Conservapedia - User contributions [en]

Parasite

2008-07-26T19:47:13Z

HockeyFan: expand worms section

A '''parasite''' is a living [[organism]] that lives by exploiting another organism. Parasitism is a form of one-sided [[symbiosis]] where the parasite benefits and the host is harmed. While it used to be thought that parasites were very simple creatures generally with little impact on their [[ecosystem|ecosystems]];<ref>"Only now are scientists thinking seriously about how parasites may be as important to ecosystems as lions and leopards.", Zimmer, 2001, p xxi-xxii.</ref> however, biologists now understand that parasites can be very sophisticated, precisely created to take advantage of their hosts and that parasites can have significant effects on their environment and on their host's life.
Common parasites in humans include [[Toxoplasmosis]] and the [[Malaria]]l parasite.<ref>Zimmer, 2001</ref> Worms are also common parasites, with up to 7,000 species of parasitic worms described. These species include the roundworms, hookworms and whipworms. Most parasitic worms are [[nematode]]s that are invisible to the naked eye.

Unlike many bacterias and viruses, parasites can have extremely long lifespans. Tapeworms, for example, can live up to 10 years, or more, in a host. Some forms of protozoan parasites called trypanosomes will persist in the heart muscle, skin and liver for a person's entire life, these cause the fatal illness [[Chagas' disease]] and are common in South America. [[Charles Darwin]] may have suffered from Chagas' disease.

[[Young Earth Creationism|Young earth creationists]] see parasites, along with diseases, as coming about as a result of [[Adam]]'s [[sin]] against [[God]] and are one of the problems that arose on Earth because of the beginning of sin.<ref>Armitage, 2000</ref>
For example, [[virus|viruses]] are categorized as [[Obligate Intracellular parasite|obligate intracellular parasites]], and are ‘infectious particles’ rather than organisms.<ref name="Did God">Bergman, 1999</ref>
[[Creation science|Creation scientist]] Dr. [[Jerry Bergman]] asserts that [[God]] did not make [[Pathogenic virus|pathogenic viruses]] and that it is a result of a post [[Fall of Man|fall]] world.
Bergman says that "[[pathogenesis]] is evidence of something gone wrong, a [[mutation]] or the accidental movement of [[gene]]s, and not evidence of a system deliberately designed to cause human [[disease]] and suffering.<ref name="Did God" />
In addition, creation scientists point out that the elimination of some parasites cannot be explained vis a vis the [[theory of evolution]].<ref>Parker, 2007.</ref> For example, [[David Catchpoole]] wrote:
{{cquote|Carnivorous [[fish]] such as the Oriental sweetlip and the coral rock cod normally feed voraciously upon [[shrimp]]s and smaller fish. But these photographs show them placidly allowing cleaner wrasse and cleaner shrimp to crawl around tongue, gill chamber and vicious-looking teeth—and the cleaners don’t seem to be at all reticent to enter the 'jaws of death'. And when the [[wrasse]] and shrimp have finished picking off parasites, the large fish let the cleaners go again without eating them.

The 'cleaning [[symbiosis]]' benefits both species, but evolutionary mutation/selection can’t explain how it arose. Nobel laureate Albert Szent-Györgi summed up the evolutionary puzzle presented by such symbiotic relationships (he was actually referring to a much simpler relationship between a young herring gull and its parent): ‘All this had to be developed simultaneously [like the cleaner entering the big fish’s mouth at the same time the big fish suspends his 'normal' (post-Fall) habit of eating small fish], which as a mutation has the probability of zero. I am unable to approach this problem without supposing an innate drive in matter to perfect itself.'<ref>Catchpoole, 2006</ref>}}

== Bibliography ==

* Zimmer, Carl, ''Parasite Rex'', Simon & Schuster 2001, ISBN 0743213718 [http://www.ereader.com/servlet/mw?t=book_excerpt&bookid=6004&si=59 Excerpt]
* Taylor, Paul S. and Van Bebber, Mark [http://www.christiananswers.net/q-eden/edn-c026.html Is the age of the Earth a “trivial” doctrinal point?], 1998 (ChristianAnswers.net).
* Armitage, Mark H., [http://www.creationresearch.org/crsq/articles/36/36_4/trematodes.html Trematode Parasites: What Is Their Genesis?] ''CRS Quarterly'', 36(3):184-194 March 2000.
* Bergman, Jerry, [http://creationontheweb.com/content/view/1686 Did God make pathogenic viruses?], ''Journal of Creation'' 13(1):115–125, April 1999
* Parker, Gary, [http://www.icr.org/article/146/ Nature's Challenge to Evolutionary Theory], 2007 (Institute for Creation Research)
* Catchpoole, David, [http://www.creationontheweb.com/content/view/5044 Off the menu …], Creation 28(2):56, March 2006.

==See Also==

*[[Homosexuality and Parasites]]

==References==

<references/>

[[Category:Biology]]

Parasite

2008-07-26T19:38:15Z

HockeyFan: better definition

A '''parasite''' is a living [[organism]] that lives by exploiting another organism. Parasitism is a form of one-sided [[symbiosis]] where the parasite benefits and the host is harmed. While it used to be thought that parasites were very simple creatures generally with little impact on their [[ecosystem|ecosystems]];<ref>"Only now are scientists thinking seriously about how parasites may be as important to ecosystems as lions and leopards.", Zimmer, 2001, p xxi-xxii.</ref> however, biologists now understand that parasites can be very sophisticated, precisely created to take advantage of their hosts and that parasites can have significant effects on their environment and on their host's life.
Common parasites in humans include [[Toxoplasmosis]] and the [[Malaria]]l parasite.<ref>Zimmer, 2001</ref>

Unlike many bacterias and viruses, parasites can have extremely long lifespans. Tapeworms, for example, can live up to 10 years, or more, in a host.

[[Young Earth Creationism|Young earth creationists]] see parasites, along with diseases, as coming about as a result of [[Adam]]'s [[sin]] against [[God]] and are one of the problems that arose on Earth because of the beginning of sin.<ref>Armitage, 2000</ref>
For example, [[virus|viruses]] are categorized as [[Obligate Intracellular parasite|obligate intracellular parasites]], and are ‘infectious particles’ rather than organisms.<ref name="Did God">Bergman, 1999</ref>
[[Creation science|Creation scientist]] Dr. [[Jerry Bergman]] asserts that [[God]] did not make [[Pathogenic virus|pathogenic viruses]] and that it is a result of a post [[Fall of Man|fall]] world.
Bergman says that "[[pathogenesis]] is evidence of something gone wrong, a [[mutation]] or the accidental movement of [[gene]]s, and not evidence of a system deliberately designed to cause human [[disease]] and suffering.<ref name="Did God" />
In addition, creation scientists point out that the elimination of some parasites cannot be explained vis a vis the [[theory of evolution]].<ref>Parker, 2007.</ref> For example, [[David Catchpoole]] wrote:
{{cquote|Carnivorous [[fish]] such as the Oriental sweetlip and the coral rock cod normally feed voraciously upon [[shrimp]]s and smaller fish. But these photographs show them placidly allowing cleaner wrasse and cleaner shrimp to crawl around tongue, gill chamber and vicious-looking teeth—and the cleaners don’t seem to be at all reticent to enter the 'jaws of death'. And when the [[wrasse]] and shrimp have finished picking off parasites, the large fish let the cleaners go again without eating them.

The 'cleaning [[symbiosis]]' benefits both species, but evolutionary mutation/selection can’t explain how it arose. Nobel laureate Albert Szent-Györgi summed up the evolutionary puzzle presented by such symbiotic relationships (he was actually referring to a much simpler relationship between a young herring gull and its parent): ‘All this had to be developed simultaneously [like the cleaner entering the big fish’s mouth at the same time the big fish suspends his 'normal' (post-Fall) habit of eating small fish], which as a mutation has the probability of zero. I am unable to approach this problem without supposing an innate drive in matter to perfect itself.'<ref>Catchpoole, 2006</ref>}}

== Bibliography ==

* Zimmer, Carl, ''Parasite Rex'', Simon & Schuster 2001, ISBN 0743213718 [http://www.ereader.com/servlet/mw?t=book_excerpt&bookid=6004&si=59 Excerpt]
* Taylor, Paul S. and Van Bebber, Mark [http://www.christiananswers.net/q-eden/edn-c026.html Is the age of the Earth a “trivial” doctrinal point?], 1998 (ChristianAnswers.net).
* Armitage, Mark H., [http://www.creationresearch.org/crsq/articles/36/36_4/trematodes.html Trematode Parasites: What Is Their Genesis?] ''CRS Quarterly'', 36(3):184-194 March 2000.
* Bergman, Jerry, [http://creationontheweb.com/content/view/1686 Did God make pathogenic viruses?], ''Journal of Creation'' 13(1):115–125, April 1999
* Parker, Gary, [http://www.icr.org/article/146/ Nature's Challenge to Evolutionary Theory], 2007 (Institute for Creation Research)
* Catchpoole, David, [http://www.creationontheweb.com/content/view/5044 Off the menu …], Creation 28(2):56, March 2006.

