htm Sessions On the Issues]
*[http://www.opencongress.org/people/show/300088_jefferson_sessions OpenCongress]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Sessions III, Jeff}}
[[Category:Former United States Senators]]
[[Category:Republicans]]
[[Category:Conservatives]]
[[Category:The 100 Americans The Left Hates Most]]
[[Category:Alabama]]
[[Category:Trump Cabinet]]
[[Category:Patriots]]

Thomas Hobbes

2018-01-04T16:36:54Z

Haeralis:

[[Image:Bhmvgjhfj.jpg|right|thumb|Thomas Hobbes]]
'''Thomas Hobbes''' (1588-1679) was an English [[philosopher]], political theorist, historian, optical scientist, translator and classicist. Hobbes was notable as one of the founders of [[social contract]] theory, and a forerunner of [[British empiricism]]. As a [[materialism|materialist]], his concept of human existence excluded the [[soul]], with the [[mind]] being given a purely mechanical explanation. He was widely rumoured during his lifetime to be an atheist, which was illegal on 16th century England. Hobbes' contemporary, the Earl of Clarendon, claimed that the philosopher was "a pander to bestiality" whose "doctrines have had so great a share of the debauchery of his Generation, that a good Christian can hardly hear his name without saying of his prayers."<ref>Samuel I. Mintz, The Hunting of Leviathan: Seventeenth-Century Reactions to the Materialism and Moral Philosophy of Thomas Hobbes (Cambridge, 1962), 57. </ref>

Hobbes saw matter in motion as the only reality. To him even consciousness and thought were but the byproducts of atoms moving in the brain.<ref>The New American Desk Encyclopedia, Penguin Group, 1989</ref>

According to Hobbes's most famous work ''Leviathan'' (1651), life for humans prior to the foundation of the social contract was "solitary, poore, nasty, brutish and short". Humans had to form collectives in order to protect themselves from each other. This idea was extended by [[John Locke]], who held (most notably in his ''Second Treatise on Government'') that collectivisation was necessary for the promotion of economic growth. Hobbes's love of strong leadership led him to support monarchy, although he took the view that any strong government was better than nothing, and the stronger the better.

: ''Government should be like unto a man, strong and hard'' (''Leviathan'' xvii).

== See also ==

*[[Philosophy]]

==References==

<References/>

{{DEFAULTSORT:Hobbes, Thomas}}

[[Category:Philosophers]]

John Lennon

2018-01-03T03:12:33Z

Haeralis: More information about "Imagine."

[[Image:John lennon.jpg|thumb|John Lennon]]

'''John Lennon''', born '''John Winston Lennon''' (October 9, 1940 – December 8, 1980), was a former member of [[The Beatles]].

Though none of the [[Beatles]] were as successful on their own as they were as a group, John Lennon was considered by many to have the most raw talent. He struggled with drug addiction, however, and several of his songs related to his habit, such as "Cold Turkey."

Lennon was the most outspoken among the [[Beatles]] on political issues, advocating pacifism during the [[Vietnam War]]. At one point the [[United States]] security services investigated him.

After a self-imposed five-year break from music to focus on his family and raising his young son Sean, Lennon produced a new album with his [[Japan]]ese wife [[Yoko Ono]] in 1980, entitled ''Double Fantasy''. Less than a month after its release Lennon was shot dead outside his apartment building by a crazed fan named [[Mark David Chapman]].

Lennon's most famous individual work is "Imagine", a song that beseeches us to imagine a world not dominated by greed, war, and hatred, but one governed by love, where all people are "living life in peace." At the end of the song Lennon encourages the listener to join him in dreaming of this world, implying that there is hope for humanity to rise above its weaknesses, anger, and hate. The song explicitly calls for an end to religion, private property, and national borders, all of which are staples of [[Marxist]] political thought.<ref>https://amgreatness.com/2018/01/01/goodbye-america/</ref>

He remains a hero in [[Britain]], where he was ranked in the top 10 of the 2002 "100 Greatest Britons" poll sponsored by the BBC.

In June 2007, ''Instant Karma: The Amnesty International Campaign to Save Darfur'' was released. The album, whose proceeds went to liberal group [[Amnesty International]]'s campaign on behalf of Sudan's war-torn province of Darfur, featured artists of yesterday and today, such as [[U2]], [[REM]], [[Green Day]], and [[Corinne Bailey Raye]] covering Lennon's work.

== Poor family life ==

There are several reports of John Lennon treating his family cruelly.<ref>http://www.nypost.com/p/news/national/item_CiGDOKXUtPlMvbNoopX1lN</ref><ref>http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2008/09/21/sean-lennon-opens-up-abou_n_128028.html</ref><ref>http://www.nypost.com/p/news/national/item_CiGDOKXUtPlMvbNoopX1lN;jsessionid=7A5FA32FA32BEDF9593D1ECEF1DE7AE4</ref> For example, Sean Lennon reported that his father screamed so loud in his ear that he damaged his ear, and he had to go to the hospital.<ref>http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2008/09/21/sean-lennon-opens-up-abou_n_128028.html</ref>

== Religious views ==

John Lennon in s 1965 interview said: "If you say you don't believe in God, everybody assumes you're antireligious, and you probably think that's what we mean by that. We're not quite sure 'what' we are, but I know that we're more [[Agnosticism|agnostic]] than [[Atheism|atheistic]]."<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=QHtMYEl4QxsC&pg=PA99&lpg=PA99&dq=If+you+say+you+don%27t+believe+in+God,+everybody+assumes+you%27re+antireligious,+and+you+probably+think+that%27s+what+we+mean+by+that.+We%27re+not+quite+sure+%27what%27+we+are,+but+I+know+that+we%27re+more+agnostic+than+atheistic.%22&source=bl&ots=TPKUp9eTgZ&sig=mmwEFPjVlYV86ONaCWa5eImwujk&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwj47Lzpke_MAhWqpYMKHXh4AnQQ6AEILDAD#v=onepage&q=If%20you%20say%20you%20don%27t%20believe%20in%20God%2C%20everybody%20assumes%20you%27re%20antireligious%2C%20and%20you%20probably%20think%20that%27s%20what%20we%20mean%20by%20that.%20We%27re%20not%20quite%20sure%20%27what%27%20we%20are%2C%20but%20I%20know%20that%20we%27re%20more%20agnostic%20than%20atheistic.%22&f=false ''The Beatles Image and Music'' by Michael R. Frontani, page 99]</ref>

Lennon's song ''Imagine'' has been dubbed the "atheist anthem".<ref>Eyre, Hermione (1 November 2006). "[http://www.independent.co.uk/voices/commentators/hermione-eyre-atheists-should-be-louder-and-prouder-422404.html Atheists should be louder and prouder]". The Independent. Retrieved 23 March 2014.</ref><ref>Doughty, Chris (28 July 2009). "[http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-1202754/Kumbaya-replaced-John-Lennons-Imagine-atheist-summer-camp-kids.html Kumbaya replaced by John Lennon's Imagine at atheist summer camp for kids]". Daily Mail (London). Retrieved 30 October 2011.</ref>

Lennon's most famous quote regarding [[Christianity]] was in 1966:

* Christianity will go. It will vanish and shrink. I needn't argue with that; I'm right and I will be proved right. '''We're more popular than Jesus now'''; I don't know which will go first — rock and roll or Christianity. Jesus was all right, but his disciples were thick and ordinary. It's them twisting it that ruins it for me.

(Emphasis added)

After Christians worldwide criticized his attitude, misquoting him as saying "We are greater than Jesus," Lennon held a press conference on August 11, 1966, in Chicago at which he elaborated:

* I suppose if I had said television was more popular than Jesus, I would have gotten away with it. I'm sorry I opened my mouth. I'm not anti-God, anti-Christ, or anti-religion. I wasn't knocking it or putting it down. I was just saying it as a fact and it's true more for England than here. I'm not saying that we're better or greater, or comparing us with Jesus Christ as a person or God as a thing or whatever it is. I just said what I said and it was wrong. Or it was taken wrong. And now it's all this.

In 1977, John had a brief "[[Born Again]]" phase. He wrote several Christian compositions which included, "Talking with [[Jesus]]", "Amen (The Lord's prayer set to music)" and "Help me to help myself".

Some people who had [[Near-death experience]]s say they have seen Lennon in [[hell]].

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Lennon, John}}

[[Category:Musicians]]
[[Category:Beatles]]

Jeff Sessions

2017-12-31T02:53:11Z

Haeralis: /* United States Attorney General */

{{Officeholder
|name=Jeff Sessions
|image=Jeff Sessions official portrait.jpg
|party=[[Republican]]
|spouse=Mary Blackshear Sessions
|religion=[[Methodist]]
|offices=
{{Officeholder/attorneygeneral
|jurisdiction=the United States
|number=84th
|president=[[Donald Trump]]
|terms=February 9, 2017 –
|preceded=[[Loretta Lynch]]
|former=n
|succeeded=
}}
{{Officeholder/senator
|state=Alabama
|terms=January 7, 1997 – February 8, 2017
|preceded=Howell T. Heflin
|succeeded=[[Luther Strange]]
}}
}}
'''Jefferson Beauregard "Jeff" Sessions III''' (born December 24, 1946) is the 84th [[United States Attorney General]], serving under Republican President [[Donald Trump]]. Previously, he served under a variety of government positions, most notably as the junior United States Senator from [[Alabama]] from 1997 to 2017.

Sessions is a strongly [[conservative]] member of the [[Republican Party]]. As a United States senator, Sessions focused his energies on opposing [[illegal immigration]], protecting American workers against harmful "[[free trade]]" agreements, maintaining a strong military, upholding the [[rule of law]], [[Limited government|limiting the role of government]], and providing tax relief to stimulate economic growth and empower Americans to keep more of their hard-earned money. As Attorney General, he advanced conservative law enforcement policies (see "United States Attorney General" section below).

==Early life and career==
Sessions was born on December 24, 1946,<ref name="CongBioGuide">[http://bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index=s001141 SESSIONS, Jefferson Beauregard, III (Jeff)]. ''Biographical Directory of the United States Congress''. Retrieved July 25, 2017.</ref> in Selma, Alabama, and was raised in Hybart, Alabama.<ref name="WhatToKnow">[http://www.foxnews.com/politics/2017/07/25/attorney-general-jeff-sessions-what-to-know.html Attorney General Jeff Sessions: What to know]. ''Fox News''. July 25, 2017. Retrieved July 25, 2017.</ref> He graduated from Huntingdon College in Montgomery in 1969 and received a Juris Doctorate degree from the University of Alabama in 1973.<ref name="CongBioGuide"/><ref name="WhatToKnow"/> In the same year, 1973, Sessions was admitted to the Alabama Bar, and he practiced law in Russellville from 1973 to 1975.<ref name="CongBioGuide"/> He also served in the U.S. Army Reserves from 1973 to 1986 and reached the rank of Captain.<ref name="CongBioGuide"/><ref name="WhatToKnow"/>

==Political career==
[[File:Sessions.jpg|thumb|200px|Sessions as US Senator]]
===Early political career===
Sessions served as an Assistant United States Attorney for the Southern District of Alabama from 1975 to 1977.<ref name="WhatToKnow"/> In 1981, President [[Ronald Reagan]] nominated him and the U.S. Senate confirmed him to serve as the United States Attorney for Alabama's Southern District, a position he held until 1993.<ref name="CongBioGuide"/><ref name="WhatToKnow"/> In 1986, Sessions was nominated for a federal judgeship by Reagan. However, the nomination was killed by Senate [[Democrat]]s.<ref name="WhatToKnow"/> Sessions was elected Alabama Attorney General in 1994 and served until 1996.<ref name="CongBioGuide"/>

===U.S. Senate===
In 1996, Sessions won the Republican primary for U.S. Senate, after a runoff, and then defeated Democrat Roger Bedford, 52%–46% in the November general election. Sessions served in the Senate from 1997 until 2017.<ref name="CongBioGuide"/><ref name="WhatToKnow"/> He served as the ranking member of the Senate Judiciary Committee. He was known for his role in defeating the "Gang of Eight" illegal immigrant amnesty bill in 2013. In his last election, in 2014, Sessions was unopposed in both the primary and general elections.<ref>Stinson, Jim (July 25, 2014). [http://www.al.com/news/index.ssf/2014/07/jeff_sessions_makes_history_by.html Jeff Sessions makes history by being unopposed for U.S. Senate, and re-election campaign is in no hurry]. ''AL.com''. Retrieved July 25, 2017.</ref><ref>[http://sos.alabama.gov/sites/default/files/voter-pdfs/2014/2014GeneralResults-WithWriteIn.pdf State of Alabama – Canvass of Results General Election, November 4, 2014]. ''Secretary of State of Alabama''. Retrieved July 25, 2017.</ref>

Sessions frequently stood alone, at least essentially, in the Senate due to his very conservative positions.<ref name="Gurman">Gurman, Sadie (July 30, 2017). [http://www.foxnews.com/world/2017/07/30/for-sessions-being-attorney-general-is-chance-to-make-mark.html For Sessions, being attorney general is chance to make mark]. ''Fox News''. Retrieved August 1, 2017.</ref>

===Support for Donald Trump===
Sessions became the first sitting U.S. Senator to endorse [[Donald Trump]] for U.S. President.<ref name="WhatToKnow"/><ref>Ferris, Sarah (February 28, 2016). [http://thehill.com/blogs/ballot-box/presidential-races/271109-gop-senator-expected-to-endorse-trump Trump gets first Senate endorsement]. ''The Hill''. Retrieved July 25, 2017.</ref> He strongly supported Trump due to their policy agreements.<ref>Boyle, Matthew (July 25, 2017). [http://www.breitbart.com/big-government/2017/07/25/jeff-sessions-a-man-who-embodies-the-movement-that-elected-donald-trump-president/ Jeff Sessions: A Man Who Embodies the Movement That Elected Donald Trump President]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved July 25, 2017.</ref> It was reported that [[Steve Bannon]] convinced Sessions to endorse Trump, and he knew he was making a big risk in doing so.<ref>Smith, Allan (July 26, 2017). [http://www.businessinsider.com/sessions-trump-endorsement-bannon-2017-7 Bannon convinced Jeff Sessions to endorse Trump, and Sessions worried his career in the Republican Party might end because of it]. ''Business Insider''. Retrieved July 26, 2017.</ref>

===United States Attorney General===
[[File:Jeff Sessions with U.S. Border Patrol agents.jpg|thumb|200px|Attorney General Sessions meeting with U.S. Border Patrol Agents, April 11, 2017.]]
After winning the 2016 election, President Trump nominated, and the U.S. Senate subsequently confirmed, Sessions as [[United States Attorney General]]. He set out to enact the conservative policies he fought for – and was isolated because of – in the Senate.<ref name="Gurman"/> As Attorney General, Sessions enacted [[conservative]] policies and reformed the Justice Department from what it had been under [[Eric Holder]] and [[Loretta Lynch]]. He stayed strong, even when President Trump himself publically attacked him, and he had broad support among conservatives.<ref>Shaw, Adam (July 26, 2017). [http://www.breitbart.com/big-government/2017/07/26/jeff-sessions-stands-firm-gains-broad-support-as-trump-ramps-up-attacks/ Jeff Sessions Stands Firm, Gains Broad Support as Trump Ramps Up Attacks]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved July 26, 2017.</ref> However, Sessions refused to investigate or charge Hillary Clinton<ref>Chakraborty, Barnini (November 3, 2017). [http://www.foxnews.com/politics/2017/11/03/trump-slams-sessions-doj-for-not-going-after-clinton-dnc.html Trump slams Sessions, DOJ for not going after Clinton, DNC]. ''Fox News''. Retrieved November 3, 2017.</ref> or Lois Lerner<ref>Munro, Neil (September 8, 2017). [http://www.breitbart.com/big-government/2017/09/08/jeff-sessions-doj-will-not-investigate-irs-suppression-tea-party-groups/ Jeff Sessions’ DoJ Will Not Investigate IRS Suppression of Tea Party Groups]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved October 28, 2017.</ref> for serious allegations of misconduct.

Disappointingly, Sessions set into motion the chain of events which led to the appointment of special counsel [[Robert Mueller]] to investigate Russian collusion. By recusing himself in March 2017, the issue was ceded to Deputy Attorney General [[Rod Rosenstein]], a RINO who caved immediately to pressure from the Democrats. His role in fomenting the unnecessary investigation and undermining the first year of Trump's presidency led to strong criticism from the President.

For more information on Sessions's tenure at the DOJ, see:
*[[Donald Trump achievements: Criminal justice, law enforcement, and other DOJ matters]]
*[[Donald Trump achievements: Immigration, illegal immigration, and border security]]

==Political views==
Sessions was ranked by the [[National Journal]] as the fifth-most conservative United States Senator in their March 2007 conservative/liberal rankings. He backs conservative Republican stances on foreign affairs, taxes, and social policy. In 2006 he was a vocal critic of the [[John McCain]]-[[Ted Kennedy]] [[Immigration]] reform bill. Sessions voted against the $700 billion Wall Street bailout and against the $787 [[American Recovery and Reinvestment Act]].
Jeff Sessions is also an opponent of the [[mainstream media]] attacks on arbitration. His arbitration bills, introduced in Congress in 2000, 2002, 2007, and 2011, would ensure due process safeguards in arbitration. This sensible, conservative, approach to arbitration contrasts against the liberal Arbitration Fairness Act, which would prohibit the enforcement of predispute arbitration agreements in broad areas of commerce.

Sessions strongly opposes [[open borders]] and [[amnesty]] for illegal immigrants.<ref>Binder, John (September 5, 2017). [http://www.breitbart.com/big-government/2017/09/05/27-times-jeff-sessions-fought-for-americans-against-daca-amnesty-and-open-borders/ 27 Times Jeff Sessions Fought for Americans Against DACA, Amnesty and Open Borders]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved September 5, 2017.</ref>

==Other==
===Accusations of "racism" from liberals===
[[Liberal]]s have accused Sessions of somehow being a "racist" throughout his career. Sessions has been criticized for reportedly calling the [[NAACP]] and [[ACLU]] "un-American" and saying the [[Ku Klux Klan|KKK]] was good "until they smoked marijuana". But the truth is that Jeff Sessions has fought for civil rights during his career as Attorney general and later senator of Alabama. Sessions pushed to desegregate public schools in Birmingham and prosecuted and then gave the death penalty to a KKK member who slit the throat of a black man.<ref>https://m.youtube.com/watch?v=7xHffHoGvH8</ref>

===Speeches===
[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PBqrWL3h9-g&feature=youtu.be "Omnibus explains why ‘Voters are in open rebellion’"]<ref>[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PBqrWL3h9-g&feature=youtu.be "Sessions: Omnibus Explains Why ‘Voters Are In Open Rebellion’"] (December 16, 2015). YouTube video, 9:11, posted by SenatorSessions.</ref> (December 16, 2015). Nine-minute condensation of speech before U.S. Senate on the December 2015 2,000 page 'omnibus' year-end funding bill. Received 225,000 views on YouTube as of March 2016.

[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xZ83CvMKYUQ "Senator Jeff Sessions endorses Donald Trump at Madison, Alabama rally"]<ref>[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xZ83CvMKYUQ "Donald Trump Endorsed by Senator Jeff Sessions in Madison, AL (2-28-16)"] (February 28, 2016). YouTube video, 5:11, posted by Right Side Broadcasting.</ref> (February 28, 2016). Five-minute speech endorsing 2016 Republican presidential candidate Donald Trump. Received 89,000 views on YouTube as of March 2016.

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*[http://bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index=s001141 Profile] at the ''Biographical Directory of the United States Congress''
*[http://projects.washingtonpost.com/congress/members/s001141/ Voting Record]
*[http://www.ontheissues.org/Senate/Jeff_Sessions.htm Sessions On the Issues]
*[http://www.opencongress.org/people/show/300088_jefferson_sessions OpenCongress]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Sessions III, Jeff}}
[[Category:Former United States Senators]]
[[Category:Republicans]]
[[Category:Conservatives]]
[[Category:The 100 Americans The Left Hates Most]]
[[Category:Alabama]]
[[Category:Trump Cabinet]]
[[Category:Patriots]]

Jeff Sessions

2017-12-31T02:52:35Z

Haeralis: /* United States Attorney General */

{{Officeholder
|name=Jeff Sessions
|image=Jeff Sessions official portrait.jpg
|party=[[Republican]]
|spouse=Mary Blackshear Sessions
|religion=[[Methodist]]
|offices=
{{Officeholder/attorneygeneral
|jurisdiction=the United States
|number=84th
|president=[[Donald Trump]]
|terms=February 9, 2017 –
|preceded=[[Loretta Lynch]]
|former=n
|succeeded=
}}
{{Officeholder/senator
|state=Alabama
|terms=January 7, 1997 – February 8, 2017
|preceded=Howell T. Heflin
|succeeded=[[Luther Strange]]
}}
}}
'''Jefferson Beauregard "Jeff" Sessions III''' (born December 24, 1946) is the 84th [[United States Attorney General]], serving under Republican President [[Donald Trump]]. Previously, he served under a variety of government positions, most notably as the junior United States Senator from [[Alabama]] from 1997 to 2017.

Sessions is a strongly [[conservative]] member of the [[Republican Party]]. As a United States senator, Sessions focused his energies on opposing [[illegal immigration]], protecting American workers against harmful "[[free trade]]" agreements, maintaining a strong military, upholding the [[rule of law]], [[Limited government|limiting the role of government]], and providing tax relief to stimulate economic growth and empower Americans to keep more of their hard-earned money. As Attorney General, he advanced conservative law enforcement policies (see "United States Attorney General" section below).

==Early life and career==
Sessions was born on December 24, 1946,<ref name="CongBioGuide">[http://bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index=s001141 SESSIONS, Jefferson Beauregard, III (Jeff)]. ''Biographical Directory of the United States Congress''. Retrieved July 25, 2017.</ref> in Selma, Alabama, and was raised in Hybart, Alabama.<ref name="WhatToKnow">[http://www.foxnews.com/politics/2017/07/25/attorney-general-jeff-sessions-what-to-know.html Attorney General Jeff Sessions: What to know]. ''Fox News''. July 25, 2017. Retrieved July 25, 2017.</ref> He graduated from Huntingdon College in Montgomery in 1969 and received a Juris Doctorate degree from the University of Alabama in 1973.<ref name="CongBioGuide"/><ref name="WhatToKnow"/> In the same year, 1973, Sessions was admitted to the Alabama Bar, and he practiced law in Russellville from 1973 to 1975.<ref name="CongBioGuide"/> He also served in the U.S. Army Reserves from 1973 to 1986 and reached the rank of Captain.<ref name="CongBioGuide"/><ref name="WhatToKnow"/>

==Political career==
[[File:Sessions.jpg|thumb|200px|Sessions as US Senator]]
===Early political career===
Sessions served as an Assistant United States Attorney for the Southern District of Alabama from 1975 to 1977.<ref name="WhatToKnow"/> In 1981, President [[Ronald Reagan]] nominated him and the U.S. Senate confirmed him to serve as the United States Attorney for Alabama's Southern District, a position he held until 1993.<ref name="CongBioGuide"/><ref name="WhatToKnow"/> In 1986, Sessions was nominated for a federal judgeship by Reagan. However, the nomination was killed by Senate [[Democrat]]s.<ref name="WhatToKnow"/> Sessions was elected Alabama Attorney General in 1994 and served until 1996.<ref name="CongBioGuide"/>

===U.S. Senate===
In 1996, Sessions won the Republican primary for U.S. Senate, after a runoff, and then defeated Democrat Roger Bedford, 52%–46% in the November general election. Sessions served in the Senate from 1997 until 2017.<ref name="CongBioGuide"/><ref name="WhatToKnow"/> He served as the ranking member of the Senate Judiciary Committee. He was known for his role in defeating the "Gang of Eight" illegal immigrant amnesty bill in 2013. In his last election, in 2014, Sessions was unopposed in both the primary and general elections.<ref>Stinson, Jim (July 25, 2014). [http://www.al.com/news/index.ssf/2014/07/jeff_sessions_makes_history_by.html Jeff Sessions makes history by being unopposed for U.S. Senate, and re-election campaign is in no hurry]. ''AL.com''. Retrieved July 25, 2017.</ref><ref>[http://sos.alabama.gov/sites/default/files/voter-pdfs/2014/2014GeneralResults-WithWriteIn.pdf State of Alabama – Canvass of Results General Election, November 4, 2014]. ''Secretary of State of Alabama''. Retrieved July 25, 2017.</ref>

Sessions frequently stood alone, at least essentially, in the Senate due to his very conservative positions.<ref name="Gurman">Gurman, Sadie (July 30, 2017). [http://www.foxnews.com/world/2017/07/30/for-sessions-being-attorney-general-is-chance-to-make-mark.html For Sessions, being attorney general is chance to make mark]. ''Fox News''. Retrieved August 1, 2017.</ref>

===Support for Donald Trump===
Sessions became the first sitting U.S. Senator to endorse [[Donald Trump]] for U.S. President.<ref name="WhatToKnow"/><ref>Ferris, Sarah (February 28, 2016). [http://thehill.com/blogs/ballot-box/presidential-races/271109-gop-senator-expected-to-endorse-trump Trump gets first Senate endorsement]. ''The Hill''. Retrieved July 25, 2017.</ref> He strongly supported Trump due to their policy agreements.<ref>Boyle, Matthew (July 25, 2017). [http://www.breitbart.com/big-government/2017/07/25/jeff-sessions-a-man-who-embodies-the-movement-that-elected-donald-trump-president/ Jeff Sessions: A Man Who Embodies the Movement That Elected Donald Trump President]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved July 25, 2017.</ref> It was reported that [[Steve Bannon]] convinced Sessions to endorse Trump, and he knew he was making a big risk in doing so.<ref>Smith, Allan (July 26, 2017). [http://www.businessinsider.com/sessions-trump-endorsement-bannon-2017-7 Bannon convinced Jeff Sessions to endorse Trump, and Sessions worried his career in the Republican Party might end because of it]. ''Business Insider''. Retrieved July 26, 2017.</ref>

===United States Attorney General===
[[File:Jeff Sessions with U.S. Border Patrol agents.jpg|thumb|200px|Attorney General Sessions meeting with U.S. Border Patrol Agents, April 11, 2017.]]
After winning the 2016 election, President Trump nominated, and the U.S. Senate subsequently confirmed, Sessions as [[United States Attorney General]]. He set out to enact the conservative policies he fought for – and was isolated because of – in the Senate.<ref name="Gurman"/> As Attorney General, Sessions enacted [[conservative]] policies and reformed the Justice Department from what it had been under [[Eric Holder]] and [[Loretta Lynch]]. He stayed strong, even when President Trump himself publically attacked him, and he had broad support among conservatives.<ref>Shaw, Adam (July 26, 2017). [http://www.breitbart.com/big-government/2017/07/26/jeff-sessions-stands-firm-gains-broad-support-as-trump-ramps-up-attacks/ Jeff Sessions Stands Firm, Gains Broad Support as Trump Ramps Up Attacks]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved July 26, 2017.</ref> However, Sessions refused to investigate or charge Hillary Clinton<ref>Chakraborty, Barnini (November 3, 2017). [http://www.foxnews.com/politics/2017/11/03/trump-slams-sessions-doj-for-not-going-after-clinton-dnc.html Trump slams Sessions, DOJ for not going after Clinton, DNC]. ''Fox News''. Retrieved November 3, 2017.</ref> or Lois Lerner<ref>Munro, Neil (September 8, 2017). [http://www.breitbart.com/big-government/2017/09/08/jeff-sessions-doj-will-not-investigate-irs-suppression-tea-party-groups/ Jeff Sessions’ DoJ Will Not Investigate IRS Suppression of Tea Party Groups]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved October 28, 2017.</ref> for serious allegations of misconduct.

Disappointingly, Sessions set into motion the chain of events which led to the appointment of special counsel [[Robert Mueller]] to investigate Russian collusion. By recusing himself in March 2017, the issue was ceded to Deputy Attorney General [[Rod Rosenstein]], who caved immediately after pressure from the Democrats. His role in fomenting the unnecessary investigation and undermining the first year of Trump's presidency led to strong criticism from the President.

For more information on Sessions's tenure at the DOJ, see:
*[[Donald Trump achievements: Criminal justice, law enforcement, and other DOJ matters]]
*[[Donald Trump achievements: Immigration, illegal immigration, and border security]]

==Political views==
Sessions was ranked by the [[National Journal]] as the fifth-most conservative United States Senator in their March 2007 conservative/liberal rankings. He backs conservative Republican stances on foreign affairs, taxes, and social policy. In 2006 he was a vocal critic of the [[John McCain]]-[[Ted Kennedy]] [[Immigration]] reform bill. Sessions voted against the $700 billion Wall Street bailout and against the $787 [[American Recovery and Reinvestment Act]].
Jeff Sessions is also an opponent of the [[mainstream media]] attacks on arbitration. His arbitration bills, introduced in Congress in 2000, 2002, 2007, and 2011, would ensure due process safeguards in arbitration. This sensible, conservative, approach to arbitration contrasts against the liberal Arbitration Fairness Act, which would prohibit the enforcement of predispute arbitration agreements in broad areas of commerce.

Sessions strongly opposes [[open borders]] and [[amnesty]] for illegal immigrants.<ref>Binder, John (September 5, 2017). [http://www.breitbart.com/big-government/2017/09/05/27-times-jeff-sessions-fought-for-americans-against-daca-amnesty-and-open-borders/ 27 Times Jeff Sessions Fought for Americans Against DACA, Amnesty and Open Borders]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved September 5, 2017.</ref>

==Other==
===Accusations of "racism" from liberals===
[[Liberal]]s have accused Sessions of somehow being a "racist" throughout his career. Sessions has been criticized for reportedly calling the [[NAACP]] and [[ACLU]] "un-American" and saying the [[Ku Klux Klan|KKK]] was good "until they smoked marijuana". But the truth is that Jeff Sessions has fought for civil rights during his career as Attorney general and later senator of Alabama. Sessions pushed to desegregate public schools in Birmingham and prosecuted and then gave the death penalty to a KKK member who slit the throat of a black man.<ref>https://m.youtube.com/watch?v=7xHffHoGvH8</ref>

===Speeches===
[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PBqrWL3h9-g&feature=youtu.be "Omnibus explains why ‘Voters are in open rebellion’"]<ref>[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PBqrWL3h9-g&feature=youtu.be "Sessions: Omnibus Explains Why ‘Voters Are In Open Rebellion’"] (December 16, 2015). YouTube video, 9:11, posted by SenatorSessions.</ref> (December 16, 2015). Nine-minute condensation of speech before U.S. Senate on the December 2015 2,000 page 'omnibus' year-end funding bill. Received 225,000 views on YouTube as of March 2016.

[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xZ83CvMKYUQ "Senator Jeff Sessions endorses Donald Trump at Madison, Alabama rally"]<ref>[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xZ83CvMKYUQ "Donald Trump Endorsed by Senator Jeff Sessions in Madison, AL (2-28-16)"] (February 28, 2016). YouTube video, 5:11, posted by Right Side Broadcasting.</ref> (February 28, 2016). Five-minute speech endorsing 2016 Republican presidential candidate Donald Trump. Received 89,000 views on YouTube as of March 2016.

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*[http://bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index=s001141 Profile] at the ''Biographical Directory of the United States Congress''
*[http://projects.washingtonpost.com/congress/members/s001141/ Voting Record]
*[http://www.ontheissues.org/Senate/Jeff_Sessions.htm Sessions On the Issues]
*[http://www.opencongress.org/people/show/300088_jefferson_sessions OpenCongress]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Sessions III, Jeff}}
[[Category:Former United States Senators]]
[[Category:Republicans]]
[[Category:Conservatives]]
[[Category:The 100 Americans The Left Hates Most]]
[[Category:Alabama]]
[[Category:Trump Cabinet]]
[[Category:Patriots]]

Progressivism

2017-12-29T19:13:44Z

Haeralis: /* Pre-Progressive Era */

[[Image:630px-Theodore Roosevelt in 1918.jpg|thumb|110px|right|Theodore Roosevelt, first progressive president]]
'''Progressivism''' (or '''Progressive Ideology''') is a narrow ideology that puts a heavy emphasis on administration that is centralized, separated from the political process, engages in centralized economic planning, and has the power and expertise to make quick decisions.<ref>[http://www.heritage.org/initiatives/first-principles/primary-sources/woodrow-wilson-on-administration Woodrow Wilson on Administration]</ref> Progressives are quick to point to their label and proclaim that they stand for "progress",<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=khyQiT0HxIEC The Power of Progress: How America's Progressives Can (Once Again) Save Our Economy, Our Climate, and Our Country], John Podesta</ref> but they do everything they can to hide the fact that where they want to make progress to is a big government that is in control of every aspect of Americans' lives.

Since the 1960s and the [[New Left]] Movement, Progressivism has largely been synonymous with [[Communism]]. Earlier Progressivism, while staunchly in favor of [[Big Government]], was equally critical of communist and socialist viewpoints.

==History==
[[Image:Edward Bellamy.jpg|thumb|75px|right|Edward Bellamy]]
===Pre-Progressive Era===
The first progressives include thinkers involved in the radical strain of [[Enlightenment]] philosophy, such as the Marquis de Condorcet. The Frenchman argued that all human problems were on the verge of annihilation due to "the development of a new doctrine which is to deliver the final blow to the already tottering structure of prejudice." This doctrine, according to Condorcet, "is the idea of the limitless perfectibility of the human species.” In ''Sketch for a Historical Picture of the Progress of the Human Spirit'', the Marquis paints a progressive picture of a history that is moving "forward" away from the dogmas of tradition and superstition thanks to the advent of modern reason and science.

The dawn of modern progressivism has been traced back to the publication of [[Looking Backward]],<ref name=ushistory>[http://www.ushistory.org/us/42a.asp 42a. Roots of the Movement], Progressivism Sweeps the Nation</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Goldberg |first1=Jonah |year=2008 |title=Liberal Fascism |publisher=Random House |pages=215 |quote=It's hard to fix a specific starting date for the progressive race for the Great Society, but a good guess might be 1888, the year Edward Bellamy's novel ''Looking Backward'' burst on the American scene. One of the most influential works of progressive propaganda ever conceived.}}</ref> where author [[Edward Bellamy]] uses the label of ''Nationalism'' to create a movement aiming toward greater state power at the expense of the individual.

Another book that had far reaching implications for the coming birth of progressive ideology was [[Henry George]]'s book [[Progress and Poverty]].<ref name=ushistory /><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=RdseBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA279 Knights of the Golden Rule: The Intellectual as Christian Social Reformer in the 1890s], "[[Jacob Riis]] dated the awakening from 1879 specifically because of the publication of George's book."</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=TPccAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA246&lpg=PA246 Henry George and the Beginnings of Revolutionary Socialism in the United States], The Johns Hopkins University Studies in Historical and Political Science</ref> (See section [[Henry George#Ideological Influence|Henry George: Ideological Influence]])

===Progressive Era===
{{main|Progressive Era}}

The "''Progressive Era''" was a time period in American History in which Progressives made their way into segments of academia, media, and government, and were successful at implementing their policies and cultural changes based on their ideology. In addition to the aforementioned, other important thinkers of early Progressivism include [[Herbert Croly]], [[John Dewey]], and the pre-presidential writings of [[Woodrow Wilson]]. These and other lesser known thinkers put considerable effort into formulating a way to build authoritarian mechanisms into the free society of America, typically disguised as beneficial efforts.

==Philosophy==
[[Image:Mountrushmore.jpg|thumb|150px|right|There are no [[Communism|reds]] on [[Mount Rushmore|Rushmore]]'s face, but there is a [[Progressive party|progressive]]]]
{{See also|Idea of Progress}}
Progressive ideology is marked by a belief in the purity of Public Administration,<ref>[http://knowledge.sagepub.com/view/behavioralsciences/n2021.xml Progressivism (Public Administration)]</ref> particularly the concept of the disinterested<ref>[http://www.wsj.com/articles/charles-murray-the-trouble-isnt-liberals-its-progressives-1404170419 The Trouble Isn't Liberals. It's Progressives.], by Charles Murray, [[Wall Street Journal]]</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=0HtoBAAAQBAJ&pg=PT25 By the People: Rebuilding Liberty Without Permission]</ref> and impartial administrator.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=-QdqBAAAQBAJ&pg=PT191 Reflections on American Progressivism]</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=QBUpAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA360 Progressive Democracy], by [[Herbert Croly]], "In almost every case it(the law) depends for its success upon the ability and disinterestedness with which the law is administered."</ref> While progressives generally do not agree on how administrative power should be used,<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=O4g_WKk1dOoC&pg=PA29 Life, Liberty, and the Pursuit of Happiness: Ten Years of the Claremont Review of Books]</ref> that is less important than the fact that administration must exist.<ref name=kirby>[http://kirbycenter.hillsdale.edu/resources/topics/progressivism Progressivism and the Administrative State]</ref> By its very nature, administration is necessarily centralized.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=aNPFs9JbVOcC&pg=PT356 The Paradox of Southern Progressivism, 1880-1930]</ref> What becomes de-centralized within the [[Administrative State]] are the specific functions, such as energy, environment, transportation, etc. The reason why progressives look past use and focus simply on existence, is because they want the flexibility to be able to move and change as circumstances change.<ref name=kirby /> This generally has a negative effect on citizens, who are not always kept apprised of what is happening and are not afforded the opportunity to voice their beliefs.

In this way, when Progressivism is looked upon as ''Bureaucratic Despotism'',<ref>[http://online.hillsdale.edu/page.aspx?pid=1185 Constitution 201: The Progressive Rejection of the Founding and the Rise of Bureaucratic Despotism]</ref> the notion is quite apt since despotic governments generally do not care what the citizens want or believe.

==Progressivism or Liberalism?==
[[Image:Wilson.jpg|thumb|110px|right|Woodrow Wilson, second progressive president]]
Most of the time, when we think of Liberals what we are actually thinking about are Progressives.<ref name=notliberals>[http://www.breitbart.com/big-government/2014/07/01/wsj-the-trouble-isn-t-liberals-it-s-progressives/ The Trouble Isn't Liberals; It's Progressives], by Nick Sorrentino, [[Breitbart.com]]</ref> During the era leading up to [[World War I]], progressives had been so successful at implementing their ideas and had so frightened the American People, that after the war progressives had to change their title and take over the word ''liberal''. [[FDR]] would be the first major progressive who would become known as a liberal.<ref name=notliberals />

===Reagan's Warning===
Without expressly using the name of "''progressivism''", Reagan did illustrate the progressives' abuse of regulation and regulatory authority in order to dictate to society, in his speech [[A Time for Choosing]].