==See Also==

*[[Homosexuality and Parasites]]

==References==

<references/>

[[Category:Biology]]

Hemoglobin

2008-07-26T19:24:25Z

HockeyFan: more specific

'''Hemoglobin''' is an iron-rich [[protein]] in [[blood]] that carries oxygen to the [[cell|cells]] of the body. The iron component in blood gives it a red color when carrying oxygen.

[[Category:Biology]]
[[Category:Anatomy]]

Platelets

2008-07-26T19:20:20Z

HockeyFan: cytoskeleton

'''Platelets''' are small components in your blood that form a [[scab]], and heal the skin on a cut. They do this by clustering together at the site of a wound and then bursting open and releasing [[cytoskeleton]] [[protein]]s, which form a sticky web that stops blood flow.

==See Also==
[[Blood]]

[[Red blood cell]]

[[White Blood Cells]]

[[Scab]]

[[Category:Anatomy]]

White blood cell

2008-07-26T19:16:42Z

HockeyFan: add chemokines

'''White blood cells''' are a component of [[blood]]. As part of the body's [[immune system]], their function is to protect the body from disease and infection. White blood cells come in several varieties, each with a different role to play in neutralizing harmful foreign substances. White blood cells, like all [[blood cells]], are produced in the [[bone]] marrow.

They are also known as leukocytes. There are five main types of leukocytes, and these types are produced from immature cells in the [[lymphatic system]] in response to the body's needs. For example, infection with bacteria will cause more [[macrophage]]s to be produced and fewer NK cells, in response to "alarm signals" called [[chemokine]]s.

==See Also==
*[[Red blood cell]]
*[[Platelets]]

[[Category:Anatomy]]

Red Blood Cells

2008-07-26T19:10:36Z

HockeyFan: iron not involved in CO2 binding

'''Red blood cells''' (or '''erythrocytes''') are the major cellular component of the [[blood]] that transport [[oxygen]] to other areas of the body. Red blood cells, like all [[blood cells]], are produced in the [[bone]] marrow. They contain the [[protein]] [[hemoglobin]], that contains [[iron]] as a [[coenzyme]], allowing them to reversibly bind oxygen in the bloodstream. Mammalian red blood cells lack a nucleus and, thus, contain no genetic material of their own. They also lack the machinery for protein synthesis The lifespan of a red blood cell is about 90 days. Dead and dying RBCs are broken down and disposed of in the spleen and the liver where the released iron is conserved for reuse in the synthesis of new red blood cells.

==See Also==
*[[White Blood Cells]]
*[[Blood]]
*[[Platelets]]

[[Category:Anatomy]]

Point mutation

2008-07-26T19:02:37Z

HockeyFan: expand a bit

A '''point mutation''' is the most limited type of [[mutation]], whereby a single base [[nucleotide]] is replaced with another nucleotide. Sometimes the expression "point mutation" can also include the addition or subtraction of a single base pair, which is also referred to as an "indel".

The sickle-cell disease is caused by a single point mutation in one allele of the beta [[hemoglobin]] gene, whereby a CCT codon is converted into TCT. The TCT then mistakenly encodes the [[amino acid]] serine instead of proline.

[[Category:genetics]]
[[Category:diseases]]

Chemotherapy

2008-07-26T18:56:54Z

HockeyFan: add reference

'''Chemotherapy''' is a medical treatment for [[cancer]]. Since cancer is a condition consisting of living cells, run amok, the goal of chemotherapy is to weaken or kill the [[tumor]] without killing the [[patient]]. Understandably, the treatment is extremely dangerous, often bringing the patient to the verge of death, in the hope of removing the cancer. Patients undergoing chemotherapy should be aware of the dangerous side effects of the treatment.<ref>http://www.chemotherapy.com/</ref> In 2004, approximately one in forty cancer patients died as a direct or indirect consequence of chemotherapy. This rate rises to one in thirty among the elderly.<ref>http://www.cdc.gov/cancer/npcr/npcrpdfs/US_Cancer_Statistics_2004_Incidence_and_Mortality.pdf</ref> Chemotherapy, coupled with surgery to remove the weakened and smaller mass, is often the best treatment.

==References==
<references/>
[[category:Medicine]]

Cancer

2008-07-26T18:48:55Z

HockeyFan: /* Prevention and Screening */ smoking

The term '''cancer''' refers to many different diseases. They all have in common uncontrolled ''cell proliferation'' (growth and division). Cancers are usually named for the organ or cell type that is originally involved. After beginning at one site, cancer may ''metastasize'' (spread) to other organs. The cancer is still named by its place or origin.

==Types of Cancer==
[[Image:Cancerxray.jpg|200px|right|thumb|X-Ray of patient with tumor cancer in right lung]]
[[Image:LUNG069.jpg|200px|right|thumb|Lung tumor]]
''Data are for USA''

*Most common cancers in men:
#[[Prostate cancer|Prostate]]
#[[Lung cancer|Lung]]
#[[Colon cancer|Colorectal]]

*Deadliest cancers in men:
#Lung
#[[Prostate cancer|Prostate]]
#Colon
#Pancreatic
#Leukemia
#[[Liver cancer|Liver]]
#Stomach
*Most common cancers in women
#[[Breast cancer|Breast]]
#Lung
#Colorectal

*Deadliest cancers in women
#Lung
#Breast
#Colorectal
#Pancreatic
#Uterus
#Stomach

==Prevention and Screening==
''Preventative strategies are continuously being revised. Please see references below for up to date information.''
*[[Breast cancer]]: In women without a family history of breast cancer, mammograms should be done yearly. Clinical breast exam by a medical professional should also be done yearly. Women who have had abortions are significantly more likely to contract breast cancer.
*[[Lung cancer]]: stopping smoking reduces the risk of lung cancer.
*[[Prostate cancer]]: evidence is inconclusive, but most doctors recommend yearly PSA blood test and digital rectal exam
*[[Colon cancer]]: in people without a family history of colon cancer, most sources recommend a colonoscopy at age 50, with further studies based on the results. Fecal occult blood testing should also be conducted yearly.
*[[Cervical cancer]]: yearly Pap smears should be done on all women who have been sexually active and have not had a [[hysterectomy]]. Over age 65, women in monogamous relationships and recent normal Pap smears probably do not need to be screened as frequently.
*[[Testicular cancer]]: the evidence is unclear, however most physicians recommend routine testicular exams in young men.
*[[Skin cancer]]: keep skin protected from sunlight by use of clothing and sunscreen, and watch you skin for new moles, or changes in existing moles.

==Treatment of cancer==

===chemotherapy===
[[Chemotherapy]] is the use of drugs that kill [[tumor]] cells. Conventionally, the drugs that are used are those that target cells which are rapidly undergoing [[mitosis]]; this approach is effective but is limited by side effects, which occur because these drugs have an adverse effect on normal tissues that contain rapidly-dividing cells. Research is under way to find drugs with a wider [[therapeutic index]]. One approach is to study specific molecular markers that may be used to identify cancer cells, and to develop drugs that preferentially kill cells that exhibit those markers.

===radiation therapy===
Radiation therapy involves the use of precisely-targeted [[radiation]] to destroy cancer cells. Because radiation damages [[DNA]] and thus has the ability both to treat and to cause cancer, this method of treatment must be administered by physicians highly-skilled in [[physics]].

===surgery===
The goal of cancer surgery is to physically remove the abnormal cells. This becomes more difficult after the cancer spreads. Often, chemotherapy is used either before or after surgery to kill cancer cells that have [[metastasis|metastasized]].

===immunotherapy===
The immune system contains a number of cell types, such as [[NK cells]] and [[cytotoxic T cell|killer T cells]] that have the capability to destroy other cells that have become infected with viruses or have become cancerous. [[Immunotherapy]] involves the enhancement or potentiation of these natural defenses against tumor cells.

===New and Experimental Treatments===
There are many new and experimental treatments for cancer developed every day. These should be viewed with skepticism until more is known about the effects that these treatments may have since many "cures" for cancer have been publicized or marketed without FDA approval and have been found to be ineffective if not harmful. An example of this is Kent Hovind supporting the use of laetrile (also known as amygdalin, or misleadingly "vitamin" B17) which is found in the seeds of raw fruits such as apricots as a cure for cancer.<ref>[http://www.bibleandscience.com/otherviews/hovind.htm Institute for Biblical & Scientific Studies, February 2008]</ref> This has never been found to cure cancer from any research but instead has been shown to cause cyanide poisoning.<ref>[http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/pdq/cam/laetrile/patient/allpages#Section_20 National Cancer Institute, February 2008]</ref> <ref>[http://content.nejm.org/cgi/content/abstract/306/4/201 New England Journal of Medicine: A clinical trial of amygdalin (Laetrile) in the treatment of human cancer, February 2008]</ref>

== See also ==

*[[American Medical Association]]
*[[Doctor]]
*[[Mobile phones and brain tumor risk]]

==References==
*http://www.cdc.gov
*[http://www.cancer.org/docroot/stt/stt_0.asp American Cancer Society: Cancer statistics for 2007]
*[http://www.cancer.org/docroot/ETO/content/ETO_1_4X_What_Is_Chemotherapy.asp?sitearea=ETO American Cancer Society: What is chemotherapy?]
*[http://www.cancer.org/docroot/ETO/content/ETO_1_4X_How_Does_Chemotherapy_Work.asp?sitearea=ETO American Cancer Society: How does chemotherapy Work?]
*[http://www.cancer.org/docroot/ETO/content/ETO_1_4X_Whats_New_in_Chemotherapy_Research.asp?sitearea=ETO American Cancer Society: What's new in chemotherapy research?]
*[http://www.ahrq.gov/clinic/pocketgd.htm Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality: Guide to Clinical Preventive Services]
*[http://www.mayoclinic.com/print/chemotherapy/CA00029/METHOD=print Mayo Clinic: Chemotherapy: Drug treatment uses chemicals to kill cancer cells]
*[http://women.webmd.com/guide/health-myths-know-truth?page=2 Myth: Cancer cannot be prevented]

[[Category:Diseases]]
[[Category:Medicine]]

Cancer

2008-07-26T18:47:10Z

HockeyFan: /* chemotherapy */ correct

The term '''cancer''' refers to many different diseases. They all have in common uncontrolled ''cell proliferation'' (growth and division). Cancers are usually named for the organ or cell type that is originally involved. After beginning at one site, cancer may ''metastasize'' (spread) to other organs. The cancer is still named by its place or origin.