<blockquote>Now it doesn't require expropriation or confiscation of private property or business to impose socialism on a people. What does it mean whether you hold the deed to the - or the title to your business or property if the government holds the power of life and death over that business or property? And such machinery already exists. The government can find some charge to bring against any concern it chooses to prosecute. Every businessman has his own tale of harassment. Somewhere a perversion has taken place. Our natural, unalienable rights are now considered to be a dispensation of government, and freedom has never been so fragile, so close to slipping from our grasp as it is at this moment.</blockquote>

===Name Change===
Between the [[Woodrow Wilson]] presidency, and the success of conservatism during the [[Roaring Twenties]] and the Presidency of [[Calvin Coolidge]], progressivism as an ideology was nearly lost. Then, along came [[Franklin Delano Roosevelt]]. At his acceptance speech for the Nomination for President on the Democrat ticket, FDR himself is the one who led the way toward renaming the ideology.<ref>[http://thefederalist.com/2014/10/24/the-new-republic-cant-help-its-progressive-control-freak-tendencies/ The New Republic Can’t Help Its Progressive, Control-Freak Tendencies]</ref>
[[Image:FDR002.jpg|thumb|180px|left|Franklin D. Roosevelt changed the name from ''Progressivism'' to ''Liberalism'']]
During the speech, FDR proclaimed that the party was the party of "real progress, of real justice, of real equality" and that the party should "feel that in everything we do there still lives with us, if not the body, the great indomitable, unquenchable, progressive soul of our Commander-in-Chief, Woodrow Wilson."<ref name=transformationspeech>[http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=75174 Address Accepting the Presidential Nomination at the Democratic National Convention in Chicago], July 2, 1932</ref> In addition, FDR made it a point to link progress and liberalism, saying that the Democrat Party "is the bearer of liberalism and of progress", and finally he set the new title in motion:

<blockquote>Yes, the people of this country want a genuine choice this year, not a choice between two names for the same reactionary doctrine. Ours must be a party of liberal thought, of planned action, of enlightened international outlook, and of the greatest good to the greatest number of our citizens.<ref name=transformationspeech /></blockquote>

Progressivism had actively been renamed. From this moment on, it would be known as liberalism. Reagan spoke of a perversion taking place, and that perversion took place on July 2, 1932. Previously, the word "liberalism" stood for limited government and liberty, but now the word stood for authoritarian control.

This title shift lasted for nearly a century until [[Howard Dean]] revived the term ''progressive'' as head of the [[DNC]].<ref name=notliberals /> Since the time of FDR bringing the ideology under the cloak of "liberalism", progressives have done significant damage to the word "liberal", and have seen a need for yet another name change to a word that isn't as damaged. Having left the word "progressive" dormant for all these years, most Americans have forgotten how terrifying progressivism really is, leaving progressives to freely re-use their original label.

[[Hillary Clinton]] would further bring the label of ''progressive'' back to the forefront on the national stage at a debate during the 2008 election, when answering a question as to if she would describe herself as a liberal.<ref>[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=C2oOoCdFblc YouTube Debate: Hillary - Are You a Liberal?], "You know, it is a word that originally meant that you were for freedom, that you were for the freedom to achieve, that you were willing to stand against big power and on behalf of the individual,Unfortunately, in the last 30, 40 years, it has been turned up on its head, and it's been made to seem as though it is a word that describes big government, totally contrary to what its meaning was in the 19th and early 20th century. I prefer the word 'progressive,' which has a real American meaning, going back to the progressive era at the beginning of the 20th century. I consider myself a modern progressive – someone who believes strongly in individual rights and freedoms, who believes that we are better as a society when we're working together and when we find ways to help those who may not have all the advantages in life, get the tools they need to lead a more productive life for themselves and their family. So I consider myself a proud modern American progressive, and I think that's the kind of philosophy and practice that we need to bring back to American politics.</ref> The title of ''Progressive'' is now back in vogue with everybody on the left describing themselves that way, including [[President Obama]].<ref>[http://www.nytimes.com/2008/07/09/us/politics/09campaign.html Obama Says His Critics Haven’t Been Listening], [[The New York Times]], "I am someone who is no doubt progressive"</ref>

During the [[2016 U.S. presidential election]], Hillary Clinton has openly run her campaign as a progressive, using that specific label.<ref>[http://www.cnn.com/2016/02/04/politics/hillary-clinton-bernie-sanders-progressive-fight/ What 'progressive' means to Hillary Clinton vs. What 'progressive' means to Bernie Sanders], [[CNN]]</ref>

==Understanding Progressive Ideology==
The key to understanding progressive ideology is in understanding both sides of the beneficiary equation. The following table, based on the 1912 Progressive Party Platform<ref>[http://teachingamericanhistory.org/library/document/progressive-platform-of-1912/ Progressive Party Platform of 1912]</ref> and the proposal by [[Franklin Delano Roosevelt]] for a [[Second Bill of Rights]],<ref>[http://www.fdrlibrary.marist.edu/archives/address_text.html State of the Union Message to Congress, January 11, 1944]</ref> illustrates:

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Proposal !! Claimed Beneficiary !! Actual Beneficiary
|-
| Amendment of the Constitution || "The People" || [[Big Government]]
|-
| Nation and State (State Autonomy)<ref>[https://www.whitehouse.gov/blog/2011/12/06/archives-president-teddy-roosevelts-new-nationalism-speech President Teddy Roosevelt's New Nationalism Speech], "As for the veterans of the Grand Army of the Republic, they deserve honor and recognition such as is paid to no other citizens of the Republic; for to them the republic owes it all; for to them it owes its very existence. It is because of what you and your comrades did in the dark years that we of to-day walk, each of us, head erect, and proud that we belong, not to one of '''a dozen little squabbling contemptible commonwealths''', but to the mightiest nation upon which the sun shines."</ref> || National Cohesion || [[Big Government]]
|-
| Corrupt Practices (Campaign Finance Reform) || Electoral Control || [[Big Government]]
|-
| "[[Living wage]]" || Wage Earners || [[Big Government]]
|-
| [[Department of Labor]] || Labor Unions || [[Big Government]]
|-
| Federal Involvement in Health || "The People" || [[Big Government]]
|-
| National Regulation of Corporations || The "Little Guy" || [[Big Government]]
|-
| Commercial Development (Public/Private Cooperation) || "The People" || [[Big Government]]
|-
| Conservation || Parks, "The Environment" || [[Big Government]]
|-
| Inheritance (The Death Tax) || "The People" || [[Big Government]]
|-
| Income Tax || "The People" || [[Big Government]]
|-
| The Right to a Job || Families || [[Big Government]]
|-
| The Right to Food || Moms || [[Big Government]]
|-
| The Right to Clothing || The Children || [[Big Government]]
|-
| The Right to Leisure || Dads || [[Big Government]]
|-
| The Right to "Fair Income" || Wage Earners || [[Big Government]]
|-
| "Freedom" from "Unfair Competition" || "The Little Guy" || [[Big Government]]
|-
| The Right to a Decent Home || Families || [[Big Government]]
|-
| The Right to Medical Care || "The People" || [[Big Government]]
|-
| The Right to Old Age Pension coverage || The Elderly || [[Big Government]]
|-
| The Right to Good Education || The Children || [[Big Government]]
|-
| [[Prohibition in the United States|Prohibition]] || Battered wives, the children<ref>[http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/disp_textbook.cfm?smtID=2&psid=3383 Prohibition], Proponents of Prohibition ... were concerned about alcohol's link to wife beating and child abuse.</ref> || [[Big Government]]
|}

Whatever "the issue" of the day is, is not really the issue. "The issue" is a cloak to camouflage both the real means as well as the goal. Growing government is always the issue. Control over the citizens is always the foundational issue underlying everything that motivates progressives.

== Modern progressivism ==
=== Ridicule over reasonable debate ===

{{main|Atheism and mockery|Saul Alinsky}}

In a ''BloombergView'' article, Stephen L. Carter wrote about the left:
{{Cquote|But the left has work to do, not only on policy and organization but also on attitude. Too many of my progressive friends seem to have forgotten how to make actual arguments, and have become expert instead at condemnation, derision and mockery. On issue after issue, they’re very good at explaining why no one could oppose their policy positions except for the basest of motives. As to those positions themselves, they are too often announced with a zealous solemnity suggesting that their views are Holy Writ -- and those who disagree are cast into the outer political darkness. In short, the left has lately been dripping with hubris, which in classic literature always portends a fall.<ref>[https://www.bloomberg.com/view/articles/2016-11-11/trump-and-the-fall-of-liberalism Trump and the Fall of Liberalism] by Stephen L. Carter, BloombergView</ref>}}

Historically, [[Atheism|atheists]] have skewed towards the [[Leftism|left]] side of the political aisle (see: [[Atheism and politics]] and [[Secular left]] and [[Atheism and communism]]).<ref>[http://atheism.about.com/od/Atheist-Agnostic-Belief-Survey/a/Atheists-Agnostics-America-Politically-Liberal.htm Atheists & Agnostics in America Tend to be Politically Liberal]</ref><ref name="Marxism-Leninsim">{{cite web|url = http://www.investigatingatheism.info/marxism.html|title =Marxism|publisher = [[University of Cambridge]]|quote=The most notable spread of atheism was achieved through the success of the 1917 [[Russian Revolution]], which brought the Marxist-Leninists to power. For the first time in history, atheism thus became the official ideology of a state.|year=2008|accessdate = 2011–03–15}}</ref><ref name="Guillotine">{{cite book|url = http://books.google.com/books?id=bf3m7IVAa9gC&pg=PA461&dq=France+atheism+guillotine++Christians+executed&hl=en&sa=X&ei=l4lUUaTRBufG0QGe0IHACA&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=France%20atheism%20guillotine%20%20Christians%20executed&f=false|title =Christianity|author=James Adair|publisher = JBE Online Books|year=2007|quote=Although the Civil Constitution called for religious liberty, which was extended to Jews as well as Christians, many revolutionaries pushed for the establishment of a new state religion, either the Cult of Reason (atheists) or the Cult of the Supreme Being (Deists). Changes toAlthough the Civil Constitution called for religious liberty, which was extended to Jews as well as Christians, many revolutionaries pushed for the establishment of a new state religion, either the Cult of Reason (atheists) or the Cult of the Supreme Being (Deists). Changes to the calendar eliminated references to Christian holidays, and even the ancient seven-day week, and a ist of officially recognized saints included such famous thinkers such as Socrates, Jesus, Marcus Aurelius, and Jean-Jacques Rosseau. A period of political persecution, often with religious overtones, broke out, known as the Reign of Teror. Thousands of people were executed by the guillotine, including many of the original leaders of the French Revolution.|page=461|accessdate = 2011–03–15}}</ref><ref name="France">{{cite book|url = http://books.google.com/books?id=9WkBAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA105&dq=Reign+of+Terror+atheism&hl=en&sa=X&ei=HoRUUcD0NeXX0gGNo4HIDQ&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=Reign%20of%20Terror%20atheism&f=false|title =Memoirs of the reign of George III. to the session of parliament ending A.D. 1793, Volume 5|page=105|author=William Belsham|publisher = G.G. & J. Robinson|year=1801|quote=Reign of this portentous period, it has been eloquently tenor, and energetically observed, " that the reign of atheism in France was avowed the reign of terror. In the full madness of their career, in the highest climax of their horrors, they shut up the temples of God, abolished His worship, and proclaimed death to be an eternal sleep:-in the very centre of Christendom, Revelation underwent a total eclipse, while atheism, performing on a darkened theatre its strange and fearful tragedy, confounded the first elements of society, blended every age, rank, and sex ,indiscriminate proscription and massacre, and convulsed all Europe to its centre, that the imperishable memorial of these events might teach the last generations of mankind to consider religion as the pillar of society, the parent of social order, and the safe-guard of nations." It is wonderful that, amid the horrors of this dismal period, while "the death dance of democratic revolution" was still in rapid movement, among the tears of affliction, and the cries of despair, "the masque, the song, the theatric scene, the buffoon laughter, went on as regularly as in the gay hour of festive peace."|accessdate = 2011–03–15}}</ref><ref name="Reign of Terror">{{cite book|url = http://books.google.com/books?id=Tt5rqiCP1p8C&pg=PA57&dq=Reign+of+Terror+atheism&hl=en&sa=X&ei=HoRUUcD0NeXX0gGNo4HIDQ&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=Reign%20of%20Terror%20atheism&f=false|title =Christianity, Islam, and Atheism: The Struggle for the Soul of the West|author=William Kilpatrick|publisher = [[Ignatius Press]]|year=2012|quote=Actually, it's helpful to think in terms of two Enlightenments: the Enlightenment that cut itself off from God. The former led to the American Revolution, the Declaration of Independence, the abolition of slavery, and the civil rights movement. The latter led to the French Revolution, the Reign of Terror, the suppression of church by state, and the godless philosophies of Marx and Nietzsche and their offspring-National Socialism and communism. More recently the abandonment of God has led to the regime of cultural relativism that regards rights as arbitrary constructions. It's this second Enlightenment tradition that Cardinal Ratzinger referred to when he wrote, "The radical detachment of the Enlightenment philosophy from its roots ultimately leads it to dispense with man." Actually this transition happened no "ultimately" but almost immediately. The first instance occurred when Enlightenment worship of abstract "reason" and "liberty" degenearated quickly into the mass murders committed during the antireligious Reign of Terror in France. "Liberty, what crimes are committed in your name", said Madam Rolande as she faced the statue of Liberty in the Place de la Revolution movements before her death at the guillotine. She was one of the early victims of a succession of secular systems based on rootless notions of "liberty", "equality", and "reason". As many historians have pointed out, the atheist regimes of modern times are guilty of far more crimes than any committed in the name of religion. Communist governments alone were guilty of more than one hundred million murders, most of them committed against their own people.|accessdate = 2011–03–15}}</ref>

Although the [[secular left]] is known for ridiculing [[religion]] since at least the time of [[French Revolution]] (see: [[Atheism and mockery]]), the secular left is known for its humorlessness when it comes to others mocking of its ideology (See also: [[Atheism and humor]] and [[Atheism and intolerance]] and [[Atheist hypocrisy]]).

==See also==
*[[Atheism, social justice and hypocrisy]]
*[[Liberalism]]
*[[Administrative State]]
*[[Central planning]]
*[[Constitution 201]]
*[[Initiatives and referendums in the United States]]
*[[Philip Dru]]

==Bibliography==
* Pestritto, Ronald J. ''Woodrow Wilson and the Roots of Modern Liberalism.'' (2005)
* Pestritto, Ronald J. ''American Progressivism: A Reader.'' (2008)
* Napolitano, Andrew P. ''Theodore and Woodrow: How Two American Presidents Destroyed Constitutional Freedom.'' (2012)

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==External links==
* [https://www.gotquestions.org/progressivism.html What is progressivism?], at [[GotQuestions]]
* [http://www.discoverthenetworks.org/guideDesc.asp?catid=93&type=issue Progressivism] on [[Discover the Networks]]
* [http://www.csmonitor.com/Commentary/Opinion/2008/0205/p09s01-coop.html You want a more 'progressive' America? Careful what you wish for.]
* [http://thefederalist.com/2016/08/17/the-rise-of-progressivism-and-administrative-agency-in-american-history/ The Rise Of Progressivism And Administrative Agency In American History]

[[Category:Political Ideologies]]
[[Category:Regulation]]
[[Category:Bureaucracy]]

Woodrow Wilson

2017-12-28T01:19:53Z

Haeralis: /* Quotes */

{{Officeholder
|name=Woodrow Wilson
|image=Wilson.jpg
|party=[[Democratic]]
|spouse=Ellen Axson Wilson Edith Galt Wilson
|religion=[[Presbyterian]]
|offices=
{{Officeholder/president
|country=the United States
|number=28th
|terms=March 4, 1913 – March 4, 1921<ref>http://home.comcast.net/~sharonday7/Presidents/AP060301.htm</ref>
|vp=[[Thomas R. Marshall]]
|preceded=[[William Howard Taft]]
|former=y
|succeeded=[[Warren G. Harding]]
}}
{{Officeholder/governor
|number=34th
|state=New Jersey
|terms=January 17, 1911 – March 1, 1913
|lieutenant=n
|preceded=John Fort
|former=y
|succeeded=James Fielder
}}
}}
'''Thomas Woodrow Wilson''' (1856 - 1924), a Democrat, was elected as the 28th [[President of the United States of America]], and reelected in 1916, serving from 1913 to 1921. A Princeton president who became an intellectual leader of the [[Progressive Movement]], Wilson demonstrated his mastery over Congress by creating the [[Federal Reserve System]], lowering the tariff, and revising the [[antitrust]] laws in a way that ended most of the "trust-busting" and drew clear lines on what was allowed. In general these policies would be in line with conservative recommendations in 2009. He supported liberal policies such as raising wages of railroad workers when they threatened a nationwide strike in 1916.
Trying repeatedly and failing to broker peace during [[World War I]], Wilson in 1917 led the United States into the war. He set up a draft and trained millions of soldiers, sending the [[American Expeditionary Forces]] to France under the command of General [[John J. Pershing]]. Woodrow Wilson was also notoriously anti-Catholic,<ref>[http://www.thecatholicthing.org/2013/03/06/woodrow-wilson-big-government-anti-catholic/ Woodrow Wilson: Big Government Anti-Catholic]</ref> and was known for his [[Liberals and racism|racist]] policies promoting segregation, and promoted eugenics based on Darwinist theory.<ref>http://www.waragainsttheweak.com/</ref>

Wilson played a dominant role in ending the war with his [[Fourteen Points]] and played the central role at the Versailles Conference that set the peace terms in 1919. He was the idealist who envisioned Wilson advocated a new international order founded on self-determination, unfettered international trade, the end of militarism, and a worldwide organization of states - the League of Nations. He failed to obtain Senate approval for the Versailles treaty because it required American entry into the [[League of Nations]] and a possible loss of control over the war-making power. Wilson refused to involve the Republicans in the peace-making, even though they controlled Congress, and refused the GOP compromise that would have allowed American entry into the League without giving up sovereignty.

Wilson was a very complex man filled with paradox. He was a southern conservative—an elitist with a profound distrust of radical ideas and such left-wing populists as [[William Jennings Bryan]], but became the Democratic Party's most effective advocate of advanced [[progressivism]]. He rejected the doctrine of the Founders of the Republic in the preface to the Declaration of Independence that people are "endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable rights" and asserted the Hegelian principle that the citizen should "marry his interests to the state". Ironically, Woodrow Wilson laid the foundations for a state that has no use for God and uses “every means. . .by which society may be perfected.” And today Wilson’s ideological heir, Barack Obama, is carrying out his grandiose plan that declares the Declaration of Independence and the Constitution relics of the distant eighteenth century and seeks to bring everyone and everything, including religious groups, under control of the state. Wilson's progressivism in 2009 terms is a mix of liberal and conservative ideas, with a much deeper religious underpinning than is seen today. He ranks with Theodore Roosevelt, Franklin D. Roosevelt, Lyndon B. Johnson and Ronald Reagan as the nation's most active and dominant chief executives. He ranks with Abraham Lincoln and Reagan as the most articulate spokesman for national values. He was a war president who largely ignored military affairs and focused on very complex diplomatic issues. He won his war, reshaped the world at the peace conference, and saw his nation reject his idealist League of Nations because he refused to work with Republicans on its mechanics.

A rigid, self-exacting personality, whose uncompromising adherence to principles barred agreement on some of his most important political goals, he was a brilliant opportunist who won stunning electoral victories and led controversial laws through Congress. He understood diplomacy and domestic affairs in depth, and was the first to recognize a solution that could satisfy most of the needs of the interested parties. He was willing to negotiate endlessly, usually getting his way in the end, especially when his powerful rhetoric energized his backers. A devout [[Presbyterian]] who studied the Bible every day, he elevated a religious style of idealism to the central place in American diplomacy. A lonely intellectual, he had few friends, and broke one-by-one with his closest advisors, until in his last two years in office he was an invalid controlled in large part by his wife.

Wilson's idealistic foreign policy, called "Wilsonianism" sought to end militarism as a force in world affairs, vigorously promote national self-determination, create international bodies to head off serious disputes, and use American resources to promote democracy. Wilsonianism (and "idealism" generally) is opposed to "realism" in foreign policy, which stresses a concern for American self-interest, especially in economic and military terms. Wilsonianism reshaped the world in the aftermath of the Great War; its values lie at the core of the foreign policy of [[George W. Bush]] (2001-2009). [[File:Ww-sargent.jpg|thumb|350px|1917 portrait by [[John Singer Sargent]]]]
Wilson was the most profoundly Christian political leader in the world in the 20th century. He felt assured that he was following God's guidance. Wilson considered the United States a Christian nation destined to lead the world. He was a prophet and a [[Social Gospel|postmillenarian]], and if idealism clashed with reality, he was certain idealism would prevail.
[[File:Woodrow Wilson by Thomas.jpg|thumb|350px|1913 portrait by Stephen Seymour Thomas]]
==Family==
Wilson's father Joseph Ruggles Wilson (1822-1903), born in Ohio, was a Presbyterian minister of Scotch Irish descent. Woodrow's mother Jesse was born in Carlisle, England, to a Scottish-born Presbyterian minister; her family moved to Canada in 1835 and to Ohio in 1837. Woodrow's parents moved South in 1851, owned house slaves, and identified themselves with the culture and political values of the South. The father Joseph Wilson was a theologian, defended slavery and soon emerged as a leader of the Southern Presbyterian Church and an avid supporter of the Confederacy.<ref>In the 1880s Joseph Wilson argued at length that evolution was NOT in conflict with the Bible; he was thereupon forced out as head of the Presbyterian seminary in South Carolina. See Fred Kingsley Elder, ''Woodrow: Apostle of Freedom'' (1996) [http://www.jstor.org/sici?sici=0022-4642(199711)63%3A4%3C898%3AWAOF%3E2.0.CO%3B2-O&cookieSet=1 online review]</ref>

Wilson's grandfather (Joseph Wilson's father) was James Wilson, who immigrated to the United States from northern Ireland in 1807 and was first an editor of the [[Jeffersonian Republican]] newspaper the ''Aurora'' in Philadelphia, and later published Whig newspapers in Ohio and Pennsylvania. Since his father had been ostracized by the northern relatives, Woodrow had no contact with his grandfather or uncles, who were active in antislavery Republican politics in Ohio and Pennsylvania.<ref>Francis P. Weisenburger, "The Middle Western Antecedents of Woodrow Wilson," ''Mississippi Valley Historical Review,'' Vol. 23, No. 3 (Dec., 1936), pp. 375-390 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1886371 in JSTOR]</ref>

Woodrow grew up in the South during the Civil War and Reconstruction his father was a chaplain for the Confederate army. Woodrow saw the humiliation, economic ruin and shame that the loser of a war experiences and the hatred that grows from this, as well as the rampant corruption during Reconstruction in Columbia, the capital of South Carolina. A victim of childhood dyslexia, he became an avid reader. His father imparted a love of literature and politics to his son; much family activity revolved around Bible readings, daily prayers, and worship services at the father's church.

In 1885 Wilson married Ellen Louise Axson (1860 – 1914), the daughter of a Presbyterian minister in Savannah, Georgia. She was an accomplished painter and a successful hostess; they had three daughters.<ref>See [http://www.whitehouse.gov/history/firstladies/ew28-1.html White House biography of Ellen Louise Axson Wilson]</ref>

==Education==
[[File:Woodrow Wilson by Pach Bros c1875.jpg|thumb|180px|Wilson in his 20's]]
Woodrow studied at Davidson College in North Carolina in 1873-1874 and at Princeton University from 1875 to 1879. He proved an exceptional student, primarily interested in debate and politics. His father always wanted him to be a minister; Wilson greatly admired the British Prime Minister [[William E. Gladstone]], a Christian in politics, and decided to emulate him. Wilson saw politics as a divine vocation—to be a statesman was an expression of Christian service, he believed, a use of power for the sake of principles or moral goals. Wilson saw the "key to success in politics" as "the pursuit of Perfection through hard work and the fulfillment of ideals." Politics would allow him to spread spiritual enlightenment to the American people.

He was an editor of the ''Princetonian'' and wrote his senior thesis on "Cabinet Government in the United States;" it was later published. The essay stressed the superior qualities of the British cabinet system and said it ought to be tried in the United States.<ref>Edward S. Corwin, "Woodrow Wilson and the Presidency," ''Virginia Law Review,'' Vol. 42, No. 6 (Oct., 1956), pp. 761-783 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1070269 in JSTOR]. It was published in a journal edited by [[Henry Cabot Lodge]], who became Wilson's bitter enemy in 1919.</ref> After graduation in 1879 he studied law at the University of Virginia; he was admitted to the bar and practiced in Atlanta, in 1882. It was too boring. Wilson's scholarship led him in 1883 to enter the new Johns Hopkins University graduate school where he studied government and history, taking a PhD in 1885. Wilson is the only president to have earned a PhD.

==Academic leader==
In 1885 Wilson was appointed as a history instructor at Bryn Mawr College, an elite Quaker school for women near Philadelphia, at a salary of $1500 a year (which was enough to hire a servant). In 1888 he moved to Wesleyan University, a Methodist college in Connecticut. His reputation as an outstanding leader in political science brought him a professorship of jurisprudence and political economy at [[Princeton University]] in 1890. For the next twelve years he taught at Princeton, popular alike with students and faculty; he became the president of the school in 1902.<ref>W. Barksdale Maynard, Woodrow Wilson: Princeton to the Presidency (2008)</ref><ref>Henry Wilkinson Bragdon, ''Woodrow Wilson: The Academic Years'' (1967)</ref>

Wilson soon emerged as the nation's foremost academic, in heavy demand in elite circle for his brilliant speeches.

Wilson subscribed to the Social Darwinist view that survival was for the fittest races, and he supported the Eugenics movement. He believed there are “progressive races” such as Anglos and Aryans, who had superior and enlightened governments, and “stagnant nationalities” – Eastern and Southern Europeans – who needed authoritarian governments to control them.

At Princeton he created academic departments but otherwise downplayed the Germanic model of the PhD-oriented research university in favor of the "Oxbridge" (Oxford and Cambridge) model of intense small group discussions and one-one-one tutorials. He hired 50 young professors, called preceptors, to meet with students in small conferences, grilling them about their reading. Complaining that Princeton was dominated by "eating clubs" in which students ate with each other and ignored the professors, he sought to build Oxford-style colleges where students and faculty would eat and talk together. He failed—the eating clubs are still there.<ref>Yale and Harvard later did adopt the college model for undergraduates, but not Princeton. W. Barksdale Maynard, Woodrow Wilson: Princeton to the Presidency (2008)</ref>

Wilson promoted the leadership model, whereby the college focused on training a small cadre of undergraduates for national leadership, "the minority who plan, who conceive, who superintend," as he called them in his inaugural address as the university's president. "The college is no less democratic because it is for those who play a special part." He confronted the dean of the graduate school, who had the German research model in mind and outmaneuvered Wilson by obtaining outside funding for a graduate complex for serious scholarship that was well separated from the fun-loving undergraduates.
===Political theory===
====Political Science====
Wilson made significant contributions to political science.<ref>he also wrote popular history of high quality, including a five-volume history of the United States and a life of George Washington.</ref> In 1885 he published his influential treatise ''Congressional Government: A Study in American Politics'', based on his PhD dissertation. It set a new standard in analyzing the actual workings of the federal government with striking clarity and thoroughness. The citizen must “marry his interests to the state.” Wilson, therefore, dismissed the Declaration’s assertion that rights are endowed by our Creator. Wilson lectured that, “If you want to understand the real Declaration of Independence, do not repeat the preface.” “The rhetorical introduction,” he declared, “is the least part of it.”

Although Wilson had never visited Congress, his emphasis on the centrality of committees in Congress was a major contribution to the study of political science. Noting how the Constitution's separation of powers had been eroded since the Civil War by the increasing power of Congress, he suggested a remedy for this in a cabinet-style government of the variety proposed by [[Walter Bagehot]] in Britain. By criticizing the Constitutionalist and Federalist traditions that had characterized American politics for a century, and showing their faults, Wilson sought to open a serious debate on the political changes in the United States in the intervening century and whether the Constitution remained an adequate regulator of these. By the time he wrote ''Constitutional Government in the United States'' (1908), Wilson was advocating the need for constitutional reform that would make Congress and president more representative and, above all, the need for a strong president who could influence Congress rather than submit to it. In ''Constitutional Government'', Wilson creates the idea that the Constitution is a [[Living and breathing constitution|living and breathing]] document.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=cgPc0rsBxSAC&pg=PR13 Woodrow Wilson and Harry Truman: Mission and Power in American Foreign Policy]</ref>

Wilson originated the notion that political parties, besides running campaigns, need to be responsible for clearly designed public policies, which they present to the electorate for approval. The key to responsibility was the presidency. Hegelian conceptions of monarchy strongly influenced Wilson, and his view of public opinion contrasted sharply with the Madisonian view of factionalism. Consequently, Wilson viewed parties as primarily the machinery through which strong leaders interpret and pursue the public will.<ref>Scot J. Zentner, "President and Party in the Thought of Woodrow Wilson," ''Presidential Studies Quarterly''; 1996 26(3): 666-677, [http://www.jstor.org/stable/27551624 in JSTOR]</ref>

====Public administration====
{{See also|The Study of Administration|Administrative State}}
Wilson was a founder of the study of public administration by political scientists. Wilson believed in a strong, active role for the central government and as president succeeded in establishing legislation that significantly enlarged its regulatory powers. With the publication of ''Congressional Government'' in 1885, Wilson established himself as a leader of the political reform movement of the day. The book was the first of its kind to analyze policymaking by the central government and to provide recommendations for changing the process. Wilson was one of the three most prominent public administrationists of the 1880s and 1890s. As an academician, he promoted a separate department for the study of public administration and wrote '[[The Study of Administration]]' (1887), the first published essay by a university scholar on the subject, established Wilson as the leading authority in the field.
[[Image:Edward House.jpg|thumb|150px|right|Edward House]]
During the next year he inaugurated a course in public administration at Johns Hopkins University, providing three 6-week lecture series arranged in a 3-year cycle. In 1889, Wilson published a textbook, ''The State,'' and, in 1891, he began at Hopkins a new 3-year course which was a further significant step in the development of the study of administration. He was one of the first scholars to realize fully that all government was ultimately to be administration.<ref>Richard J. Stillman, II, "Woodrow Wilson and the Study of Administration: A New Look at an Old Essay," ''American Political Science Review,'' Vol. 67, No. 2 (Jun., 1973), pp. 582-588 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1958787 in JSTOR]; Larry Walker, "Woodrow Wilson, Progressive Reform, and Public Administration," ''Political Science Quarterly'', Vol. 104, No. 3 (Autumn, 1989), pp. 509-525 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/2151276 in JSTOR]</ref>

=====Philip Dru=====
On November 16,<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=veeNBQAAQBAJ&pg=PR2-IA2|last1=Neu|first1=Charles|title=Colonel House: A Biography of Woodrow Wilson's Silent Partner|date=2014|publisher=[[Oxford University]] Press|isbn=978-0195045505|pages=i-ii}}</ref> 1912,<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mf2BMLaT4uMC&pg=PA398|last1=Levin|first1=Phyllis|title=Edith and Woodrow: The Wilson White House|date=2002|publisher=[[Simon and Schuster]]|isbn=978-0743211581|pages=398}}</ref> President-elect Wilson took a trip to Bermuda. For the trip, he was given a copy of [[Philip Dru: Administrator]]<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4jcL20ZS_KUC&pg=PA7|last1=Hodgson|first1=Godfrey|title=Woodrow Wilson's Right Hand: The Life of Colonel Edward M. House|date=2006|publisher=[[Yale University]]|isbn=978-0300137552|pages=7}}</ref> by his adviser [[Colonel House|Edward House]]<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=veeNBQAAQBAJ&pg=PR2-IA2|last1=Neu|first1=Charles|title=Colonel House: A Biography of Woodrow Wilson's Silent Partner|date=2014|publisher=[[Oxford University]] Press|isbn=978-0195045505|pages=78}}</ref> for his reading pleasure.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?ei=NjWJUOT7BY3o8QSPvoDIBQ&id=EUiVAAAAIAAJ&focus=searchwithinvolume&q=dru+bermuda|last1=Walworth|first1=Arthur|title=Woodrow Wilson|date=1965|publisher=[[Houghton Mifflin]] Company|work=[[Arthur Walworth]]|pages=288}}</ref> Describing the similarities between Woodrow Wilson and Philip Dru, [[Franklin Lane|Franklin K. Lane]], who served as [[Secretary of the Interior]] for seven years, made the following observations:
{{cquote|Colonel House's Book, Philip Dru, favors it, and all that book has said should be, comes about slowly, even woman suffrage. The President comes to Philip Dru in the end. And yet they say that House has no power....<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8mwoAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA297|last1=Lane|first1=Franklin|title=The Letters of Franklin K. Lane, Personal and Political|date=1922|publisher=[[Houghton Mifflin]] Company|pages=297}}</ref>}}

===Football===
Wilson as president of Princeton, and [[Theodore Roosevelt]] as president of the United States, took an intense interest in the controversy over the reform of college football. In the 1890s and early 1900s, college football faced sharp of criticism over injuries and the role of athletics in college life. Roosevelt and Wilson, loyal followers of Harvard and Princeton, had defended football in the 1890s. In the fall of 1905, however, President Roosevelt called a conference of football experts at the White House to discuss brutality and unsportsmanlike conduct. Thereafter, Roosevelt worked behind the scenes to bring about sufficient reform to preserve football and ensure that it would continue to be played at Harvard. In the years 1909-10, when college football again faced an injury crisis, Wilson worked with the presidents at Harvard and Yale to make reasonable reforms. Both Roosevelt's and Wilson's approaches were consistent with their strategies for national political change. In the years that followed the reforms on the gridiron, football evolved rapidly into the 'attractive' game that Wilson had advocated and a far less brutal game than the unruly spectacle that Roosevelt had tried to control.<ref>John S. Watterson, III, "Political Football: Theodore Roosevelt, Woodrow Wilson and the Gridiron Reform Movement," ''Presidential Studies Quarterly'' 1995 25(3): 555-564 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/27551467 in JSTOR]</ref>

===Southerner===
Wilson was the first southerner elected president since [[Zachary Taylor]] in 1848, and much of his political base came from young progressives in that region, especially intellectuals, editors and lawyers.<ref>Arthur S. Link, "Woodrow Wilson: The American as Southerner," ''Journal of Southern History,'' Vol. 36, No. 1 (Feb., 1970), pp. 3-17 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/2206599 in JSTOR] Andrew Johnson was not elected; he moved from vice president to president after Lincoln's death in 1865.</ref>

Many Civil War veterans were still alive and Wilson used the memory of the War to build nationalism and to facilitate reunion between the North and the South. In his academic work and public comments, Wilson stressed the theoretical and constitutional causes of the war, devaluing the slavery issue and stressing the moral equality of North and South, all in the interest of lessening sectional animosity. During World War I and the struggle for the League of Nations, Wilson frequently drew comparisons between Lincoln and the Union's sacrifices to save the nation and American soldiers' sacrifices during World War I to save the world. He succeeded in overcoming Southern isolationism by convincing the middle class in the region that God had preserved the Union in the Civil War in order to spread democracy throughout the world. He appealed to Southerners to demonstrate the patriotism that many said they lacked. He was able to convince them that they could wage war for democracy abroad without endangering white supremacy at home.<ref>Anthony Gaughan, "Woodrow Wilson and the Legacy of the Civil War," ''Civil War History'' 1997 43(3): 225-242; online in [[Questia]]; Gaughan, "Woodrow Wilson and the Rise of Militant Interventionism in the South," ''Journal of Southern History'' 1999 65(4): 771-808, [http://www.jstor.org/stable/2587587 in JSTOR]</ref>

Wilson despised post-Civil War Southern Reconstruction, which promoted African-American participation in public life. “The white men of the South,” he wrote in his History of America, “were aroused by the mere instinct of self-preservation to rid themselves, by fair means or foul, of the intolerable burden of governments sustained by the votes of ignorant Negroes and conducted in the interest of adventurers.” As president, Wilson resegregated the federal government.

Wilson drew on Southern conservatism in the development of his political philosophy and identity as a politician from the 1890s to 1921. While Wilson forged a Progressive reformist outlook that encompassed limited government intervention in social and economic matters, he embraced a conservative, organic conception of social change drawn partially from the thought of Edmund Burke and partially from a mythical vision of the Old South as a model of social stability and integration. Deeply alarmed by labor and agrarian radicalism in the 1890s, Wilson resolved to cleanse the Democratic Party of Populist influence. His political vision ultimately sought to adapt American society to the new economic conditions of the 20th century, chiefly defined by the magnification of corporate power, while retaining the race and class hierarchies of tradition. Wilson's vision of Southern conservatism as a regenerative force set the precedent for the conservative ideology that dominated American politics since the 1980s.<ref>Michael Dennis, "Woodrow Wilson and Southern Reform Conservatism," ''Southern Studies: An Interdisciplinary Journal of the South'' 2006 13(3-4): 1-28.</ref>

==Reform governor==
[[File:Woodrow Wilson, New Jersey Governor - 1911.jpg|thumb|140px|Governor Wilson]]
As early as 1906 Wilson came under the influence of Colonel George Harvey (1864-1928), a conservative Democrat who owned a publishing empire that included the ''New York World'' and ''Harper's Weekly'' magazine, reaching the nation's intellectual elite. Harvey, with close ties to Wall Street and [[J. P. Morgan]], saw a future conservative president and promoted Wilson heavily. Wilson became the intellectual leader of the anti-Bryan, anti-Populist wing of the Democratic Party. Harvey helped convince the old-fashioned bosses in New Jersey's cities to make Wilson the Democratic nominee for governor in 1910, explaining this would bring in the middle class vote. Wilson, frustrated at Princeton, made the move and was elected. Wilson then broke with the bosses, and Harvey, denounced Wall Street and the bosses, and electrified the nation with his Progressive reforms in the notoriously corrupt government of New Jersey. Wilson by 1912 had emerged as the cleanest, most religious, best known and most dynamic leader of the [[Progressive Movement]] in the Democratic Party.

George Harvey was the first person to recommend Wilson for the presidency.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=Nb54xQLT6yQC&pg=PA134 Presidential Power: Unchecked and Unbalanced]</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=hpwDAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA178 The Power of Tolerance: And Other Speeches], by George Brinton McClellan Harvey, pp. 174-178, ''For President: Woodrow Wilson'', February 3rd, 1906</ref>

==Election of 1912==
William Frank McCombs, a New York lawyer and a friend from college days, instigated and managed Wilson's campaign for president in 1912. Much of Wilson's support came from the South, especially from young progressive professionals. Wilson managed to maneuver through the complexities of local politics. For example, in Tennessee the Democratic Party was divided on the issue of prohibition. Wilson was progressive and sober, but not a dry, and appealed to both sides. They united behind him to win the presidential election in the state, but divided over state politics and lost the gubernatorial election.<ref>Arthur S. S. Link, "Democratic Politics and the Presidential Campaign of 1912 in Tennessee," ''East Tennessee Historical Society's Publications'' 1979 51: 114-137</ref>

At the convention deadlock went on for over 40 ballots as a two-thirds vote was needed. A leading opponent was House Speaker [[Champ Clark]], a prominent progressive strongest in the border states. Other contenders were Judson Harmon of Ohio, and Oscar Underwood of Alabama. They lacked Wilson's charisma and dynamism. Clark was supported by publisher [[William Randolph Hearst]], a leader of the left-wing of the party. The critical role was played by [[William Jennings Bryan]], the nominee in 1896, 1900 and 1908, who blocked the nomination of any candidate who had the support of 'the financiers of Wall Street.' He finally announced for Wilson, who won on the 46th.<ref>Arthur S. Link, "The Baltimore Convention of 1912," ''American Historical Review'' 1945 50(4): 691-713 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1842698 in JSTOR]</ref>

Many historians believe that Wilson’s election was a defining moment in American history. The former political science professor’s views on government and human nature (and our relationship to the state) became the foundations of Democratic Party liberalism. Historians also agree that Wilson had a dark side. He had a strong dislike of immigrants, particularly Catholics and African-Americans.

Wilson enjoyed the support of many black leaders including [[W.E.B. DuBois]] (a liberal at the time). Wilson's speeches and letters expressed the sentiments of a defender of the underprivileged. However the rejoicing over Wilson's victory was short-lived among blacks as segregationist white Southerners took control of Congress and many executive departments.<ref>Nancy J. Weiss, "The Negro and the New Freedom: Fighting Wilsonian Segregation," ''Political Science Quarterly'' 1969 84(1): 61-79, [http://www.jstor.org/stable/2147047 in JSTOR]</ref>

In the campaign Wilson promoted the "New Freedom," emphasizing limited federal government and opposition to monopoly powers—positions that he reversed on coming to office.

President [[William Howard Taft]] defeated ex-President [[Theodore Roosevelt]] in a bitter contest for the Republican nomination, but Roosevelt walked out of the Republican convention and ran as a third party candidate. Wilson's success in the electoral college was assured, despite his 41.8% of the popular vote.<ref>Lewis L. Gould, ''Four Hats in the Ring: The 1912 Election and the Birth of Modern American Politics,'' (2008); Link (1947)</ref>

==President: 1913-21==
===First term===
====Domestic policy====
[[File:Ww-prog.jpg|thumb|580px|left]]
=====Immigration=====
Wilson twice vetoed the Burnett Immigration Restriction Bill, which required a literacy test for immigrants and would have sharply reduced the number of poor immigrants from Poland, Italy and other parts of eastern and southern Europe. As a moderate progressive, Wilson believed southern and eastern European immigrants, though often poor and illiterate, to be capable of assimilation into a homogeneous middle class with other whites. He considered so-called hyphenated immigrants unacceptable because they acted as groups rather than blending into the common population. Indeed, he denounced the hyphenates. Wilson sought to achieve American strength through unity, blending together the best characteristics of every nationality to create the ideal citizenry, opposing [[Henry Cabot Lodge]]'s nativist view that American civilization must be based on an Anglo-Saxon foundation. Immigration from Europe practically ended when the war began, so the issue was postponed ino the 1920s, when a quota system was set up to keep the country's ethnic balance unchanged.<ref>Hans Vought, . Division and Reunion: Woodrow Wilson, Immigration, and the Myth of American Unity. Journal of American Ethnic History; 1994 13(3): 24-50.</ref>

====Foreign Policy====
=====Mexico=====
The extremely violent civil war that broke out in Mexico in 1911 drove hundreds of thousands of refugees north across the border, and forced Wilson to intervene. [[Francisco Madero]], an idealistic reformer who came to power in 1911. Madero tried to violently upend the social order in Mexico by destroying the landed aristocracy and the Catholic Church. When Madero was overthrown and murdered by [[Victoriano Huerta]] in February 1913, days before Wilson took office, he refused to recognize the new Mexican government. Relations deteriorated between the two countries. After American sailors were arrested in Tampico in April 1914 by Huerta's soldiers, the armed conflict loomed. American soldiers occupied Vera Cruz. In July 1914 Huerta fled to Spain. In 1916 the civil war between warlords [[Venustiano Carranza]] and [[Pancho Villa]] continued, and in March Villa raided Columbus, New Mexico, killing 20 Americans.<ref>James A. Sandos, "Pancho Villa and American Security: Woodrow Wilson's Mexican Diplomacy Reconsidered," ''Journal of Latin American Studies,'' Vol. 13, No. 2 (Nov., 1981), pp. 293-311 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/156072 in JSTOR]</ref> Wilson sent Brigadier General [[John J. Pershing]] deep into Mexico to capture Villa. Villa escaped the Americans. Despite the demands of outraged senators, Wilson did not declare war on Mexico. He ran for reelection in 1916 on the slogan, "He kept us out of war," meaning out of a war with Mexico.

====Reelection====
[[File:WW-WIN16.jpg|thumb|400px]]
====Woman suffrage====
In the 1910s, suffragists campaigned for the passage of a federal constitutional amendment that would grant women the right to vote. They argued it would purify politics because the new voters would be far less liable to corruption and saloon influences. The movement was led by Protestant northern women, many of whom were active in the prohibition movement at the same time. Wilson, originally opposed to the amendment, was converted through the efforts of women suffragists and became an advocate of critical importance. Both the National American Woman Suffrage Association (NWSA) and the National Women's Party (NWP) used symbolic representations of President Wilson, conferring on him real or symbolic images of presidential power. In practice Wilson hedged, realizing that male Democrats in the big city machines in the North and in the rural South were hostile to woman suffrage. The meaning of democracy was at issue: the NWP portrayed Wilson as a tyrant, the NAWSA depicted him as a champion of freedom. Both organizations played essential roles in the passage of the 19th Amendment. After 1919, the absence of a common goal was a contributing factor to the subsequent divisions within the woman's rights movement, as was the loss of a unique adversary.<ref>Christine A. Lunardini, and Thomas J. Knock, Woodrow Wilson and Woman Suffrage: A New Look. Political Science Quarterly; 1980-1981 95(4): 655-671, [http://www.jstor.org/stable/2150609 in JSTOR]</ref>

===Second term===

===Entering the war===
====Domestic policy====
Wilson established the [[Committee on Public Information]] to disseminate approved information, and nationalized the railroads under the control of the [[United States Railroad Administration]].
====Foreign Policy====
====Russia====
Wilson's commitment to the principle of self-determination affected his decision to intervene in Russia in 1918, as the Bolsheviks (Communists) took power. Unswayed by British, French, and Japanese pressure, Wilson insisted that, unless the Russians invited them, the Allies should not interfere with Russia's internal affairs. In the summer of 1918, the president sent American troops into Siberia with the sole purpose of protecting Czechoslovak soldiers who had broken out of POW camps and were an independent force. Later Wilson realized that the other Allied nations were using the rescue mission as an 'anti-Bolshevik' crusade and for imperialistic motives. As a result, the president ordered US forces to withdraw. Wilson and subsequent presidents until 1933 refused to recognize the new Communist government, and Russia was not invited to the Paris Peace Conference.<ref>Betty Miller Unterberger, "Woodrow Wilson and the Bolsheviks: the 'Acid Test' of Soviet-American Relations," ''Diplomatic History'' 1987 11(2): 71-90,</ref>
====Mideast====
In November 1917, Wilson endorsed the [[Zionism|pro-Zionist]] [[Balfour Declaration]] issued by Britain. Wilson's aims in this endorsement were both practical and religious. His deep Christian sentiment led him to seek 'a direct governing role in the Near East in the name of peace, democracy and, especially, Christianity. By agreeing to the use of the mandate system by which the transition governments of the Middle East were partially controlled by Britain and France after the war, Wilson was both contradicting and reaffirming his own ideals by allowing only limited self-determination of Middle-Eastern peoples while assuring some respect for property and order.<ref>Frank W. Brecher, Woodrow Wilson and the Origins of the Arab-Israeli Conflict. American Jewish Archives; 1987 39(1): 23-47,</ref>

====Paris Peace Conference, 1919====
President Wilson was present at the Post-World War I Paris Peace Conference, becoming the first President to ever visit Europe whilst in Office.

When President Wilson left for Europe in 1919 to establish a new world order at the 1919 Versailles Conference, European Catholics were justifiably concerned about the treatment their former homelands would receive from the victorious allies. Along with Prime Ministers David Lloyd George of the United Kingdom and Georges Clemenceau of France, the three were collectively known as the Big Three and met and discussed the peace treaties that would shape post-war Europe. President Wilson pushed for terms that were not too harsh on the already war-crippled Germany, though the British and French leaders pushed for the infamous 'War Guilt Clause' that declared Germany guilty of the war and forced her to pay harsh reparations. To save his League of Nations, Wilson abandoned his mighty rhetoric and ideals at Versailles and managed to alienate almost every Catholic by surrendering to the demands of the vengeful leaders of the victorious allies. He planted the seeds of World War II when he rearranged the boundaries of Eastern Europe without regard for the ethnic or religious origins of millions of people.

Wilson particularly pushed for the League of Nations to be created, a precursor to today's United Nations.

=====Fight for the League=====
After the Paris Peace conference, Wilson came home to try to convince the Senate to ratify the treaty which would create the League. But on September 26, 1919, Wilson came home from a series of speeches he was making around the country, because of a series of strokes he had suffered which left him debilitated.<ref>[http://archive.wilsonquarterly.com/essays/hidden-agony-woodrow-wilson The Hidden Agony of Woodrow Wilson]</ref>

In 1920, during the time period of which Wilson was incapacitated, Wilson's wife Edith allowed for [[Louis Seibold]] of the New York World to conduct an interview with Wilson. Seibold, along with Edith Wilson and Wilson's Chief of Staff Joseph Patrick Tumulty, produced a fabricated interview for which Seibold won a [[Pulitzer Prize]] in 1921.<ref>[http://www.politico.com/story/2012/07/10-journos-caught-fabricating-079221 10 journos caught fabricating], [[Politico]]</ref>

===After the war===
After the conclusion of [[World War I]] and the closing year of the Wilson presidency, there was a sharp [[Depression of 1920|depression]], which many historians have decided not to write about.

==Wilson and religion==
A Presbyterian of deep religious faith, he appealed to a gospel of service and infused a profound sense of moralism into Wilsonianism.<ref>John Morton Blum, ''Woodrow Wilson and the Politics of Morality'' (1956); Richard M. Gamble, "Savior Nation: Woodrow Wilson and the Gospel of Service," ''Humanitas'' Volume: 14. Issue: 1. 2001. pp 4+; Cooper, ''Woodrow Wilson'' (2009) p 560.</ref>

Link finds that Wilson from his earliest days had imbibed the beliefs of his denomination - in the omnipotence of God, the morality of the Universe, a system of rewards and punishments and the notion that nations, as well as man, transgressed the laws of God at their peril.<ref>Arthur S. Link, "A Portrait of Wilson," ''Virginia Quarterly Review''1956 32(4): 524-541</ref> Blum (1956) argues that he learned from [[William Gladstone]] a mystic conviction in the superiority of Anglo-Saxons, in their righteous duty to make the world over in their image. Moral principle, constitutionalism, and faith in God were among the prerequisites for alleviating human strife. While he interpreted international law within such a brittle, moral cast, Wilson remained remarkably insensitive to new and changing social forces and conditions of the 20th century. He expected too much justice in a morally brutal world which disregarded the self-righteous resolutions of parliaments and statesmen like himself. Wilson's triumph was as a teacher of international morality to generations yet unborn.<ref>John Morton Blum, ''Woodrow Wilson and the Politics of Morality'' (1956), p p10, 197-99</ref> [[Daniel Patrick Moynihan]] sees Wilson's vision of world order anticipated humanity prevailing through the "Holy Ghost of Reason," a vision which rested on religious faith.<ref>David Steigerwald, ''Wilsonian Idealism in America'' (1994) p. 230.</ref>

Wilson was a Presbyterian elder and the son of a leading theologian. He read the Bible daily; he felt 'sorry for the men who do not read the Bible every day.' The Bible, he argued, was 'the one supreme source of revelation of the meaning of life.' Wilson was prone to make explicitly Christian claims about his nation, even excluding the word ''Judeo'' from his characterization of the nation's religious heritage. 'America was born a Christian nation,' he explained in a speech on "The Bible and Progress" in 1911:
"America was born to exemplify that devotion to the elements of righteousness which derived from the revelations of Holy Scripture."<ref>Arthur S. Link, ed. ''The Papers of Woodrow Wilson'' (1977) 23:20, speech on the Bible, in Denver May 7, 1911</ref>

He held that the Bible "is the one supreme source of revelation, the revelation of the meaning of life, of the nature of God and the spiritual nature and need of men. It is the only guide of life which really leads the spirit in the way of peace and salvation."<ref>Josephus Daniels, ''The Life of Woodrow Wilson 1856-1924'' (1924) p. 359</ref>

God was central in Wilson's life and thought. His profound Presbyterian style of thinking assured him that he was following God's guidance. Wilson personified American optimism and considered the United States a Christian nation destined to lead the world. He was a prophet and a postmillenarian, and if idealism clashed with reality, he was certain idealism would prevail. He saw himself as God's messenger and statesman in a divinely predestined nation; thus he saw himself as God's agent in promoting democracy and world peace. His Fourteen Points and his Covenant of the League of Nations, were, in his view, divinely inspired paths to achieving a new world order.<ref>Malcolm D. Magee, '' What the World Should Be: Woodrow Wilson and the Crafting of a Faith-Based Foreign Policy'' (2008)</ref>

===Anti-Catholic===

Throughout his presidency Wilson had rocky relations with Roman Catholics. When Wilson recognized the Mexican government of President Venustiano Carranza, many Catholics were livid. The Catholic hierarchy forcefully complained that the United States should not support a government that restricted the public practice of Catholicism. The Jesuit magazine America condemned Wilson and described Carranza “as a villain, destroyer, liar and murderer.”

Wilson objected to the new wave of Catholic immigrants coming through the gates of Ellis Island. He wrote that there was “an alteration in stock which students of affairs marked with an uneasiness.” The sturdy European stocks, according to Wilson, were being replaced by “men of the lowest class from the south of Italy and men of the meaner sort out of Hungary and Poland, men out of the ranks where there was neither skill nor energy nor any initiative of quick intelligence.”

During the 1912 campaign, the American Association of Foreign Language newspapers struck a blow at Wilson: “No man who has an iron heart like Woodrow Wilson, and who slanders his fellowmen, because they are poor and many of them without friends when they come to this country seeking honest work and wishing to become good citizens, is fit to be President of the United States.”

These charges appeared to have had an effect. A poll of 2,300 Catholic priests in major inner-city Catholic strongholds revealed that 90 percent of the Italian and 70 percent of Polish priests intended to vote for Bull Moose candidate Theodore Roosevelt.

===China policy===
Wilson’s discussions with Presbyterian missionaries visiting Princeton shaped his diplomacy toward [[History of China|China]]. Wilson viewed Christianity as a unifying force in the world and the Chinese Revolution of 1911 as the first step toward the spread of Christianity and democracy for China. Wilson gained the admiration of the missionaries and Chinese when he prohibited US participation in a European loan to China. He moved to recognize the government of Yuan Shih-k'ai, hoping that that regime could bring stability to China favorable to the introduction of Christianity. He sought to appoint an ambassador to China who could express Christian values. During World War I, missionaries successfully urged Wilson's opposition to Japanese demands on China. Although the war and its aftermath diverted Wilson from Chinese problems, his foreign policy continued to be influenced by missionaries, particularly Dr. Samuel I. Woodbridge and the Reverend Charles E. Scott.<ref>Eugene P. Trani, "Woodrow Wilson, China, and the Missionaries, 1913-1921," ''Journal of Presbyterian History'' 1971 49(4): 328-351,</ref>

==Democracy==
''Also see Woodrow Wilson's lasting impact on the [[U.S. Constitution]]: [[Seventeenth Amendment]]''

Wilson argued for a “[[Living Constitution]]” that “must be Darwinian in structure and in practice.” Government for him was “not a machine but a living thing. . . .It is modified by its environment, necessitated by its task, shaped to its functions by the sheer pressure of life.” He noted that the Framers "followed Newton" as they created the Constitution, making a comparison to planets in orbit around the sun. Interestingly enough, the Framers used that same analogy during the [[Constitutional Convention]].<ref>[http://avalon.law.yale.edu/18th_century/debates_607.asp Madison Debates, June 7]</ref><ref>[http://avalon.law.yale.edu/18th_century/debates_608.asp Madison Debates, June 8]</ref>

Wilson believed that the citizen must “marry his interests to the state.” Wilson, therefore, dismissed the Declaration’s assertion that rights are endowed by our Creator. Wilson lectured that, “If you want to understand the real Declaration of Independence, do not repeat the preface.” “The rhetorical introduction,” he declared, “is the least part of it.”

Wilson also rejected the premise described in the [[Federalist Papers]], that checks and balances are needed because human nature is flawed and does not improve. He viewed the entire premise as outdated and a relic of a prior age, noting that "though they were written to influence only the voters of 1788, still, with a strange, persistent longevity of power, shape the constitutional criticism of the present day, obscuring much of that development of constitutional practice which has since taken place."<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=r5IYAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA9 Congressional Government: A Study in American Politics], p. 9</ref>

Political philosopher Ronald Pestritto has observed that for Wilson, “the separation of powers, and all other institutional remedies that the founders employed against the danger of faction stood in the way of government’s exercising its powers in accord with the dictates of progress.”

Wilson advocated a new international order founded on self-determination, democracy, unfettered international commerce, and a worldwide organization of states - the League of Nations. Wilson framed American participation in the war as the first step in ending all wars. Although 'Wilsonian nationalism' has been blamed for the nationalistic emphasis on race and territory in Europe during the 1920s and 1930s, Wilson's policies had actually used ethnic and territorial issues to encourage self-determination and the development of democracy in postwar nations.

Woodrow Wilson's most lasting political philosophy was his view that [[democracy]] should be installed around the world. As a major player in setting the terms to end World War I, he helped to break up the [[Austria-Hungary|Austrian-Hungarian Empire]] to advance his goal of installing democracy for each ethnic subpopulation. Similar independence was granted with the breakup of the [[Ottoman Empire]]. Many of these new nations were receiving self-determination for the first time in centuries. Wilson's view of installing democracy worldwide has since been copied by the [[neoconservatives]]. Wilson was awarded the 1919 [[Nobel Peace Prize]] for his efforts to start the [[League of Nations]].

==Historiography==
Historians have been fascinated by Wilson and have vigorously defended him (Link) or attacked him (New Left). Since the collapse of the Communism in Europe in 1989, the mood had shifted in Wilson's favor. Even [[George Kennan]], a harsh critic who favored "realism" against Wilson's idealism. has changed his tune. The New Left attacks represented by Lloyd Gardner's highly critical ''A Covenant with Power'' have given way to Thomas Knock's laudatory ''To End All Wars''. The leftist tendency to trace back to Wilson a tradition of economic self-seeking and arrogant interventionism has yielded to a new impulse to see Wilsonian diplomacy as having established "a new American agenda for world affairs," as Akira Iriye writes, built upon "the ideas of economic interdependence and of peaceful settlement of disputes."<ref>see Steigerwald,(1999)</ref>

In recent years, a new generation of conservative historians highly focused on the roots of Progressivism, have become intensely critical of Wilson due to his key position in the early years progressive ideology.<ref>[https://online.hillsdale.edu/document.doc?id=318 Woodrow Wilson and the Rejection of the Founders’ Constitution]</ref><ref>[http://www.slate.com/articles/news_and_politics/history_lesson/2010/10/hating_woodrow_wilson.html Hating Woodrow Wilson; The new and confused attacks on progressivism], What the new Woodrow Wilson haters don't understand</ref><ref>[http://www.theamericanconservative.com/repository/the-mystery-of-woodrow-wilson12/ The Mystery of Woodrow Wilson]</ref><ref>[http://www.heritage.org/political-process/report/woodrow-wilson-godfather-liberalism Woodrow Wilson: Godfather of Liberalism]</ref>

==Works==
Books:
* [https://archive.org/details/congressionalgov00wilsiala Congressional Government], (1885)
* [https://archive.org/details/wilsongeorge00wilsrich George Washington], (1896)
* [https://archive.org/details/onbeinghuman01wils On Being Human], (1897)
* [https://archive.org/details/stateelementshi09wilsgoog The State: Elements of Historical and Practical Politics], (1898)
* A History of the American People, (1902, five volumes)
* [https://archive.org/details/constitutionalg00wilsgoog Constitutional Government in the United States], (1908)
* The New Freedom, (1913)
* When A Man Comes To Himself, (1915)

Essays:
* [[The Study of Administration]], (1887)
* Leaders of Men, (1890)

==Quotes==
* "If America is not to have free enterprise, then she can have freedom of no sort whatever."<ref>James A. Henretta, "Whose Government? Politics, Populists and Progressives, 1880-1917." In America: A Concise History, Volume Two: Since 1865, Volume 2, p. 622</ref>
* "Liberty has never come from Government. Liberty has always come from the subjects of it. The history of liberty is a history of limitations of governmental power, not the increase of it."<ref>Speech at New York Press Club (9 September 1912), in The papers of Woodrow Wilson, 25:124</ref>
* "We are in these latter days apt to be very impatient of literal and dogmatic interpretations of constitutional principle."<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=gh9AAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA59 Constitutional Government in the United States]</ref>
*"Any man who can survive by his brains, any man who can put the others out of the business by making the thing cheaper to the consumer at the same time that he is increasing its intrinsic value and quality, I take off my hat to, and I say: 'You are the man who can build up the United States, and I wish there were more of you.'"

==See also==
* [[Administrative State]]
* [[Colonel House]]

==Bibliography==
===Biography===
* Brands, H. W. ''Woodrow Wilson 1913-1921'' (2003) [http://www.amazon.com/Woodrow-Wilson-H-W-Brands/dp/0805069550/ref=sr_1_4?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1259210644&sr=1-4 excerpt and text search] 169pp; good short summary by scholar [[File:Ww-stamp.jpg|thumb|180px|left]]
* Cooper, John Milton. ''Woodrow Wilson: A Biography'' (2009), 720 pp. major new biography by leading scholar
* Cooper, John Milton. ''The Warrior and the Priest: Woodrow Wilson and Theodore Roosevelt'' (1985), fascinating double biography by leading scholar [http://www.amazon.com/Warrior-Priest-Woodrow-Theodore-Roosevelt/dp/0674947517/ref=sr_1_2?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1259210893&sr=1-2 excerpt and text search]
* Hofstadter, Richard. "Woodrow Wilson: The Conservative as Liberal" in ''The American Political Tradition'' (1948), ch. 10. influential essay; at [http://humanitiesebook.org/ ACLS E-books]
* Link, Arthur S. "Woodrow Wilson" in Henry F. Graff ed., ''The Presidents: A Reference History '' (2002) pp 365–388
* Link, Arthur Stanley. ''Wilson: The Road to the White House'' (1947), first volume of standard biography (to 1917); ''Wilson: The New Freedom'' (1956); ''Wilson: The Struggle for Neutrality: 1914-1915'' (1960); ''Wilson: Confusions and Crises: 1915-1916'' (1964); ''Wilson: Campaigns for Progressivism and Peace: 1916-1917'' (1965), the last volume of standard biography; [http://humanitiesebook.org/ online at ACLS E-Books]
* Maynard, W. Barksdale. ''Woodrow Wilson: Princeton to the Presidency'' (2008) [http://www.amazon.com/Woodrow-Wilson-Prof-Barksdale-Maynard/dp/0300136048/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1259267777&sr=1-1 excerpt and text search]
* Walworth, Arthur. ''Woodrow Wilson'' 2 Vol. (1958); Pulitzer prize winning biography [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=24215014 vol 1 online]; well-written but old-fashioned (it was written in the 1950s), it has been replaced by Cooper (2009).

===Domestic affairs and ideas===
[[File:$100k.jpg|250px|thumb|Wilson's image appeared on the now-withdrawn $100,000 bill]]
* Abrams, Richard M. "Woodrow Wilson and the Southern Congressmen, 1913-1916," ''Journal of Southern History,'' Vol. 22, No. 4 (Nov., 1956), pp. 417–437 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/2954640 in JSTOR]
* Clements, Kendrick A. ''The Presidency of Woodrow Wilson'' (1992), covers domestic and foreign policies; liberal tone
* Cooper, John Milton. ''Woodrow Wilson: A Biography'' (2009), 720 pp.
* Cuff, Robert D. "Woodrow Wilson and Business-Government Relations during World War I," ''Review of Politics,'' Vol. 31, No. 3 (Jul., 1969), pp. 385–407 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1406552 in JSTOR]
* Curti, Merle. "Woodrow Wilson's Concept of Human Nature," ''Midwest Journal of Political Science,'' Vol. 1, No. 1 (May, 1957), pp. 1–19 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/2109008 in JSTOR]
* Daniel, Marjorie L. "Woodrow Wilson--Historian," ''Mississippi Valley Historical Review,'' Vol. 21, No. 3 (Dec., 1934), pp. 361–374 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1897380 in JSTOR]
* Dimock, Marshall E. "Woodrow Wilson as Legislative Leader," ''The Journal of Politics,'' Vol. 19, No. 1 (Feb., 1957), pp. 3–19 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/2127283 in JSTOR]
* Link, Arthur S. ''Woodrow Wilson and the Progressive Era, 1910-1917'' (1954), remains the standard history of his first term.
* Link, Arthur S. "Woodrow Wilson: The American as Southerner," ''Journal of Southern History,'' Vol. 36, No. 1 (Feb., 1970), pp. 3–17 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/2206599 in JSTOR]
* Link, Arthur S. "Woodrow Wilson and the Democratic Party," ''Review of Politics'', Vol. 18, No. 2 (Apr., 1956), pp. 146–156 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1405064 in JSTOR] cover 1913-14
* Livermore, Seward W. ''Woodrow Wilson and the War Congress, 1916-1918'' (1966)
* Macmahon, Arthur W. "Woodrow Wilson as Legislative Leader and Administrator," ''American Political Science Review,'' Vol. 50, No. 3 (Sep., 1956), pp. 641–675 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1951550 in JSTOR]
* Malin, James C. [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=5260560 ''The United States after the World War'' ] (1930)
* Pestritto, Ronald J. ed. ''Woodrow Wilson and the roots of modern liberalism'' (2005) ISBN 0742515176' argues Wilson subverted the ideas of the Founders by his progressivism
* Pietrusza, David ''1920: The Year of the Six President''s New York: Carroll & Graf, 2007.
* Saunders, Robert M. ''In Search of Woodrow Wilson: Beliefs and Behavior'' (1998)
* Turner, Henry A. "Woodrow Wilson and Public Opinion," ''Public Opinion Quarterly,'' Vol. 21, No. 4 (Winter, 1957-1958), pp. 505–520 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/2746762 in JSTOR]
* Wolgemuth, Kathleen L. "Woodrow Wilson and Federal Segregation," ''The Journal of Negro History,'' Vol. 44, No. 2 (Apr., 1959), pp. 158–173 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/2716036 in JSTOR]
* Weinstein, Edwin A., James William Anderson and Arthur S. Link. "Woodrow Wilson's Political Personality: A Reappraisal," ''Political Science Quarterly,'' Vol. 93, No. 4 (Winter, 1978-1979), pp. 585–598 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/2150104 at JSTOR]
* Wolfe, Christopher. "Woodrow Wilson: Interpreting the Constitution," ''Review of Politics,'' Vol. 41, No. 1 (Jan., 1979), pp. 121–142 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1406981 in JSTOR]
* Woodward, Carl R. "Woodrow Wilson's Agricultural Philosophy," ''Agricultural History,'' Vol. 14, No. 4 (Oct., 1940), pp. 129–142 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/3739508 in JSTOR]

===Foreign policy===
* Ambrosius, Lloyd E., “Woodrow Wilson and George W. Bush: Historical Comparisons of Ends and Means in Their Foreign Policies,” ''Diplomatic History'', 30 (June 2006), 509–43.[[File:Ww-war-1917.jpg|thumb|350px]]
* Bailey; Thomas A. ''Wilson and the Peacemakers: Combining Woodrow Wilson and the Lost Peace and Woodrow Wilson and the Great Betrayal'' (1947)
* Clements, Kendrick, A. ''Woodrow Wilson: World Statesman'' (1999)
* Clements, Kendrick A. ''The Presidency of Woodrow Wilson'' (1992), covers foreign policy
* Clements, Kendrick A. "Woodrow Wilson and World War I," ''Presidential Studies Quarterly'' 34:1 (2004). pp 62+.
* Cooper, John Milton. ''Woodrow Wilson: A Biography'' (2009), 720 pp.
* Davis, Donald E. and Eugene P. Trani; [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=109328821 ''The First Cold War: The Legacy of Woodrow Wilson in U.S.-Soviet Relations''] (2002)
* Greene, Theodore P. ed. ''Wilson at Versailles'' (1957)
* Henderson, Peter V. N. "Woodrow Wilson, Victoriano Huerta, and the Recognition Issue in Mexico," ''The Americas'', Vol. 41, No. 2 (Oct., 1984), pp. 151–176 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1007454 in JSTOR]
* Knock, Thomas J. ''To End All Wars: Woodrow Wilson and the Quest for a New World Order'' (1995)
* Kimitada, Miwa. "Japanese Opinions on Woodrow Wilson in War and Peace," ''Monumenta Nipponica,'' Vol. 22, No. 3/4 (1967), pp. 368–389 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/2383073 in JSTOR]
* Levin, Jr., N. Gordon ''Woodrow Wilson and World Politics: America's Response to War and Revolution'' (1968)
* Link, Arthur Stanley. ''Woodrow Wilson and the Progressive Era, 1910-1917'' (1972) summarizes diplomatic history
* Link, Arthur S.; ''Wilson the Diplomatist: A Look at His Major Foreign Policies'' (1957)
* Link, Arthur S.; ''Woodrow Wilson and a Revolutionary World, 1913-1921'' (1982)
* Magee, Malcolm D. '' What the World Should Be: Woodrow Wilson and the Crafting of a Faith-Based Foreign Policy'' (2008) [http://www.amazon.com/What-World-Should-Be-Faith-based/dp/1602580707/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1259268113&sr=1-1 excerpt and text search]
* May, Ernest R. ''The World War and American Isolation, 1914-1917'' (1959)
* Trani, Eugene P. “Woodrow Wilson and the Decision to Intervene in Russia: A Reconsideration.” ''Journal of Modern History'' (1976). 48:440—61. [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1878747 in JSTOR]
* Walworth, Arthur. ''Wilson and His Peacemakers: American Diplomacy at the Paris Peace Conference, 1919'' [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=104399613 online edition]

===Historiography===
[[File:Ww-cooper.jpg|thumb|280px]]
* Clements, Kendrick A. "The Papers of Woodrow Wilson and the Interpretation of the Wilson Era", ''The History Teacher,'' Vol. 27, No. 4 (Aug., 1994), pp. 475–489 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/494510 in JSTOR]
* Seltzer, Alan L. "Woodrow Wilson as 'Corporate-Liberal': Toward a Reconsideration of Left Revisionist Historiography," ''Western Political Quarterly,'' Vol. 30, No. 2 (Jun., 1977), pp. 183–212 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/447405 in JSTOR]
* Steigerwald, David. The Reclamation of Woodrow Wilson? Diplomatic History; 1999 23(1): 79-99, on foreign policy in [[EBSCO]]; notes that New Left revisionism (by William Appleman Williams and N. Gordon Levin, Jr.) claiming that Wilson's Open Door was a facade for the imperialistic extension of American economic advantage, has faded away
* Watson, Jr., Richard L. "Woodrow Wilson and His Interpreters, 1947-1957," ''Mississippi Valley Historical Review,'' Vol. 44, No. 2 (Sep., 1957), pp. 207–236 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1887188 in JSTOR], summarizes different interpretations as of 1957
* [http://www.millercenter.virginia.edu/index.php/academic/americanpresident/wilson Extensive essay on Woodrow Wilson and shorter essays on each member of his cabinet and First Lady from the Miller Center of Public Affairs]

==Primary sources==
* Pestritto, Ronald J. ed. ''Woodrow Wilson: The Essential Political Writings'' (2005)
* Link, Arthur S., ed. [http://www.pupress.princeton.edu/catalogs/series/pw.html ''The Papers of Woodrow Wilson'' complete in 69 vol, at major academic libraries. Annotated edition of all of WW's letters, speeches and writings plus many letters written to him]
* Tumulty, Joseph P. ''Woodrow Wilson as I Know Him '' (1921) memoir by chief of staff [http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/etext05/8wwik10.txt online edition]
* Wilson, Woodrow. ''The New Freedom'' (1913) 1912 campaign speeches [http://books.google.com/books?id=MW8SAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=inauthor:woodrow+inauthor:wilson&lr=&as_brr=1 online edition]
* [http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/etext04/whwar10h.htm Wilson, Woodrow. ''Why We Are at War'' (1917)] six war messages to Congress, Jan- April 1917
* Wilson, Woodrow. ''Selected Literary & Political Papers & Addresses of Woodrow Wilson'' (3 vol 1918 and later editions)
* Wilson, Woodrow. ''Messages & Papers of Woodrow Wilson'' 2 vol (ISBN 1-135-19812-8)
* Wilson, Woodrow. ''The New Democracy. Presidential Messages, Addresses, and Other Papers (1913-1917)'' 2 vol 1926 (ISBN 0-89875-775-4)
* Wilson, Woodrow. [http://www.usa-presidents.info/speeches/fourteen-points.html ''President Woodrow Wilson's Fourteen Points (1918)''].
* [http://books.google.com/books?as_q=&num=10&btnG=Google+Search&as_epq=&as_oq=&as_eq=&as_brr=1&lr=&as_vt=&as_auth=woodrow+wilson&as_pub=&as_sub=&as_drrb=c&as_miny=&as_maxy=&as_isbn= full text of Wilson books and messages online]

==References==
{{reflist|3}}

==External links==
* [http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/peace/laureates/1919/wilson-bio.html Nobel Prize biography]
* [http://www.nationalreview.com/articles/345274/progressive-racism-paul-rahe Progressive Racism]
* [https://librivox.org/author/2417 Works by Woodrow Wilson - text and free audio] - [[LibriVox]]

{{USPresidents}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Wilson, Woodrow}}

[[Category:Presidents of the United States]]
[[Category:Nobel laureates in Peace]]
[[Category:Children of Clergy]]
[[Category:Progressive Era]]
[[Category:Historians]]
[[Category:Political Scientists]]
[[Category:Diplomacy]]
[[Category:United States History]]
[[Category:New Jersey Governors]]
[[Category:Presbyterians]]
[[Category:Religion and Politics]]
[[Category:Democratic Governors]]
[[Category:Racism]]
[[Category:Liberals]]

Woodrow Wilson

2017-12-28T01:18:58Z

Haeralis: Added quotes

{{Officeholder
|name=Woodrow Wilson
|image=Wilson.jpg
|party=[[Democratic]]
|spouse=Ellen Axson Wilson Edith Galt Wilson
|religion=[[Presbyterian]]
|offices=
{{Officeholder/president
|country=the United States
|number=28th
|terms=March 4, 1913 – March 4, 1921<ref>http://home.comcast.net/~sharonday7/Presidents/AP060301.htm</ref>
|vp=[[Thomas R. Marshall]]
|preceded=[[William Howard Taft]]
|former=y
|succeeded=[[Warren G. Harding]]
}}
{{Officeholder/governor
|number=34th
|state=New Jersey
|terms=January 17, 1911 – March 1, 1913
|lieutenant=n
|preceded=John Fort
|former=y
|succeeded=James Fielder
}}
}}
'''Thomas Woodrow Wilson''' (1856 - 1924), a Democrat, was elected as the 28th [[President of the United States of America]], and reelected in 1916, serving from 1913 to 1921. A Princeton president who became an intellectual leader of the [[Progressive Movement]], Wilson demonstrated his mastery over Congress by creating the [[Federal Reserve System]], lowering the tariff, and revising the [[antitrust]] laws in a way that ended most of the "trust-busting" and drew clear lines on what was allowed. In general these policies would be in line with conservative recommendations in 2009. He supported liberal policies such as raising wages of railroad workers when they threatened a nationwide strike in 1916.
Trying repeatedly and failing to broker peace during [[World War I]], Wilson in 1917 led the United States into the war. He set up a draft and trained millions of soldiers, sending the [[American Expeditionary Forces]] to France under the command of General [[John J. Pershing]]. Woodrow Wilson was also notoriously anti-Catholic,<ref>[http://www.thecatholicthing.org/2013/03/06/woodrow-wilson-big-government-anti-catholic/ Woodrow Wilson: Big Government Anti-Catholic]</ref> and was known for his [[Liberals and racism|racist]] policies promoting segregation, and promoted eugenics based on Darwinist theory.<ref>http://www.waragainsttheweak.com/</ref>

Wilson played a dominant role in ending the war with his [[Fourteen Points]] and played the central role at the Versailles Conference that set the peace terms in 1919. He was the idealist who envisioned Wilson advocated a new international order founded on self-determination, unfettered international trade, the end of militarism, and a worldwide organization of states - the League of Nations. He failed to obtain Senate approval for the Versailles treaty because it required American entry into the [[League of Nations]] and a possible loss of control over the war-making power. Wilson refused to involve the Republicans in the peace-making, even though they controlled Congress, and refused the GOP compromise that would have allowed American entry into the League without giving up sovereignty.

Wilson was a very complex man filled with paradox. He was a southern conservative—an elitist with a profound distrust of radical ideas and such left-wing populists as [[William Jennings Bryan]], but became the Democratic Party's most effective advocate of advanced [[progressivism]]. He rejected the doctrine of the Founders of the Republic in the preface to the Declaration of Independence that people are "endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable rights" and asserted the Hegelian principle that the citizen should "marry his interests to the state". Ironically, Woodrow Wilson laid the foundations for a state that has no use for God and uses “every means. . .by which society may be perfected.” And today Wilson’s ideological heir, Barack Obama, is carrying out his grandiose plan that declares the Declaration of Independence and the Constitution relics of the distant eighteenth century and seeks to bring everyone and everything, including religious groups, under control of the state. Wilson's progressivism in 2009 terms is a mix of liberal and conservative ideas, with a much deeper religious underpinning than is seen today. He ranks with Theodore Roosevelt, Franklin D. Roosevelt, Lyndon B. Johnson and Ronald Reagan as the nation's most active and dominant chief executives. He ranks with Abraham Lincoln and Reagan as the most articulate spokesman for national values. He was a war president who largely ignored military affairs and focused on very complex diplomatic issues. He won his war, reshaped the world at the peace conference, and saw his nation reject his idealist League of Nations because he refused to work with Republicans on its mechanics.