==Types of Cancer==
[[Image:Cancerxray.jpg|200px|right|thumb|X-Ray of patient with tumor cancer in right lung]]
[[Image:LUNG069.jpg|200px|right|thumb|Lung tumor]]
''Data are for USA''

*Most common cancers in men:
#[[Prostate cancer|Prostate]]
#[[Lung cancer|Lung]]
#[[Colon cancer|Colorectal]]

*Deadliest cancers in men:
#Lung
#[[Prostate cancer|Prostate]]
#Colon
#Pancreatic
#Leukemia
#[[Liver cancer|Liver]]
#Stomach
*Most common cancers in women
#[[Breast cancer|Breast]]
#Lung
#Colorectal

*Deadliest cancers in women
#Lung
#Breast
#Colorectal
#Pancreatic
#Uterus
#Stomach

==Prevention and Screening==
''Preventative strategies are continuously being revised. Please see references below for up to date information.''
*[[Breast cancer]]: In women without a family history of breast cancer, mammograms should be done yearly. Clinical breast exam by a medical professional should also be done yearly. Women who have had abortions are significantly more likely to contract breast cancer.
*[[Lung cancer]]: There are no currently accepted preventative guidelines
*[[Prostate cancer]]: evidence is inconclusive, but most doctors recommend yearly PSA blood test and digital rectal exam
*[[Colon cancer]]: in people without a family history of colon cancer, most sources recommend a colonoscopy at age 50, with further studies based on the results. Fecal occult blood testing should also be conducted yearly.
*[[Cervical cancer]]: yearly Pap smears should be done on all women who have been sexually active and have not had a [[hysterectomy]]. Over age 65, women in monogamous relationships and recent normal Pap smears probably do not need to be screened as frequently.
*[[Testicular cancer]]: the evidence is unclear, however most physicians recommend routine testicular exams in young men.
*[[Skin cancer]]: keep skin protected from sunlight by use of clothing and sunscreen, and watch you skin for new moles, or changes in existing moles.

==Treatment of cancer==

===chemotherapy===
[[Chemotherapy]] is the use of drugs that kill [[tumor]] cells. Conventionally, the drugs that are used are those that target cells which are rapidly undergoing [[mitosis]]; this approach is effective but is limited by side effects, which occur because these drugs have an adverse effect on normal tissues that contain rapidly-dividing cells. Research is under way to find drugs with a wider [[therapeutic index]]. One approach is to study specific molecular markers that may be used to identify cancer cells, and to develop drugs that preferentially kill cells that exhibit those markers.

===radiation therapy===
Radiation therapy involves the use of precisely-targeted [[radiation]] to destroy cancer cells. Because radiation damages [[DNA]] and thus has the ability both to treat and to cause cancer, this method of treatment must be administered by physicians highly-skilled in [[physics]].

===surgery===
The goal of cancer surgery is to physically remove the abnormal cells. This becomes more difficult after the cancer spreads. Often, chemotherapy is used either before or after surgery to kill cancer cells that have [[metastasis|metastasized]].

===immunotherapy===
The immune system contains a number of cell types, such as [[NK cells]] and [[cytotoxic T cell|killer T cells]] that have the capability to destroy other cells that have become infected with viruses or have become cancerous. [[Immunotherapy]] involves the enhancement or potentiation of these natural defenses against tumor cells.

===New and Experimental Treatments===
There are many new and experimental treatments for cancer developed every day. These should be viewed with skepticism until more is known about the effects that these treatments may have since many "cures" for cancer have been publicized or marketed without FDA approval and have been found to be ineffective if not harmful. An example of this is Kent Hovind supporting the use of laetrile (also known as amygdalin, or misleadingly "vitamin" B17) which is found in the seeds of raw fruits such as apricots as a cure for cancer.<ref>[http://www.bibleandscience.com/otherviews/hovind.htm Institute for Biblical & Scientific Studies, February 2008]</ref> This has never been found to cure cancer from any research but instead has been shown to cause cyanide poisoning.<ref>[http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/pdq/cam/laetrile/patient/allpages#Section_20 National Cancer Institute, February 2008]</ref> <ref>[http://content.nejm.org/cgi/content/abstract/306/4/201 New England Journal of Medicine: A clinical trial of amygdalin (Laetrile) in the treatment of human cancer, February 2008]</ref>

== See also ==

*[[American Medical Association]]
*[[Doctor]]
*[[Mobile phones and brain tumor risk]]

==References==
*http://www.cdc.gov
*[http://www.cancer.org/docroot/stt/stt_0.asp American Cancer Society: Cancer statistics for 2007]
*[http://www.cancer.org/docroot/ETO/content/ETO_1_4X_What_Is_Chemotherapy.asp?sitearea=ETO American Cancer Society: What is chemotherapy?]
*[http://www.cancer.org/docroot/ETO/content/ETO_1_4X_How_Does_Chemotherapy_Work.asp?sitearea=ETO American Cancer Society: How does chemotherapy Work?]
*[http://www.cancer.org/docroot/ETO/content/ETO_1_4X_Whats_New_in_Chemotherapy_Research.asp?sitearea=ETO American Cancer Society: What's new in chemotherapy research?]
*[http://www.ahrq.gov/clinic/pocketgd.htm Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality: Guide to Clinical Preventive Services]
*[http://www.mayoclinic.com/print/chemotherapy/CA00029/METHOD=print Mayo Clinic: Chemotherapy: Drug treatment uses chemicals to kill cancer cells]
*[http://women.webmd.com/guide/health-myths-know-truth?page=2 Myth: Cancer cannot be prevented]

[[Category:Diseases]]
[[Category:Medicine]]

Deoxyribonucleic acid

2008-07-26T18:44:51Z

HockeyFan: /* History */ plural

[[Image:799.gif|right|thumb|300px]]
'''Deoxyribonucleic acid''' (DNA) is an [[organic compound|organic]] [[chemical compound]] made up of [[molecule]]s shaped like a [[double helix]], a continuously twisted ladder. The individual monomeric building blocks of DNA (and other nucleic acids) are [[nucleotide]]s, which themselves consist of three principle moieties: A nitrogenous base, a [[sugar]], and a [[phosphate]] group.

DNA carries the [[gene|genet]]ic coding for the [[protein]]s that form the bodies of living [[organism]]s, as well as the blueprints for generating some [[RNA]]. All organisms contain DNA, and the DNA of a sexually reproducing organism is a mix of its parent's DNA.

==History==
In the late 19th century [[Friedrich Miescher]], a Swiss [[biochemist]], discovered an unusual [[acid]] in the [[nuclei]] of cells. The acid was named deoxyribonucleic acid, or DNA. In 1944 the American [[biologist]]s, [[Alfred Hershey]], [[Thomas Gilmore]] and [[Martha Chase]] used experiments with [[bacteria]] and [[bacteriophage]]s to show that DNA passed [[gene]]s from one generation to the next.

At that time, it was unclear how this simple molecule could hold all the complex information controlling the development of humans, animals and plants. Scientists knew it was made of four chemical bases called [[adenine]] (A), [[thymine]] (T), [[guanine]] (G) and [[cytosine]] (C), plus [[phosphoric acid]] and a [[sugar]]. They also knew that there was always the same amount of A as T and of G as C in cells, but they did not know the rules that controlled the arrangement.

British scientists [[Rosalind Franklin]] and [[Maurice Wilkins]] passed [[X-ray|X-rays]] through DNA to study the patterns made when the crystals diffracted them. From studying photographs of patterns, Rosalind Franklin concluded that DNA must be be a [[helix]]. [[James Watson]] and [[Francis Crick]], working in [[Cambridge]], used this information to help them solve the puzzle of DNA structure. They built a model showing that if A always paired with T and G paired with C, DNA must be like a ladder made of two strands twisted together in a double helix. The sugar and phosphoric acid were the sides of the ladder, and the rungs were the paired bases.

Watson and Crick suggested that DNA could unzip itself into two separate strands, and each strand could act as a pattern to grow a new strand. Crick showed later that each pair of genes worked in a group of three making the code for amino acids, the building blocks of proteins. These groups are called [[codon|codons]]. They make about fifty thousand different types of [[protein]], which make all the different types of cell in the body. Indian biochemist [[Har Gobind Khorana]] made all the possible codons and worked out which codons controlled which [[amino acid]].

If the DNA in one cell was stretched out, it would be about three feet long. Although DNA has a very simple structure, it can carry an enormous amount of [[information]]. Scientists do not yet understand all the DNA they see, but in 1991 a project called the [[Human Genome Project]] began to use computers to map the three billion base pairs which make up the 46 human [[chromosome|chromosomes]].

==Modern understanding==
[[Image:818.gif|right|thumb|Structure of DNA.]]
Small lengths of DNA called [[gene]]s serve as the instructions for the body to carry out its functions and give rise to the physical traits of the organism. <ref>"Eye-color genes, through the proteins they encode, direct the amount and placement of melanin in the iris." [http://www.hhmi.org/cgi-bin/askascientist/highlight.pl?kw=&file=answers%2Fgenetics%2Fans_044.html Ask A Scientist - Genes and eye color]</ref> DNA is packaged into [[chromosomes]]. Each individual human being has 23 pairs of chromosomes, where one set is inherited from his/her mother and the other set is inherited from his/her father. 22 of these chromosomes are referred to as autosomes, while the remaining chromosome determines gender (sex chromosome).

[[Prokaryotic DNA]] is circular (a closed loop), while [[eukaryotic DNA]] is linear (with ends) with the exception of [[Mitochondrial DNA]] and chloroplast DNA, which is circular too. The ends of eukaryotic DNA is protected by [[telomere]]s, which are joined together in knots, except when the cell is undergoing [[mitosis]]. DNA in [[prokaryote]]s usually consists only of one closed loop chromosome.<ref>Campbell, Neil A, et. al. ''Biology''. 6th ed. San Francisco: Benjamin Cummings, 2002. 299, 530-31.</ref>

Some viral [[genome]]s are composed of DNA, such as that of the [[influenza]] virus.

DNA changes account for differences between individuals. However, they can also cause medical problems such as [[cancer]]. Such DNA-based diseases can be inherited.

DNA is [[transcription|transcribed]] into [[mRNA]], which is in turn [[translation|translated]] into [[proteins]] built from [[amino acids]]. Additionally, DNA maybe transcribed into functional RNAs (ribosomal and transfer RNA) that do not undergo translation. [[RNA]] can also be reverse-transcribed back into DNA, which is the called [[Complementary DNA]] or [[cDNA]].

==DNA fingerprinting==

DNA can help police track down criminals if an attacker leaves something like hair or blood at a crime scene. Everybody’s DNA is unique unless they are identical twins, and the genetic ‘fingerprint’ of this material can be enough to confirm if a suspect was at the scene.
Genetic fingerprinting can also show if somebody is closely related to somebody else. Archaeologists used samples from living relatives to identify whether bodies found buried in a forest in [[Russia]] were the remains of the [[Tsar]] and his family, killed during the 1919 [[Russian revolution]].

As well as showing how different we all are, DNA shows how much we are all the same. Only one small part of one chromosome distinguishes a boy from a girl. Genes give us different colored eyes, hair and skin, but 99.5% of any human's DNA is in the same order as everybody else’s.

Every living thing on earth has DNA that uses the same basic chemicals as human DNA, but because their chemicals are in a different order, the DNA of a worm or a tree encodes for different proteins, and those proteins make different cells. Evolutionists believe that all these cells developed from the first single-cell creatures formed three thousand million years ago, evolving gradually into new species to adapt to their environment. Creationists believe that God created living things as distinct [[baraminology|"kinds"]], and point to [[information]] theory to show that the information on the DNA could not have arisen by chance. Indeed, even the [[genetic code]] itself cannot be formed by chance, since a code with two bases per codon would not contain enough information, while a code with four bases per codon would create too much redundancy in the code, increasing the rate of translational errors.

==External links==
*[http://www.blackwellpublishing.com/trun/artwork/Animations/cloningexp/cloningexp.html Animated guide to DNA cloning]

== References ==
<references/>

[[Category:Genetics]]

Deoxyribonucleic acid

2008-07-26T18:41:42Z

HockeyFan: /* Modern understanding */ better word

[[Image:799.gif|right|thumb|300px]]
'''Deoxyribonucleic acid''' (DNA) is an [[organic compound|organic]] [[chemical compound]] made up of [[molecule]]s shaped like a [[double helix]], a continuously twisted ladder. The individual monomeric building blocks of DNA (and other nucleic acids) are [[nucleotide]]s, which themselves consist of three principle moieties: A nitrogenous base, a [[sugar]], and a [[phosphate]] group.

DNA carries the [[gene|genet]]ic coding for the [[protein]]s that form the bodies of living [[organism]]s, as well as the blueprints for generating some [[RNA]]. All organisms contain DNA, and the DNA of a sexually reproducing organism is a mix of its parent's DNA.

==History==
In the late 19th century [[Friedrich Miescher]], a Swiss [[biochemist]], discovered several different proteins and an unusual [[acid]] in the [[nucleus]] of cells. The acid was named deoxyribonucleic acid, or DNA. In 1944 two American [[biologist]]s, [[Alfred Hershey]] and [[Martha Chase]] used experiments with [[bacteria]] and [[bacteriophage]]s to show that DNA passed [[gene]]s from one generation to the next.

At that time, it was unclear how this simple molecule could hold all the complex information controlling the development of humans, animals and plants. Scientists knew it was made of four chemical bases called [[adenine]] (A), [[thymine]] (T), [[guanine]] (G) and [[cytosine]] (C), plus [[phosphoric acid]] and a [[sugar]]. They also knew that there was always the same amount of A as T and of G as C in cells, but they did not know the rules that controlled the arrangement.

British scientists [[Rosalind Franklin]] and [[Maurice Wilkins]] passed [[X-ray|X-rays]] through DNA to study the patterns made when the crystals diffracted them. From studying photographs of patterns, Rosalind Franklin concluded that DNA must be be a [[helix]]. [[James Watson]] and [[Francis Crick]], working in [[Cambridge]], used this information to help them solve the puzzle of DNA structure. They built a model showing that if A always paired with T and G paired with C, DNA must be like a ladder made of two strands twisted together in a double helix. The sugar and phosphoric acid were the sides of the ladder, and the rungs were the paired bases.

Watson and Crick suggested that DNA could unzip itself into two separate strands, and each strand could act as a pattern to grow a new strand. Crick showed later that each pair of genes worked in a group of three making the code for amino acids, the building blocks of proteins. These groups are called [[codon|codons]]. They make about fifty thousand different types of [[protein]], which make all the different types of cell in the body. Indian biochemist [[Har Gobind Khorana]] made all the possible codons and worked out which codons controlled which [[amino acid]].

If the DNA in one cell was stretched out, it would be about three feet long. Although DNA has a very simple structure, it can carry an enormous amount of [[information]]. Scientists do not yet understand all the DNA they see, but in 1991 a project called the [[Human Genome Project]] began to use computers to map the three billion base pairs which make up the 46 human [[chromosome|chromosomes]].

==Modern understanding==
[[Image:818.gif|right|thumb|Structure of DNA.]]
Small lengths of DNA called [[gene]]s serve as the instructions for the body to carry out its functions and give rise to the physical traits of the organism. <ref>"Eye-color genes, through the proteins they encode, direct the amount and placement of melanin in the iris." [http://www.hhmi.org/cgi-bin/askascientist/highlight.pl?kw=&file=answers%2Fgenetics%2Fans_044.html Ask A Scientist - Genes and eye color]</ref> DNA is packaged into [[chromosomes]]. Each individual human being has 23 pairs of chromosomes, where one set is inherited from his/her mother and the other set is inherited from his/her father. 22 of these chromosomes are referred to as autosomes, while the remaining chromosome determines gender (sex chromosome).

[[Prokaryotic DNA]] is circular (a closed loop), while [[eukaryotic DNA]] is linear (with ends) with the exception of [[Mitochondrial DNA]] and chloroplast DNA, which is circular too. The ends of eukaryotic DNA is protected by [[telomere]]s, which are joined together in knots, except when the cell is undergoing [[mitosis]]. DNA in [[prokaryote]]s usually consists only of one closed loop chromosome.<ref>Campbell, Neil A, et. al. ''Biology''. 6th ed. San Francisco: Benjamin Cummings, 2002. 299, 530-31.</ref>

Some viral [[genome]]s are composed of DNA, such as that of the [[influenza]] virus.

DNA changes account for differences between individuals. However, they can also cause medical problems such as [[cancer]]. Such DNA-based diseases can be inherited.

DNA is [[transcription|transcribed]] into [[mRNA]], which is in turn [[translation|translated]] into [[proteins]] built from [[amino acids]]. Additionally, DNA maybe transcribed into functional RNAs (ribosomal and transfer RNA) that do not undergo translation. [[RNA]] can also be reverse-transcribed back into DNA, which is the called [[Complementary DNA]] or [[cDNA]].

==DNA fingerprinting==

DNA can help police track down criminals if an attacker leaves something like hair or blood at a crime scene. Everybody’s DNA is unique unless they are identical twins, and the genetic ‘fingerprint’ of this material can be enough to confirm if a suspect was at the scene.
Genetic fingerprinting can also show if somebody is closely related to somebody else. Archaeologists used samples from living relatives to identify whether bodies found buried in a forest in [[Russia]] were the remains of the [[Tsar]] and his family, killed during the 1919 [[Russian revolution]].