A rigid, self-exacting personality, whose uncompromising adherence to principles barred agreement on some of his most important political goals, he was a brilliant opportunist who won stunning electoral victories and led controversial laws through Congress. He understood diplomacy and domestic affairs in depth, and was the first to recognize a solution that could satisfy most of the needs of the interested parties. He was willing to negotiate endlessly, usually getting his way in the end, especially when his powerful rhetoric energized his backers. A devout [[Presbyterian]] who studied the Bible every day, he elevated a religious style of idealism to the central place in American diplomacy. A lonely intellectual, he had few friends, and broke one-by-one with his closest advisors, until in his last two years in office he was an invalid controlled in large part by his wife.

Wilson's idealistic foreign policy, called "Wilsonianism" sought to end militarism as a force in world affairs, vigorously promote national self-determination, create international bodies to head off serious disputes, and use American resources to promote democracy. Wilsonianism (and "idealism" generally) is opposed to "realism" in foreign policy, which stresses a concern for American self-interest, especially in economic and military terms. Wilsonianism reshaped the world in the aftermath of the Great War; its values lie at the core of the foreign policy of [[George W. Bush]] (2001-2009). [[File:Ww-sargent.jpg|thumb|350px|1917 portrait by [[John Singer Sargent]]]]
Wilson was the most profoundly Christian political leader in the world in the 20th century. He felt assured that he was following God's guidance. Wilson considered the United States a Christian nation destined to lead the world. He was a prophet and a [[Social Gospel|postmillenarian]], and if idealism clashed with reality, he was certain idealism would prevail.
[[File:Woodrow Wilson by Thomas.jpg|thumb|350px|1913 portrait by Stephen Seymour Thomas]]
==Family==
Wilson's father Joseph Ruggles Wilson (1822-1903), born in Ohio, was a Presbyterian minister of Scotch Irish descent. Woodrow's mother Jesse was born in Carlisle, England, to a Scottish-born Presbyterian minister; her family moved to Canada in 1835 and to Ohio in 1837. Woodrow's parents moved South in 1851, owned house slaves, and identified themselves with the culture and political values of the South. The father Joseph Wilson was a theologian, defended slavery and soon emerged as a leader of the Southern Presbyterian Church and an avid supporter of the Confederacy.<ref>In the 1880s Joseph Wilson argued at length that evolution was NOT in conflict with the Bible; he was thereupon forced out as head of the Presbyterian seminary in South Carolina. See Fred Kingsley Elder, ''Woodrow: Apostle of Freedom'' (1996) [http://www.jstor.org/sici?sici=0022-4642(199711)63%3A4%3C898%3AWAOF%3E2.0.CO%3B2-O&cookieSet=1 online review]</ref>

Wilson's grandfather (Joseph Wilson's father) was James Wilson, who immigrated to the United States from northern Ireland in 1807 and was first an editor of the [[Jeffersonian Republican]] newspaper the ''Aurora'' in Philadelphia, and later published Whig newspapers in Ohio and Pennsylvania. Since his father had been ostracized by the northern relatives, Woodrow had no contact with his grandfather or uncles, who were active in antislavery Republican politics in Ohio and Pennsylvania.<ref>Francis P. Weisenburger, "The Middle Western Antecedents of Woodrow Wilson," ''Mississippi Valley Historical Review,'' Vol. 23, No. 3 (Dec., 1936), pp. 375-390 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1886371 in JSTOR]</ref>

Woodrow grew up in the South during the Civil War and Reconstruction his father was a chaplain for the Confederate army. Woodrow saw the humiliation, economic ruin and shame that the loser of a war experiences and the hatred that grows from this, as well as the rampant corruption during Reconstruction in Columbia, the capital of South Carolina. A victim of childhood dyslexia, he became an avid reader. His father imparted a love of literature and politics to his son; much family activity revolved around Bible readings, daily prayers, and worship services at the father's church.

In 1885 Wilson married Ellen Louise Axson (1860 – 1914), the daughter of a Presbyterian minister in Savannah, Georgia. She was an accomplished painter and a successful hostess; they had three daughters.<ref>See [http://www.whitehouse.gov/history/firstladies/ew28-1.html White House biography of Ellen Louise Axson Wilson]</ref>

==Education==
[[File:Woodrow Wilson by Pach Bros c1875.jpg|thumb|180px|Wilson in his 20's]]
Woodrow studied at Davidson College in North Carolina in 1873-1874 and at Princeton University from 1875 to 1879. He proved an exceptional student, primarily interested in debate and politics. His father always wanted him to be a minister; Wilson greatly admired the British Prime Minister [[William E. Gladstone]], a Christian in politics, and decided to emulate him. Wilson saw politics as a divine vocation—to be a statesman was an expression of Christian service, he believed, a use of power for the sake of principles or moral goals. Wilson saw the "key to success in politics" as "the pursuit of Perfection through hard work and the fulfillment of ideals." Politics would allow him to spread spiritual enlightenment to the American people.

He was an editor of the ''Princetonian'' and wrote his senior thesis on "Cabinet Government in the United States;" it was later published. The essay stressed the superior qualities of the British cabinet system and said it ought to be tried in the United States.<ref>Edward S. Corwin, "Woodrow Wilson and the Presidency," ''Virginia Law Review,'' Vol. 42, No. 6 (Oct., 1956), pp. 761-783 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1070269 in JSTOR]. It was published in a journal edited by [[Henry Cabot Lodge]], who became Wilson's bitter enemy in 1919.</ref> After graduation in 1879 he studied law at the University of Virginia; he was admitted to the bar and practiced in Atlanta, in 1882. It was too boring. Wilson's scholarship led him in 1883 to enter the new Johns Hopkins University graduate school where he studied government and history, taking a PhD in 1885. Wilson is the only president to have earned a PhD.

==Academic leader==
In 1885 Wilson was appointed as a history instructor at Bryn Mawr College, an elite Quaker school for women near Philadelphia, at a salary of $1500 a year (which was enough to hire a servant). In 1888 he moved to Wesleyan University, a Methodist college in Connecticut. His reputation as an outstanding leader in political science brought him a professorship of jurisprudence and political economy at [[Princeton University]] in 1890. For the next twelve years he taught at Princeton, popular alike with students and faculty; he became the president of the school in 1902.<ref>W. Barksdale Maynard, Woodrow Wilson: Princeton to the Presidency (2008)</ref><ref>Henry Wilkinson Bragdon, ''Woodrow Wilson: The Academic Years'' (1967)</ref>

Wilson soon emerged as the nation's foremost academic, in heavy demand in elite circle for his brilliant speeches.

Wilson subscribed to the Social Darwinist view that survival was for the fittest races, and he supported the Eugenics movement. He believed there are “progressive races” such as Anglos and Aryans, who had superior and enlightened governments, and “stagnant nationalities” – Eastern and Southern Europeans – who needed authoritarian governments to control them.

At Princeton he created academic departments but otherwise downplayed the Germanic model of the PhD-oriented research university in favor of the "Oxbridge" (Oxford and Cambridge) model of intense small group discussions and one-one-one tutorials. He hired 50 young professors, called preceptors, to meet with students in small conferences, grilling them about their reading. Complaining that Princeton was dominated by "eating clubs" in which students ate with each other and ignored the professors, he sought to build Oxford-style colleges where students and faculty would eat and talk together. He failed—the eating clubs are still there.<ref>Yale and Harvard later did adopt the college model for undergraduates, but not Princeton. W. Barksdale Maynard, Woodrow Wilson: Princeton to the Presidency (2008)</ref>

Wilson promoted the leadership model, whereby the college focused on training a small cadre of undergraduates for national leadership, "the minority who plan, who conceive, who superintend," as he called them in his inaugural address as the university's president. "The college is no less democratic because it is for those who play a special part." He confronted the dean of the graduate school, who had the German research model in mind and outmaneuvered Wilson by obtaining outside funding for a graduate complex for serious scholarship that was well separated from the fun-loving undergraduates.
===Political theory===
====Political Science====
Wilson made significant contributions to political science.<ref>he also wrote popular history of high quality, including a five-volume history of the United States and a life of George Washington.</ref> In 1885 he published his influential treatise ''Congressional Government: A Study in American Politics'', based on his PhD dissertation. It set a new standard in analyzing the actual workings of the federal government with striking clarity and thoroughness. The citizen must “marry his interests to the state.” Wilson, therefore, dismissed the Declaration’s assertion that rights are endowed by our Creator. Wilson lectured that, “If you want to understand the real Declaration of Independence, do not repeat the preface.” “The rhetorical introduction,” he declared, “is the least part of it.”

Although Wilson had never visited Congress, his emphasis on the centrality of committees in Congress was a major contribution to the study of political science. Noting how the Constitution's separation of powers had been eroded since the Civil War by the increasing power of Congress, he suggested a remedy for this in a cabinet-style government of the variety proposed by [[Walter Bagehot]] in Britain. By criticizing the Constitutionalist and Federalist traditions that had characterized American politics for a century, and showing their faults, Wilson sought to open a serious debate on the political changes in the United States in the intervening century and whether the Constitution remained an adequate regulator of these. By the time he wrote ''Constitutional Government in the United States'' (1908), Wilson was advocating the need for constitutional reform that would make Congress and president more representative and, above all, the need for a strong president who could influence Congress rather than submit to it. In ''Constitutional Government'', Wilson creates the idea that the Constitution is a [[Living and breathing constitution|living and breathing]] document.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=cgPc0rsBxSAC&pg=PR13 Woodrow Wilson and Harry Truman: Mission and Power in American Foreign Policy]</ref>

Wilson originated the notion that political parties, besides running campaigns, need to be responsible for clearly designed public policies, which they present to the electorate for approval. The key to responsibility was the presidency. Hegelian conceptions of monarchy strongly influenced Wilson, and his view of public opinion contrasted sharply with the Madisonian view of factionalism. Consequently, Wilson viewed parties as primarily the machinery through which strong leaders interpret and pursue the public will.<ref>Scot J. Zentner, "President and Party in the Thought of Woodrow Wilson," ''Presidential Studies Quarterly''; 1996 26(3): 666-677, [http://www.jstor.org/stable/27551624 in JSTOR]</ref>

====Public administration====
{{See also|The Study of Administration|Administrative State}}
Wilson was a founder of the study of public administration by political scientists. Wilson believed in a strong, active role for the central government and as president succeeded in establishing legislation that significantly enlarged its regulatory powers. With the publication of ''Congressional Government'' in 1885, Wilson established himself as a leader of the political reform movement of the day. The book was the first of its kind to analyze policymaking by the central government and to provide recommendations for changing the process. Wilson was one of the three most prominent public administrationists of the 1880s and 1890s. As an academician, he promoted a separate department for the study of public administration and wrote '[[The Study of Administration]]' (1887), the first published essay by a university scholar on the subject, established Wilson as the leading authority in the field.
[[Image:Edward House.jpg|thumb|150px|right|Edward House]]
During the next year he inaugurated a course in public administration at Johns Hopkins University, providing three 6-week lecture series arranged in a 3-year cycle. In 1889, Wilson published a textbook, ''The State,'' and, in 1891, he began at Hopkins a new 3-year course which was a further significant step in the development of the study of administration. He was one of the first scholars to realize fully that all government was ultimately to be administration.<ref>Richard J. Stillman, II, "Woodrow Wilson and the Study of Administration: A New Look at an Old Essay," ''American Political Science Review,'' Vol. 67, No. 2 (Jun., 1973), pp. 582-588 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1958787 in JSTOR]; Larry Walker, "Woodrow Wilson, Progressive Reform, and Public Administration," ''Political Science Quarterly'', Vol. 104, No. 3 (Autumn, 1989), pp. 509-525 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/2151276 in JSTOR]</ref>

=====Philip Dru=====
On November 16,<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=veeNBQAAQBAJ&pg=PR2-IA2|last1=Neu|first1=Charles|title=Colonel House: A Biography of Woodrow Wilson's Silent Partner|date=2014|publisher=[[Oxford University]] Press|isbn=978-0195045505|pages=i-ii}}</ref> 1912,<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mf2BMLaT4uMC&pg=PA398|last1=Levin|first1=Phyllis|title=Edith and Woodrow: The Wilson White House|date=2002|publisher=[[Simon and Schuster]]|isbn=978-0743211581|pages=398}}</ref> President-elect Wilson took a trip to Bermuda. For the trip, he was given a copy of [[Philip Dru: Administrator]]<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4jcL20ZS_KUC&pg=PA7|last1=Hodgson|first1=Godfrey|title=Woodrow Wilson's Right Hand: The Life of Colonel Edward M. House|date=2006|publisher=[[Yale University]]|isbn=978-0300137552|pages=7}}</ref> by his adviser [[Colonel House|Edward House]]<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=veeNBQAAQBAJ&pg=PR2-IA2|last1=Neu|first1=Charles|title=Colonel House: A Biography of Woodrow Wilson's Silent Partner|date=2014|publisher=[[Oxford University]] Press|isbn=978-0195045505|pages=78}}</ref> for his reading pleasure.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?ei=NjWJUOT7BY3o8QSPvoDIBQ&id=EUiVAAAAIAAJ&focus=searchwithinvolume&q=dru+bermuda|last1=Walworth|first1=Arthur|title=Woodrow Wilson|date=1965|publisher=[[Houghton Mifflin]] Company|work=[[Arthur Walworth]]|pages=288}}</ref> Describing the similarities between Woodrow Wilson and Philip Dru, [[Franklin Lane|Franklin K. Lane]], who served as [[Secretary of the Interior]] for seven years, made the following observations:
{{cquote|Colonel House's Book, Philip Dru, favors it, and all that book has said should be, comes about slowly, even woman suffrage. The President comes to Philip Dru in the end. And yet they say that House has no power....<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8mwoAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA297|last1=Lane|first1=Franklin|title=The Letters of Franklin K. Lane, Personal and Political|date=1922|publisher=[[Houghton Mifflin]] Company|pages=297}}</ref>}}

===Football===
Wilson as president of Princeton, and [[Theodore Roosevelt]] as president of the United States, took an intense interest in the controversy over the reform of college football. In the 1890s and early 1900s, college football faced sharp of criticism over injuries and the role of athletics in college life. Roosevelt and Wilson, loyal followers of Harvard and Princeton, had defended football in the 1890s. In the fall of 1905, however, President Roosevelt called a conference of football experts at the White House to discuss brutality and unsportsmanlike conduct. Thereafter, Roosevelt worked behind the scenes to bring about sufficient reform to preserve football and ensure that it would continue to be played at Harvard. In the years 1909-10, when college football again faced an injury crisis, Wilson worked with the presidents at Harvard and Yale to make reasonable reforms. Both Roosevelt's and Wilson's approaches were consistent with their strategies for national political change. In the years that followed the reforms on the gridiron, football evolved rapidly into the 'attractive' game that Wilson had advocated and a far less brutal game than the unruly spectacle that Roosevelt had tried to control.<ref>John S. Watterson, III, "Political Football: Theodore Roosevelt, Woodrow Wilson and the Gridiron Reform Movement," ''Presidential Studies Quarterly'' 1995 25(3): 555-564 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/27551467 in JSTOR]</ref>

===Southerner===
Wilson was the first southerner elected president since [[Zachary Taylor]] in 1848, and much of his political base came from young progressives in that region, especially intellectuals, editors and lawyers.<ref>Arthur S. Link, "Woodrow Wilson: The American as Southerner," ''Journal of Southern History,'' Vol. 36, No. 1 (Feb., 1970), pp. 3-17 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/2206599 in JSTOR] Andrew Johnson was not elected; he moved from vice president to president after Lincoln's death in 1865.</ref>

Many Civil War veterans were still alive and Wilson used the memory of the War to build nationalism and to facilitate reunion between the North and the South. In his academic work and public comments, Wilson stressed the theoretical and constitutional causes of the war, devaluing the slavery issue and stressing the moral equality of North and South, all in the interest of lessening sectional animosity. During World War I and the struggle for the League of Nations, Wilson frequently drew comparisons between Lincoln and the Union's sacrifices to save the nation and American soldiers' sacrifices during World War I to save the world. He succeeded in overcoming Southern isolationism by convincing the middle class in the region that God had preserved the Union in the Civil War in order to spread democracy throughout the world. He appealed to Southerners to demonstrate the patriotism that many said they lacked. He was able to convince them that they could wage war for democracy abroad without endangering white supremacy at home.<ref>Anthony Gaughan, "Woodrow Wilson and the Legacy of the Civil War," ''Civil War History'' 1997 43(3): 225-242; online in [[Questia]]; Gaughan, "Woodrow Wilson and the Rise of Militant Interventionism in the South," ''Journal of Southern History'' 1999 65(4): 771-808, [http://www.jstor.org/stable/2587587 in JSTOR]</ref>

Wilson despised post-Civil War Southern Reconstruction, which promoted African-American participation in public life. “The white men of the South,” he wrote in his History of America, “were aroused by the mere instinct of self-preservation to rid themselves, by fair means or foul, of the intolerable burden of governments sustained by the votes of ignorant Negroes and conducted in the interest of adventurers.” As president, Wilson resegregated the federal government.

Wilson drew on Southern conservatism in the development of his political philosophy and identity as a politician from the 1890s to 1921. While Wilson forged a Progressive reformist outlook that encompassed limited government intervention in social and economic matters, he embraced a conservative, organic conception of social change drawn partially from the thought of Edmund Burke and partially from a mythical vision of the Old South as a model of social stability and integration. Deeply alarmed by labor and agrarian radicalism in the 1890s, Wilson resolved to cleanse the Democratic Party of Populist influence. His political vision ultimately sought to adapt American society to the new economic conditions of the 20th century, chiefly defined by the magnification of corporate power, while retaining the race and class hierarchies of tradition. Wilson's vision of Southern conservatism as a regenerative force set the precedent for the conservative ideology that dominated American politics since the 1980s.<ref>Michael Dennis, "Woodrow Wilson and Southern Reform Conservatism," ''Southern Studies: An Interdisciplinary Journal of the South'' 2006 13(3-4): 1-28.</ref>

==Reform governor==
[[File:Woodrow Wilson, New Jersey Governor - 1911.jpg|thumb|140px|Governor Wilson]]
As early as 1906 Wilson came under the influence of Colonel George Harvey (1864-1928), a conservative Democrat who owned a publishing empire that included the ''New York World'' and ''Harper's Weekly'' magazine, reaching the nation's intellectual elite. Harvey, with close ties to Wall Street and [[J. P. Morgan]], saw a future conservative president and promoted Wilson heavily. Wilson became the intellectual leader of the anti-Bryan, anti-Populist wing of the Democratic Party. Harvey helped convince the old-fashioned bosses in New Jersey's cities to make Wilson the Democratic nominee for governor in 1910, explaining this would bring in the middle class vote. Wilson, frustrated at Princeton, made the move and was elected. Wilson then broke with the bosses, and Harvey, denounced Wall Street and the bosses, and electrified the nation with his Progressive reforms in the notoriously corrupt government of New Jersey. Wilson by 1912 had emerged as the cleanest, most religious, best known and most dynamic leader of the [[Progressive Movement]] in the Democratic Party.

George Harvey was the first person to recommend Wilson for the presidency.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=Nb54xQLT6yQC&pg=PA134 Presidential Power: Unchecked and Unbalanced]</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=hpwDAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA178 The Power of Tolerance: And Other Speeches], by George Brinton McClellan Harvey, pp. 174-178, ''For President: Woodrow Wilson'', February 3rd, 1906</ref>

==Election of 1912==
William Frank McCombs, a New York lawyer and a friend from college days, instigated and managed Wilson's campaign for president in 1912. Much of Wilson's support came from the South, especially from young progressive professionals. Wilson managed to maneuver through the complexities of local politics. For example, in Tennessee the Democratic Party was divided on the issue of prohibition. Wilson was progressive and sober, but not a dry, and appealed to both sides. They united behind him to win the presidential election in the state, but divided over state politics and lost the gubernatorial election.<ref>Arthur S. S. Link, "Democratic Politics and the Presidential Campaign of 1912 in Tennessee," ''East Tennessee Historical Society's Publications'' 1979 51: 114-137</ref>

At the convention deadlock went on for over 40 ballots as a two-thirds vote was needed. A leading opponent was House Speaker [[Champ Clark]], a prominent progressive strongest in the border states. Other contenders were Judson Harmon of Ohio, and Oscar Underwood of Alabama. They lacked Wilson's charisma and dynamism. Clark was supported by publisher [[William Randolph Hearst]], a leader of the left-wing of the party. The critical role was played by [[William Jennings Bryan]], the nominee in 1896, 1900 and 1908, who blocked the nomination of any candidate who had the support of 'the financiers of Wall Street.' He finally announced for Wilson, who won on the 46th.<ref>Arthur S. Link, "The Baltimore Convention of 1912," ''American Historical Review'' 1945 50(4): 691-713 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1842698 in JSTOR]</ref>

Many historians believe that Wilson’s election was a defining moment in American history. The former political science professor’s views on government and human nature (and our relationship to the state) became the foundations of Democratic Party liberalism. Historians also agree that Wilson had a dark side. He had a strong dislike of immigrants, particularly Catholics and African-Americans.

Wilson enjoyed the support of many black leaders including [[W.E.B. DuBois]] (a liberal at the time). Wilson's speeches and letters expressed the sentiments of a defender of the underprivileged. However the rejoicing over Wilson's victory was short-lived among blacks as segregationist white Southerners took control of Congress and many executive departments.<ref>Nancy J. Weiss, "The Negro and the New Freedom: Fighting Wilsonian Segregation," ''Political Science Quarterly'' 1969 84(1): 61-79, [http://www.jstor.org/stable/2147047 in JSTOR]</ref>

In the campaign Wilson promoted the "New Freedom," emphasizing limited federal government and opposition to monopoly powers—positions that he reversed on coming to office.

President [[William Howard Taft]] defeated ex-President [[Theodore Roosevelt]] in a bitter contest for the Republican nomination, but Roosevelt walked out of the Republican convention and ran as a third party candidate. Wilson's success in the electoral college was assured, despite his 41.8% of the popular vote.<ref>Lewis L. Gould, ''Four Hats in the Ring: The 1912 Election and the Birth of Modern American Politics,'' (2008); Link (1947)</ref>

==President: 1913-21==
===First term===
====Domestic policy====
[[File:Ww-prog.jpg|thumb|580px|left]]
=====Immigration=====
Wilson twice vetoed the Burnett Immigration Restriction Bill, which required a literacy test for immigrants and would have sharply reduced the number of poor immigrants from Poland, Italy and other parts of eastern and southern Europe. As a moderate progressive, Wilson believed southern and eastern European immigrants, though often poor and illiterate, to be capable of assimilation into a homogeneous middle class with other whites. He considered so-called hyphenated immigrants unacceptable because they acted as groups rather than blending into the common population. Indeed, he denounced the hyphenates. Wilson sought to achieve American strength through unity, blending together the best characteristics of every nationality to create the ideal citizenry, opposing [[Henry Cabot Lodge]]'s nativist view that American civilization must be based on an Anglo-Saxon foundation. Immigration from Europe practically ended when the war began, so the issue was postponed ino the 1920s, when a quota system was set up to keep the country's ethnic balance unchanged.<ref>Hans Vought, . Division and Reunion: Woodrow Wilson, Immigration, and the Myth of American Unity. Journal of American Ethnic History; 1994 13(3): 24-50.</ref>

====Foreign Policy====
=====Mexico=====
The extremely violent civil war that broke out in Mexico in 1911 drove hundreds of thousands of refugees north across the border, and forced Wilson to intervene. [[Francisco Madero]], an idealistic reformer who came to power in 1911. Madero tried to violently upend the social order in Mexico by destroying the landed aristocracy and the Catholic Church. When Madero was overthrown and murdered by [[Victoriano Huerta]] in February 1913, days before Wilson took office, he refused to recognize the new Mexican government. Relations deteriorated between the two countries. After American sailors were arrested in Tampico in April 1914 by Huerta's soldiers, the armed conflict loomed. American soldiers occupied Vera Cruz. In July 1914 Huerta fled to Spain. In 1916 the civil war between warlords [[Venustiano Carranza]] and [[Pancho Villa]] continued, and in March Villa raided Columbus, New Mexico, killing 20 Americans.<ref>James A. Sandos, "Pancho Villa and American Security: Woodrow Wilson's Mexican Diplomacy Reconsidered," ''Journal of Latin American Studies,'' Vol. 13, No. 2 (Nov., 1981), pp. 293-311 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/156072 in JSTOR]</ref> Wilson sent Brigadier General [[John J. Pershing]] deep into Mexico to capture Villa. Villa escaped the Americans. Despite the demands of outraged senators, Wilson did not declare war on Mexico. He ran for reelection in 1916 on the slogan, "He kept us out of war," meaning out of a war with Mexico.

====Reelection====
[[File:WW-WIN16.jpg|thumb|400px]]
====Woman suffrage====
In the 1910s, suffragists campaigned for the passage of a federal constitutional amendment that would grant women the right to vote. They argued it would purify politics because the new voters would be far less liable to corruption and saloon influences. The movement was led by Protestant northern women, many of whom were active in the prohibition movement at the same time. Wilson, originally opposed to the amendment, was converted through the efforts of women suffragists and became an advocate of critical importance. Both the National American Woman Suffrage Association (NWSA) and the National Women's Party (NWP) used symbolic representations of President Wilson, conferring on him real or symbolic images of presidential power. In practice Wilson hedged, realizing that male Democrats in the big city machines in the North and in the rural South were hostile to woman suffrage. The meaning of democracy was at issue: the NWP portrayed Wilson as a tyrant, the NAWSA depicted him as a champion of freedom. Both organizations played essential roles in the passage of the 19th Amendment. After 1919, the absence of a common goal was a contributing factor to the subsequent divisions within the woman's rights movement, as was the loss of a unique adversary.<ref>Christine A. Lunardini, and Thomas J. Knock, Woodrow Wilson and Woman Suffrage: A New Look. Political Science Quarterly; 1980-1981 95(4): 655-671, [http://www.jstor.org/stable/2150609 in JSTOR]</ref>

===Second term===

===Entering the war===
====Domestic policy====
Wilson established the [[Committee on Public Information]] to disseminate approved information, and nationalized the railroads under the control of the [[United States Railroad Administration]].
====Foreign Policy====
====Russia====
Wilson's commitment to the principle of self-determination affected his decision to intervene in Russia in 1918, as the Bolsheviks (Communists) took power. Unswayed by British, French, and Japanese pressure, Wilson insisted that, unless the Russians invited them, the Allies should not interfere with Russia's internal affairs. In the summer of 1918, the president sent American troops into Siberia with the sole purpose of protecting Czechoslovak soldiers who had broken out of POW camps and were an independent force. Later Wilson realized that the other Allied nations were using the rescue mission as an 'anti-Bolshevik' crusade and for imperialistic motives. As a result, the president ordered US forces to withdraw. Wilson and subsequent presidents until 1933 refused to recognize the new Communist government, and Russia was not invited to the Paris Peace Conference.<ref>Betty Miller Unterberger, "Woodrow Wilson and the Bolsheviks: the 'Acid Test' of Soviet-American Relations," ''Diplomatic History'' 1987 11(2): 71-90,</ref>
====Mideast====
In November 1917, Wilson endorsed the [[Zionism|pro-Zionist]] [[Balfour Declaration]] issued by Britain. Wilson's aims in this endorsement were both practical and religious. His deep Christian sentiment led him to seek 'a direct governing role in the Near East in the name of peace, democracy and, especially, Christianity. By agreeing to the use of the mandate system by which the transition governments of the Middle East were partially controlled by Britain and France after the war, Wilson was both contradicting and reaffirming his own ideals by allowing only limited self-determination of Middle-Eastern peoples while assuring some respect for property and order.<ref>Frank W. Brecher, Woodrow Wilson and the Origins of the Arab-Israeli Conflict. American Jewish Archives; 1987 39(1): 23-47,</ref>

====Paris Peace Conference, 1919====
President Wilson was present at the Post-World War I Paris Peace Conference, becoming the first President to ever visit Europe whilst in Office.

When President Wilson left for Europe in 1919 to establish a new world order at the 1919 Versailles Conference, European Catholics were justifiably concerned about the treatment their former homelands would receive from the victorious allies. Along with Prime Ministers David Lloyd George of the United Kingdom and Georges Clemenceau of France, the three were collectively known as the Big Three and met and discussed the peace treaties that would shape post-war Europe. President Wilson pushed for terms that were not too harsh on the already war-crippled Germany, though the British and French leaders pushed for the infamous 'War Guilt Clause' that declared Germany guilty of the war and forced her to pay harsh reparations. To save his League of Nations, Wilson abandoned his mighty rhetoric and ideals at Versailles and managed to alienate almost every Catholic by surrendering to the demands of the vengeful leaders of the victorious allies. He planted the seeds of World War II when he rearranged the boundaries of Eastern Europe without regard for the ethnic or religious origins of millions of people.

Wilson particularly pushed for the League of Nations to be created, a precursor to today's United Nations.

=====Fight for the League=====
After the Paris Peace conference, Wilson came home to try to convince the Senate to ratify the treaty which would create the League. But on September 26, 1919, Wilson came home from a series of speeches he was making around the country, because of a series of strokes he had suffered which left him debilitated.<ref>[http://archive.wilsonquarterly.com/essays/hidden-agony-woodrow-wilson The Hidden Agony of Woodrow Wilson]</ref>

In 1920, during the time period of which Wilson was incapacitated, Wilson's wife Edith allowed for [[Louis Seibold]] of the New York World to conduct an interview with Wilson. Seibold, along with Edith Wilson and Wilson's Chief of Staff Joseph Patrick Tumulty, produced a fabricated interview for which Seibold won a [[Pulitzer Prize]] in 1921.<ref>[http://www.politico.com/story/2012/07/10-journos-caught-fabricating-079221 10 journos caught fabricating], [[Politico]]</ref>

===After the war===
After the conclusion of [[World War I]] and the closing year of the Wilson presidency, there was a sharp [[Depression of 1920|depression]], which many historians have decided not to write about.

==Wilson and religion==
A Presbyterian of deep religious faith, he appealed to a gospel of service and infused a profound sense of moralism into Wilsonianism.<ref>John Morton Blum, ''Woodrow Wilson and the Politics of Morality'' (1956); Richard M. Gamble, "Savior Nation: Woodrow Wilson and the Gospel of Service," ''Humanitas'' Volume: 14. Issue: 1. 2001. pp 4+; Cooper, ''Woodrow Wilson'' (2009) p 560.</ref>

Link finds that Wilson from his earliest days had imbibed the beliefs of his denomination - in the omnipotence of God, the morality of the Universe, a system of rewards and punishments and the notion that nations, as well as man, transgressed the laws of God at their peril.<ref>Arthur S. Link, "A Portrait of Wilson," ''Virginia Quarterly Review''1956 32(4): 524-541</ref> Blum (1956) argues that he learned from [[William Gladstone]] a mystic conviction in the superiority of Anglo-Saxons, in their righteous duty to make the world over in their image. Moral principle, constitutionalism, and faith in God were among the prerequisites for alleviating human strife. While he interpreted international law within such a brittle, moral cast, Wilson remained remarkably insensitive to new and changing social forces and conditions of the 20th century. He expected too much justice in a morally brutal world which disregarded the self-righteous resolutions of parliaments and statesmen like himself. Wilson's triumph was as a teacher of international morality to generations yet unborn.<ref>John Morton Blum, ''Woodrow Wilson and the Politics of Morality'' (1956), p p10, 197-99</ref> [[Daniel Patrick Moynihan]] sees Wilson's vision of world order anticipated humanity prevailing through the "Holy Ghost of Reason," a vision which rested on religious faith.<ref>David Steigerwald, ''Wilsonian Idealism in America'' (1994) p. 230.</ref>

Wilson was a Presbyterian elder and the son of a leading theologian. He read the Bible daily; he felt 'sorry for the men who do not read the Bible every day.' The Bible, he argued, was 'the one supreme source of revelation of the meaning of life.' Wilson was prone to make explicitly Christian claims about his nation, even excluding the word ''Judeo'' from his characterization of the nation's religious heritage. 'America was born a Christian nation,' he explained in a speech on "The Bible and Progress" in 1911:
"America was born to exemplify that devotion to the elements of righteousness which derived from the revelations of Holy Scripture."<ref>Arthur S. Link, ed. ''The Papers of Woodrow Wilson'' (1977) 23:20, speech on the Bible, in Denver May 7, 1911</ref>

He held that the Bible "is the one supreme source of revelation, the revelation of the meaning of life, of the nature of God and the spiritual nature and need of men. It is the only guide of life which really leads the spirit in the way of peace and salvation."<ref>Josephus Daniels, ''The Life of Woodrow Wilson 1856-1924'' (1924) p. 359</ref>

God was central in Wilson's life and thought. His profound Presbyterian style of thinking assured him that he was following God's guidance. Wilson personified American optimism and considered the United States a Christian nation destined to lead the world. He was a prophet and a postmillenarian, and if idealism clashed with reality, he was certain idealism would prevail. He saw himself as God's messenger and statesman in a divinely predestined nation; thus he saw himself as God's agent in promoting democracy and world peace. His Fourteen Points and his Covenant of the League of Nations, were, in his view, divinely inspired paths to achieving a new world order.<ref>Malcolm D. Magee, '' What the World Should Be: Woodrow Wilson and the Crafting of a Faith-Based Foreign Policy'' (2008)</ref>

===Anti-Catholic===

Throughout his presidency Wilson had rocky relations with Roman Catholics. When Wilson recognized the Mexican government of President Venustiano Carranza, many Catholics were livid. The Catholic hierarchy forcefully complained that the United States should not support a government that restricted the public practice of Catholicism. The Jesuit magazine America condemned Wilson and described Carranza “as a villain, destroyer, liar and murderer.”

Wilson objected to the new wave of Catholic immigrants coming through the gates of Ellis Island. He wrote that there was “an alteration in stock which students of affairs marked with an uneasiness.” The sturdy European stocks, according to Wilson, were being replaced by “men of the lowest class from the south of Italy and men of the meaner sort out of Hungary and Poland, men out of the ranks where there was neither skill nor energy nor any initiative of quick intelligence.”

During the 1912 campaign, the American Association of Foreign Language newspapers struck a blow at Wilson: “No man who has an iron heart like Woodrow Wilson, and who slanders his fellowmen, because they are poor and many of them without friends when they come to this country seeking honest work and wishing to become good citizens, is fit to be President of the United States.”

These charges appeared to have had an effect. A poll of 2,300 Catholic priests in major inner-city Catholic strongholds revealed that 90 percent of the Italian and 70 percent of Polish priests intended to vote for Bull Moose candidate Theodore Roosevelt.

===China policy===
Wilson’s discussions with Presbyterian missionaries visiting Princeton shaped his diplomacy toward [[History of China|China]]. Wilson viewed Christianity as a unifying force in the world and the Chinese Revolution of 1911 as the first step toward the spread of Christianity and democracy for China. Wilson gained the admiration of the missionaries and Chinese when he prohibited US participation in a European loan to China. He moved to recognize the government of Yuan Shih-k'ai, hoping that that regime could bring stability to China favorable to the introduction of Christianity. He sought to appoint an ambassador to China who could express Christian values. During World War I, missionaries successfully urged Wilson's opposition to Japanese demands on China. Although the war and its aftermath diverted Wilson from Chinese problems, his foreign policy continued to be influenced by missionaries, particularly Dr. Samuel I. Woodbridge and the Reverend Charles E. Scott.<ref>Eugene P. Trani, "Woodrow Wilson, China, and the Missionaries, 1913-1921," ''Journal of Presbyterian History'' 1971 49(4): 328-351,</ref>

==Democracy==
''Also see Woodrow Wilson's lasting impact on the [[U.S. Constitution]]: [[Seventeenth Amendment]]''

Wilson argued for a “[[Living Constitution]]” that “must be Darwinian in structure and in practice.” Government for him was “not a machine but a living thing. . . .It is modified by its environment, necessitated by its task, shaped to its functions by the sheer pressure of life.” He noted that the Framers "followed Newton" as they created the Constitution, making a comparison to planets in orbit around the sun. Interestingly enough, the Framers used that same analogy during the [[Constitutional Convention]].<ref>[http://avalon.law.yale.edu/18th_century/debates_607.asp Madison Debates, June 7]</ref><ref>[http://avalon.law.yale.edu/18th_century/debates_608.asp Madison Debates, June 8]</ref>

Wilson believed that the citizen must “marry his interests to the state.” Wilson, therefore, dismissed the Declaration’s assertion that rights are endowed by our Creator. Wilson lectured that, “If you want to understand the real Declaration of Independence, do not repeat the preface.” “The rhetorical introduction,” he declared, “is the least part of it.”

Wilson also rejected the premise described in the [[Federalist Papers]], that checks and balances are needed because human nature is flawed and does not improve. He viewed the entire premise as outdated and a relic of a prior age, noting that "though they were written to influence only the voters of 1788, still, with a strange, persistent longevity of power, shape the constitutional criticism of the present day, obscuring much of that development of constitutional practice which has since taken place."<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=r5IYAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA9 Congressional Government: A Study in American Politics], p. 9</ref>

Political philosopher Ronald Pestritto has observed that for Wilson, “the separation of powers, and all other institutional remedies that the founders employed against the danger of faction stood in the way of government’s exercising its powers in accord with the dictates of progress.”

Wilson advocated a new international order founded on self-determination, democracy, unfettered international commerce, and a worldwide organization of states - the League of Nations. Wilson framed American participation in the war as the first step in ending all wars. Although 'Wilsonian nationalism' has been blamed for the nationalistic emphasis on race and territory in Europe during the 1920s and 1930s, Wilson's policies had actually used ethnic and territorial issues to encourage self-determination and the development of democracy in postwar nations.

Woodrow Wilson's most lasting political philosophy was his view that [[democracy]] should be installed around the world. As a major player in setting the terms to end World War I, he helped to break up the [[Austria-Hungary|Austrian-Hungarian Empire]] to advance his goal of installing democracy for each ethnic subpopulation. Similar independence was granted with the breakup of the [[Ottoman Empire]]. Many of these new nations were receiving self-determination for the first time in centuries. Wilson's view of installing democracy worldwide has since been copied by the [[neoconservatives]]. Wilson was awarded the 1919 [[Nobel Peace Prize]] for his efforts to start the [[League of Nations]].