As well as showing how different we all are, DNA shows how much we are all the same. Only one small part of one chromosome distinguishes a boy from a girl. Genes give us different colored eyes, hair and skin, but 99.5% of any human's DNA is in the same order as everybody else’s.

Every living thing on earth has DNA that uses the same basic chemicals as human DNA, but because their chemicals are in a different order, the DNA of a worm or a tree encodes for different proteins, and those proteins make different cells. Evolutionists believe that all these cells developed from the first single-cell creatures formed three thousand million years ago, evolving gradually into new species to adapt to their environment. Creationists believe that God created living things as distinct [[baraminology|"kinds"]], and point to [[information]] theory to show that the information on the DNA could not have arisen by chance. Indeed, even the [[genetic code]] itself cannot be formed by chance, since a code with two bases per codon would not contain enough information, while a code with four bases per codon would create too much redundancy in the code, increasing the rate of translational errors.

==External links==
*[http://www.blackwellpublishing.com/trun/artwork/Animations/cloningexp/cloningexp.html Animated guide to DNA cloning]

== References ==
<references/>

[[Category:Genetics]]

Deoxyribonucleic acid

2008-07-26T18:41:01Z

HockeyFan: /* Modern understanding */

[[Image:799.gif|right|thumb|300px]]
'''Deoxyribonucleic acid''' (DNA) is an [[organic compound|organic]] [[chemical compound]] made up of [[molecule]]s shaped like a [[double helix]], a continuously twisted ladder. The individual monomeric building blocks of DNA (and other nucleic acids) are [[nucleotide]]s, which themselves consist of three principle moieties: A nitrogenous base, a [[sugar]], and a [[phosphate]] group.

DNA carries the [[gene|genet]]ic coding for the [[protein]]s that form the bodies of living [[organism]]s, as well as the blueprints for generating some [[RNA]]. All organisms contain DNA, and the DNA of a sexually reproducing organism is a mix of its parent's DNA.

==History==
In the late 19th century [[Friedrich Miescher]], a Swiss [[biochemist]], discovered several different proteins and an unusual [[acid]] in the [[nucleus]] of cells. The acid was named deoxyribonucleic acid, or DNA. In 1944 two American [[biologist]]s, [[Alfred Hershey]] and [[Martha Chase]] used experiments with [[bacteria]] and [[bacteriophage]]s to show that DNA passed [[gene]]s from one generation to the next.

At that time, it was unclear how this simple molecule could hold all the complex information controlling the development of humans, animals and plants. Scientists knew it was made of four chemical bases called [[adenine]] (A), [[thymine]] (T), [[guanine]] (G) and [[cytosine]] (C), plus [[phosphoric acid]] and a [[sugar]]. They also knew that there was always the same amount of A as T and of G as C in cells, but they did not know the rules that controlled the arrangement.

British scientists [[Rosalind Franklin]] and [[Maurice Wilkins]] passed [[X-ray|X-rays]] through DNA to study the patterns made when the crystals diffracted them. From studying photographs of patterns, Rosalind Franklin concluded that DNA must be be a [[helix]]. [[James Watson]] and [[Francis Crick]], working in [[Cambridge]], used this information to help them solve the puzzle of DNA structure. They built a model showing that if A always paired with T and G paired with C, DNA must be like a ladder made of two strands twisted together in a double helix. The sugar and phosphoric acid were the sides of the ladder, and the rungs were the paired bases.

Watson and Crick suggested that DNA could unzip itself into two separate strands, and each strand could act as a pattern to grow a new strand. Crick showed later that each pair of genes worked in a group of three making the code for amino acids, the building blocks of proteins. These groups are called [[codon|codons]]. They make about fifty thousand different types of [[protein]], which make all the different types of cell in the body. Indian biochemist [[Har Gobind Khorana]] made all the possible codons and worked out which codons controlled which [[amino acid]].

If the DNA in one cell was stretched out, it would be about three feet long. Although DNA has a very simple structure, it can carry an enormous amount of [[information]]. Scientists do not yet understand all the DNA they see, but in 1991 a project called the [[Human Genome Project]] began to use computers to map the three billion base pairs which make up the 46 human [[chromosome|chromosomes]].

==Modern understanding==
[[Image:818.gif|right|thumb|Structure of DNA.]]
Small parts of DNA called [[gene]]s serve as the instructions for the body to carry out its functions and give rise to the physical traits of the organism. <ref>"Eye-color genes, through the proteins they encode, direct the amount and placement of melanin in the iris." [http://www.hhmi.org/cgi-bin/askascientist/highlight.pl?kw=&file=answers%2Fgenetics%2Fans_044.html Ask A Scientist - Genes and eye color]</ref> DNA is packaged into [[chromosomes]]. Each individual human being has 23 pairs of chromosomes, where one set is inherited from his/her mother and the other set is inherited from his/her father. 22 of these chromosomes are referred to as autosomes, while the remaining chromosome determines gender (sex chromosome).

[[Prokaryotic DNA]] is circular (a closed loop), while [[eukaryotic DNA]] is linear (with ends) with the exception of [[Mitochondrial DNA]] and chloroplast DNA, which is circular too. The ends of eukaryotic DNA is protected by [[telomere]]s, which are joined together in knots, except when the cell is undergoing [[mitosis]]. DNA in [[prokaryote]]s usually consists only of one closed loop chromosome.<ref>Campbell, Neil A, et. al. ''Biology''. 6th ed. San Francisco: Benjamin Cummings, 2002. 299, 530-31.</ref>

Some viral [[genome]]s are composed of DNA, such as that of the [[influenza]] virus.

DNA changes account for differences between individuals. However, they can also cause medical problems such as [[cancer]]. Such DNA-based diseases can be inherited.

DNA is [[transcription|transcribed]] into [[mRNA]], which is in turn [[translation|translated]] into [[proteins]] built from [[amino acids]]. Additionally, DNA maybe transcribed into functional RNAs (ribosomal and transfer RNA) that do not undergo translation. [[RNA]] can also be reverse-transcribed back into DNA, which is the called [[Complementary DNA]] or [[cDNA]].

==DNA fingerprinting==

DNA can help police track down criminals if an attacker leaves something like hair or blood at a crime scene. Everybody’s DNA is unique unless they are identical twins, and the genetic ‘fingerprint’ of this material can be enough to confirm if a suspect was at the scene.
Genetic fingerprinting can also show if somebody is closely related to somebody else. Archaeologists used samples from living relatives to identify whether bodies found buried in a forest in [[Russia]] were the remains of the [[Tsar]] and his family, killed during the 1919 [[Russian revolution]].

As well as showing how different we all are, DNA shows how much we are all the same. Only one small part of one chromosome distinguishes a boy from a girl. Genes give us different colored eyes, hair and skin, but 99.5% of any human's DNA is in the same order as everybody else’s.

Every living thing on earth has DNA that uses the same basic chemicals as human DNA, but because their chemicals are in a different order, the DNA of a worm or a tree encodes for different proteins, and those proteins make different cells. Evolutionists believe that all these cells developed from the first single-cell creatures formed three thousand million years ago, evolving gradually into new species to adapt to their environment. Creationists believe that God created living things as distinct [[baraminology|"kinds"]], and point to [[information]] theory to show that the information on the DNA could not have arisen by chance. Indeed, even the [[genetic code]] itself cannot be formed by chance, since a code with two bases per codon would not contain enough information, while a code with four bases per codon would create too much redundancy in the code, increasing the rate of translational errors.

==External links==
*[http://www.blackwellpublishing.com/trun/artwork/Animations/cloningexp/cloningexp.html Animated guide to DNA cloning]

== References ==
<references/>

[[Category:Genetics]]

England

2008-07-26T18:36:24Z

HockeyFan: /* History */ grammar

[[Image:England.gif|right|thumb|300px|England]]
'''England''' is a constituent country of the [[United Kingdom]] located on the island of [[Great Britain]] in the north-west of [[Europe]].
It is home of the [[English]] language currently spoken by perhaps a billion people, and was the seat of an empire that spanned the globe.
The parliament of the United Kingdom is in England, as well as the majority of the population, making this area politically and economically important to the UK as a whole.

== History ==

The prehistoric inhabitants of the island of Britain were largely Celtic.
From AD 43, the [[Romans]] invaded [[Britain]] and took control of the southern half of the islands, where they founded the fort of "Londinium", which later became [[London]]. As the [[Roman Empire]] abandoned its frontier territories, [[Germanic]] tribes, specifically the [[Angles]], [[Saxons]] and [[Jutes]], began to settle over the majority of the island. Kingdoms formed, such as Northumbria (Anglian) in the north, Wessex (named after the West Saxons) in the south west and Kent (probably founded by Jutes, and now the name of a county) in the south east. Parts of the regions now known as [[Wales]], [[Scotland]], and the county of Cornwall continued to be independent Celtic nations for some time after this. The Germanic invaders were still [[pagan]]s when they conquered part of Britain (e.g. [[Penda]] of Mercia was (allegedly) the last pagan King). The English peoples were converted to [[Christianity]], however, in the 7th Century AD. This happened from two directions: the mission of [[St. Augustine]], emissary of Gregory the Great came initially to Kent, while the (successful) mission to the Northumbrian Angles (and from there to peoples further south) was from the [[Celtic]] church based in northern British monasteries such as [[Iona]] and [[Lindisfarne]]. The entire [[British Isles]] later came under the sway of [[Roman Catholicism]] as the powerful Northumbrian King, Oswy, chose in favour of Roman practice in AD 664 ('Synod of Whitby').
[[Image:London England.jpg|right|300px]]
Later, in 1066 AD, the Norman French Duke [[William the Conqueror]] defeated the last [[Anglo-Saxon]] King, [[Harold Godwinson]]. William established himself as king of England, and the present day English monarchy traces its descent from William.

Amongst the privileged elite [[French]] language and customs became a part of English culture, however for the most part the common population continued to use their own language and customs. William retained significant territories on mainland Europe, in what is now France. For many hundreds of years England fought a series of wars (including the [[Hundred Years War]]) for possession of northern France. These did not end until 1588 with the loss of [[Calais]]. The [[Channel Islands]] are still a crown dependency to this day.

On the basis of their territories in England and France the Norman monarchs became influential in Europe. In 1215 rebellious noble force [[King John]] to sign the [[Magna Carta]], essentially a charter guaranteeing the rights of the king's subject nobles and the church, and setting forward the precedent that the monarch's powers were bound by law. In 1455-1487 a series of conflicts called the [[War of the Roses]] were fought between noble families for control of the throne.

== Religion ==
In 1533 AD King [[Henry VIII]] formed the [[Protestantism|Protestant]] [[Church of England]] after the pope refused to annul the marriage between the King and Catherine of Aragon. Henry established himself as the head of the church and made it the state religion of England. This situation continues to this day, although in much modified form. The Queen is still the nominal head of the church, although purely as a figurehead. Decisions technically taken by the Queen are in fact done only on the advice of her ministers, who in matters of the church invariably act on the advice of the church leaders. Until recently certain bishops of the Church of England were automatically given seats in the House of Lords. The Church of England is closely involved with the ceremonial associated with England, for example at coronations or royal weddings.

Since the [[Reformation]] the country has remained primarily Anglican with the notable exception of the Catholic reign of [[Mary I]]. More recently, the number of [[Roman Catholics]] is poised to overtake the number of [[Anglicans]] in the country, a trend that is likely to continue with an influx of migrants from Catholic countries such as [[Ireland]] and recent [[EU]] accession countries such as [[Poland]][http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/article1386939.ece]. As with the UK as a whole, the significant minority religions include [[Hinduism]], [[Judaism]] and [[Islam]].

A 2001 census gave the following figures for religious affiliation: [[Christianity]]: 71.6%, [[Islam]]: 3.1%, [[Hindu]]: 1.1%, [[Sikh]]: 0.7%, [[Jewish]]: 0.5%, and [[Buddhist]]: 0.3%, No Faith: 22.3%. Aprroximately 7% of responders did not answer the question.<ref>http://www.statistics.gov.uk/census2001/profiles/commentaries/ethnicity.asp </ref>

== Influence ==

England is the home of the English language, which was later spread to all parts of the world by the [[British Empire]], along with traditional English concepts such as universal suffrage, parliamentary government, the jury system, and freedom of speech.

== See also ==
*[[English Bill of Rights]]
*[[English Civil War]]
*[[English Painting]]

[[Category:United Kingdom]]
[[Category:England| ]]
[[Category:European Countries]]

Dinosaur

2008-07-26T18:35:18Z

HockeyFan: /* Extinction */ formatting and spelling error

{{Taxonomy
|name=Dinosaur
|image=Fdt566e4.jpg
|caption=
|superkingdom=
|kingdom= Animalia
|subkingdom=
|superphylum=
|phylum=Chordata
|subphylum=
|infraphylum=
|microphylum=
|superdivision=
|division=
|subdivision=
|superclass=
|class=Sauropsida
|subclass=Diapsida
|infraclass=Archosauromorpha
|superorder=Dinosauria
|order=Ornithischia; Saurischia
|suborder=
|infraorder=
|superfamily=
|family=
|subfamily=
|supertribe=
|tribe=
|subtribe=
|genera=
|genus=
|subgenus=
|species=
|binomialname=
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|alt=
}}
'''Dinosaurs''' ([[Greek]]: δεινός (IPA: /dɛinos/) and σαύρος (/sauɾos/); ''terrible lizard'') were [[reptile|reptilian]] creatures which are now generally believed to be extinct.
They were known for their large size, although some species weighed just a few ounces.
The word ''dinosaur'' was coined in 1841 by [[Richard Owen]]<ref>Grigg, Russell, [http://creationontheweb.com/content/view/1956/ Dinosaurs and dragons: stamping on the legends], ''Creation''
14(3):10–14, June 1992</ref>, from the Greek words for "terrible lizard", and reflected the creatures' large size and fearsome appearance to the early paleontologists.

==Description==
Dinosaurs are classified into two orders based upon differences in pelvic structure: ''Saurischia'' ("lizard-hipped"), in which the ''pubis'' is pointed forward and down; and ''Ornithischia'' ("bird-hipped"), in which the ''pubis'' is pointed towards the rear.

===''Saurischia''===
Herbivorous species were almost all quadrupedal. They carried peg-like teeth which cut, rather than chewed, plant material; grinding of food was aided by gastroliths. Carnivorous species were exclusively bipedal.
*Sauropoda
::Species of this infraorder are characterized by long necks and tails, barrel-shaped bodies, and column-like legs. In three families (notably Diplodocidae, Brachiosauridae, and Titanosauroidea) there are species which are of extreme size, in excess of 125 feet in length and 100 tons, making them the largest animals to have walked the earth.
:::''[[Apatosaurus]]''
:::''[[Brachiosaurus]]''
:::''[[Ultrasaurus]]''
:::''[[Seismosaurus]]''
:::''[[Argentinosaurus]]''
:::''[[Diplodocus]]''

*Theropoda
::Exclusively bipedal; forearms meant for grasping or holding. Fossil evidence for several species indicate pack hunting.
:::''[[Coelophysis]]''
:::''[[Ornithomimus]]''
:::''[[Allosaurus]]''
:::''[[Tyrannosaurus]]''
:::''[[Deinonychus]]''
:::''[[Velociraptor]]''
:::''[[Giganotosaurus]]''

===''Ornithischia''===
Species of this group were all herbivorous; most were quadrupedal. Front teeth were lacking, while a predentary bone was present in the front of the lower jaw. Several species (mainly within ''Ceratopsia'') had a distinctive parrot-like beak.
*Ceratopsia
::Species of this infraorder carried one or more horns on their heads, as well as a shield-like frill to protect the neck.
:::''[[Triceratops]]''
:::''[[Pachyrhinosaurus]]''
:::''[[Torosaurus]]''
:::''[[Protoceratops]]''
:::''[[Styracosaurus]]''
*Stegosauria
::Large dinosaurs with a row of bony plates on top of their backs, and several spikes used as a defensive weapon at the end of their tails.
:::''[[Stegosaurus]]''
:::''[[Huayangosaurus]]''
:::''[[Kentrosaurus]]''
*Ankylosauria
::Heavily-armored dinosaurs, some with a row of spikes along each side, and possessing a bony tail club.
:::''[[Ankylosaurus]]''
:::''[[Euoplocephalus]]''
:::''[[Edmontonia]]''
*Ornithopods
::Large, herd-dwelling dinosaurs that could run bipedaly. Several species had a "boss" of bone on their heads (Pachycephalosaurs) which may have been used for head-butting similar to bighorn sheep; others a crest of bone (hadrosaurs) which may have been sound resonators.
:::''[[Camptosaurus]]''
:::''[[Iguanodon]]''
:::''[[Pachycephalosaurus]]''
:::''[[Parasaurolophus]]''
:::''[[Edmontosaurus]]''
:::''[[Bactrosaurus]]''
:::''[[Maiasaura]]''

==Highlights of the history of dinosaur paleontology==
[[Image:Osborn.jpg‎‎|200px|thumb|right|[[Henry Fairfield Osborn]]]]
In the United States during the 1900s, the public imagination was caught by the discoveries of [[Henry Fairfield Osborn]] (1857-1935) and the great competitive dinosaur hunters, [[Edward Drinker Cope]] (1847-1897) and [[Othniel Charles Marsh]] (1831-1899). Exploring in Wyoming, Colorado, and New Mexico, they found numerous fossil dinosaurs. Their museums worked out the techniques for mounting and displaying them.