==Historiography==
Historians have been fascinated by Wilson and have vigorously defended him (Link) or attacked him (New Left). Since the collapse of the Communism in Europe in 1989, the mood had shifted in Wilson's favor. Even [[George Kennan]], a harsh critic who favored "realism" against Wilson's idealism. has changed his tune. The New Left attacks represented by Lloyd Gardner's highly critical ''A Covenant with Power'' have given way to Thomas Knock's laudatory ''To End All Wars''. The leftist tendency to trace back to Wilson a tradition of economic self-seeking and arrogant interventionism has yielded to a new impulse to see Wilsonian diplomacy as having established "a new American agenda for world affairs," as Akira Iriye writes, built upon "the ideas of economic interdependence and of peaceful settlement of disputes."<ref>see Steigerwald,(1999)</ref>

In recent years, a new generation of conservative historians highly focused on the roots of Progressivism, have become intensely critical of Wilson due to his key position in the early years progressive ideology.<ref>[https://online.hillsdale.edu/document.doc?id=318 Woodrow Wilson and the Rejection of the Founders’ Constitution]</ref><ref>[http://www.slate.com/articles/news_and_politics/history_lesson/2010/10/hating_woodrow_wilson.html Hating Woodrow Wilson; The new and confused attacks on progressivism], What the new Woodrow Wilson haters don't understand</ref><ref>[http://www.theamericanconservative.com/repository/the-mystery-of-woodrow-wilson12/ The Mystery of Woodrow Wilson]</ref><ref>[http://www.heritage.org/political-process/report/woodrow-wilson-godfather-liberalism Woodrow Wilson: Godfather of Liberalism]</ref>

==Works==
Books:
* [https://archive.org/details/congressionalgov00wilsiala Congressional Government], (1885)
* [https://archive.org/details/wilsongeorge00wilsrich George Washington], (1896)
* [https://archive.org/details/onbeinghuman01wils On Being Human], (1897)
* [https://archive.org/details/stateelementshi09wilsgoog The State: Elements of Historical and Practical Politics], (1898)
* A History of the American People, (1902, five volumes)
* [https://archive.org/details/constitutionalg00wilsgoog Constitutional Government in the United States], (1908)
* The New Freedom, (1913)
* When A Man Comes To Himself, (1915)

Essays:
* [[The Study of Administration]], (1887)
* Leaders of Men, (1890)

==Quotes==
* "Liberty has never come from Government. Liberty has always come from the subjects of it. The history of liberty is a history of limitations of governmental power, not the increase of it."<ref>Speech at New York Press Club (9 September 1912), in The papers of Woodrow Wilson, 25:124</ref>
* "We are in these latter days apt to be very impatient of literal and dogmatic interpretations of constitutional principle."<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=gh9AAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA59 Constitutional Government in the United States]</ref>
* "If America is not to have free enterprise, then she can have freedom of no sort whatever."<ref>James A. Henretta, "Whose Government? Politics, Populists and Progressives, 1880-1917." In America: A Concise History, Volume Two: Since 1865, Volume 2, p. 622</ref>
*"Any man who can survive by his brains, any man who can put the others out of the business by making the thing cheaper to the consumer at the same time that he is increasing its intrinsic value and quality, I take off my hat to, and I say: 'You are the man who can build up the United States, and I wish there were more of you.'"

==See also==
* [[Administrative State]]
* [[Colonel House]]

==Bibliography==
===Biography===
* Brands, H. W. ''Woodrow Wilson 1913-1921'' (2003) [http://www.amazon.com/Woodrow-Wilson-H-W-Brands/dp/0805069550/ref=sr_1_4?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1259210644&sr=1-4 excerpt and text search] 169pp; good short summary by scholar [[File:Ww-stamp.jpg|thumb|180px|left]]
* Cooper, John Milton. ''Woodrow Wilson: A Biography'' (2009), 720 pp. major new biography by leading scholar
* Cooper, John Milton. ''The Warrior and the Priest: Woodrow Wilson and Theodore Roosevelt'' (1985), fascinating double biography by leading scholar [http://www.amazon.com/Warrior-Priest-Woodrow-Theodore-Roosevelt/dp/0674947517/ref=sr_1_2?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1259210893&sr=1-2 excerpt and text search]
* Hofstadter, Richard. "Woodrow Wilson: The Conservative as Liberal" in ''The American Political Tradition'' (1948), ch. 10. influential essay; at [http://humanitiesebook.org/ ACLS E-books]
* Link, Arthur S. "Woodrow Wilson" in Henry F. Graff ed., ''The Presidents: A Reference History '' (2002) pp 365–388
* Link, Arthur Stanley. ''Wilson: The Road to the White House'' (1947), first volume of standard biography (to 1917); ''Wilson: The New Freedom'' (1956); ''Wilson: The Struggle for Neutrality: 1914-1915'' (1960); ''Wilson: Confusions and Crises: 1915-1916'' (1964); ''Wilson: Campaigns for Progressivism and Peace: 1916-1917'' (1965), the last volume of standard biography; [http://humanitiesebook.org/ online at ACLS E-Books]
* Maynard, W. Barksdale. ''Woodrow Wilson: Princeton to the Presidency'' (2008) [http://www.amazon.com/Woodrow-Wilson-Prof-Barksdale-Maynard/dp/0300136048/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1259267777&sr=1-1 excerpt and text search]
* Walworth, Arthur. ''Woodrow Wilson'' 2 Vol. (1958); Pulitzer prize winning biography [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=24215014 vol 1 online]; well-written but old-fashioned (it was written in the 1950s), it has been replaced by Cooper (2009).

===Domestic affairs and ideas===
[[File:$100k.jpg|250px|thumb|Wilson's image appeared on the now-withdrawn $100,000 bill]]
* Abrams, Richard M. "Woodrow Wilson and the Southern Congressmen, 1913-1916," ''Journal of Southern History,'' Vol. 22, No. 4 (Nov., 1956), pp. 417–437 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/2954640 in JSTOR]
* Clements, Kendrick A. ''The Presidency of Woodrow Wilson'' (1992), covers domestic and foreign policies; liberal tone
* Cooper, John Milton. ''Woodrow Wilson: A Biography'' (2009), 720 pp.
* Cuff, Robert D. "Woodrow Wilson and Business-Government Relations during World War I," ''Review of Politics,'' Vol. 31, No. 3 (Jul., 1969), pp. 385–407 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1406552 in JSTOR]
* Curti, Merle. "Woodrow Wilson's Concept of Human Nature," ''Midwest Journal of Political Science,'' Vol. 1, No. 1 (May, 1957), pp. 1–19 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/2109008 in JSTOR]
* Daniel, Marjorie L. "Woodrow Wilson--Historian," ''Mississippi Valley Historical Review,'' Vol. 21, No. 3 (Dec., 1934), pp. 361–374 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1897380 in JSTOR]
* Dimock, Marshall E. "Woodrow Wilson as Legislative Leader," ''The Journal of Politics,'' Vol. 19, No. 1 (Feb., 1957), pp. 3–19 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/2127283 in JSTOR]
* Link, Arthur S. ''Woodrow Wilson and the Progressive Era, 1910-1917'' (1954), remains the standard history of his first term.
* Link, Arthur S. "Woodrow Wilson: The American as Southerner," ''Journal of Southern History,'' Vol. 36, No. 1 (Feb., 1970), pp. 3–17 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/2206599 in JSTOR]
* Link, Arthur S. "Woodrow Wilson and the Democratic Party," ''Review of Politics'', Vol. 18, No. 2 (Apr., 1956), pp. 146–156 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1405064 in JSTOR] cover 1913-14
* Livermore, Seward W. ''Woodrow Wilson and the War Congress, 1916-1918'' (1966)
* Macmahon, Arthur W. "Woodrow Wilson as Legislative Leader and Administrator," ''American Political Science Review,'' Vol. 50, No. 3 (Sep., 1956), pp. 641–675 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1951550 in JSTOR]
* Malin, James C. [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=5260560 ''The United States after the World War'' ] (1930)
* Pestritto, Ronald J. ed. ''Woodrow Wilson and the roots of modern liberalism'' (2005) ISBN 0742515176' argues Wilson subverted the ideas of the Founders by his progressivism
* Pietrusza, David ''1920: The Year of the Six President''s New York: Carroll & Graf, 2007.
* Saunders, Robert M. ''In Search of Woodrow Wilson: Beliefs and Behavior'' (1998)
* Turner, Henry A. "Woodrow Wilson and Public Opinion," ''Public Opinion Quarterly,'' Vol. 21, No. 4 (Winter, 1957-1958), pp. 505–520 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/2746762 in JSTOR]
* Wolgemuth, Kathleen L. "Woodrow Wilson and Federal Segregation," ''The Journal of Negro History,'' Vol. 44, No. 2 (Apr., 1959), pp. 158–173 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/2716036 in JSTOR]
* Weinstein, Edwin A., James William Anderson and Arthur S. Link. "Woodrow Wilson's Political Personality: A Reappraisal," ''Political Science Quarterly,'' Vol. 93, No. 4 (Winter, 1978-1979), pp. 585–598 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/2150104 at JSTOR]
* Wolfe, Christopher. "Woodrow Wilson: Interpreting the Constitution," ''Review of Politics,'' Vol. 41, No. 1 (Jan., 1979), pp. 121–142 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1406981 in JSTOR]
* Woodward, Carl R. "Woodrow Wilson's Agricultural Philosophy," ''Agricultural History,'' Vol. 14, No. 4 (Oct., 1940), pp. 129–142 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/3739508 in JSTOR]

===Foreign policy===
* Ambrosius, Lloyd E., “Woodrow Wilson and George W. Bush: Historical Comparisons of Ends and Means in Their Foreign Policies,” ''Diplomatic History'', 30 (June 2006), 509–43.[[File:Ww-war-1917.jpg|thumb|350px]]
* Bailey; Thomas A. ''Wilson and the Peacemakers: Combining Woodrow Wilson and the Lost Peace and Woodrow Wilson and the Great Betrayal'' (1947)
* Clements, Kendrick, A. ''Woodrow Wilson: World Statesman'' (1999)
* Clements, Kendrick A. ''The Presidency of Woodrow Wilson'' (1992), covers foreign policy
* Clements, Kendrick A. "Woodrow Wilson and World War I," ''Presidential Studies Quarterly'' 34:1 (2004). pp 62+.
* Cooper, John Milton. ''Woodrow Wilson: A Biography'' (2009), 720 pp.
* Davis, Donald E. and Eugene P. Trani; [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=109328821 ''The First Cold War: The Legacy of Woodrow Wilson in U.S.-Soviet Relations''] (2002)
* Greene, Theodore P. ed. ''Wilson at Versailles'' (1957)
* Henderson, Peter V. N. "Woodrow Wilson, Victoriano Huerta, and the Recognition Issue in Mexico," ''The Americas'', Vol. 41, No. 2 (Oct., 1984), pp. 151–176 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1007454 in JSTOR]
* Knock, Thomas J. ''To End All Wars: Woodrow Wilson and the Quest for a New World Order'' (1995)
* Kimitada, Miwa. "Japanese Opinions on Woodrow Wilson in War and Peace," ''Monumenta Nipponica,'' Vol. 22, No. 3/4 (1967), pp. 368–389 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/2383073 in JSTOR]
* Levin, Jr., N. Gordon ''Woodrow Wilson and World Politics: America's Response to War and Revolution'' (1968)
* Link, Arthur Stanley. ''Woodrow Wilson and the Progressive Era, 1910-1917'' (1972) summarizes diplomatic history
* Link, Arthur S.; ''Wilson the Diplomatist: A Look at His Major Foreign Policies'' (1957)
* Link, Arthur S.; ''Woodrow Wilson and a Revolutionary World, 1913-1921'' (1982)
* Magee, Malcolm D. '' What the World Should Be: Woodrow Wilson and the Crafting of a Faith-Based Foreign Policy'' (2008) [http://www.amazon.com/What-World-Should-Be-Faith-based/dp/1602580707/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1259268113&sr=1-1 excerpt and text search]
* May, Ernest R. ''The World War and American Isolation, 1914-1917'' (1959)
* Trani, Eugene P. “Woodrow Wilson and the Decision to Intervene in Russia: A Reconsideration.” ''Journal of Modern History'' (1976). 48:440—61. [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1878747 in JSTOR]
* Walworth, Arthur. ''Wilson and His Peacemakers: American Diplomacy at the Paris Peace Conference, 1919'' [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=104399613 online edition]

===Historiography===
[[File:Ww-cooper.jpg|thumb|280px]]
* Clements, Kendrick A. "The Papers of Woodrow Wilson and the Interpretation of the Wilson Era", ''The History Teacher,'' Vol. 27, No. 4 (Aug., 1994), pp. 475–489 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/494510 in JSTOR]
* Seltzer, Alan L. "Woodrow Wilson as 'Corporate-Liberal': Toward a Reconsideration of Left Revisionist Historiography," ''Western Political Quarterly,'' Vol. 30, No. 2 (Jun., 1977), pp. 183–212 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/447405 in JSTOR]
* Steigerwald, David. The Reclamation of Woodrow Wilson? Diplomatic History; 1999 23(1): 79-99, on foreign policy in [[EBSCO]]; notes that New Left revisionism (by William Appleman Williams and N. Gordon Levin, Jr.) claiming that Wilson's Open Door was a facade for the imperialistic extension of American economic advantage, has faded away
* Watson, Jr., Richard L. "Woodrow Wilson and His Interpreters, 1947-1957," ''Mississippi Valley Historical Review,'' Vol. 44, No. 2 (Sep., 1957), pp. 207–236 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1887188 in JSTOR], summarizes different interpretations as of 1957
* [http://www.millercenter.virginia.edu/index.php/academic/americanpresident/wilson Extensive essay on Woodrow Wilson and shorter essays on each member of his cabinet and First Lady from the Miller Center of Public Affairs]

==Primary sources==
* Pestritto, Ronald J. ed. ''Woodrow Wilson: The Essential Political Writings'' (2005)
* Link, Arthur S., ed. [http://www.pupress.princeton.edu/catalogs/series/pw.html ''The Papers of Woodrow Wilson'' complete in 69 vol, at major academic libraries. Annotated edition of all of WW's letters, speeches and writings plus many letters written to him]
* Tumulty, Joseph P. ''Woodrow Wilson as I Know Him '' (1921) memoir by chief of staff [http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/etext05/8wwik10.txt online edition]
* Wilson, Woodrow. ''The New Freedom'' (1913) 1912 campaign speeches [http://books.google.com/books?id=MW8SAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=inauthor:woodrow+inauthor:wilson&lr=&as_brr=1 online edition]
* [http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/etext04/whwar10h.htm Wilson, Woodrow. ''Why We Are at War'' (1917)] six war messages to Congress, Jan- April 1917
* Wilson, Woodrow. ''Selected Literary & Political Papers & Addresses of Woodrow Wilson'' (3 vol 1918 and later editions)
* Wilson, Woodrow. ''Messages & Papers of Woodrow Wilson'' 2 vol (ISBN 1-135-19812-8)
* Wilson, Woodrow. ''The New Democracy. Presidential Messages, Addresses, and Other Papers (1913-1917)'' 2 vol 1926 (ISBN 0-89875-775-4)
* Wilson, Woodrow. [http://www.usa-presidents.info/speeches/fourteen-points.html ''President Woodrow Wilson's Fourteen Points (1918)''].
* [http://books.google.com/books?as_q=&num=10&btnG=Google+Search&as_epq=&as_oq=&as_eq=&as_brr=1&lr=&as_vt=&as_auth=woodrow+wilson&as_pub=&as_sub=&as_drrb=c&as_miny=&as_maxy=&as_isbn= full text of Wilson books and messages online]

==References==
{{reflist|3}}

==External links==
* [http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/peace/laureates/1919/wilson-bio.html Nobel Prize biography]
* [http://www.nationalreview.com/articles/345274/progressive-racism-paul-rahe Progressive Racism]
* [https://librivox.org/author/2417 Works by Woodrow Wilson - text and free audio] - [[LibriVox]]

{{USPresidents}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Wilson, Woodrow}}

[[Category:Presidents of the United States]]
[[Category:Nobel laureates in Peace]]
[[Category:Children of Clergy]]
[[Category:Progressive Era]]
[[Category:Historians]]
[[Category:Political Scientists]]
[[Category:Diplomacy]]
[[Category:United States History]]
[[Category:New Jersey Governors]]
[[Category:Presbyterians]]
[[Category:Religion and Politics]]
[[Category:Democratic Governors]]
[[Category:Racism]]
[[Category:Liberals]]

Political Science

2017-12-19T02:25:40Z

Haeralis: /* Political scientists and belief in God */

[[File:Donald John Trump.jpg|200px|right|thumbnail|Few, if any, political scientists predicted early on that [[Donald Trump]] would be the leading Republican candidate in the 2016 [[GOP]] primary.

27 percent of American political scientists don't believe in the existence of God, indicating that a surprisingly low number of political scientists identify as atheists.

Compared to [[medical science]] which has many effective medicines and surgical procedures, the social science of political science is often unreliable.]]

'''Political science''' is the study of [[politics]] and related concepts. It is a social science.

== Political scientists and belief in God ==

According to Livescience.com, 31 percent of social scientists don't believe in the existence God. Among social scientists, 27 percent of political scientists don't believe in the existence of God, indicating that a surprisingly low amount of political scientists identify with [[atheism]].<ref>[http://www.livescience.com/379-scientists-belief-god-varies-starkly-discipline.html Scientists belief in God varies starkly by discipline], Livescience.com</ref>

NBC News reported: "In the survey of 1,044 doctors nationwide, 76 percent said they believe in God, 59 percent said they believe in some sort of afterlife, and 55 percent said their religious beliefs influence how they practice medicine."<ref>[http://www.nbcnews.com/id/8318894/ns/health-health_care/t/survey-most-doctors-believe-god-afterlife/ Most doctors believe in God], NBC News</ref>

Compared to [[medical science]] which has many effective medicines and surgical procedures, social science is often unreliable. Few, if any, political scientists predicted early on that [[Donald Trump]] would be the leading Republican candidate in the 2016 [[GOP]] primary.

The political scientist Emily Thorson wrote at the Politico website:
{{cquote|Late last semester, a student showed up during my office hours. She sat down across from me, looking worried. I assumed she wanted to discuss her upcoming paper, but she had something else in mind. “Professor,” she said. “How did Donald Trump happen?”

This is the question everyone seems to be asking these days. Trump’s rise has defied the predictions of pundits and pollsters, repeatedly embarrassing those who swore that he would flame out. I’m a political scientist, and I count myself among that number. In September, I offered my students a $500 bet that he wouldn’t become the Republican nominee — a wager I’m increasingly glad that none of them took me up on.<ref>[http://www.politico.com/magazine/story/2016/03/donald-trump-2016-political-science-213755 5 Political Myths Trump Is Exploding] by Emily Thorson, Politico</ref>}}

==See also==

*[[Aaron Wildavsky]]
*[[Scientists and belief in the existence of God]]

== Notes ==
{{Reflist|colwidth=30em}}

[[Category:Political Science]]

Political Science

2017-12-19T02:24:18Z

Haeralis:

[[File:Donald John Trump.jpg|200px|right|thumbnail|Few, if any, political scientists predicted early on that [[Donald Trump]] would be the leading Republican candidate in the 2016 [[GOP]] primary.

27 percent of American political scientists don't believe in the existence of God, indicating that a surprisingly low number of political scientists identify as atheists.

Compared to [[medical science]] which has many effective medicines and surgical procedures, the social science of political science is often unreliable.]]

'''Political science''' is the study of [[politics]] and related concepts. It is a social science.

== Political scientists and belief in God ==

According to Livescience.com, 31 percent of social scientists don't believe in the existence God. (27 percent of political scientists don't believe in the existence of God).<ref>[http://www.livescience.com/379-scientists-belief-god-varies-starkly-discipline.html Scientists belief in God varies starkly by discipline], Livescience.com</ref>

NBC News reported: "In the survey of 1,044 doctors nationwide, 76 percent said they believe in God, 59 percent said they believe in some sort of afterlife, and 55 percent said their religious beliefs influence how they practice medicine."<ref>[http://www.nbcnews.com/id/8318894/ns/health-health_care/t/survey-most-doctors-believe-god-afterlife/ Most doctors believe in God], NBC News</ref>

Compared to [[medical science]] which has many effective medicines and surgical procedures, social science is often unreliable. Few, if any, political scientists predicted early on that [[Donald Trump]] would be the leading Republican candidate in the 2016 [[GOP]] primary.

The political scientist Emily Thorson wrote at the Politico website:
{{cquote|Late last semester, a student showed up during my office hours. She sat down across from me, looking worried. I assumed she wanted to discuss her upcoming paper, but she had something else in mind. “Professor,” she said. “How did Donald Trump happen?”

This is the question everyone seems to be asking these days. Trump’s rise has defied the predictions of pundits and pollsters, repeatedly embarrassing those who swore that he would flame out. I’m a political scientist, and I count myself among that number. In September, I offered my students a $500 bet that he wouldn’t become the Republican nominee — a wager I’m increasingly glad that none of them took me up on.<ref>[http://www.politico.com/magazine/story/2016/03/donald-trump-2016-political-science-213755 5 Political Myths Trump Is Exploding] by Emily Thorson, Politico</ref>}}

==See also==

*[[Aaron Wildavsky]]
*[[Scientists and belief in the existence of God]]

== Notes ==
{{Reflist|colwidth=30em}}

[[Category:Political Science]]

American liberalism and 21st century political losses

2017-12-17T03:24:47Z

Haeralis: /* American secular leftists and Donald Trump's presidential victory */

In recent years, [[American liberalism|American liberals]] have experienced a number of political losses.

Below are some notable political losses of American [[liberal]]s and their reactions to their losses.
== Barack Obama years and Democratic Party losses ==
[[Image:President Barack Obama.jpg|thumb|200px|[[Barack Obama|Barack Hussein Obama]] ]]

[[Barack Hussein Obama|Barack Obama]], a [[Democrat]], was one of the most liberal presidents in the history of the [[United States]].

''Fox News'' reported in December of 2016:
{{Cquote|The Democratic Party suffered huge losses at every level during Obama’s West Wing tenure.

The grand total: a net loss of 1,042 state and federal Democratic posts, including congressional and state legislative seats, governorships and the presidency.<ref>[http://www.foxnews.com/politics/2016/12/27/democrats-lost-over-1000-seats-under-obama.html Democrats lost over 1,000 seats under Obama], Fox News, December 2016</ref>}}

''FivethirtyEight'' indicated in their 2017 article ''[[Barack Obama]] Won The White House, But Democrats Lost The Country'':
{{Cquote|In his eight years in office, Obama oversaw the rapid erosion of the Democratic Party’s political power in state legislatures, congressional districts and governor’s mansions. At the beginning of Obama’s term, Democrats controlled 59 percent of state legislatures, while now they control only 31 percent, the lowest percentage for the party since the turn of the 20th century. They held 29 governor’s offices and now have only 16, the party’s lowest number since 1920.<ref>[https://fivethirtyeight.com/features/barack-obama-won-the-white-house-but-democrats-lost-the-country/ ''Barack Obama Won The White House, But Democrats Lost The Country''], ''FivethirtyEight'', 2017</ref>}}

== Hillary Clinton vs. Donald Trump presidential election and its aftermath ==
[[File:Donald Trump official presidential photo.jpg|thumbnail|left|200px|The website Marketwatch reported concerning the aftermath of the 2016 presidential race: ''[[Donald Trump|Trump]]’s win is causing a surge in demand for mental health services''<ref>[http://www.marketwatch.com/story/trumps-win-is-causing-a-surge-in-demand-for-mental-health-services-2016-11-10 Trump’s win is causing a surge in demand for mental health services], Marketwatch 2016</ref> (see also: [[Trump Derangement Syndrome]])]]
The [[Republican]] [[Donald Trump]] won the [[United States presidential election, 2016|2016 U.S. presidential race]] over his opponent Democrat [[Hillary Clinton]].

In 2017, Amie Harris reported at ''The Hill'':
{{Cquote|They say her string of remarks explaining her stunning loss in November coupled with the public remarks blaming the Democratic National Committee for the defeat — which many took as also critical of Obama — are hurting the party and making the 2016 candidate look bitter.

Democrats say they’d like Hillary Clinton to take a cue from former President Obama and step out of the spotlight.<ref>[http://thehill.com/homenews/campaign/336172-dems-want-hillary-clinton-to-leave-spotlight Dems want Hillary Clinton to leave spotlight] by AMIE PARNES, The Hill, - 06/04/17</ref>}}

[[Herman Cain]] wrote in his article ''Democrats wallow in bitterness while the rest of the country moves forward'':
{{Cquote|A little roadblock on the way to acceptance.

Most psychologists believe the first three stages of grief are denial, anger and acceptance. The liberals and the Democrats have not gotten past anger, and are displaying a notorious amount of bitterness.

For most liberals and Democrats, acceptance is not even on the table yet. They are now in a stage of bitterness. Some examples of this bitterness:

*Trying to deny the legitimacy of President Trump. It didn't work. It only misled a few blind and gullible Democrat followers into believing that appealing to the Electoral College might change things. It didn't.

*Boycotting the presidential inaugural ceremonies, as we saw from some congressional Democrats and high-profile Hollywood celebrities. It didn't work. Those actions simply embolden those that can't think for themselves!

*Senate Democrats trying to "slow walk" the confirmation of Trump's nominees. That will not work either. The Democrats are just trying to let their misguided followers see that they are not going down without a fight. It doesn't matter if the Democrats are right or wrong. They just have to fight, in their minds, to help them get re-elected in 2018.

*On the afternoon of Inauguration Day 2017, President Trump directed the federal agencies to "ease" the burden of the Unaffordable Care Act on citizens, while a replacement moves through Congress. On the same day, Nancy Pelosi, Minority Leader of the House, issued a blistering statement filled with scare tactics and inaccuracies about the UCA.

*The liberal media described Trump's inaugural address as "dark and divisive". Most of us heard it as positive and optimistic. Trump put the people first, instead of the political class. That's why the liberals thought it was dark.
There is no doubt that the Democrats are still bitter about the presidential election results. Instead of helping to put United back into United States of America, they think their loud negative voices will divide us.<ref>[https://www.hermancain.com/democrats-mired-in-bitterness-while-the-rest https://www.hermancain.com/democrats-mired-in-bitterness-while-the-rest] by Herman Cain</ref>}}

In his ''American Thinker'' article ''Mainstream Media’s Trump Derangement Syndrome Epidemic'' Steve McCann wrote:
{{Cquote|[[Donald Trump]] concluded his second week as President of the United States last Friday. Prompted by virtually every utterance and action of the current President, the never-ending demonstrations and delirium of the professional activist Left as well as the [[Democratic Party]] hierarchy and much of the mainstream media and entertainment cabal has produced perhaps the most memorable and entertaining fortnight in recent American political history. Judging by their permanent state of hysteria it appears that this assemblage of left-wing factions is unaware that there are, at a minimum, 206 weeks remaining in the Trump presidency. Maintaining the current level of frenzy will be a formidable task.<ref>[http://www.americanthinker.com/articles/2017/02/mainstream_medias_trump_derangement_syndrome_epidemic_.html ''Mainstream Media’s Trump Derangement Syndrome Epidemic''] by Steve McCann, ''American Thinker''</ref>}}

=== American secular leftists and Donald Trump's presidential victory ===

''See also:'' [[Secular leftists and psychogenic illness]] and [[Atheism and bitterness]]
and [[Atheism and forgiveness]]

According to the Pew Forum, in the [[United States]]: "About two-thirds of atheists (69%) identify as [[Democrats]] (or lean in that direction), and a majority (56%) call themselves political [[liberal]]s (compared with just one-in-ten who say they are [[conservative]]s).<ref>[http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2015/11/05/7-facts-about-atheists/ 7 facts about atheists], Pew Forum</ref> A Harris interactive poll found that most [[United States|American]] atheists are liberal.<ref>[http://atheism.about.com/od/Atheist-Agnostic-Belief-Survey/a/Atheists-Agnostics-America-Politically-Liberal.htm Atheists & Agnostics in America Tend to be Politically Liberal]</ref>

The website Marketwatch reported concerning the aftermath of the 2016 presidential race: ''[[Donald Trump|Trump]]’s win is causing a surge in demand for mental health services''<ref>[http://www.marketwatch.com/story/trumps-win-is-causing-a-surge-in-demand-for-mental-health-services-2016-11-10 Trump’s win is causing a surge in demand for mental health services], Marketwatch 2016</ref>

The American [[secular left]] handled the election of [[Donald Trump]] very poorly (see: [[Secular leftists and psychogenic illness]]).

=== Bernie Sanders, Bernie Sanders supporters and the 2016 Democratic Party presidential primary ===

''See also:'' [[Bernie Sanders#2016 Campaign|Bernie Sanders and the 2016 Democratic presidential nomination]]

[[File:Sanders.jpg|thumbnail|200px|right|[[Bernie Sanders]] is reluctant to publicly call himself an atheist.<ref name="americablog.com">[http://americablog.com/2016/01/bernie-sanders-mainstreaming-atheism.html Bernie Sanders is mainstreaming atheism in American politics]</ref> See also: [[Closet atheist]] ]]
[[Bernie Sanders]] lost the 2016 Democratic Party nomination to Hillary Clinton.

The political columnist Daniel Greenfield cites the following quote from the the Feelthebern Twitter hashtag:
{{Cquote|But more than any of them, Sanders is himself filled with resentment, on edge, feeling like he gets no respect -- all while holding on in his head to the enticing but remote chance that Clinton may be indicted before the convention."<ref>[INSIDERS: BERNIE SANDERS IS BITTER, ANGRY AND DELUDED] by Daniel Greenfield, Frontpage Magazine, June 2016</ref>}}

Noah Rothman wrote in his 2016 ''Commentary Magazine'' article ''A New Generation of Bitter Liberals''
{{Cquote|Bernie Sanders lost the Iowa caucuses on Monday night to Hillary Clinton. At least, that is what you are expected to believe. The contest was so tight that the final results – [[Hillary Clinton|Clinton]]’s 49.9 percent to Sanders’ 49.6 percent – may mean the difference between just a few hundred votes out of tens of thousands cast. As of Tuesday morning, votes from at least one precinct in Iowa were still missing. Clinton’s ability to turn out her voters in populous parts of the state resulted in a lopsided victory for her in terms of awarded delegates. But the way in which she won some precincts, more than a handful of which were resolved by coin toss, has Sanders supporters fuming.<ref>[https://www.commentarymagazine.com/politics-ideas/new-generation-bitter-liberals/ ''A New Generation of Bitter Liberals''] by Noah Rothman, Commentary Magazine, 2016</ref>}}

== Donald Trump's achievements and political opposition to Trump ==

*[[Donald Trump achievements]]

*[[Opposition to Donald Trump]]

== Al Gore vs. George W. Bush election results and the aftermath ==

''See also:'' [[United States presidential election, 2000]]

[[Image:00-main.jpg|right|thumb|300px|George W. Bush and Al Gore]] In 2000, the United States presidential election was one of the closest and most controversial presidential elections in history. A month of recounts and court challenges followed, culminating in the Supreme Court case ''[[Bush v. Gore]]''. Following the court's 5-4 decision, [[George W. Bush]] was declared the winner over [[Vice President of the United States of America|Vice President]] [[Al Gore]] by 537 votes in the state of [[Florida]]. Domestic issues as opposed to [[foreign policy]] dominated the campaign. Key issues were prescription drug prices, campaign finance reform, [[Social Security]], and [[education]]. Each candidate claimed their economic plan would reduce the deficit. Bush parodied himself as a "[[compassionate conservative]]." The Bush campaign did not make an issue over the sex scandal and impeachment of [[Bill Clinton]]'s Presidency less than two years ago. Gore refused to allow Clinton to campaign and did not himself campaign on the Administration's record of peace and prosperity, and disappointed Democrats by his lackluster performance.
Noah Rothman also wrote in his ''Commentary Magazine'' article ''A New Generation of Bitter Liberals''
{{Cquote|Anyone who believes the 15-year-old wounds resulting from the Supreme Court’s decision in [[George W. Bush|Bush]] v. [[Al Gore|Gore]] must have healed by now should ask a Broward County Democrat for their thoughts on the matter. Resentment among those who perceived themselves to be on the losing end of that decision lingers. The notion that former Vice President Al Gore won the popular vote and yet lost the presidency is perceived even today by partisan Democrats not only as (erroneously) anathema to the foundational precepts of American constitutional governance but a veritable crime. Forget the merits of the case, which decidedly favor the plaintiff. A pervasive sense of victimization continues to animate many a liberal Democrat. You would think a Clinton of all people would have internalized the lessons of 2000. Instead, the likely Democratic presidential nominee and the party she is vying to lead are sowing the seeds of similar discontent that might linger on for years<ref>[https://www.commentarymagazine.com/politics-ideas/new-generation-bitter-liberals/ ''A New Generation of Bitter Liberals''] by Noah Rothman, Commentary Magazine, 2016</ref>}}

== See also ==

*[[Decline of leftism]]
*[[Decline of the secular left]]
*[[Essay: Trump derangement syndrome]]
*[[United States presidential election, 2000]]
*[[Secular leftists and psychogenic illness#Irreligious Britain, Brexit and spike in mental health office visits|British secular leftists and Brexit]]

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

[[Category:Liberalism]]

Star Wars

2017-10-29T18:05:45Z

Haeralis: /* Portrayal of religion */

[[Image:462px-Star wars dvd cover.jpg|right|thumb|Cover of the 2004 [[DVD]] widescreen release of Star Wars Trilogy.]]
:''Note: This article deals with the science fiction saga, not the American [[Strategic Defense Initiative]] (SDI).''

''For the original'' '''Star Wars''' ''film, see'' [[Star Wars Episode IV: A New Hope]].

'''Star Wars''' is a [[science fiction]] film saga and fictional universe created by American director [[George Lucas]]. The original ''Star Wars'' movie (Episode IV) came out on May 25, 1977. The earlier set of ''Star Wars'' movies (''Episodes IV, V, and VI'') are renowned as classics of cinema, and were some of the first "summer blockbusters" ever made. Episodes I, II and III were released in 1999, 2002 and 2005 respectively. All six movies are among the top 50 highest-grossing films of all time.<ref>http://imdb.com/boxoffice/alltimegross</ref> During the time of the Prequel trilogy, Lucas's liberal politics came to the forefront, with there being a more overt left-leaning agenda in the films, including a negative depiction of creating a military as well as some [[George W. Bush]] jabs in the third movie (as well as at least one implied instance of promoting postmodernism via the line "Only a Sith deals in absolutes."). While box office successes, the Prequel Trilogy had controversial reception, with complaints including the creation of Jar-Jar Binks as well as the more overt pushing of politics in the films.
In 1984 and 1985, two spinoff movies to the original trilogy (Episode IV, V, and VI) were made featuring the Ewok characters seen in ''Episode VI: Return of the Jedi''. An animated film called ''Star Wars: The Clone Wars'' was released in 2008. In 2012, [[George Lucas]] sold the franchise to [[Disney]], which plans to make three more movies <ref>http://www.foxnews.com/entertainment/2012/10/30/disney-buying-tar-wars-maker-lucasfilm-for-405b/</ref> ''Star Wars: The Force Awakens'' was released on December 18, 2015, making it second film (the first being The Clone Wars) and the first in the main series, to not be released in May. ''Star Wars Episode VIII'' will follow suit, releasing on December 15, 2017. Episode IX is slated with for a December 20, 2019 release, with J.J. Abrams returning to direct. Overall, with the comics, movies, video games, books of various genres, and toys, it is the second-highest grossing media franchise in existence, with only ''[[Pokemon]]'' surpassing it.

== Main Films ==
*''[[Star Wars Episode I: The Phantom Menace]]''
*''[[Star Wars Episode II: Attack of the Clones]]''
*''[[Star Wars: Episode III - Revenge of the Sith|Star Wars Episode III: Revenge of the Sith]]''
*''[[Star Wars Episode IV: A New Hope]]''
*''[[Star Wars Episode V: The Empire Strikes Back]]''
*''[[Star Wars Episode VI: Return of the Jedi]]''
*''[[Star Wars Episode VII: The Force Awakens]]''
*''[[Star Wars Episode VIII: The Last Jedi]]''
*''Star Wars Episode IX''

==Other Films==
*''Caravan of Courage'' (1984; TV)
*''The Battle for Endor'' (1985; TV)
*''[[Star Wars: The Clone Wars]]'' (2008)
*''[[Rogue One: A Star Wars Story]]'' (2016)
*''Solo: A Star Wars Story'' (2018)
*''Untitled Star Wars anthology film'' (2020)

==Television==
*''Star Wars Holiday Special'' (1978)
*''Droids'' (1985-1986)
*''Ewoks'' (1985-1986)
*''Clone Wars'' (2003-2005)
*''The Clone Wars'' (2008-2014)
*''Rebels'' (2014-Current)

==Origins==
The story of ''Star Wars'' was originally planned to be the third entry of a trilogy focusing on, or more accurately, criticizing the events of American involvement in the Vietnam War, after ''American Graffiti'' (set in 1962) and ''Apocalypse Now'', and as such was intended to initially be in our galaxy as well as take place in the thirty-third century (the implication being that after America won the war in Vietnam, it would become a fascistic dictatorship desiring to conquer the universe). However, ''Apocalypse Now'' ended up changing hands from George Lucas to Francis Ford Coppola due to Warner Bros. shutting down his studio, American Zoetrope. He then made American Graffiti, which indirectly alluded to Vietnam in its plot, which was a moderate success. He eventually decided to revisit the idea of Apocalypse Now in 1973, although because America was still within the Vietnam War, he couldn't directly tie it to the Vietnam War, and upon settling on an idea for subtly pushing the anti-war agenda in the film by moving it to a galaxy far from our own and in the past, he then proceeded to get started on filming after Fox agreed to make it.<ref>http://nypost.com/2014/09/21/how-star-wars-was-secretly-george-lucas-protest-of-vietnam/</ref><ref>http://www.yomyomf.com/star-wars-is-a-metaphor-for-the-vietcong-kicking-american-ass-in-the-vietnam-war/</ref><ref>''How Star Wars Conquered the Universe: The Past, Present and Future of a Multibillion Dollar Franchise'' by Chris Taylor.</ref><ref>''The Making of Star Wars'', pages 7-8; 17 
"I started to work on Star Wars rather than continue on Apocalypse Now. I had worked on Apocalypse Now for about four years and I had very strong feelings about it. I wanted to do it, but could not get it off the ground... A lot of my interest in Apocalypse Now was carried over into Star Wars. I figured I couldn't make that film because it was about the Vietnam War, so I would essentially deal with some of the same interesting concepts that I was going to use and convert them into space fantasy, so you'd have essentially a large technological empire going after a small group of freedom fighters or human beings... a small independent country like North Vietnam threatened by a neighbor or provincial rebellion, instigated by gangsters aided by empire. [...] The empire is like America ten years from now, after Nixonian gangsters assassinated the Emperor and were elevated to power in a rigged election; created civil disorder by instigating race riots aiding rebel groups and allowing the crime rate to rise to the point where a 'total control' police state was welcomed by the people. Then the people were exploited with high taxes, utility and transport costs"</ref> During Cannes Film Festival 2005, George Lucas also implied that, in addition to the direct inspiration by Nixon and the Vietnam War (as well as the more indirect similarities in the films to the second Iraq war and George W. Bush), the Old Republic in the prequel trilogy took inspiration from the First French Republic under Robespierre, the Roman Republic under Julius Caesar, and the Weimar Republic, and the transition of power into the Empire, and in particular the implication that the people willingly turned democracy into a dictatorship, was taken from when Napoleon Bonaparte took over France, when the Roman Republic shortly after Julius Caesar's assassination turned into the Roman Empire under Augustus, and the Weimar Republic turned into Nazi Germany and brought Adolf Hitler into power.<ref>http://www.cbsnews.com/news/sith-invites-bush-comparisons/2/ 
"Lucas said he patterned his story after historical transformations from freedom to fascism, never figuring when he started his prequel trilogy in the late 1990s that current events might parallel his space fantasy. 
"As you go through history, I didn't think it was going to get quite this close. So it's just one of those recurring things," Lucas said at a Cannes news conference. "I hope this doesn't come true in our country. 
"Maybe the film will waken people to the situation," Lucas joked 
[...] 
"When I wrote it, [the 2003 Iraq war] didn't exist," Lucas said, laughing. 
"We were just funding Saddam Hussein and giving him weapons of mass destruction. We didn't think of him as an enemy at that time. We were going after Iran and using him as our surrogate, just as we were doing in Vietnam. ... The parallels between what we did in Vietnam and what we're doing in Iraq now are unbelievable." 
The prequel trilogy is based on a back-story outline Lucas created in the mid-1970s for the original three "Star Wars" movies, so the themes percolated out of the Vietnam War and the Nixon-Watergate era, he said. 
Lucas began researching how democracies can turn into dictatorships with full consent of the electorate.In ancient Rome, "why did the senate after killing Caesar turn around and give the government to his nephew?" Lucas said. "Why did France after they got rid of the king and that whole system turn around and give it to Napoleon? It's the same thing with Germany and Hitler. 
"You sort of see these recurring themes where a democracy turns itself into a dictatorship, and it always seems to happen kind of in the same way, with the same kinds of issues, and threats from the outside, needing more control. A democratic body, a senate, not being able to function properly because everybody's squabbling, there's corruption.""</ref><ref>https://usatoday30.usatoday.com/life/movies/news/2005-05-15-cannes-lucas_x.htm</ref>

==Development of the Monomyth==

[[George Lucas]] built on the idea of the [[monomyth]] - a dominant mythic structure that resounds strongly with the human psyche - in structuring his narrative. He consulted closely with [[Joseph Campbell]], author of the book, "Hero of a Thousand Faces," in his utilizing of the [[monomyth]] structure for the movie. In ''Star Wars'' (now known as Star Wars Episode IV: A New Hope), the reluctant hero is [[Luke Skywalker]], the teacher [[Obi-Wan Kenobi]], and the archetype villain [[Darth Vader]].