Osborn was a proponent of ''orthogenesis,'' as were many paleontologists up through the middle of the twentieth century. These paleontologists interpreted the fossil record as showing sustained, continuing, unidirectional trends in [[Theory of evolution|evolution]], which they felt required some kind of driving principle in addition to natural selection. As the author of an encyclopedia article on variation and selection put it in 1911,
:Selection cannot create the materials on which it is supposed to operate... Both sides concur in the position assumed by Darwin, that the word "chance" in such a phrase as "chance variation" does not mean that the occurrences are independent of natural causation and so far undetermined, but covers in the first place our ignorance of the exact causation.... No doubt a large amount of variation is truly indefinite, so that many meaningless or useless variations arise... But there are several directions in which the field of variation appears to be not only limited but defined in a certain direction.... When beetles, or medusae, or cats vary, the range of possible variation is limited and determined by the beetle, medusa or cat constitution, and any possible further differentiation or specialization must be in a sense at least orthogenetic - that is to say, a continuation of the line along which the ancestors of the individual in question have been forced. Darwin himself showed that different species in a genus, or varieties in a species, tended to show parallel variations.<ref>Mitchell, Peter Chalmers (1911), ''Variation and Selection,'' ''Encyclopædia Britannica, 11th edition,'' volume 27 (TON-VES), p. 906</ref>

[[Roy Chapman Andrews]] (1884–1960), said to be the prototype for the fictional Indiana Jones, is famous for his discovery of fossil dinosaur eggs in Outer Mongolia.

In the 1970, Robert Bakker catalyzed a new era of dinosaur paleontology with evidence that dinosaurs were fully warm-blooded ([[endotherms]]) and fast-moving.<ref>Benton, Michael J. (2000), ''Vertebrate Paleontology'' [http://books.google.com/books?vid=ISBN0632056142&id=PQuKO7xqjNQC&pg=PA217&lpg=PA217&dq=%22robert+bakker%22&sig=imoHNyurTTCpztNV0Pp2EU7Fj6c p. 217]</ref>

==Dinosaur Species==
Dinosaurs were immensely varied, and included both herbivores and carnivores. Although many have been found in the fossil record, paleontologists expect that they have barely scratched the surface of the vast superorder that the dinosaurs encompassed.<ref>[http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2006/09/060905-dinosaurs_2.html Vast Majority of Dinosaurs Still to Be Found, Scientists Say], ''National Geographic''</ref>

== Different Perspectives ==

Ever since the discovery of dinosaur fossils, there has been debate about whether and how dinosaurs fit into the history of life on Earth. Young-Earth creationists reject the [[uniformitarian]] time-scale, and therefore believe that humans and dinosaurs co-existed. Creationists also reject the now-popular idea that some dinosaurs evolved into birds.

===Creationary Perspective===
[[Image:Michelangeloflood.jpg|thumb|250px|left|''The [[Great Flood|Flood]]'', by [[Michaelangelo]], detail from the [[Sistine Chapel]], 1509.]]
[[Young earth creationists]] believe, from the biblical account, that dinosaurs were created on day 6 of the [[creation week]]<ref>''Genesis'' 1:25</ref> approximately 6,000 years ago, along with other land animals, and therefore co-existed with humans.
As such, they reject the [[Theory of Evolution]] and the beliefs of evolutionary scientists about the age of the earth.

They believe that dinosaurs lived in harmony with other animals, (probably including in the [[Garden of Eden]]) eating only plants<ref>''Genesis'' 1:29-30</ref>; that pairs of each dinosaur [[kind]] were taken onto [[Noah's Ark]] during the [[Great Flood]] and were preserved from drowning<ref>[http://www.creationontheweb.com/content/view/3967/ Were dinosaurs on Noah’s Ark?], ''Creation Ministries International''</ref>; that many of the fossilized dinosaur bones originated during the mass killing of the Flood<ref>Carl Wieland, [http://www.creationontheweb.com/content/view/219/ Dinosaur bones—just how old are they really?], ''Creation'', vol. 21 No. 1 p. 54</ref>; and that possibly some descendants of those dinosaurs taken aboard the Ark are still around today.<ref Name="Today">Robert Doolan, [http://www.creationontheweb.com/content/view/833/ Are dinosaurs alive today?], ''Creation'', vol. 15 No. 4 p. 12.</ref>

They use [[archaeological]], [[fossil]], and documentary evidence to argue that dinosaurs co-existed with mankind until at least relatively recent times.

Because the term only came into use in the 19th century, the [[Bible]] does not use the word "dinosaur." However, they are alleged to be mentioned in numerous places throughout the biblical account. For example, the [[behemoth]] in [[Job]] and the [[leviathan]] in [[Isaiah]] are sometimes said to be references to dinosaurs,<ref>Allan K. Steel, [http://www.creationontheweb.com/content/view/1799 Could Behemoth have been a dinosaur?], ''Journal of Creation'' vol. 15 No. 2 p. 42.</ref> <ref>[http://www.answersincreation.org/job4041a.htm], ''Answers in Creation''</ref>, although others have claimed that Behemoth and Leviathan are references to a hippopotamus or elephant and a crocodile respectively. Young-Earth creationists point out that the descriptions don't fit these creatures, including that hippopotamuses and elephants don't have a "tail like a cedar".

==== Extinction ====

Creationists reject the "Great Impact Theory", pointing out multiple problems with this theory. <ref>Jonathan Sarfati, [http://www.creationontheweb.com/content/view/2426 Did a meteor wipe out the dinosaurs?].</ref>

Creationists assert that evolutionists are frequently coming out with a "New Theory of Dinosaur Extinction" and that their theories are laden with false assumptions. <ref>Michael Matthews, [http://www.answersingenesis.org/docs2002/1115dinosaur.asp Dinosaur demise theory, version #451], ''Answers in Genesis''</ref> It is worth noting, however, that more and more of these theories are being harmonized with one another.<ref>[http://www.spaceref.com/news/viewpr.html?pid=21082 More Than a Meteor Likely Killed Dinosaurs 65 Million Years Ago], ''SpaceRef.com''</ref>

====Dinosaur-like creatures in history and modern sightings====

Creationists cite a number of reasons to believe that dinosaurs have existed until relatively recent times, and perhaps still survive.
[[Image:AZ_RockArtDino1a.jpg‎|right|150|thumb|right|Charles W. Gilmore, Curator of Vertebrate Paleontology with the United States National Museum, examined an ancient pictograph which he claimed portrays dinosaurs and man coexisting]]
* There have been a number of claimed sightings of dinosaur-like creatures.
** A thousand people reported seeing a dinosaur-like monster in two sightings around Sayram Lake in Xinjiang according to the Chinese publication, China Today.<ref name="Today" />
** Locals in the Congo have reported a creature they name ''Mokele-mbembe''<ref name="Today" /><ref>[http://www.mokelembembe.com/ Mokele-mbembe The Living Dinosaur!]</ref>, and from its description it appears to be a small plant-eating dinosaur. The reports have been taken seriously enough that a biologist from the [[University of Chicago]] has made several expeditions to find the creature. Another biologist has reported seeing the creature.<ref name="Today" />
** Dinosaur-like creatures have been seen by several people in two different parts of [[Papua New Guinea]] since 1990.<ref>Anon., [http://creationontheweb.com/content/view/381 A living dinosaur?], ''Creation'' 23(1):56, December 2000.<br />Irwin, Brian, [http://creationontheweb.com/content/view/5847 Theropod and sauropod dinosaurs sighted in PNG?] 1st July, 2008 (Creation Ministries International).</ref>
* There are drawings of creatures resembling dinosaurs.
** An expedition which included Charles W. Gilmore, Curator of Vertebrate Paleontology with the United States National Museum, examined an ancient pictograph which he claimed portrays dinosaurs and man coexisting.<ref>[http://www.creationism.org/swift/DohenyExpedition/Doheny01Main.htm Doheny Scientific Expedition, Hava Supai Canyon, Arizona], ''Creationism.org''</ref><ref>[http://www.christiancourier.com/articles/read/the_hava_supai_dinosaur_carving The Hava Supai Dinosaur Carving], ''ChristianCourier.com''</ref>.
** The [[Nile Mosaic of Palestrina]], a second century piece of art, is said to appear to be a piece of artwork that shows a dinosaur and man coexisting. <ref>[http://www.s8int.com/dinolit2.html Dinosaurs in Literature, Art & History-- Page 2], ''s8int.com''</ref>
** Engravings in the floor of [[Carlisle Cathedral]] appear to be of dinosaurs. They are on the tomb of bishop Richard Bell, who died in 1496.<ref>See picture on page 241 of Batten, Don, et. al., 2007, ''The Creation Answers Book''.</ref>
* Creatures matching dinosaurs and similar creatures have been described by various people groups.
** The description of the "[[Thunder bird]]" of [[American Indian]]s matches the descriptions of [[pterosaur]]s.<ref name="Today" />

* Descriptions of [[dragon]]s are widespread and match descriptions of dinosaurs, suggesting that dragons were real creatures and were actually dinosaurs.
** The World Book Encyclopedia states that: "The [[dragon]]s of legend are strangely like actual creatures that have lived in the past. They are much like the great reptiles [dinosaurs] which inhabited the earth long before man is supposed to have appeared on earth." <ref>Quoted in [http://www.creationscience.com/onlinebook/FAQ25.html What about the Dinosaurs?], ''CreationScience.com''</ref>. Dragons exist in the folklore of many European and Asian cultures.<ref name="WB2000">''Dragon'' entry in World Book Millennium 2000 CD ROM</ref> World Book Encyclopedia says, "In Europe, dragons are traditionally portrayed as ferocious beasts that represent the evils fought by human beings. But in Asia, especially in China and Japan, the animals are generally considered friendly creatures that ensure good luck and wealth."<ref Name="WB2000" />
** Dragons appear in the flag of [[Wales]], in traditional [[China|Chinese]] [[New Years' Day]] celebrations, and in the Chinese [[calendar]]. Every other creature on the calendar is a real creature.
[[Image:Palestrina1.jpg|right|thumb|A portion of the artwork the [[Nile Mosaic of Palestrina]]]]
* That dinosaurs are not known from the fossil record above the [[Cretaceous]] strata is not reason to believe that they have not survived until more recent times.
** Living specimens of orders of animals that were believed to have been extinct for millions of years have been found before, such as the Diatomyidae Squirrel <ref>[[Diatomyidae]] Squirrel [http://news.softpedia.com/news/They-Thought-It-Went-Extinct-11-Million-Years-Ago-19557.shtml]</ref>, the [[Wollemi Pine]] <ref>Wollemi Pine ''Biotechnology Australia'' [http://www.biotechnologyonline.gov.au/enviro/wollemi.cfm]</ref> and the [[Coelacanth]] <ref>Sulawesi Coelacanth. ''University Of California, Berkeley''[http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/vertebrates/coelacanth/coelacanths.html]</ref> <ref>More on the Coelacanth ''marinebio.org''[http://marinebio.org/species.asp?id=54]</ref>.