==Fan Films==
There have been many short films created by Star Wars Fans. One major website is www.fanfilms.com; which contains many fanfilms including TROOPS, The Essence of The Force, The Jedi Hunter, the Pink Five trilogy, Revelations, and Ryan Vs. Dorkman 1 and 2. One major high-quality fan based movie is I.M.P.S: The Relentless; which can be found at www.impstherelentless.com, and is the first chapter of a future full-length, chapter-based movie based on the Imperial Starship Relentless and her crew.

==Expanded Universe==
Since the success of the film [[franchise]], Lucasfilm has licensed a number of novels, comic books, and video games that take place in the Star Wars universe, otherwise known as the Expanded Universe (EU). Hundreds of novels and comics and dozens of video games have been, and continue to be produced. Although these spin-off media often take place before, after or in between the films, some take place in "alternate realities." A major focus of the EU is to feature characters not on-screen or only briefly shown in the films. All officially licensed works are considered canon, except in places where they contradict the films. There are also two cartoon series and three TV movies, two about the Ewoks and the Star Wars Holiday Special, which represented a secularized version of [[Christmas]] for Wookiees known as "Life Day." The last has been disowned by Lucas due to its incredibly poor quality, however an animated sequence from the special featuring Boba Fett was released as an easter egg on the Star Wars [[Blu-ray]] collection.

Of note is [[Star Wars: The Clone Wars]], the only part of the Expanded Universe to reach the big screen.

After the franchise was bought out by [[The Walt Disney Company]], a new expanded universe was established, with the old one being designated as "Legends" material.

== Prequel Trilogy ==
From 1999-2005, George Lucas released Episodes I, II, and III of the Star Wars saga. Although released after the original films, they take place prior to them. The films tell the story of Anakin Skywalker, from being discovered on Tatooine, his Jedi training, his role in the Clone Wars, and ultimately, how he becomes Darth Vader. The films have been met with mixed reaction. Out of the three, ''Star Wars Episode III: Revenge of the Sith'', is generally considered the best of the prequels.

== The Franchise ==
The Star Wars film series and its expanded universe has been a large revenue producer. As of 2005 the Star Wars franchise has produced over $20 billion.<ref>http://www.forbes.com/2005/05/12/cx_ah_0512starwars.html</ref> With the release of the expanded universe series it has increased.

== Portrayal of religion ==

George Lucas has stated that he came up with the idea of "The Force" as he wanted to promote a vague idea of hollow Hollywood-style spirituality without referencing any recognizable religion. Despite this, the depiction of the philosophy and beliefs of the Jedi seem to be a way to promote eastern mysticism (in particular Buddhism) and undermine Christianity in the movie's western audience.<ref>http://www.wired.com/wired/archive/13.05/lucas.html?pg=3</ref> This is typical of the [[new age movement|New Age movement]]'s tendency to use parts of different religions willy-nilly without any structure of sense, and shows the influence of Lucas growing up in 1960's California, which he had briefly referenced in an interview regarding his film Red Tails.<ref>http://www.cbsnews.com/news/george-lucas-billionaire-down-on-capitalism/</ref> In addition, the Sith and Empire, largely due to Lucas's attempts at trying to push an anti-Vietnam War message within the movie, come across as being closer to Western religions than the Jedi.<ref>http://www.dailywire.com/news/2037/force-star-wars-stupid-and-immoral-ben-shapiro</ref> Lucas is strongly liberal and actually describes himself as a "Buddhist Methodist".<ref>http://www.adherents.com/people/pl/George_Lucas.html</ref> In large part because of the Force largely being based on new-age elements, the commentator Ben Shapiro, otherwise a massive ''Star Wars'' fan, condemns the concept of the Force as being "stupid" and "amoral" largely because of the implication that having any anger at all automatically means you are an evil person, even if the anger in question is actually directed towards something that actually is an evil act.<ref>http://www.dailywire.com/news/2037/force-star-wars-stupid-and-immoral-ben-shapiro</ref>

On the other hand, [[moral relativism]] is negatively portrayed and associated with evil in Star Wars Episode III: Revenge of the Sith. Upon stating that evil is simply a point of view, Anakin is berated by Obi-Wan and his worldview is condemned. "From my point of view," Anakin states, "the Jedi are evil." Obi-Wan responds by claiming that this means that he is "lost" to darkness.

== Controversy ==

Similar to other works, Star Wars fell under some controversy at some points. When covering Return of the Jedi in Empire of Dreams, George Lucas admitted that he based the Ewoks on the Vietnamese National Liberation Front, otherwise known as the [[Viet Cong]], while implying that the Galactic Empire was intended to be based on America's involvement in the Vietnam War. It should also be noted that George Lucas since 1973 had intended for the Rebel Alliance was intended to represent the Viet Cong, and as noted above the first ''Star Wars'' movie had intended to be the third of a trilogy of anti-Vietnam War films, after ''Apocalypse Now'' and ''American Graffiti''.

==Miscellaneous==

''Star Wars'' became forever linked to politics when a [[Strategic Defense Initiative|missile-defense plan]], devised under the Reagan administration, was nicknamed Star Wars. Attempts to bring back such a system are still referred to by this name. Ironically, the name "Star Wars" being applied to the SDI was originally coined by left-wing journalists as an insult towards the program. In addition, despite the moniker actually being invented by the mainstream media rather than Ronald Reagan himself, George Lucas held a grudge against Reagan for "stealing" his work when naming it.

==Special Editions==

In recent years, ''Star Wars'' has become infamous for its re-releases, as well as edits to the film that have been met with heavy criticism from fans. In 1997, in honor of the 20th anniversary of ''A New Hope'', the Original Trilogy was released in theaters, with a film being released each month from January to March. Later that year, the trilogy was released on VHS. It was during this release of the original films that the alterations began. Some of the most infamous changes include Greedo proceeding to shoot first and missing despite being inches away from Han before Han shot him when originally, Han Solo shot first (Lucas, when discussing this particular change, would later claim to the Hollywood Reporter that it was "always Greedo shooting first" and that they just did closeups and that they went back to the original intention to dissuade any notions that Han was a "cold blooded killer"<ref>http://www.hollywoodreporter.com/heat-vision/george-lucas-star-wars-interview-288523</ref> despite Han shooting first being mentioned in a shooting script<ref>http://www.giantfreakinrobot.com/scifi/george-lucas-claims-han-shot-stupid-liar.html</ref>), as well as Jabba the Hutt being added to ''A New Hope'', which was created from a deleted scene in which Jabba was played by an actor. The same scene also included a cameo from Boba Fett, who first appeared in ''The Empire Strikes Back''. Out of the 1997 re-releases, ''The Empire Strikes Back'' received the least amount of changes, with the most significant being different angles in the wampa cave on Hoth. Another was Luke's scream when falling after the duel with Darth Vader. The scream was actually used for Emperor Palpatine when he is thrown down the Death Star by Darth Vader in ''Return of the Jedi.'' In ''Return of the Jedi'', the music from Jabba's palace was changed, as was the ending of the film. The sarlacc scene was altered as well, with a CGI beak being added. The original ending featured the song called "Yub Nub", with just the celebration on Endor. The 1997 version would feature a new song, simply called "Victory Celebration," which has a more tribal sound than "Yub Nub". Scenes were added featuring celebrations occurring on Bespin, Tatooine, and Coruscant following Palpatine's downfall, even though ''Star Wars Episode I: The Phantom Menace'' was still two years away from release.

In 2004, the Original Trilogy was released on DVD for the first time, eight months before the release of ''Star Wars Episode III: Revenge of the Sith''. These releases featured even more changes. In ''A New Hope'', Jabba's appearance was altered to look more like he did in ''Return of the Jedi''. In ''The Empire Strikes Back'', the scene in which Darth Vader talks to Palpatine was altered. Elaine Baker, who played the Emperor, and Clive Revill, who provided the voice, were replaced with Ian McDiarmid. McDiarmid played Palpatine in ''Return of the Jedi'' as well as the Prequel Trilogy. The way the Emperor looks in ''The Empire Strikes Back'' is similar to his appearance in ''Revenge of the Sith''. The voice of Boba Fett was also changed. Temuera Morrison, who played Jango Fett in ''Star Wars Episode II: Attack of the Clones'', provided the voice. Out of the three original films, ''Return of the Jedi'' has the most notorious changes. The first was the inclusion of a celebration scene on Naboo in the ending following Palpatine's death, as well as a Gungan saying "Wesa Free!" in the background. The second was Sebastian Shaw, the actor who played Anakin Skywalker as a force ghost being edited out from the Endor celebration scene and replaced with Hayden Christensen. The reason provided for the change was that he "died as a Jedi" in ''Revenge of the Sith'', hence why he looks the same.

2011 saw the entire saga released on Blu-Ray. Like the 2004 releases, these films also had significant changes. In ''A New Hope'', rock were included in the small cave that R2-D2 was hiding in when they were found by Obi-Wan Kenobi. Like 2004, ''Return of the Jedi'', once again, had the most talked about changes. The first was that the eyes of the Ewoks could now blink. The second, and most controversial, was when Darth Vader screamed "No!" right before throwing the Emperor down the Death Star shaft. This set also saw an alteration to the Prequel Trilogy. In ''The Phantom Menace'', the puppet Yoda was replaced with a CGI model used in ''Attack of the Clones'' and ''Revenge of the Sith''.

When Disney bought Lucasfilm in 2012, many fans hoped this would mean a release of the Original Unaltered Trilogy. However, the rights to ''A New Hope'' permanently belong to 20th Century Fox, while the rights to the Prequel Trilogy, ''The Empire Strikes Back'', and ''Return of the Jedi'' revert to Disney in the year 2020.

== See also ==
*[[The Hidden Fortress]]

==References==
<references />

[[Category:Star Wars| ]]
[[Category:Fiction]]
[[Category:Movies]]
[[Category:Novels]]
[[Category:Survivalist Fiction]]
[[Category:Dystopian Fiction]]
[[Category:Science Fiction]]
[[Category:1970s]]

St. Thomas Aquinas

2017-10-15T18:48:26Z

Haeralis: /* Political Philosophy */

{{Christianity}}
[[Image:Saint Thomas Aquinas.jpg|left|thumb|St. Thomas Aquinas]]
'''St. Thomas Aquinas''' (1225-1274) "The Angelic Doctor" was a [[Dominican Order|Dominican]] friar who wrote ''[[Summa Theologica]]''. Many consider this to be the most perfect and complete summary of [[Christian]] [[theology]], and he established an entire type of Christian [[philosophy]] known as "Thomism", which is followed to this day. Aquinas was somewhat controversial during his life, but was quickly revered by the [[Catholic Church]] after his death. Many of the controversies surrounding Aquinas stem from his synthesis of [[Aristotle]]an philosophy with Christian philosophy, causing him to break with many of the traditionally held philosophical and theological positions espoused by the dominant Augustinian synthesis of Neoplatonic philosophy and Christianity.

He developed five proofs for the existence of [[God]] using logic. The first three were "cosmological" proofs rather than the "ontological" approach of [[St. Anselm]]. A cosmological proof deals with the natural order of the universe. Aquinas' most famous cosmological argument was that whatever is in motion (for example, us) must have been put in motion by something else (our parents). They, in turn, must have been put in motion by something else (their parents). But this sequence cannot go on to [[infinity]]. There must have been a first mover. This we call "God".

Saint Thomas had a different view of [[Fall of man|the fall]] than those later developed by [[Calvin]] and [[Luther]]. He did not view man as totally depraved, but rather that his will was weakened and his intellect clouded. Nonetheless, his nature was not totally corrupted, for as created by God he remained essentially good. Nevertheless, man cannot attain [[salvation]] on his own, but is in need of [[grace]]. Though human intellect is imperfect, unassisted human reason can still understand many of the truths about God. For instance: the existence of God can be shown from the nature of the created [[universe]]. However, certain things are only knowable through Divine Revelation such as the [[Catholic doctrine|doctrine]] of the [[Blessed Trinity]]. Because of his view of the power of the human mind, though harmed by the fall but not totally destroyed, the works of the classical, secular philosophers could be brought into the service of Christian theology. [[Charles Murray]] wrote, "Aquinas made the case, eventually adopted by the Church, that human intelligence is a gift from God, and that to apply human intelligence to understanding the world is not an affront to God but is pleasing to him." <ref>http://www.amconmag.com/11_17_03/review.html</ref>

Saint Thomas wrote many theological and philosophical books and composed several beautiful hymns. Hailed as a masterpiece, his work [[Summa Theologica]] gives humanity a childlike revelation of [[God]]. The book was never completed, though it contains more than 2 million words.<ref>[http://www.religion-online.org/showarticle.asp?title=3266 Second Chance for Thomas] Religion-Online.org</ref> After a religious vision / experience, he stopped writing explaining, “All that I have written seems to me like straw compared to what has now been revealed to me.”<ref>[http://www.philosophyofreligion.info/?page_id=103], Philosophy of Religion- Historic Figures</ref> He died three months later at the monastery of Fossanova, one mile from Sonnino, on March 7, 1274

The entire ''Summa'' provides simple and direct illuminations into the nature of God: '''"It can be proved in five ways that God exists."''' <ref>[http://www.catholicism.org/thomas-aquinas.html], Saint Thomas Aquinas Biography</ref> The basic format of the arguments in the ''Summa'' begin with a few brief postulates about the nature of God followed by a series of reasonable objections to those assertions. A flaw in the [[logic]] of the objections is raised and the objections are systematically answered by logical counterarguments, bringing the argument to a conclusion supporting the original postulates.

[[Summa Theologica]] is divided into three parts and contains 27 questions:

The first part ''Prima Pars'' (God and what precedes from Him)

The second part ''Prima Secundae and Secunda Secundae'' (Law and Grace, Charity and Justice)

The third part ''Tertia Pars'' (Christ who as man is our way to God)

Concerning the nature of God, Aquinas found that the best approach, commonly called the "via negativa", is to consider what God is not. This led him to propose five positive statements about the divine qualities:

*1. God is simple, without composition of parts, such as body and soul, or matter and form.
*2. God is perfect, lacking nothing. That is, God is distinguished from other beings on account of God's complete actuality.
*3. God is [[infinity|infinite]]. That is, God is not finite in the ways that created beings are physically, intellectually, and emotionally limited. This infinity is to be distinguished from infinity of size and infinity of number.
*4. God is immutable, incapable of change on the levels of God's essence and character.
*5. God is one, without diversification within God's self. The unity of God is such that God's essence is the same as God's existence. In Aquinas's words, "in itself the proposition 'God exists' is necessarily true, for in it subject and predicate are the same."

St. Thomas Aquinas is further known for his famous observation that the [[Devil]] cannot withstand mockery.

July 18, 1323, Thomas Aquinas was canonized as a Saint by Pope John XXII at Avignon

In 1567, St. Thomas Aquinas received the title Doctor of the Church or 'Angelic Doctor'. In the 2000-year history of Christ, he is one of only 33 with that designation.

==Early in Life==
As a young child, his parents sent him to study at a monastery when five years old.

Thomas studied and earned his master's degree at the University of [[Paris]], the year 1245.

== Liberalism ==
Some conservatives have argued that Thomas Aquinas was an important influence on the development of liberalism due to his optimism in human reason. The conservative Senator John P. East, a former professor of political philosophy, wrote:

"To put the matter bluntly, modern liberal Catholicism, and its non-Catholic associates, have preferred Aquinas over Augustine. Leo XIII set the tone in Aeterni Patris. He acknowledged the greatness of Augustine, but indicated that this early Saint is a stepping stone on the way to the summit, which is Aquinas. As Aquinas showed that faith and reason are compatible, the Pope contended his philosophy would serve as a bridgebuilder to the secular rationalist. Aquinas’ reliance upon “reason” has great appeal to modern liberals; however, the matter broadens beyond that, for Aquinas leads to Aristotle, while Augustine points to Plato, and within liberal thinking the former two are preferred."<ref>John P. East, “The Political Relevance of St. Augustine,” Modern Age 16 (Spring, 1972), 168.</ref>

[[Richard M. Weaver]] in ''Ideas Have Consequences,'' argued that Thomas Aquinas' imposition of Aristotle on the Roman Catholic Church caused the church to turn away from rigorous morality and to accept pragmatic acquiescence to the world.<ref>Richard M. Weaver, Ideas Have Consequences (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1948), 119.</ref>

The Christian apologist and philosopher [[Francis Schaeffer]] offered a similar indictment on Thomas Aquinas in ''Escape from Reason''. Schaeffer argued that Aquinas "separated nature from grace," and allowed for the study of the earthly realm to be entirely removed from the study of Christianity. In doing so, he "laid the groundwork for the Humanistic Renaissance" and the "autonomous individual." Schaeffer reprimanded Aquinas for his belief in the intrinsic goodness of man—a radically unconservative persuasion. Aquinas believed that, though the will was affected by the fall, the intellect was not. Thus, reasoning and philosophy became free to be pursued without subjugation to the limitations of the Scriptures and divine revelation. Schaeffer viewed Aquinas as one of the founding fathers of liberal modernity, accrediting to him some responsibility for the Renaissance and the Enlightenment. In Schaeffer's words, "...Aquinas had opened the way to an autonomous Humanism, an autonomous philosophy, and once the movement gained momentum, there was soon a flood."<ref>Francis Schaeffer, Escape from Reason (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 1968), 9-18. </ref>

== Political Philosophy ==
Unlike many conservatives, Thomas Aquinas did not strenuously uphold the intrinsic merit of property rights and the Biblical prohibition on theft. Of theft, he wrote that "It is not theft, properly speaking, to take secretly and use another's property in a case of extreme need: Because that which he takes for the support of his life becomes his own property by reason of that need."<ref>https://books.google.com/books?id=6IocPeCoVFgC&pg=PA42&lpg=PA42&dq=It+is+not+theft,+properly+speaking,+to+take+secretly+and+use+another%27s+property+in+a+case+of+extreme+need:+Because+that+which+he+takes+for+the+support+of+his+life+becomes+his+own+property+by+reason+of+that+need&source=bl&ots=E_BgCJN47l&sig=VbAU1bJaaGVd9-61oRcm4q_eMBg&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwj7g92OpfPWAhVL9IMKHWvSA0kQ6AEIOTAD#v=onepage&q=It%20is%20not%20theft%2C%20properly%20speaking%2C%20to%20take%20secretly%20and%20use%20another's%20property%20in%20a%20case%20of%20extreme%20need%3A%20Because%20that%20which%20he%20takes%20for%20the%20support%20of%20his%20life%20becomes%20his%20own%20property%20by%20reason%20of%20that%20need&f=false</ref>

== In literature ==
In [[Dante's Paradiso]], Thomas Aquinas appears in the [[Heaven]] of the [[Sun]], alongside other great thinkers including [[King Solomon]]. There, he and the other learned men move in a heavenly dance - a slightly incongruous image given that Aquinas was famously corpulent in life, earning the somewhat irreverent nickname "the [[Ox]] of [[God]]."

== See also ==

*[[Christianity in Conservapedia]]

==External links==
*[http://www.amconmag.com/11_17_03/review.html Culture's Bell Curve] - a review of [[Charles Murray]]'s ''Human Accomplishment''
*[http://www.qfrases.com/english/thomas_aquinas.php Thomas Aquinas quotes]

==References==
<references/>

{{DEFAULTSORT:Aquinas, St. Thomas}}

[[Category:Saints]]
[[Category:Theologians]]
[[Category:Catholic Church]]
[[Category:Philosophers]]
[[Category:Christian Authors]]
[[Category:Christians]]

St. Thomas Aquinas

2017-10-15T18:47:55Z

Haeralis:

{{Christianity}}
[[Image:Saint Thomas Aquinas.jpg|left|thumb|St. Thomas Aquinas]]
'''St. Thomas Aquinas''' (1225-1274) "The Angelic Doctor" was a [[Dominican Order|Dominican]] friar who wrote ''[[Summa Theologica]]''. Many consider this to be the most perfect and complete summary of [[Christian]] [[theology]], and he established an entire type of Christian [[philosophy]] known as "Thomism", which is followed to this day. Aquinas was somewhat controversial during his life, but was quickly revered by the [[Catholic Church]] after his death. Many of the controversies surrounding Aquinas stem from his synthesis of [[Aristotle]]an philosophy with Christian philosophy, causing him to break with many of the traditionally held philosophical and theological positions espoused by the dominant Augustinian synthesis of Neoplatonic philosophy and Christianity.

He developed five proofs for the existence of [[God]] using logic. The first three were "cosmological" proofs rather than the "ontological" approach of [[St. Anselm]]. A cosmological proof deals with the natural order of the universe. Aquinas' most famous cosmological argument was that whatever is in motion (for example, us) must have been put in motion by something else (our parents). They, in turn, must have been put in motion by something else (their parents). But this sequence cannot go on to [[infinity]]. There must have been a first mover. This we call "God".

Saint Thomas had a different view of [[Fall of man|the fall]] than those later developed by [[Calvin]] and [[Luther]]. He did not view man as totally depraved, but rather that his will was weakened and his intellect clouded. Nonetheless, his nature was not totally corrupted, for as created by God he remained essentially good. Nevertheless, man cannot attain [[salvation]] on his own, but is in need of [[grace]]. Though human intellect is imperfect, unassisted human reason can still understand many of the truths about God. For instance: the existence of God can be shown from the nature of the created [[universe]]. However, certain things are only knowable through Divine Revelation such as the [[Catholic doctrine|doctrine]] of the [[Blessed Trinity]]. Because of his view of the power of the human mind, though harmed by the fall but not totally destroyed, the works of the classical, secular philosophers could be brought into the service of Christian theology. [[Charles Murray]] wrote, "Aquinas made the case, eventually adopted by the Church, that human intelligence is a gift from God, and that to apply human intelligence to understanding the world is not an affront to God but is pleasing to him." <ref>http://www.amconmag.com/11_17_03/review.html</ref>

Saint Thomas wrote many theological and philosophical books and composed several beautiful hymns. Hailed as a masterpiece, his work [[Summa Theologica]] gives humanity a childlike revelation of [[God]]. The book was never completed, though it contains more than 2 million words.<ref>[http://www.religion-online.org/showarticle.asp?title=3266 Second Chance for Thomas] Religion-Online.org</ref> After a religious vision / experience, he stopped writing explaining, “All that I have written seems to me like straw compared to what has now been revealed to me.”<ref>[http://www.philosophyofreligion.info/?page_id=103], Philosophy of Religion- Historic Figures</ref> He died three months later at the monastery of Fossanova, one mile from Sonnino, on March 7, 1274

The entire ''Summa'' provides simple and direct illuminations into the nature of God: '''"It can be proved in five ways that God exists."''' <ref>[http://www.catholicism.org/thomas-aquinas.html], Saint Thomas Aquinas Biography</ref> The basic format of the arguments in the ''Summa'' begin with a few brief postulates about the nature of God followed by a series of reasonable objections to those assertions. A flaw in the [[logic]] of the objections is raised and the objections are systematically answered by logical counterarguments, bringing the argument to a conclusion supporting the original postulates.

[[Summa Theologica]] is divided into three parts and contains 27 questions:

The first part ''Prima Pars'' (God and what precedes from Him)

The second part ''Prima Secundae and Secunda Secundae'' (Law and Grace, Charity and Justice)

The third part ''Tertia Pars'' (Christ who as man is our way to God)

Concerning the nature of God, Aquinas found that the best approach, commonly called the "via negativa", is to consider what God is not. This led him to propose five positive statements about the divine qualities:

*1. God is simple, without composition of parts, such as body and soul, or matter and form.
*2. God is perfect, lacking nothing. That is, God is distinguished from other beings on account of God's complete actuality.
*3. God is [[infinity|infinite]]. That is, God is not finite in the ways that created beings are physically, intellectually, and emotionally limited. This infinity is to be distinguished from infinity of size and infinity of number.
*4. God is immutable, incapable of change on the levels of God's essence and character.
*5. God is one, without diversification within God's self. The unity of God is such that God's essence is the same as God's existence. In Aquinas's words, "in itself the proposition 'God exists' is necessarily true, for in it subject and predicate are the same."

St. Thomas Aquinas is further known for his famous observation that the [[Devil]] cannot withstand mockery.

July 18, 1323, Thomas Aquinas was canonized as a Saint by Pope John XXII at Avignon

In 1567, St. Thomas Aquinas received the title Doctor of the Church or 'Angelic Doctor'. In the 2000-year history of Christ, he is one of only 33 with that designation.

==Early in Life==
As a young child, his parents sent him to study at a monastery when five years old.

Thomas studied and earned his master's degree at the University of [[Paris]], the year 1245.

== Liberalism ==
Some conservatives have argued that Thomas Aquinas was an important influence on the development of liberalism due to his optimism in human reason. The conservative Senator John P. East, a former professor of political philosophy, wrote:

"To put the matter bluntly, modern liberal Catholicism, and its non-Catholic associates, have preferred Aquinas over Augustine. Leo XIII set the tone in Aeterni Patris. He acknowledged the greatness of Augustine, but indicated that this early Saint is a stepping stone on the way to the summit, which is Aquinas. As Aquinas showed that faith and reason are compatible, the Pope contended his philosophy would serve as a bridgebuilder to the secular rationalist. Aquinas’ reliance upon “reason” has great appeal to modern liberals; however, the matter broadens beyond that, for Aquinas leads to Aristotle, while Augustine points to Plato, and within liberal thinking the former two are preferred."<ref>John P. East, “The Political Relevance of St. Augustine,” Modern Age 16 (Spring, 1972), 168.</ref>

[[Richard M. Weaver]] in ''Ideas Have Consequences,'' argued that Thomas Aquinas' imposition of Aristotle on the Roman Catholic Church caused the church to turn away from rigorous morality and to accept pragmatic acquiescence to the world.<ref>Richard M. Weaver, Ideas Have Consequences (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1948), 119.</ref>

The Christian apologist and philosopher [[Francis Schaeffer]] offered a similar indictment on Thomas Aquinas in ''Escape from Reason''. Schaeffer argued that Aquinas "separated nature from grace," and allowed for the study of the earthly realm to be entirely removed from the study of Christianity. In doing so, he "laid the groundwork for the Humanistic Renaissance" and the "autonomous individual." Schaeffer reprimanded Aquinas for his belief in the intrinsic goodness of man—a radically unconservative persuasion. Aquinas believed that, though the will was affected by the fall, the intellect was not. Thus, reasoning and philosophy became free to be pursued without subjugation to the limitations of the Scriptures and divine revelation. Schaeffer viewed Aquinas as one of the founding fathers of liberal modernity, accrediting to him some responsibility for the Renaissance and the Enlightenment. In Schaeffer's words, "...Aquinas had opened the way to an autonomous Humanism, an autonomous philosophy, and once the movement gained momentum, there was soon a flood."<ref>Francis Schaeffer, Escape from Reason (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 1968), 9-18. </ref>

== Political Philosophy ==
Unlike many conservatives, Thomas Aquinas did not strenuously uphold the intrinsic merit of property rights and the Biblical prohibition on theft. Of theft, he wrote that "It is not theft, properly speaking, to take secretly and use another's property in a case of extreme need: Because that which he takes for the support of his life becomes his own property by reason of that need."

== In literature ==
In [[Dante's Paradiso]], Thomas Aquinas appears in the [[Heaven]] of the [[Sun]], alongside other great thinkers including [[King Solomon]]. There, he and the other learned men move in a heavenly dance - a slightly incongruous image given that Aquinas was famously corpulent in life, earning the somewhat irreverent nickname "the [[Ox]] of [[God]]."

== See also ==

*[[Christianity in Conservapedia]]

==External links==
*[http://www.amconmag.com/11_17_03/review.html Culture's Bell Curve] - a review of [[Charles Murray]]'s ''Human Accomplishment''
*[http://www.qfrases.com/english/thomas_aquinas.php Thomas Aquinas quotes]

==References==
<references/>

{{DEFAULTSORT:Aquinas, St. Thomas}}

[[Category:Saints]]
[[Category:Theologians]]
[[Category:Catholic Church]]
[[Category:Philosophers]]
[[Category:Christian Authors]]
[[Category:Christians]]

St. Thomas Aquinas

2017-10-11T14:53:27Z

Haeralis: /* Liberalism */

{{Christianity}}
[[Image:Saint Thomas Aquinas.jpg|left|thumb|St. Thomas Aquinas]]
'''St. Thomas Aquinas''' (1225-1274) "The Angelic Doctor" was a [[Dominican Order|Dominican]] friar who wrote ''[[Summa Theologica]]''. Many consider this to be the most perfect and complete summary of [[Christian]] [[theology]], and he established an entire type of Christian [[philosophy]] known as "Thomism", which is followed to this day. Aquinas was somewhat controversial during his life, but was quickly revered by the [[Catholic Church]] after his death. Many of the controversies surrounding Aquinas stem from his synthesis of [[Aristotle]]an philosophy with Christian philosophy, causing him to break with many of the traditionally held philosophical and theological positions espoused by the dominant Augustinian synthesis of Neoplatonic philosophy and Christianity.

He developed five proofs for the existence of [[God]] using logic. The first three were "cosmological" proofs rather than the "ontological" approach of [[St. Anselm]]. A cosmological proof deals with the natural order of the universe. Aquinas' most famous cosmological argument was that whatever is in motion (for example, us) must have been put in motion by something else (our parents). They, in turn, must have been put in motion by something else (their parents). But this sequence cannot go on to [[infinity]]. There must have been a first mover. This we call "God".

Saint Thomas had a different view of [[Fall of man|the fall]] than those later developed by [[Calvin]] and [[Luther]]. He did not view man as totally depraved, but rather that his will was weakened and his intellect clouded. Nonetheless, his nature was not totally corrupted, for as created by God he remained essentially good. Nevertheless, man cannot attain [[salvation]] on his own, but is in need of [[grace]]. Though human intellect is imperfect, unassisted human reason can still understand many of the truths about God. For instance: the existence of God can be shown from the nature of the created [[universe]]. However, certain things are only knowable through Divine Revelation such as the [[Catholic doctrine|doctrine]] of the [[Blessed Trinity]]. Because of his view of the power of the human mind, though harmed by the fall but not totally destroyed, the works of the classical, secular philosophers could be brought into the service of Christian theology. [[Charles Murray]] wrote, "Aquinas made the case, eventually adopted by the Church, that human intelligence is a gift from God, and that to apply human intelligence to understanding the world is not an affront to God but is pleasing to him." <ref>http://www.amconmag.com/11_17_03/review.html</ref>

Saint Thomas wrote many theological and philosophical books and composed several beautiful hymns. Hailed as a masterpiece, his work [[Summa Theologica]] gives humanity a childlike revelation of [[God]]. The book was never completed, though it contains more than 2 million words.<ref>[http://www.religion-online.org/showarticle.asp?title=3266 Second Chance for Thomas] Religion-Online.org</ref> After a religious vision / experience, he stopped writing explaining, “All that I have written seems to me like straw compared to what has now been revealed to me.”<ref>[http://www.philosophyofreligion.info/?page_id=103], Philosophy of Religion- Historic Figures</ref> He died three months later at the monastery of Fossanova, one mile from Sonnino, on March 7, 1274

The entire ''Summa'' provides simple and direct illuminations into the nature of God: '''"It can be proved in five ways that God exists."''' <ref>[http://www.catholicism.org/thomas-aquinas.html], Saint Thomas Aquinas Biography</ref> The basic format of the arguments in the ''Summa'' begin with a few brief postulates about the nature of God followed by a series of reasonable objections to those assertions. A flaw in the [[logic]] of the objections is raised and the objections are systematically answered by logical counterarguments, bringing the argument to a conclusion supporting the original postulates.

[[Summa Theologica]] is divided into three parts and contains 27 questions:

The first part ''Prima Pars'' (God and what precedes from Him)

The second part ''Prima Secundae and Secunda Secundae'' (Law and Grace, Charity and Justice)

The third part ''Tertia Pars'' (Christ who as man is our way to God)

Concerning the nature of God, Aquinas found that the best approach, commonly called the "via negativa", is to consider what God is not. This led him to propose five positive statements about the divine qualities:

*1. God is simple, without composition of parts, such as body and soul, or matter and form.
*2. God is perfect, lacking nothing. That is, God is distinguished from other beings on account of God's complete actuality.
*3. God is [[infinity|infinite]]. That is, God is not finite in the ways that created beings are physically, intellectually, and emotionally limited. This infinity is to be distinguished from infinity of size and infinity of number.
*4. God is immutable, incapable of change on the levels of God's essence and character.
*5. God is one, without diversification within God's self. The unity of God is such that God's essence is the same as God's existence. In Aquinas's words, "in itself the proposition 'God exists' is necessarily true, for in it subject and predicate are the same."

St. Thomas Aquinas is further known for his famous observation that the [[Devil]] cannot withstand mockery.

July 18, 1323, Thomas Aquinas was canonized as a Saint by Pope John XXII at Avignon

In 1567, St. Thomas Aquinas received the title Doctor of the Church or 'Angelic Doctor'. In the 2000-year history of Christ, he is one of only 33 with that designation.

==Early in Life==
As a young child, his parents sent him to study at a monastery when five years old.

Thomas studied and earned his master's degree at the University of [[Paris]], the year 1245.

== Liberalism ==
Some conservatives have argued that Thomas Aquinas was an important influence on the development of liberalism due to his optimism in human reason. The conservative Senator John P. East, a former professor of political philosophy, wrote:

"To put the matter bluntly, modern liberal Catholicism, and its non-Catholic associates, have preferred Aquinas over Augustine. Leo XIII set the tone in Aeterni Patris. He acknowledged the greatness of Augustine, but indicated that this early Saint is a stepping stone on the way to the summit, which is Aquinas. As Aquinas showed that faith and reason are compatible, the Pope contended his philosophy would serve as a bridgebuilder to the secular rationalist. Aquinas’ reliance upon “reason” has great appeal to modern liberals; however, the matter broadens beyond that, for Aquinas leads to Aristotle, while Augustine points to Plato, and within liberal thinking the former two are preferred."<ref>John P. East, “The Political Relevance of St. Augustine,” Modern Age 16 (Spring, 1972), 168.</ref>

[[Richard M. Weaver]] in ''Ideas Have Consequences,'' argued that Thomas Aquinas' imposition of Aristotle on the Roman Catholic Church caused the church to turn away from rigorous morality and to accept pragmatic acquiescence to the world.<ref>Richard M. Weaver, Ideas Have Consequences (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1948), 119.</ref>

The Christian apologist and philosopher [[Francis Schaeffer]] offered a similar indictment on Thomas Aquinas in ''Escape from Reason''. Schaeffer argued that Aquinas "separated nature from grace," and allowed for the study of the earthly realm to be entirely removed from the study of Christianity. In doing so, he "laid the groundwork for the Humanistic Renaissance" and the "autonomous individual." Schaeffer reprimanded Aquinas for his belief in the intrinsic goodness of man—a radically unconservative persuasion. Aquinas believed that, though the will was affected by the fall, the intellect was not. Thus, reasoning and philosophy became free to be pursued without subjugation to the limitations of the Scriptures and divine revelation. Schaeffer viewed Aquinas as one of the founding fathers of liberal modernity, accrediting to him some responsibility for the Renaissance and the Enlightenment. In Schaeffer's words, "...Aquinas had opened the way to an autonomous Humanism, an autonomous philosophy, and once the movement gained momentum, there was soon a flood."<ref>Francis Schaeffer, Escape from Reason (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 1968), 9-18. </ref>

== In literature ==
In [[Dante's Paradiso]], Thomas Aquinas appears in the [[Heaven]] of the [[Sun]], alongside other great thinkers including [[King Solomon]]. There, he and the other learned men move in a heavenly dance - a slightly incongruous image given that Aquinas was famously corpulent in life, earning the somewhat irreverent nickname "the [[Ox]] of [[God]]."

== See also ==

*[[Christianity in Conservapedia]]

==External links==
*[http://www.amconmag.com/11_17_03/review.html Culture's Bell Curve] - a review of [[Charles Murray]]'s ''Human Accomplishment''
*[http://www.qfrases.com/english/thomas_aquinas.php Thomas Aquinas quotes]

==References==
<references/>

{{DEFAULTSORT:Aquinas, St. Thomas}}

[[Category:Saints]]
[[Category:Theologians]]
[[Category:Catholic Church]]
[[Category:Philosophers]]
[[Category:Christian Authors]]
[[Category:Christians]]

St. Thomas Aquinas

2017-10-11T14:50:33Z

Haeralis: /* Liberalism */

{{Christianity}}
[[Image:Saint Thomas Aquinas.jpg|left|thumb|St. Thomas Aquinas]]
'''St. Thomas Aquinas''' (1225-1274) "The Angelic Doctor" was a [[Dominican Order|Dominican]] friar who wrote ''[[Summa Theologica]]''. Many consider this to be the most perfect and complete summary of [[Christian]] [[theology]], and he established an entire type of Christian [[philosophy]] known as "Thomism", which is followed to this day. Aquinas was somewhat controversial during his life, but was quickly revered by the [[Catholic Church]] after his death. Many of the controversies surrounding Aquinas stem from his synthesis of [[Aristotle]]an philosophy with Christian philosophy, causing him to break with many of the traditionally held philosophical and theological positions espoused by the dominant Augustinian synthesis of Neoplatonic philosophy and Christianity.

He developed five proofs for the existence of [[God]] using logic. The first three were "cosmological" proofs rather than the "ontological" approach of [[St. Anselm]]. A cosmological proof deals with the natural order of the universe. Aquinas' most famous cosmological argument was that whatever is in motion (for example, us) must have been put in motion by something else (our parents). They, in turn, must have been put in motion by something else (their parents). But this sequence cannot go on to [[infinity]]. There must have been a first mover. This we call "God".

Saint Thomas had a different view of [[Fall of man|the fall]] than those later developed by [[Calvin]] and [[Luther]]. He did not view man as totally depraved, but rather that his will was weakened and his intellect clouded. Nonetheless, his nature was not totally corrupted, for as created by God he remained essentially good. Nevertheless, man cannot attain [[salvation]] on his own, but is in need of [[grace]]. Though human intellect is imperfect, unassisted human reason can still understand many of the truths about God. For instance: the existence of God can be shown from the nature of the created [[universe]]. However, certain things are only knowable through Divine Revelation such as the [[Catholic doctrine|doctrine]] of the [[Blessed Trinity]]. Because of his view of the power of the human mind, though harmed by the fall but not totally destroyed, the works of the classical, secular philosophers could be brought into the service of Christian theology. [[Charles Murray]] wrote, "Aquinas made the case, eventually adopted by the Church, that human intelligence is a gift from God, and that to apply human intelligence to understanding the world is not an affront to God but is pleasing to him." <ref>http://www.amconmag.com/11_17_03/review.html</ref>

Saint Thomas wrote many theological and philosophical books and composed several beautiful hymns. Hailed as a masterpiece, his work [[Summa Theologica]] gives humanity a childlike revelation of [[God]]. The book was never completed, though it contains more than 2 million words.<ref>[http://www.religion-online.org/showarticle.asp?title=3266 Second Chance for Thomas] Religion-Online.org</ref> After a religious vision / experience, he stopped writing explaining, “All that I have written seems to me like straw compared to what has now been revealed to me.”<ref>[http://www.philosophyofreligion.info/?page_id=103], Philosophy of Religion- Historic Figures</ref> He died three months later at the monastery of Fossanova, one mile from Sonnino, on March 7, 1274

The entire ''Summa'' provides simple and direct illuminations into the nature of God: '''"It can be proved in five ways that God exists."''' <ref>[http://www.catholicism.org/thomas-aquinas.html], Saint Thomas Aquinas Biography</ref> The basic format of the arguments in the ''Summa'' begin with a few brief postulates about the nature of God followed by a series of reasonable objections to those assertions. A flaw in the [[logic]] of the objections is raised and the objections are systematically answered by logical counterarguments, bringing the argument to a conclusion supporting the original postulates.

[[Summa Theologica]] is divided into three parts and contains 27 questions:

The first part ''Prima Pars'' (God and what precedes from Him)

The second part ''Prima Secundae and Secunda Secundae'' (Law and Grace, Charity and Justice)

The third part ''Tertia Pars'' (Christ who as man is our way to God)

Concerning the nature of God, Aquinas found that the best approach, commonly called the "via negativa", is to consider what God is not. This led him to propose five positive statements about the divine qualities:

*1. God is simple, without composition of parts, such as body and soul, or matter and form.
*2. God is perfect, lacking nothing. That is, God is distinguished from other beings on account of God's complete actuality.
*3. God is [[infinity|infinite]]. That is, God is not finite in the ways that created beings are physically, intellectually, and emotionally limited. This infinity is to be distinguished from infinity of size and infinity of number.
*4. God is immutable, incapable of change on the levels of God's essence and character.
*5. God is one, without diversification within God's self. The unity of God is such that God's essence is the same as God's existence. In Aquinas's words, "in itself the proposition 'God exists' is necessarily true, for in it subject and predicate are the same."

St. Thomas Aquinas is further known for his famous observation that the [[Devil]] cannot withstand mockery.

July 18, 1323, Thomas Aquinas was canonized as a Saint by Pope John XXII at Avignon

In 1567, St. Thomas Aquinas received the title Doctor of the Church or 'Angelic Doctor'. In the 2000-year history of Christ, he is one of only 33 with that designation.

==Early in Life==
As a young child, his parents sent him to study at a monastery when five years old.

Thomas studied and earned his master's degree at the University of [[Paris]], the year 1245.

== Liberalism ==
Some conservatives have argued that Thomas Aquinas was an important influence on the development of liberalism due to his optimism in human reason. The conservative Senator John P. East, a former professor of political philosophy, wrote:

"To put the matter bluntly, modern liberal Catholicism, and its non-Catholic associates, have preferred Aquinas over Augustine. Leo XIII set the tone in Aeterni Patris. He acknowledged the greatness of Augustine, but indicated that this early Saint is a stepping stone on the way to the summit, which is Aquinas. As Aquinas showed that faith and reason are compatible, the Pope contended his philosophy would serve as a bridgebuilder to the secular rationalist. Aquinas’ reliance upon “reason” has great appeal to modern liberals; however, the matter broadens beyond that, for Aquinas leads to Aristotle, while Augustine points to Plato, and within liberal thinking the former two are preferred."<ref>John P. East, “The Political Relevance of St. Augustine,” Modern Age 16 (Spring, 1972), 168.</ref>

[[Richard M. Weaver]] in ''Ideas Have Consequences,'' argued that Thomas Aquinas' imposition of Aristotle on the Roman Catholic Church caused the church to turn away from rigorous morality and to accept pragmatic acquiescence to the world.<ref>Richard M. Weaver, Ideas Have Consequences (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1948), 119.</ref>

The Christian apologist and philosopher [[Francis Schaeffer]] offered a similar indictment on Thomas Aquinas in ''Escape from Reason''. Schaeffer argued that Aquinas "separated nature from grace," or, he allowed for the study of the earthly realm to be entirely removed from the study of Christianity. In doing so, he "laid the groundwork for the Humanistic Renaissance" and the "autonomous individual." Schaeffer reprimanded Aquinas for his belief in the intrinsic goodness of man—a radically unconservative persuasion. Aquinas believed that, though the will was affected by the fall, the intellect was not. Thus, reasoning and philosophy became free to be pursued without subjugation to the limitations of the Scriptures and divine revelation. Schaeffer viewed Aquinas as one of the founding fathers of liberal modernity, accrediting to him some responsibility for the Renaissance and the Enlightenment. In Schaeffer's words, "...Aquinas had opened the way to an autonomous Humanism, an autonomous philosophy, and once the movement gained momentum, there was soon a flood."<ref>Francis Schaeffer, Escape from Reason (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 1968), 9-18. </ref>

== In literature ==
In [[Dante's Paradiso]], Thomas Aquinas appears in the [[Heaven]] of the [[Sun]], alongside other great thinkers including [[King Solomon]]. There, he and the other learned men move in a heavenly dance - a slightly incongruous image given that Aquinas was famously corpulent in life, earning the somewhat irreverent nickname "the [[Ox]] of [[God]]."

== See also ==

*[[Christianity in Conservapedia]]

==External links==
*[http://www.amconmag.com/11_17_03/review.html Culture's Bell Curve] - a review of [[Charles Murray]]'s ''Human Accomplishment''
*[http://www.qfrases.com/english/thomas_aquinas.php Thomas Aquinas quotes]

==References==
<references/>

{{DEFAULTSORT:Aquinas, St. Thomas}}

[[Category:Saints]]
[[Category:Theologians]]
[[Category:Catholic Church]]
[[Category:Philosophers]]
[[Category:Christian Authors]]
[[Category:Christians]]

St. Thomas Aquinas

2017-10-10T22:49:14Z

Haeralis: Added a section on the political philosophy of Aquinas

{{Christianity}}
[[Image:Saint Thomas Aquinas.jpg|left|thumb|St. Thomas Aquinas]]
'''St. Thomas Aquinas''' (1225-1274) "The Angelic Doctor" was a [[Dominican Order|Dominican]] friar who wrote ''[[Summa Theologica]]''. Many consider this to be the most perfect and complete summary of [[Christian]] [[theology]], and he established an entire type of Christian [[philosophy]] known as "Thomism", which is followed to this day. Aquinas was somewhat controversial during his life, but was quickly revered by the [[Catholic Church]] after his death. Many of the controversies surrounding Aquinas stem from his synthesis of [[Aristotle]]an philosophy with Christian philosophy, causing him to break with many of the traditionally held philosophical and theological positions espoused by the dominant Augustinian synthesis of Neoplatonic philosophy and Christianity.

He developed five proofs for the existence of [[God]] using logic. The first three were "cosmological" proofs rather than the "ontological" approach of [[St. Anselm]]. A cosmological proof deals with the natural order of the universe. Aquinas' most famous cosmological argument was that whatever is in motion (for example, us) must have been put in motion by something else (our parents). They, in turn, must have been put in motion by something else (their parents). But this sequence cannot go on to [[infinity]]. There must have been a first mover. This we call "God".

Saint Thomas had a different view of [[Fall of man|the fall]] than those later developed by [[Calvin]] and [[Luther]]. He did not view man as totally depraved, but rather that his will was weakened and his intellect clouded. Nonetheless, his nature was not totally corrupted, for as created by God he remained essentially good. Nevertheless, man cannot attain [[salvation]] on his own, but is in need of [[grace]]. Though human intellect is imperfect, unassisted human reason can still understand many of the truths about God. For instance: the existence of God can be shown from the nature of the created [[universe]]. However, certain things are only knowable through Divine Revelation such as the [[Catholic doctrine|doctrine]] of the [[Blessed Trinity]]. Because of his view of the power of the human mind, though harmed by the fall but not totally destroyed, the works of the classical, secular philosophers could be brought into the service of Christian theology. [[Charles Murray]] wrote, "Aquinas made the case, eventually adopted by the Church, that human intelligence is a gift from God, and that to apply human intelligence to understanding the world is not an affront to God but is pleasing to him." <ref>http://www.amconmag.com/11_17_03/review.html</ref>

Saint Thomas wrote many theological and philosophical books and composed several beautiful hymns. Hailed as a masterpiece, his work [[Summa Theologica]] gives humanity a childlike revelation of [[God]]. The book was never completed, though it contains more than 2 million words.<ref>[http://www.religion-online.org/showarticle.asp?title=3266 Second Chance for Thomas] Religion-Online.org</ref> After a religious vision / experience, he stopped writing explaining, “All that I have written seems to me like straw compared to what has now been revealed to me.”<ref>[http://www.philosophyofreligion.info/?page_id=103], Philosophy of Religion- Historic Figures</ref> He died three months later at the monastery of Fossanova, one mile from Sonnino, on March 7, 1274

The entire ''Summa'' provides simple and direct illuminations into the nature of God: '''"It can be proved in five ways that God exists."''' <ref>[http://www.catholicism.org/thomas-aquinas.html], Saint Thomas Aquinas Biography</ref> The basic format of the arguments in the ''Summa'' begin with a few brief postulates about the nature of God followed by a series of reasonable objections to those assertions. A flaw in the [[logic]] of the objections is raised and the objections are systematically answered by logical counterarguments, bringing the argument to a conclusion supporting the original postulates.

[[Summa Theologica]] is divided into three parts and contains 27 questions:

The first part ''Prima Pars'' (God and what precedes from Him)

The second part ''Prima Secundae and Secunda Secundae'' (Law and Grace, Charity and Justice)

The third part ''Tertia Pars'' (Christ who as man is our way to God)

Concerning the nature of God, Aquinas found that the best approach, commonly called the "via negativa", is to consider what God is not. This led him to propose five positive statements about the divine qualities:

*1. God is simple, without composition of parts, such as body and soul, or matter and form.
*2. God is perfect, lacking nothing. That is, God is distinguished from other beings on account of God's complete actuality.
*3. God is [[infinity|infinite]]. That is, God is not finite in the ways that created beings are physically, intellectually, and emotionally limited. This infinity is to be distinguished from infinity of size and infinity of number.
*4. God is immutable, incapable of change on the levels of God's essence and character.
*5. God is one, without diversification within God's self. The unity of God is such that God's essence is the same as God's existence. In Aquinas's words, "in itself the proposition 'God exists' is necessarily true, for in it subject and predicate are the same."

St. Thomas Aquinas is further known for his famous observation that the [[Devil]] cannot withstand mockery.

July 18, 1323, Thomas Aquinas was canonized as a Saint by Pope John XXII at Avignon

In 1567, St. Thomas Aquinas received the title Doctor of the Church or 'Angelic Doctor'. In the 2000-year history of Christ, he is one of only 33 with that designation.

==Early in Life==
As a young child, his parents sent him to study at a monastery when five years old.

Thomas studied and earned his master's degree at the University of [[Paris]], the year 1245.

== Liberalism ==
Some conservatives have argued that Thomas Aquinas was an important influence on the development of liberalism for his optimism in human reason. The conservative Senator John P. East, a former professor of political philosophy, wrote:

"To put the matter bluntly, modern liberal Catholicism, and its non-Catholic associates, have preferred Aquinas over Augustine. Leo XIII set the tone in Aeterni Patris. He acknowledged the greatness of Augustine, but indicated that this early Saint is a stepping stone on the way to the summit, which is Aquinas. As Aquinas showed that faith and reason are compatible, the Pope contended his philosophy would serve as a bridgebuilder to the secular rationalist. Aquinas’ reliance upon “reason” has great appeal to modern liberals; however, the matter broadens beyond that, for Aquinas leads to Aristotle, while Augustine points to Plato, and within liberal thinking the former two are preferred."<ref>John P. East, “The Political Relevance of St. Augustine,” Modern Age 16 (Spring, 1972), 168.</ref>

[[Richard M. Weaver]] in ''Ideas Have Consequences,'' argued that Thomas Aquinas' imposition of Aristotle on the Roman Catholic Church caused the church to turn away from rigorous morality and to accept pragmatic acquiescence to the world.<ref>Richard M. Weaver, Ideas Have Consequences (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1948), 119.</ref>

The Christian apologist and philosopher [[Francis Schaeffer]] offered a similar indictment on Thomas Aquinas in ''Escape from Reason''. Schaeffer argued that Aquinas "separated nature from grace," or, he allowed for the study of the earthly realm to be entirely removed from the study of Christianity. In doing so, he "laid the groundwork for the Humanistic Renaissance" and the "autonomous individual." Schaeffer reprimanded Aquinas for his belief in the intrinsic goodness of man—a radically unconservative persuasion. Aquinas believed that, though the will was affected by the fall, the intellect was not. Thus, reasoning and philosophy became free to be pursued without subjugation to the limitations of the Scriptures and divine revelation. Schaeffer viewed Aquinas as one of the founding fathers of liberal modernity, accrediting to him some responsibility for the Renaissance and the Enlightenment. In Schaeffer's words, "...Aquinas had opened the way to an autonomous Humanism, an autonomous philosophy, and once the movement gained momentum, there was soon a flood."<ref>Francis Schaeffer, Escape from Reason (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 1968), 9-18. </ref>

== In literature ==
In [[Dante's Paradiso]], Thomas Aquinas appears in the [[Heaven]] of the [[Sun]], alongside other great thinkers including [[King Solomon]]. There, he and the other learned men move in a heavenly dance - a slightly incongruous image given that Aquinas was famously corpulent in life, earning the somewhat irreverent nickname "the [[Ox]] of [[God]]."

== See also ==

*[[Christianity in Conservapedia]]

==External links==
*[http://www.amconmag.com/11_17_03/review.html Culture's Bell Curve] - a review of [[Charles Murray]]'s ''Human Accomplishment''
*[http://www.qfrases.com/english/thomas_aquinas.php Thomas Aquinas quotes]

==References==
<references/>

{{DEFAULTSORT:Aquinas, St. Thomas}}

[[Category:Saints]]
[[Category:Theologians]]
[[Category:Catholic Church]]
[[Category:Philosophers]]
[[Category:Christian Authors]]
[[Category:Christians]]

St. Thomas Aquinas

2017-10-10T22:48:39Z

Haeralis: /* Liberalism */

{{Christianity}}
[[Image:Saint Thomas Aquinas.jpg|left|thumb|St. Thomas Aquinas]]
'''St. Thomas Aquinas''' (1225-1274) "The Angelic Doctor" was a [[Dominican Order|Dominican]] friar who wrote ''[[Summa Theologica]]''. Many consider this to be the most perfect and complete summary of [[Christian]] [[theology]], and he established an entire type of Christian [[philosophy]] known as "Thomism", which is followed to this day. Aquinas was somewhat controversial during his life, but was quickly revered by the [[Catholic Church]] after his death. Many of the controversies surrounding Aquinas stem from his synthesis of [[Aristotle]]an philosophy with Christian philosophy, causing him to break with many of the traditionally held philosophical and theological positions espoused by the dominant Augustinian synthesis of Neoplatonic philosophy and Christianity.

He developed five proofs for the existence of [[God]] using logic. The first three were "cosmological" proofs rather than the "ontological" approach of [[St. Anselm]]. A cosmological proof deals with the natural order of the universe. Aquinas' most famous cosmological argument was that whatever is in motion (for example, us) must have been put in motion by something else (our parents). They, in turn, must have been put in motion by something else (their parents). But this sequence cannot go on to [[infinity]]. There must have been a first mover. This we call "God".

Saint Thomas had a different view of [[Fall of man|the fall]] than those later developed by [[Calvin]] and [[Luther]]. He did not view man as totally depraved, but rather that his will was weakened and his intellect clouded. Nonetheless, his nature was not totally corrupted, for as created by God he remained essentially good. Nevertheless, man cannot attain [[salvation]] on his own, but is in need of [[grace]]. Though human intellect is imperfect, unassisted human reason can still understand many of the truths about God. For instance: the existence of God can be shown from the nature of the created [[universe]]. However, certain things are only knowable through Divine Revelation such as the [[Catholic doctrine|doctrine]] of the [[Blessed Trinity]]. Because of his view of the power of the human mind, though harmed by the fall but not totally destroyed, the works of the classical, secular philosophers could be brought into the service of Christian theology. [[Charles Murray]] wrote, "Aquinas made the case, eventually adopted by the Church, that human intelligence is a gift from God, and that to apply human intelligence to understanding the world is not an affront to God but is pleasing to him." <ref>http://www.amconmag.com/11_17_03/review.html</ref>

Saint Thomas wrote many theological and philosophical books and composed several beautiful hymns. Hailed as a masterpiece, his work [[Summa Theologica]] gives humanity a childlike revelation of [[God]]. The book was never completed, though it contains more than 2 million words.<ref>[http://www.religion-online.org/showarticle.asp?title=3266 Second Chance for Thomas] Religion-Online.org</ref> After a religious vision / experience, he stopped writing explaining, “All that I have written seems to me like straw compared to what has now been revealed to me.”<ref>[http://www.philosophyofreligion.info/?page_id=103], Philosophy of Religion- Historic Figures</ref> He died three months later at the monastery of Fossanova, one mile from Sonnino, on March 7, 1274

The entire ''Summa'' provides simple and direct illuminations into the nature of God: '''"It can be proved in five ways that God exists."''' <ref>[http://www.catholicism.org/thomas-aquinas.html], Saint Thomas Aquinas Biography</ref> The basic format of the arguments in the ''Summa'' begin with a few brief postulates about the nature of God followed by a series of reasonable objections to those assertions. A flaw in the [[logic]] of the objections is raised and the objections are systematically answered by logical counterarguments, bringing the argument to a conclusion supporting the original postulates.

[[Summa Theologica]] is divided into three parts and contains 27 questions:

The first part ''Prima Pars'' (God and what precedes from Him)

The second part ''Prima Secundae and Secunda Secundae'' (Law and Grace, Charity and Justice)

The third part ''Tertia Pars'' (Christ who as man is our way to God)

Concerning the nature of God, Aquinas found that the best approach, commonly called the "via negativa", is to consider what God is not. This led him to propose five positive statements about the divine qualities:

*1. God is simple, without composition of parts, such as body and soul, or matter and form.
*2. God is perfect, lacking nothing. That is, God is distinguished from other beings on account of God's complete actuality.
*3. God is [[infinity|infinite]]. That is, God is not finite in the ways that created beings are physically, intellectually, and emotionally limited. This infinity is to be distinguished from infinity of size and infinity of number.
*4. God is immutable, incapable of change on the levels of God's essence and character.
*5. God is one, without diversification within God's self. The unity of God is such that God's essence is the same as God's existence. In Aquinas's words, "in itself the proposition 'God exists' is necessarily true, for in it subject and predicate are the same."

St. Thomas Aquinas is further known for his famous observation that the [[Devil]] cannot withstand mockery.

July 18, 1323, Thomas Aquinas was canonized as a Saint by Pope John XXII at Avignon

In 1567, St. Thomas Aquinas received the title Doctor of the Church or 'Angelic Doctor'. In the 2000-year history of Christ, he is one of only 33 with that designation.

==Early in Life==
As a young child, his parents sent him to study at a monastery when five years old.

Thomas studied and earned his master's degree at the University of [[Paris]], the year 1245.

== Liberalism ==
Some conservatives have argued that Thomas Aquinas was an important influence on the development of liberalism for his optimism in human reason. The conservative Senator John P. East, a former professor of political philosophy, wrote:

"To put the matter bluntly, modern liberal Catholicism, and its non-Catholic associates, have preferred Aquinas over Augustine. Leo XIII set the tone in Aeterni Patris. He acknowledged the greatness of Augustine, but indicated that this early Saint is a stepping stone on the way to the summit, which is Aquinas. As Aquinas showed that faith and reason are compatible, the Pope contended his philosophy would serve as a bridgebuilder to the secular rationalist. Aquinas’ reliance upon “reason” has great appeal to modern liberals; however, the matter broadens beyond that, for Aquinas leads to Aristotle, while Augustine points to Plato, and within liberal thinking the former two are preferred."<ref>John P. East, “The Political Relevance of St. Augustine,” Modern Age 16 (Spring, 1972), 168.</ref>

[[Richard M. Weaver]] in ''Ideas Have Consequences,'' argued that Thomas Aquinas' imposition of Aristotle on the Roman Catholic Church caused the church to turn away from rigorous morality and to accept pragmatic acquiescence to the world.<ref>Richard M. Weaver, Ideas Have Consequences (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1948), 119.</ref>

The Christian apologist and philosopher [[Francis Schaeffer]] offered a similar indictment on Thomas Aquinas in ''Escape from Reason''. Schaeffer argued that Aquinas "separated nature from grace," or, he allowed for the study of the earthly realm to be entirely removed from the study of Christianity. In doing so, he "laid the groundwork for the Humanistic Renaissance" and the "autonomous individual." Schaeffer reprimanded Aquinas for his belief in the intrinsic goodness of man—a radically unconservative persuasion. Aquinas believed that, though the will was affected by the fall, the intellect was not. Thus, reasoning and philosophy became free to be pursued without subjugation to the limitations of the Scriptures and divine revelation. Schaeffer viewed Aquinas as one of the founding fathers of liberal modernity, accrediting to him some responsibility for the Renaissance and the Enlightenment. In Schaeffer's words, "...Aquinas had opened the way to an autonomous Humanism, an autonomous philosophy, and once the movement gained momentum, there was soon a flood."<ref>Francis Schaeffer, Escape from Reason (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 1968), 9-18. </ref>

== In literature ==
In [[Dante's Paradiso]], Thomas Aquinas appears in the [[Heaven]] of the [[Sun]], alongside other great thinkers including [[King Solomon]]. There, he and the other learned men move in a heavenly dance - a slightly incongruous image given that Aquinas was famously corpulent in life, earning the somewhat irreverent nickname "the [[Ox]] of [[God]]."

== See also ==

*[[Christianity in Conservapedia]]

==External links==
*[http://www.amconmag.com/11_17_03/review.html Culture's Bell Curve] - a review of [[Charles Murray]]'s ''Human Accomplishment''
*[http://www.qfrases.com/english/thomas_aquinas.php Thomas Aquinas quotes]

==References==
<references/>

{{DEFAULTSORT:Aquinas, St. Thomas}}

[[Category:Saints]]
[[Category:Theologians]]
[[Category:Catholic Church]]
[[Category:Philosophers]]
[[Category:Christian Authors]]
[[Category:Christians]]

St. Thomas Aquinas

2017-10-10T22:47:44Z

Haeralis:

{{Christianity}}
[[Image:Saint Thomas Aquinas.jpg|left|thumb|St. Thomas Aquinas]]
'''St. Thomas Aquinas''' (1225-1274) "The Angelic Doctor" was a [[Dominican Order|Dominican]] friar who wrote ''[[Summa Theologica]]''. Many consider this to be the most perfect and complete summary of [[Christian]] [[theology]], and he established an entire type of Christian [[philosophy]] known as "Thomism", which is followed to this day. Aquinas was somewhat controversial during his life, but was quickly revered by the [[Catholic Church]] after his death. Many of the controversies surrounding Aquinas stem from his synthesis of [[Aristotle]]an philosophy with Christian philosophy, causing him to break with many of the traditionally held philosophical and theological positions espoused by the dominant Augustinian synthesis of Neoplatonic philosophy and Christianity.

He developed five proofs for the existence of [[God]] using logic. The first three were "cosmological" proofs rather than the "ontological" approach of [[St. Anselm]]. A cosmological proof deals with the natural order of the universe. Aquinas' most famous cosmological argument was that whatever is in motion (for example, us) must have been put in motion by something else (our parents). They, in turn, must have been put in motion by something else (their parents). But this sequence cannot go on to [[infinity]]. There must have been a first mover. This we call "God".

Saint Thomas had a different view of [[Fall of man|the fall]] than those later developed by [[Calvin]] and [[Luther]]. He did not view man as totally depraved, but rather that his will was weakened and his intellect clouded. Nonetheless, his nature was not totally corrupted, for as created by God he remained essentially good. Nevertheless, man cannot attain [[salvation]] on his own, but is in need of [[grace]]. Though human intellect is imperfect, unassisted human reason can still understand many of the truths about God. For instance: the existence of God can be shown from the nature of the created [[universe]]. However, certain things are only knowable through Divine Revelation such as the [[Catholic doctrine|doctrine]] of the [[Blessed Trinity]]. Because of his view of the power of the human mind, though harmed by the fall but not totally destroyed, the works of the classical, secular philosophers could be brought into the service of Christian theology. [[Charles Murray]] wrote, "Aquinas made the case, eventually adopted by the Church, that human intelligence is a gift from God, and that to apply human intelligence to understanding the world is not an affront to God but is pleasing to him." <ref>http://www.amconmag.com/11_17_03/review.html</ref>

Saint Thomas wrote many theological and philosophical books and composed several beautiful hymns. Hailed as a masterpiece, his work [[Summa Theologica]] gives humanity a childlike revelation of [[God]]. The book was never completed, though it contains more than 2 million words.<ref>[http://www.religion-online.org/showarticle.asp?title=3266 Second Chance for Thomas] Religion-Online.org</ref> After a religious vision / experience, he stopped writing explaining, “All that I have written seems to me like straw compared to what has now been revealed to me.”<ref>[http://www.philosophyofreligion.info/?page_id=103], Philosophy of Religion- Historic Figures</ref> He died three months later at the monastery of Fossanova, one mile from Sonnino, on March 7, 1274

The entire ''Summa'' provides simple and direct illuminations into the nature of God: '''"It can be proved in five ways that God exists."''' <ref>[http://www.catholicism.org/thomas-aquinas.html], Saint Thomas Aquinas Biography</ref> The basic format of the arguments in the ''Summa'' begin with a few brief postulates about the nature of God followed by a series of reasonable objections to those assertions. A flaw in the [[logic]] of the objections is raised and the objections are systematically answered by logical counterarguments, bringing the argument to a conclusion supporting the original postulates.

[[Summa Theologica]] is divided into three parts and contains 27 questions:

The first part ''Prima Pars'' (God and what precedes from Him)

The second part ''Prima Secundae and Secunda Secundae'' (Law and Grace, Charity and Justice)

The third part ''Tertia Pars'' (Christ who as man is our way to God)

Concerning the nature of God, Aquinas found that the best approach, commonly called the "via negativa", is to consider what God is not. This led him to propose five positive statements about the divine qualities:

*1. God is simple, without composition of parts, such as body and soul, or matter and form.
*2. God is perfect, lacking nothing. That is, God is distinguished from other beings on account of God's complete actuality.
*3. God is [[infinity|infinite]]. That is, God is not finite in the ways that created beings are physically, intellectually, and emotionally limited. This infinity is to be distinguished from infinity of size and infinity of number.
*4. God is immutable, incapable of change on the levels of God's essence and character.
*5. God is one, without diversification within God's self. The unity of God is such that God's essence is the same as God's existence. In Aquinas's words, "in itself the proposition 'God exists' is necessarily true, for in it subject and predicate are the same."

St. Thomas Aquinas is further known for his famous observation that the [[Devil]] cannot withstand mockery.

July 18, 1323, Thomas Aquinas was canonized as a Saint by Pope John XXII at Avignon

In 1567, St. Thomas Aquinas received the title Doctor of the Church or 'Angelic Doctor'. In the 2000-year history of Christ, he is one of only 33 with that designation.

==Early in Life==
As a young child, his parents sent him to study at a monastery when five years old.

Thomas studied and earned his master's degree at the University of [[Paris]], the year 1245.

== Liberalism ==
Some conservatives have argued that Thomas Aquinas was an important influence on the development of liberalism for his optimistim in human reason. The conservative Senator John P. East, a former professor of political philosophy, wrote:

''To put the matter bluntly, modern liberal Catholicism, and its non-Catholic associates, have preferred Aquinas over Augustine. Leo XIII set the tone in Aeterni Patris. He acknowledged the greatness of Augustine, but indicated that this early Saint is a stepping stone on the way to the summit, which is Aquinas. As Aquinas showed that faith and reason are compatible, the Pope contended his philosophy would serve as a bridgebuilder to the secular rationalist. Aquinas’ reliance upon “reason” has great appeal to modern liberals; however, the matter broadens beyond that, for Aquinas leads to Aristotle, while Augustine points to Plato, and within liberal thinking the former two are preferred.<ref>John P. East, “The Political Relevance of St. Augustine,” Modern Age 16 (Spring, 1972), 168.</ref>
''
[[Richard M. Weaver]] in ''Ideas Have Consequences,'' argued that Thomas Aquinas' imposition of Aristotle on the Roman Catholic Church caused the church to turn away from rigorous morality and to accept pragmatic acquiescence to the world.<ref>Richard M. Weaver, Ideas Have Consequences (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1948), 119.</ref>

The Christian apologist and philosopher [[Francis Schaeffer]] offered a similar indictment on Thomas Aquinas in ''Escape from Reason''. Schaeffer argued that Aquinas "separated nature from grace," or, he allowed for the study of the earthly realm to be entirely removed from the study of Christianity. In doing so, he "laid the groundwork for the Humanistic Renaissance" and the "autonomous individual." Schaeffer reprimanded Aquinas for his belief in the intrinsic goodness of man—a radically unconservative persuasion. Aquinas believed that, though the will was affected by the fall, the intellect was not. Thus, reasoning and philosophy became free to be pursued without subjugation to the limitations of the Scriptures and divine revelation. Schaeffer viewed Aquinas as one of the founding fathers of liberal modernity, accrediting to him some responsibility for the Renaissance and the Enlightenment. In Schaeffer's words, "...Aquinas had opened the way to an autonomous Humanism, an autonomous philosophy, and once the movement gained momentum, there was soon a flood."<ref>Francis Schaeffer, Escape from Reason (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 1968), 9-18. </ref>

== In literature ==
In [[Dante's Paradiso]], Thomas Aquinas appears in the [[Heaven]] of the [[Sun]], alongside other great thinkers including [[King Solomon]]. There, he and the other learned men move in a heavenly dance - a slightly incongruous image given that Aquinas was famously corpulent in life, earning the somewhat irreverent nickname "the [[Ox]] of [[God]]."

== See also ==

*[[Christianity in Conservapedia]]

==External links==
*[http://www.amconmag.com/11_17_03/review.html Culture's Bell Curve] - a review of [[Charles Murray]]'s ''Human Accomplishment''
*[http://www.qfrases.com/english/thomas_aquinas.php Thomas Aquinas quotes]

==References==
<references/>

{{DEFAULTSORT:Aquinas, St. Thomas}}

[[Category:Saints]]
[[Category:Theologians]]
[[Category:Catholic Church]]
[[Category:Philosophers]]
[[Category:Christian Authors]]
[[Category:Christians]]

Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel

2017-07-29T14:17:10Z

Haeralis: Unclear language

[[Image:Hegel.jpg|right|thumb|200px]]
'''Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel''' lived from 1770 to 1831. He was one of the greatest of the [[German]] idealist [[philosopher]]s and was a disciple of [[Immanuel Kant]]. He insisted that [[revolution]]s were essential to human destiny and that revolutionary leaders were heroes in promoting reform.

Hegel's chief works were:
* Phenomenology of the Mind (1807)
* Philosophy of Right (1821)

His most important follower was [[Karl Marx]]

==Political Philosophy==
Hegel held an extraordinarily high view of the State and thought of it as the supreme institution in the human experience. He infamously claimed that "All the worth which the human being possesses—all spiritual reality, he possesses only through the State."<ref>G. W. F. Hegel, The Philosophy of History. Translated by J. Sibree. New York: Dover Publications, 1956, 39.</ref> Hegel's view of the State stemmed from his belief that it represented the objective will of the people. Hegel, a historicist, also dismissed the idea of transcendent, universal truths. Truth could not be found at all apart from one's historical context. As he argues in his ''Philosophy of Right'': "...every one is a son of his time; so philosophy also is its time apprehended in thoughts. It is just as foolish to fancy that any philosophy can transcend its present world, as that an individual could leap out of his time or jump over Rhodes. If a theory transgresses its time, and builds up a world as it ought to be, it has an existence merely in the unstable element of opinion, which gives room to every wandering fancy."<ref>Hegel, G. W. F. 2012. Philosophy of Right. Translated by S. W. Dyde. New York: Dover Publications, xxx.. </ref>

In a scathing critique of the American commitment to private property rights, Hegel complained that "Universal protection for property, and a something approaching entire immunity from public burdens, are facts which are constantly held up to commendation. We have in these facts the fundamental character of the community—the endeavor of the individual after acquisition, commercial profit, and gain; the preponderance of private interest, devoting itself to that of the community only for its own advantage."<ref>G. W. F. Hegel, The Philosophy of History. Translated by J. Sibree. New York: Dover Publications, 1956, 85.</ref>

For Hegel and his followers, it is imperative that we move beyond fixed ideas about the purpose of government, such as those espoused at the time of the American Founding. Though they may have been appropriate for their own time, they offer little for people today, who have progressed beyond their insights. For these reasons, Hegel can be considered one of the preliminary founders of progressivism, alongside [[Francis Bacon]], [[Auguste Comte]], [[Herbert Croly]], and Hegel's own follower, [[Karl Marx]].<ref>American Conservatism: An Encyclopedia, eds. Bruce Frohnen, Jeremy Beer, and Jeffrey O. Nelson. Wilmington, DE: ISI Books, 2006, p. 680.</ref>

==Hegelian Dialectic==
Hegel's primary object in his [[dialectic]] is to establish the existence of a logical connection between the various categories which are involved in the constitution of experience.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qbhYAAAAMAAJ|last1=McTaggart|first1=John|last2=McTaggart|first2=Ellis|title=Studies in the Hegelian Dialectic|date=1896|pages=1}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[George Sylvester Morris]]

==Sources==
The New American Desk Encyclopedia, Penguin Group, 1989

==References==
{{reflist|1}}

==External links==
*[https://books.google.com/books?id=b7jooh9D6ewC The Phenomenology of mind]
*[https://books.google.com/books?id=Yk9WAAAAMAAJ Philosophy of Right]
*[https://books.google.com/books?id=SjcFAAAAIAAJ The Philosophy of History]
*[https://archive.org/details/lecturesonphilo03hegegoog Lectures on the Philosophy of Religion], Volume 1
*[https://books.google.com/books?id=MOLWAAAAMAAJ Lectures on the Philosophy of Religion], Volume 2

{{DEFAULTSORT:Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich}}

[[Category:German Philosophers]]

Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel

2017-06-17T14:24:21Z

Haeralis:

[[Image:Hegel.jpg|right|thumb|200px]]
'''Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel''' lived from 1770 to 1831. He was one of the greatest of the [[German]] idealist [[philosopher]]s and was a disciple of [[Immanuel Kant]]. He insisted that [[revolution]]s were essential to human destiny and that revolutionary leaders were heroes in promoting reform.

Hegel's chief works were:
* Phenomenology of the Mind (1807)
* Philosophy of Right (1821)

His most important follower was [[Karl Marx]]

==Political Philosophy==
Hegel held an extraordinarily high view of the State and thought of it as the supreme institution in the human experience. He infamously claimed that "All the worth which the human being possesses—all spiritual reality, he possesses only through the State."<ref>G. W. F. Hegel, The Philosophy of History. Translated by J. Sibree. New York: Dover Publications, 1956, 39.</ref> Hegel's view of the State stemmed from his belief that it represented the objective will of the people. Hegel, a historicist, also dismissed the idea of transcendent, universal truths. Truth could not be found at all apart from one's historical context. As he argues in his ''Philosophy of Right'': "...every one is a son of his time; so philosophy also is its time apprehended in thoughts. It is just as foolish to fancy that any philosophy can transcend its present world, as that an individual could leap out of his time or jump over Rhodes. If a theory transgresses its time, and builds up a world as it ought to be, it has an existence merely in the unstable element of opinion, which gives room to every wandering fancy."<ref>Hegel, G. W. F. 2012. Philosophy of Right. Translated by S. W. Dyde. New York: Dover Publications, xxx.. </ref>

In a scathing critique of the American commitment to private property rights, Hegel complained that "Universal protection for property, and a something approaching entire immunity from public burdens, are facts which are constantly held up to commendation. We have in these facts the fundamental character of the community—the endeavor of the individual after acquisition, commercial profit, and gain; the preponderance of private interest, devoting itself to that of the community only for its own advantage."<ref>G. W. F. Hegel, The Philosophy of History. Translated by J. Sibree. New York: Dover Publications, 1956, 85.</ref>

For Hegel and his followers, it is imperative that we move beyond fixed ideas about the purpose of government, such as those espoused at the time of the American Founding. Though they may have been appropriate for their own time, they offer little for people today, who have progressed beyond their insights. For these reasons, Hegel can be considered one of the preliminary founders of progressivism, alongside [[Francis Bacon]], [[Auguste Comte]], [[Herbert Croly]], and his follower, [[Karl Marx]].<ref>American Conservatism: An Encyclopedia, eds. Bruce Frohnen, Jeremy Beer, and Jeffrey O. Nelson. Wilmington, DE: ISI Books, 2006, p. 680.</ref>

==Hegelian Dialectic==
Hegel's primary object in his [[dialectic]] is to establish the existence of a logical connection between the various categories which are involved in the constitution of experience.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qbhYAAAAMAAJ|last1=McTaggart|first1=John|last2=McTaggart|first2=Ellis|title=Studies in the Hegelian Dialectic|date=1896|pages=1}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[George Sylvester Morris]]

==Sources==
The New American Desk Encyclopedia, Penguin Group, 1989

==References==
{{reflist|1}}

==External links==
*[https://books.google.com/books?id=b7jooh9D6ewC The Phenomenology of mind]
*[https://books.google.com/books?id=Yk9WAAAAMAAJ Philosophy of Right]
*[https://books.google.com/books?id=SjcFAAAAIAAJ The Philosophy of History]
*[https://archive.org/details/lecturesonphilo03hegegoog Lectures on the Philosophy of Religion], Volume 1
*[https://books.google.com/books?id=MOLWAAAAMAAJ Lectures on the Philosophy of Religion], Volume 2

{{DEFAULTSORT:Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich}}

[[Category:German Philosophers]]

Calvin Coolidge

2017-03-04T16:28:44Z

Haeralis: Grammatical clarity

{{Officeholder
|name=Calvin Coolidge
|image=Calvin Coolidge cph.3g10777.jpg
|party=[[Republican]]
|spouse=Grace Goodhue Coolidge
|religion=[[Congregationalist]]
|offices=
{{Officeholder/president
|country=the United States
|number=30th
|terms=August 2, 1923 – March 4, 1929
|vp=[[Charles G. Dawes]] (1925–1929)
|preceded=[[Warren G. Harding]]
|former=y
|succeeded=[[Herbert Hoover]]
}}
{{Officeholder/vice president
|country=the United States
|number=29th
|terms=March 4, 1921 – August 2, 1923
|president=[[Warren G. Harding]]
|preceded=[[Thomas R. Marshall]]
|former=y
|succeeded=[[Charles G. Dawes]]
}}
{{Officeholder/governor
|number=48th
|state=Massachusetts
|lieutenant=Channing H. Cox
|terms=January 2, 1919 – January 6, 1921
|preceded=Samuel W. McCall
|former=y
|succeeded=Channing H. Cox
}}
{{Officeholder/governor
|number=46th
|lieutenant=y
|governor=[[Samuel W. McCall]]
|state=Massachusetts
|terms=January 6, 1916 – January 2, 1919
|preceded=Grafton D. Cushing
|former=y
|succeeded=Channing H. Cox
}}
{{Officeholder/mayor
|city=Northampton, Massachusetts
|number=16th
|terms=1910-1911
|preceded=James W. O'Brien
|former=y
|succeeded=William Feiker
}}
}}
'''John Calvin Coolidge, Jr.''' was the 30th [[president of the United States of America]] from 1923 to 1929, an era of peace and prosperity. He was elected vice president in 1920 as a [[Republican Party|Republican]] and took office in August 1923 upon the death of President [[Warren G. Harding]]; he was reelected by a landslide in 1924, but in 1928 at the peak of his popularity he announced in typical laconic fashion that he did not choose to run again.

==Early career==
Coolidge was born in Plymouth, Vermont, July 4, 1872, the son of John and Victoria Moor Coolidge. Both parents were Yankees; his ancestors came from England to New England in the early seventeenth century. Coolidge's father was a farmer and a successful country storekeeper who dabbled in local and state politics. Young Calvin was educated in the local school and later at Black River and St. Johnsbury academies. In 1891 he entered [[Amherst College]] in Massachusetts, where he showed an interest in philosophy. Reserved and reticent, he did not mix readily with his fellows. In his senior year, however, he was selected as class speaker.

==Early public life==
After his graduation in 1895 Coolidge studied law, was admitted to the Massachusetts bar in 1897, and began to practice in the city of Northampton, where he became active in local GOP politics. In 1898 he was elected to the common council. Thereafter he was seldom out of public office. He was elected to the Massachusetts General Court (legislature) in 1907. After two terms he was elected mayor of Northampton and then was elected to the state senate; during 1914-1915 he was president of that body. He had also served as chairman of the Republican State Committee, and he spent three terms as lieutenant governor of the state.

In 1905 Coolidge married Grace Anna Goodhue of Burlington, Vt. The couple had two sons, John and Calvin, the younger of whom, Calvin, died on July 7, 1924, from blood poisoning.

==Governor and Vice President==
When Governor Samuel W. McCall retired in 1918, Coolidge became the unanimous choice of the Republican Party for the governorship; he was elected and took office in January 1919. As governor, Coolidge made no radical innovations nor did he sponsor a legislative program. A conservative, he devoted himself to a program of economy in government. The Boston police strike, and his handling of it, first brought him to national attention. On Sept. 9, 1919, the police struck in protest against the police commissioner's refusal to permit them to join an American Federation of Labor union. Immediately there were riots and disorder. After some urging Governor Coolidge called out the state guard to preserve order and personally took charge. The governor answered Samuel Gompers' objections to his actions with the statement: "There is no right to strike against the public safety by anybody, anywhere, at any time." The statement received nationwide publicity. After the nomination of Warren G. Harding by the Republican national convention in 1920, the members of the convention rebelled against the dominant senatorial clique. They nominated Coolidge for second place on the ticket after his name had been presented by a comparatively unknown delegate. Coolidge was elected along with Harding in 1920 and became president on Aug. 2, 1923, when Harding died of natural causes. Coolidge was at his father's house in Vermont when the momentous news arrived. His father, a notary public, administered the oath of office.

==Presidency==
The elections in 1922 had reduced the party's numbers in Congress to a scant majority. Moreover, the scandals connected with the Harding administration were in the process of being made public by a congressional committee. Yet, a little over a year later, Coolidge was elected for another term by a landslide over both [[John W. Davis]], [[U.S. Democratic Party, History|Democrat]], and [[Robert La Follette]], Progressive. Davis got 29% of the popular vote, carrying the South from Virginia to Texas, and 136 electoral votes, LaFollette carried Wisconsin and many German and railroad centers, but Coolidge won easily with 382 electoral votes. Four years later, when he left office, his party was in a much stronger position than it had been in 1924.

Felzenberg (19978) shows that Coolidge battled intolerance, lynching and especially the [[Ku Klux Klan]], which lost all its influence during his term.

In 1924 he appointed a commission to investigate the circumstances of the Teapot Dome oil lease, a scandal inherited from the Harding administration. By focusing all the blame on Harding, he permanently tarnished Harding's name and promoted himself.

===Economic policies===
Coolidge famously said, "The business of America is business."

The Coolidge policy was a simple one, made easier by the continuous prosperity and the weakness of the liberal opposition. He believed in government economy, reduced taxation, and gave aid to private business without accompanying restrictive regulation. In 1927 he vetoed the soldiers' bonus bill. Coolidge opposed any government control in interstate electrical power and was against the proposal for government operation of the Wilson Dam at Muscle Shoals on the Tennessee River; in 1933 it became part of the [[New Deal]]'s [[TVA]].

Throughout the farming regions of the traditionally Republican Middle West loud complaints were heard about the farm crisis. It was characterized by low prices for crops and the overhang of the land [[economic bubble|bubble]] that burst in 1920, leaving many farmers deeply in debt for new lands they purchased at high price during the war. The farmers wanted the federal government to intervene in the market, by buying crops at high prices and dumping them abroad cheaply. Congress passed the legislation, known as the and the [[McNary-Haugen Bill]], a farm relief bill, but Coolidge vetoed it. He supported the alternative program of Hoover and Jardine to modernize farming, by bringing in more electricity, more efficient equipment, better seeds and breeds, and better business practices.

===Foreign Affairs===
In the realm of foreign affairs the president urged the nation to become a member of the World Court, but the bill authorizing it was hedged with so many qualifications that the other member nations refused to admit the United States. Under the direction of Secretary of the Treasury [[Andrew W. Mellon]], plans for the payment of foreign government debts to the United States were negotiated and approved. During the Coolidge administration the Kellogg-Briand Pact, renouncing war as an instrument of national policy, was signed by most of the important nations of the world. The appointment of Dwight W. Morrow as ambassador to Mexico did much to restore good relations with that country, although the policy pursued elsewhere in Latin America in the interest of American investors helped maintain the Latin-American distrust of their northern neighbor.

=== Calvin Coolidge and Prohibition ===
Calvin Coolidge was not a teetotaler, but he didn't have much use for alcohol. Due to his belief in limited government, he cut the [[Prohibition]] Bureau’s budget during the boom year of 1926. Andrew Mellon, who as Treasury Secretary was also the Chief Prohibition Enforcement Officer in the United States, hated the law and was less than dedicated in his enforcement efforts.<ref>[http://kaiology.wordpress.com/2010/09/18/water-water-everywhere-and-not-a-drop-to-drink-coolidge-and-prohibition-2/ Water, water everywhere, and not a drop to drink – Coolidge and Prohibition]</ref>

===Evaluations===
In the short view, the Coolidge administration was a preeminently successful one. Income taxes and corporate taxes were greatly reduced, a major part of the national debt was retired, and the nation experienced some of the most prosperous years in its history. The Coolidge policies were in part responsible for these benefits, but some hostile [[liberal]] historians falsely claim they were probably responsible, in part, for the great depression that followed.
[[Image:Calvin Coolidge by Hopkinson.jpg|thumb|200px|left|Painting by Charles Hopkinson]]
Coolidge's image was to a degree shaped by Madison Avenue. Buckley (2003) reveals the role of advertising giant [[Bruce Barton]] in the remaking of the public persona or image of Coolidge during 1919-26 and, in so doing, guiding a dramatic shift in politics and the wide acceptance of consumer culture. The dominance of the political party bosses, who selected Harding in 1920, ended when the business elite wrested control from the party, using their ability to raise money for advertising and ultimately commodifying the political process. Members of this elite suggested that Barton refashion Coolidge from an aloof man driven by the advancement of his career into a voice of the masses, the "silent majority," which Barton accomplished with press coverage, exploiting the new technology of radio for political speeches, newsreels, an exclusive "spontaneous" interview with Coolidge, and by arranging events that would be covered free, as news. Coolidge's election to the presidency in 1924 was the first campaign of personality, in which style was promoted over substance, tapping into "intense private longings" of a public uncertain of its moorings in a rapidly modernizing society. Gilbert (2003) and Gilbert (2005) argues that Coolidge suffered from clinical depression throughout his life. Gilbert discusses the major symptoms of the disorder as evidenced in Coolidge's personal and political behavior. He exhibited symptoms from a very early age, beginning with his grandfather's death when he was six and again with the deaths of his mother and sister during his adolescence. Ascending to the presidency in 1923, Coolidge at first was diligent, effective, and respectful of others. After the death of his teenage son in 1924, however, his demeanor and degree of political engagement changed drastically. He developed hypersomnia, sleeping as much as 15 hours per day, and he began to treat White House staffers and his wife rudely, often publicly humiliating them. Moreover, he became far less effective as a decision-maker and grew increasingly detached from political issues.

Other scholars note Coolidge's effective and principled stand against the philosophy of Progressivism. Joseph Postell, for instance, argues that Coolidge presents the most formidable attack on the principles of progressivism of any 20th century conservative.<ref>Joseph W. Postell and Johnathan O'Neill, "Roaring Against Progressivism: Calvin Coolidge's Principled Conservatism" in Towards an American Conservatism: Constitutional Conservatism in the Progressive Era, (Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan, 2013) 183.</ref> According to Postell, Coolidge's philosophical framework defends both the benevolence of custom as well as the truths of the American Founding. While Coolidge advocated a return to and a protection of America's political tradition, he did so not out of some thoughtless fear of the future, but for the sake of universal truths and the principles of the Declaration.<ref>Joseph W. Postell and Johnathan O'Neill, Towards an American Conservatism, 183.</ref>

==Silent Cal==
A woman once told Coolidge that she had bet someone that she couldn't get him to say more than two words. He told her, "You lose."

===Retirement===
In the summer of 1927 Coolidge made the statement, "I do not chose to run for president in 1928." He did not indicate his choice of his successor. Coolidge left the White House on Mar. 4, 1929, amid the acclaim of the nation. Returning to Northampton, he published his autobiography and wrote articles for newspapers and periodicals. These and his business activities kept him engaged until his death on Jan. 5, 1933, in the midst of the [[Great Depression]].

==Quotes==
*"Nothing is easier than spending the public money. It doesn't appear to belong to anybody."

*"It was never flaunted for the glory of royalty, but to be born under it is to be born a child of a king, and to establish a home under it is to be the founder of a royal house." - Speaking of the American flag

*'''"I favor the American system of individual enterprise, and I am opposed to any general extension of government ownership, and control."'''

*"Unfortunately the Federal Government has strayed far afield from its legitimate business. It has trespassed upon fields where there should be no trespass. If we could confine our Federal expenditures to the legitimate obligations and functions of the Federal Government, a material reduction would be apparent. But far more important than this would be its effect upon the fabric of our constitutional form of government, which tends to be gradually weakened and undermined by this encroachment. The cure for this is not in our hands. It lies with the people. It will come when they realize the necessity of State assumption of State responsibility. It will come when they realize that the laws under which the Federal Government hands out contributions to the states are placing upon them a double burden of taxation–Federal taxation in the first instance to raise the moneys which the Government donates to the states, and state taxation in the second instance to meet the extravagances of state expenditures which are tempted by Federal donations." - At Memorial Continental Hall, January 21, 1924

*"What we need is not more Federal government, but better local government."

*"Nations which are torn by dissension and discord, which are weak and inefficient at home, have little standing or influence abroad. Even the blind do not chose the blind to lead them."

*"There is no substitute for a militant freedom. The only alternative is submission and slavery." - Acceptance of the Memorial on Behalf of the Government and People of the United States<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=eLQ6AQAAIAAJ&pg=PA88 Report of the Proceedings of the Reunions of the Society of the Army of the Tennessee, Volumes 44-45]</ref>

*"A very positive echo of what the Dutch had done in 1581, and what the English were preparing to do, appears in the assertion of the Rev. Thomas Hooker, of Connecticut, as early as 1638, when he said in a sermon before the General Court that- “The foundation of authority is laid in the free consent of the people.” “The choice of public magistrates belongs unto the people by God’s own allowance.” This doctrine found wide acceptance among the nonconformist clergy who later made up the Congregational Church. The great apostle of this movement was the Rev. [[John Wise (clergyman)|John Wise]], of Massachusetts. He was one of the leaders of the revolt against the royal governor [[Edmund Andros]] in 1687, for which he suffered imprisonment. He was a liberal in ecclesiastical controversies. He appears to have been familiar with the writings of the political scientist, Samuel Pufendorf, who was born in Saxony in 1632. Wise published a treatise, entitled “The Church’s Quarrel Espoused,” in 1710, which was amplified in another publication in 1717. In it he dealt with the principles of civil government. His works were reprinted in 1772 and have been declared to have been nothing less than a textbook of liberty for our Revolutionary fathers."<ref>[https://thf_media.s3.amazonaws.com/2011/pdf/FP_PS32.pdf Calvin Coolidge Challenges Progress in the Name of the Declaration of Independence], [[Heritage Foundation]]</ref><ref>[http://teachingamericanhistory.org/library/document/speech-on-the-occasion-of-the-one-hundred-and-fiftieth-anniversary-of-the-declaration-of-independence/ Speech on the 150th Anniversary of the Declaration of Independence]</ref>

==Bibliography==
* Buckley, Kerry W. "'A President for the "Great Silent Majority': Bruce Barton's Construction of Calvin Coolidge." ''New England Quarterly'' 2003 76(4): 593-626. Issn: 0028-4866 Fulltext: in Jstor
* Felzenberg, Alvin S. "Calvin Coolidge and Race: His Record in Dealing with the Racial Tensions of the 1920s." ''New England Journal of History'' 1998 55(1): 83-96.
* Ferrell, Robert H. ''The Presidency of Calvin Coolidge.'' U. Press of Kansas, 1998. 244 pp. The standard scholarly study.
* Gilbert, Robert E. "Calvin Coolidge's Tragic Presidency: the Political Effects of Bereavement and Depression." ''Journal of American Studies'' 2005 39(1): 87-109. Issn: 0021-8758 Fulltext: in Cambridge and Swetswise
* Gilbert, Robert E. ''The Tormented President: Calvin Coolidge, Death, and Clinical Depression.'' Praeger, 2003. 288pp
* Greenberg, David. ''Calvin Coolidge'' (2006), short biography. [http://www.amazon.com/Calvin-Coolidge-David-Greenberg/dp/0805069577/ref=pd_bbs_sr_2/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1194420081&sr=8-2 excerpt and text search]
* Haynes, John Earl, ed. ''Calvin Coolidge and the Coolidge Era: Essays on the History of the 1920s.'' Library of Congress, 1998. 329 pp. essays by scholars
* McCoy, Donald R. ''Calvin Coolidge: A Biography'' (1967), 447pp, the standard scholarly biography
* Pietrusza, David ''1920: The Year of the Six Presidents'' New York: Carroll & Graf, 2007
* Pietrusza, David (ed.) ''Calvin Coolidge: A Documentary Biography''
* Pietrusza, David (ed.) ''Calvin Coolidge on the Founders''
* Pietrusza, David (ed.) ''Silent Cal's Almanack: The Homespun Wit and Wisdom of Vermont's Calvin Coolidge'' createspace: 2008.
* Shlaes, Amity ''Coolidge''
* White, William Allen ''A Puritan in Babylon: The Story of Calvin Coolidge,'' (1938) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=1105748 online edition]

===Primary sources===
* Calvin Coolidge. ''The Autobiography of Calvin Coolidge'' (1929), [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=82302633 online edition]
* Howard H. Quint and Robert H. Ferrell, eds. ''The Talkative President: The Off-The-Record Press Conferences of Calvin Coolidge,'' (1964), 276pp [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=77365439 online edition]
* Calvin Coolidge Telegram to Samuel Gompers re: Boston Police Strike [http://www.davidpietrusza.com/coolidge-gompers-telegram.html online edition]

==References==
{{Reflist|1}}

==External links==
* [http://www.millercenter.virginia.edu/academic/americanpresident/coolidge excellent essays & documents from Miller Center U Virginia]
* [http://www.c-spanarchives.org/program/id/222754 Author David Pietrusza discusses Calvin Coolidge on C-SPAN BookTV]
* [https://librivox.org/author/7190 Works by Calvin Coolidge - text and free audio] - [[LibriVox]]

{{USPresidents}}
{{USVicePresidents}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Coolidge, Calvin}}

[[Category:Republicans]]
[[Category:United States History]]
[[Category:1920s]]
[[Category:Conservatives]]
[[Category:Massachusetts Governors]]
[[Category:Fiscal Conservatives]]
[[Category:Republican Governors]]
[[Category:Veterans]]
[[Category:Patriots]]

Jonathan Mayhew

2017-02-28T03:09:08Z

Haeralis:

[[Image:Jonathan Mayhew.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Jonathan Mayhew]]
'''Jonathan Mayhew''' (October 8, 1720 - July 9, 1766) was a Unitarian Boston preacher<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.britannica.com/biography/Jonathan-Mayhew |title=Jonathan Mayhew: American preacher |work=[[Encyclopedia Britannica]]}}</ref> who was unafraid to speak out on political issues. Mayhew is widely credited with coining the phrase "[[No taxation without representation]]".

==Early life==
Jonathan Mayhew was born at Martha's Vineyard October 8, 1720. His father, Experience Mayhew, was a missionary among the Indians, and ministered in that capacity at Martha's Vineyard.

He was from his youth uncommonly inclined to reading and study. To gratify this disposition, his father sold a portion of his estate, that he might be enabled to give him a public education. He pursued his studies under the tuition of his father, and entered the University in Cambridge in the year 1740. While a member" of the University, he made uncommon proficiency, was respected by his fellow students for his exemplary morality, and esteemed by his instructors for his assiduity and literary progress. Having in view the profession of Divinity, he attended to theological studies in connection with his collegiate pursuits. On the 17th of June 1747, he was ordained a pastor over the West Church in Boston.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=FtA0AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA62 The Literary Miscellany: Including Dissertations and Essays on Subjects of Literature, Science, and Morals; Biographical and Historical Sketches; Critical Remarks on Language; with Occasional Reviews, Volume 1]</ref>

==A Discourse concerning Unlimited Submission==
In Mayhew's most well known<ref>{{cite book|last1=Miller|first1=Perry|title=The American Puritans, Their Prose and Poetry|date=1956|publisher=[[Columbia University]] Press|pages=137}}</ref> sermon, he discusses the tyranny of the British Crown(specifically, [[Charles I|King Charles]]) and makes the following observation:
{{cquote|He levied many taxes upon the people without consent of parliament}}

==References==
<references />

==External links==
* [https://archive.org/details/discourseconcern1818xmayh A discourse, concerning unlimited submission and non-resistance to the higher powers : with some reflections on the resistance made to King Charles I, and on the anniversary of his death: in which the mysterious doctrine of the Prince's saintship and martyrdom is unriddled: the substance of which was delivered in a sermon preached in the West Meeting-House in Boston, on the Lord's-Day after the 30th of January, 1749-50]
* [https://books.google.com/books?id=ZexbAAAAQAAJ The Snare Broken: A Thanksgiving Discourse, Preached at the Desire of the West Church, in Boston, N.E. Friday, May 23, 1766. Occasioned by the Repeal of the Stamp-act]
* [https://books.google.com/books?id=9kBcAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA89 Jonathan Mayhew]
* [https://books.google.com/books?id=f4pQAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA425 Jonathan Mayhew]

{{Building Toward Independence}}

[[Category:Colonial America]]
[[Category:Puritans]]
[[Category:Religion and Politics]]
[[Category:New England]]

Calvin Coolidge

2017-02-01T18:27:44Z

Haeralis: I added a paragraph about Coolidge's philosophical conservatism.

{{Officeholder
|name=Calvin Coolidge
|image=Calvin Coolidge cph.3g10777.jpg
|party=[[Republican]]
|spouse=Grace Goodhue Coolidge
|religion=[[Congregationalist]]
|offices=
{{Officeholder/president
|country=the United States
|number=30th
|terms=August 2, 1923 – March 4, 1929
|vp=[[Charles G. Dawes]] (1925–1929)
|preceded=[[Warren G. Harding]]
|former=y
|succeeded=[[Herbert Hoover]]
}}
{{Officeholder/vice president
|country=the United States
|number=29th
|terms=March 4, 1921 – August 2, 1923
|president=[[Warren G. Harding]]
|preceded=[[Thomas R. Marshall]]
|former=y
|succeeded=[[Charles G. Dawes]]
}}
{{Officeholder/governor
|number=48th
|state=Massachusetts
|lieutenant=Channing H. Cox
|terms=January 2, 1919 – January 6, 1921
|preceded=Samuel W. McCall
|former=y
|succeeded=Channing H. Cox
}}
{{Officeholder/governor
|number=46th
|lieutenant=y
|governor=[[Samuel W. McCall]]
|state=Massachusetts
|terms=January 6, 1916 – January 2, 1919
|preceded=Grafton D. Cushing
|former=y
|succeeded=Channing H. Cox
}}
{{Officeholder/mayor
|city=Northampton, Massachusetts
|number=16th
|terms=1910-1911
|preceded=James W. O'Brien
|former=y
|succeeded=William Feiker
}}
}}
'''John Calvin Coolidge, Jr.''' was the 30th [[president of the United States of America]] from 1923 to 1929, an era of peace and prosperity. He was elected vice president in 1920 as a [[Republican Party|Republican]] and took office in August 1923 upon the death of President [[Warren G. Harding]]; he was reelected by a landslide in 1924, but in 1928 at the peak of his popularity he announced in typical laconic fashion that he did not choose to run again.

==Early career==
Coolidge was born in Plymouth, Vermont, July 4, 1872, the son of John and Victoria Moor Coolidge. Both parents were Yankees; his ancestors came from England to New England in the early seventeenth century. Coolidge's father was a farmer and a successful country storekeeper who dabbled in local and state politics. Young Calvin was educated in the local school and later at Black River and St. Johnsbury academies. In 1891 he entered [[Amherst College]] in Massachusetts, where he showed an interest in philosophy. Reserved and reticent, he did not mix readily with his fellows. In his senior year, however, he was selected as class speaker.

==Early public life==
After his graduation in 1895 Coolidge studied law, was admitted to the Massachusetts bar in 1897, and began to practice in the city of Northampton, where he became active in local GOP politics. In 1898 he was elected to the common council. Thereafter he was seldom out of public office. He was elected to the Massachusetts General Court (legislature) in 1907. After two terms he was elected mayor of Northampton and then was elected to the state senate; during 1914-1915 he was president of that body. He had also served as chairman of the Republican State Committee, and he spent three terms as lieutenant governor of the state.

In 1905 Coolidge married Grace Anna Goodhue of Burlington, Vt. The couple had two sons, John and Calvin, the younger of whom, Calvin, died on July 7, 1924, from blood poisoning.

==Governor and Vice President==
When Governor Samuel W. McCall retired in 1918, Coolidge became the unanimous choice of the Republican Party for the governorship; he was elected and took office in January 1919. As governor, Coolidge made no radical innovations nor did he sponsor a legislative program. A conservative, he devoted himself to a program of economy in government. The Boston police strike, and his handling of it, first brought him to national attention. On Sept. 9, 1919, the police struck in protest against the police commissioner's refusal to permit them to join an American Federation of Labor union. Immediately there were riots and disorder. After some urging Governor Coolidge called out the state guard to preserve order and personally took charge. The governor answered Samuel Gompers' objections to his actions with the statement: "There is no right to strike against the public safety by anybody, anywhere, at any time." The statement received nationwide publicity. After the nomination of Warren G. Harding by the Republican national convention in 1920, the members of the convention rebelled against the dominant senatorial clique. They nominated Coolidge for second place on the ticket after his name had been presented by a comparatively unknown delegate. Coolidge was elected along with Harding in 1920 and became president on Aug. 2, 1923, when Harding died of natural causes. Coolidge was at his father's house in Vermont when the momentous news arrived. His father, a notary public, administered the oath of office.

==Presidency==
The elections in 1922 had reduced the party's numbers in Congress to a scant majority. Moreover, the scandals connected with the Harding administration were in the process of being made public by a congressional committee. Yet, a little over a year later, Coolidge was elected for another term by a landslide over both [[John W. Davis]], [[U.S. Democratic Party, History|Democrat]], and [[Robert La Follette]], Progressive. Davis got 29% of the popular vote, carrying the South from Virginia to Texas, and 136 electoral votes, LaFollette carried Wisconsin and many German and railroad centers, but Coolidge won easily with 382 electoral votes. Four years later, when he left office, his party was in a much stronger position than it had been in 1924.

Felzenberg (19978) shows that Coolidge battled intolerance, lynching and especially the [[Ku Klux Klan]], which lost all its influence during his term.

In 1924 he appointed a commission to investigate the circumstances of the Teapot Dome oil lease, a scandal inherited from the Harding administration. By focusing all the blame on Harding, he permanently tarnished Harding's name and promoted himself.

===Economic policies===
Coolidge famously said, "The business of America is business."

The Coolidge policy was a simple one, made easier by the continuous prosperity and the weakness of the liberal opposition. He believed in government economy, reduced taxation, and gave aid to private business without accompanying restrictive regulation. In 1927 he vetoed the soldiers' bonus bill. Coolidge opposed any government control in interstate electrical power and was against the proposal for government operation of the Wilson Dam at Muscle Shoals on the Tennessee River; in 1933 it became part of the [[New Deal]]'s [[TVA]].

Throughout the farming regions of the traditionally Republican Middle West loud complaints were heard about the farm crisis. It was characterized by low prices for crops and the overhang of the land [[economic bubble|bubble]] that burst in 1920, leaving many farmers deeply in debt for new lands they purchased at high price during the war. The farmers wanted the federal government to intervene in the market, by buying crops at high prices and dumping them abroad cheaply. Congress passed the legislation, known as the and the [[McNary-Haugen Bill]], a farm relief bill, but Coolidge vetoed it. He supported the alternative program of Hoover and Jardine to modernize farming, by bringing in more electricity, more efficient equipment, better seeds and breeds, and better business practices.

===Foreign Affairs===
In the realm of foreign affairs the president urged the nation to become a member of the World Court, but the bill authorizing it was hedged with so many qualifications that the other member nations refused to admit the United States. Under the direction of Secretary of the Treasury [[Andrew W. Mellon]], plans for the payment of foreign government debts to the United States were negotiated and approved. During the Coolidge administration the Kellogg-Briand Pact, renouncing war as an instrument of national policy, was signed by most of the important nations of the world. The appointment of Dwight W. Morrow as ambassador to Mexico did much to restore good relations with that country, although the policy pursued elsewhere in Latin America in the interest of American investors helped maintain the Latin-American distrust of their northern neighbor.

=== Calvin Coolidge and Prohibition ===
Calvin Coolidge was not a teetotaler, but he didn't have much use for alcohol. Due to his belief in limited government, he cut the [[Prohibition]] Bureau’s budget during the boom year of 1926. Andrew Mellon, who as Treasury Secretary was also the Chief Prohibition Enforcement Officer in the United States, hated the law and was less than dedicated in his enforcement efforts.<ref>[http://kaiology.wordpress.com/2010/09/18/water-water-everywhere-and-not-a-drop-to-drink-coolidge-and-prohibition-2/ Water, water everywhere, and not a drop to drink – Coolidge and Prohibition]</ref>

===Evaluations===
In the short view, the Coolidge administration was a preeminently successful one. Income taxes and corporate taxes were greatly reduced, a major part of the national debt was retired, and the nation experienced some of the most prosperous years in its history. The Coolidge policies were in part responsible for these benefits, but some hostile [[liberal]] historians falsely claim they were probably responsible, in part, for the great depression that followed.
[[Image:Calvin Coolidge by Hopkinson.jpg|thumb|200px|left|Painting by Charles Hopkinson]]
Coolidge's image was to a degree shaped by Madison Avenue. Buckley (2003) reveals the role of advertising giant [[Bruce Barton]] in the remaking of the public persona or image of Coolidge during 1919-26 and, in so doing, guiding a dramatic shift in politics and the wide acceptance of consumer culture. The dominance of the political party bosses, who selected Harding in 1920, ended when the business elite wrested control from the party, using their ability to raise money for advertising and ultimately commodifying the political process. Members of this elite suggested that Barton refashion Coolidge from an aloof man driven by the advancement of his career into a voice of the masses, the "silent majority," which Barton accomplished with press coverage, exploiting the new technology of radio for political speeches, newsreels, an exclusive "spontaneous" interview with Coolidge, and by arranging events that would be covered free, as news. Coolidge's election to the presidency in 1924 was the first campaign of personality, in which style was promoted over substance, tapping into "intense private longings" of a public uncertain of its moorings in a rapidly modernizing society. Gilbert (2003) and Gilbert (2005) argues that Coolidge suffered from clinical depression throughout his life. Gilbert discusses the major symptoms of the disorder as evidenced in Coolidge's personal and political behavior. He exhibited symptoms from a very early age, beginning with his grandfather's death when he was six and again with the deaths of his mother and sister during his adolescence. Ascending to the presidency in 1923, Coolidge at first was diligent, effective, and respectful of others. After the death of his teenage son in 1924, however, his demeanor and degree of political engagement changed drastically. He developed hypersomnia, sleeping as much as 15 hours per day, and he began to treat White House staffers and his wife rudely, often publicly humiliating them. Moreover, he became far less effective as a decision-maker and grew increasingly detached from political issues.

Other scholars note Coolidge's effective, principled philosophical stand against the Progressives. Joseph Postell, for instance, argues that Coolidge presents the most formidable attack on the principles of progressivism of any 20th century conservative.<ref>Joseph W. Postell and Johnathan O'Neill, "Roaring Against Progressivism: Calvin Coolidge's Principled Conservatism" in Towards an American Conservatism: Constitutional Conservatism in the Progressive Era, (Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan, 2013) 183.</ref> According to Postell, Coolidge's philosophical framework defends both the benevolence of custom as well as the truths of the American Founding. While Coolidge advocated a return to and a protection of America's political tradition, he did so not out of some thoughtless fear of the future, but for the sake of universal truths and the principles of the Declaration.<ref>Joseph W. Postell and Johnathan O'Neill, Towards an American Conservatism, 183.</ref>

==Silent Cal==
A woman once told Coolidge that she had bet someone that she couldn't get him to say more than two words. He told her, "You lose."

===Retirement===
In the summer of 1927 Coolidge made the statement, "I do not chose to run for president in 1928." He did not indicate his choice of his successor. Coolidge left the White House on Mar. 4, 1929, amid the acclaim of the nation. Returning to Northampton, he published his autobiography and wrote articles for newspapers and periodicals. These and his business activities kept him engaged until his death on Jan. 5, 1933, in the midst of the [[Great Depression]].

==Quotes==
*"Nothing is easier than spending the public money. It doesn't appear to belong to anybody."

*"It was never flaunted for the glory of royalty, but to be born under it is to be born a child of a king, and to establish a home under it is to be the founder of a royal house." - Speaking of the American flag

*'''"I favor the American system of individual enterprise, and I am opposed to any general extension of government ownership, and control."'''

*"Unfortunately the Federal Government has strayed far afield from its legitimate business. It has trespassed upon fields where there should be no trespass. If we could confine our Federal expenditures to the legitimate obligations and functions of the Federal Government, a material reduction would be apparent. But far more important than this would be its effect upon the fabric of our constitutional form of government, which tends to be gradually weakened and undermined by this encroachment. The cure for this is not in our hands. It lies with the people. It will come when they realize the necessity of State assumption of State responsibility. It will come when they realize that the laws under which the Federal Government hands out contributions to the states are placing upon them a double burden of taxation–Federal taxation in the first instance to raise the moneys which the Government donates to the states, and state taxation in the second instance to meet the extravagances of state expenditures which are tempted by Federal donations." - At Memorial Continental Hall, January 21, 1924

*"What we need is not more Federal government, but better local government."

*"Nations which are torn by dissension and discord, which are weak and inefficient at home, have little standing or influence abroad. Even the blind do not chose the blind to lead them."

*"A very positive echo of what the Dutch had done in 1581, and what the English were preparing to do, appears in the assertion of the Rev. Thomas Hooker, of Connecticut, as early as 1638, when he said in a sermon before the General Court that- “The foundation of authority is laid in the free consent of the people.” “The choice of public magistrates belongs unto the people by God’s own allowance.” This doctrine found wide acceptance among the nonconformist clergy who later made up the Congregational Church. The great apostle of this movement was the Rev. [[John Wise (clergyman)|John Wise]], of Massachusetts. He was one of the leaders of the revolt against the royal governor [[Edmund Andros]] in 1687, for which he suffered imprisonment. He was a liberal in ecclesiastical controversies. He appears to have been familiar with the writings of the political scientist, Samuel Pufendorf, who was born in Saxony in 1632. Wise published a treatise, entitled “The Church’s Quarrel Espoused,” in 1710, which was amplified in another publication in 1717. In it he dealt with the principles of civil government. His works were reprinted in 1772 and have been declared to have been nothing less than a textbook of liberty for our Revolutionary fathers."<ref>[https://thf_media.s3.amazonaws.com/2011/pdf/FP_PS32.pdf Calvin Coolidge Challenges Progress in the Name of the Declaration of Independence], [[Heritage Foundation]]</ref><ref>[http://teachingamericanhistory.org/library/document/speech-on-the-occasion-of-the-one-hundred-and-fiftieth-anniversary-of-the-declaration-of-independence/ Speech on the 150th Anniversary of the Declaration of Independence]</ref>

==Bibliography==
* Buckley, Kerry W. "'A President for the "Great Silent Majority': Bruce Barton's Construction of Calvin Coolidge." ''New England Quarterly'' 2003 76(4): 593-626. Issn: 0028-4866 Fulltext: in Jstor
* Felzenberg, Alvin S. "Calvin Coolidge and Race: His Record in Dealing with the Racial Tensions of the 1920s." ''New England Journal of History'' 1998 55(1): 83-96.
* Ferrell, Robert H. ''The Presidency of Calvin Coolidge.'' U. Press of Kansas, 1998. 244 pp. The standard scholarly study.
* Gilbert, Robert E. "Calvin Coolidge's Tragic Presidency: the Political Effects of Bereavement and Depression." ''Journal of American Studies'' 2005 39(1): 87-109. Issn: 0021-8758 Fulltext: in Cambridge and Swetswise
* Gilbert, Robert E. ''The Tormented President: Calvin Coolidge, Death, and Clinical Depression.'' Praeger, 2003. 288pp
* Greenberg, David. ''Calvin Coolidge'' (2006), short biography. [http://www.amazon.com/Calvin-Coolidge-David-Greenberg/dp/0805069577/ref=pd_bbs_sr_2/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1194420081&sr=8-2 excerpt and text search]
* Haynes, John Earl, ed. ''Calvin Coolidge and the Coolidge Era: Essays on the History of the 1920s.'' Library of Congress, 1998. 329 pp. essays by scholars
* McCoy, Donald R. ''Calvin Coolidge: A Biography'' (1967), 447pp, the standard scholarly biography
* Pietrusza, David ''1920: The Year of the Six Presidents'' New York: Carroll & Graf, 2007
* Pietrusza, David (ed.) ''Calvin Coolidge: A Documentary Biography''
* Pietrusza, David (ed.) ''Calvin Coolidge on the Founders''
* Pietrusza, David (ed.) ''Silent Cal's Almanack: The Homespun Wit and Wisdom of Vermont's Calvin Coolidge'' createspace: 2008.
* Shlaes, Amity ''Coolidge''
* White, William Allen ''A Puritan in Babylon: The Story of Calvin Coolidge,'' (1938) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=1105748 online edition]

===Primary sources===
* Calvin Coolidge. ''The Autobiography of Calvin Coolidge'' (1929), [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=82302633 online edition]
* Howard H. Quint and Robert H. Ferrell, eds. ''The Talkative President: The Off-The-Record Press Conferences of Calvin Coolidge,'' (1964), 276pp [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=77365439 online edition]
* Calvin Coolidge Telegram to Samuel Gompers re: Boston Police Strike [http://www.davidpietrusza.com/coolidge-gompers-telegram.html online edition]

==References==
{{Reflist|1}}

==External links==
* [http://www.millercenter.virginia.edu/academic/americanpresident/coolidge excellent essays & documents from Miller Center U Virginia]
* [http://www.c-spanarchives.org/program/id/222754 Author David Pietrusza discusses Calvin Coolidge on C-SPAN BookTV]
* [https://librivox.org/author/7190 Works by Calvin Coolidge - text and free audio] - [[LibriVox]]

{{USPresidents}}
{{USVicePresidents}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Coolidge, Calvin}}

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