* The recent dinosaur tissue find is a strong rebuttal of the claim that dinosaurs lived millions of years ago. <ref>Carl Wieland, [http://www.creationontheweb.com/content/view/3042 Still soft and stretchy], ''Creation Ministries International''</ref>



==== Dinosaurs and birds ====
Creationists contend that the idea that birds are descendants of dinosaurs is not demonstrated by the evidence <ref>[http://www.creationontheweb.com/content/view/3833/106/ Bird evolution?], ''Creation Ministries International''</ref> <ref>Andy McIntosh, [http://www.creationontheweb.com/content/view/540/ 100 years of airplanes—but these weren’t the first flying machines!], ''Creation'' vol. 26 No. 1 p. 44</ref>, and that the dinosaur-bird connection is even disputed by some evolutionists.

In his article, "Fifteen ways to refute materialistic bigotry", Dr. [[Jonathan Sarfati]] wrote regarding dinosaurs being descendants of birds:
{{cquote|“The same logic applies to the dinosaur-[[bird]] debate. It is perfectly in order for creationists to cite [[Alan Feduccia|Feduccia]]’s devastating criticism against the idea that birds evolved ‘ground up’ from running dinosaurs (the cursorial theory). But the dino-to-bird advocates counter with equally powerful arguments against Feduccia’s ‘trees-down’ (arboreal) theory. The evidence indicates that the critics are ''both'' right — birds did not evolve either from running dinos or from tree-living mini-crocodiles. In fact, birds did not evolve from non-birds at all!<ref>Jonathan Sarfati, [http://www.creationontheweb.com/content/view/2610 15 ways to refute materialistic bigotry], ''Creation Ministries International''</ref>}}

Creationists also cite the evolutionist and [[atheism|atheist]] [[Ernst Mayr]]<ref>Matthews, Michael, [http://www.answersingenesis.org/docs2003/1208mayr.asp 99 and still fighting God], 8th December, 2003 (Answers in Genesis).</ref> who stated the following:
{{cquote|“It must be admitted, however, that it is a considerable strain on one’s credulity to assume that finely balanced systems such as certain sense organs (the eye of vertebrates, or the bird’s feather) could be improved by random mutations." <ref>[http://www.creationscience.com/onlinebook/ReferencesandNotes10.html In the Beginning: Compelling Evidence for Creation and the Flood], ''Center for Scientific Creation''</ref>}}

The March 2003 issue of ''Scientific American'' is also cited by creationists:
{{cquote|Of all the body coverings nature has designed, feathers are the most various and the most mysterious...The origin of feathers is a specific instance of the much more general question of the origin of evolutionary novelties--structures that have no clear antecedents in ancestral animals and no clear related structures (homologues) in contemporary relatives. Although evolutionary theory provides a robust explanation for the appearance of minor variations in the size and shape of creatures and their component parts, it does not yet give as much guidance for understanding the emergence of entirely new structures, including digits, limbs, eyes and feathers...." <ref>Michael Matthews, [http://www.answersingenesis.org/docs2003/0313sciam.asp Scientific American admits creationists hit a sore spot], ''Answers in Genesis''</ref> <ref>[http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?articleID=000CD7F6-B16F-1E41-89E0809EC588EEDF Which Came First, the Feather or the Bird?], ''Scientific American''</ref>}}

Creationists also assert that the comparative anatomy analysis done by evolutionists comparing bird bones and dinosaur bones is flawed. <ref>Dr. David N. Menton, [http://www.answersingenesis.org/docs2005/0328discovery.asp "Ostrich-osaurus" Discovery?], ''Answers in Genesis''</ref>

===Evolutionary/Old Earth Perspective===

The view of [[Theory of evolution|evolutionists]] and others who accept the uniformitarian timescale is that dinosaurs existed on earth from 230 million years ago to 65 million years ago. In this view, the entire population of dinosaurs were wiped out by a mass extinction event (usually thought to be an asteroid) about 65 million years ago.
This precludes humans and dinosaurs co-existing.

====Extinction====

According to most scientists, close to 65 million years ago, at the end of the [[Cretaceous]] period, and the beginning of what is called the [[Tertiary]] period, an event occurred which has come to be known as the [[K-T Event]]. This event would have obliterated most life on Earth, plunging the world into something that would now be likened to global nuclear winter, through which few extant species could survive. Although these scientists dispute the nature of the K-T Event (selecting among any number of catastrophes that could have caused the significant global cooling that resulted), most find that the claimed K-T Event was caused by the collision of a massive asteroid with the Earth, the dust and debris from which would have shrouded the sky for thousands of years, cooling Earth considerably.<ref>Kevin O Pope, "Meteorite impact and the mass extinction of species at the Cretaceous/Tertiary boundary," Proceedings of the National Academy of Science, available at [http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/full/95/19/11028]</ref> According to this view, the dinosaurs did not survive this cataclysm.<ref>[http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2002/08/0823_020823_asteroid.html Prehistoric Asteroid "Killed Everything"], ''National Geographic''</ref> A layer of rock containing high concentrations of [[Iridium]], a metal that is extremely rare on earth but common in asteroids, is said to be due to the vaporization and then fall of dust from the meteorite's impact, and its compression within the subsequent geological record.<ref>''Ibid''</ref> The evidence of a large impact crater can be found in rocks of the [[Yucatán]] Peninsula of the supposed age of this layer.<ref>[http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2003/03/0307_030307_impactcrater.html "Dinosaur-Killer" Asteroid Crater Imaged for First Time], ''National Geographic''</ref> <ref>http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/education/events/cowen1b.html</ref> Creationists assert that the assumptions underpinning the methods used by modern geologists are incorrect, and even though the validity of a large impact is accepted, this does not constitute proof that the impact caused the extinction of the dinosaurs—although the abundance of dinosaur fossils in rocks found higher in the rock layers than the impact is drastically less than their abundance in rocks lower down.{{fact}}

====An Explosion of new species ====

The mass extinction of the dinosaurs removed a major food competitor, and predator, of smaller animals. As a result of a new "vacancy" in the food chain, following the [[K-T Event]], vast speciation occurred, as the evolutionary pressure of a new cold age propelled animal species to adapt or die out. According to this view, [[mammals]] were some of the main beneficiaries of this explosion: their fur allowed them to adapt to the cold, and their small size allowed them to conserve energy relative to the huge dinosaurs of the previous age.<ref>Bennet, Shostak, Jakotsky, "Life in the Universe," viewable at [http://www.amazon.com/Life-Universe-Jeffrey-Bennett/dp/0805385770]</ref>

====Dinosaurs and Birds====

As a number of feathered fossils (claimed to be dinosaurs) have been discovered, and evolutionary scientists claim the similarity in the bone structure between birds and dinosaurs show that modern birds are a descendants of dinosaurs. This is often cited as an example of [[macroevolution]].<ref>[http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2004/10/1006_041006_feathery_dino.html New Dinosaur Discovered: T. Rex Cousin Had Feathers], ''National Geographic''</ref> Cladists place modern birds within the clade dinosauria, meaning that they consider all bird species today as, technically, dinosaurs.<ref>[http://tolweb.org/Dinosauria/14883/1999.01.01 Tree of Life Web Project.] 1999. Dinosauria. Version 01 January 1999 (temporary). Accessed 30 May 2007.</ref>

==Dinosaur fossils and Human Fossils and Geological Strata ==
It is sometimes asserted that if human bones aren’t found with dinosaur bones, then dinosaurs and man didn’t live together.<ref name="HaD">Hodge, Bodie, [http://www.answersingenesis.org/articles/am/v1/n1/humans-and-dinosaurs If humans and dinosaurs lived together, why don’t we find human fossils with dinosaur fossils?] ''Answers'' 1(1):52, May 2006.</ref><ref>[http://www.talkorigins.org/indexcc/CH/CH710.html Claim CH710] (The TalkOrigins Archive)</ref>
Creation scientists point out that this is a false assumption; if human bones aren’t found buried with dinosaur bones, it simply means they weren't buried together.<ref name="HaD" />

Evolutionists point out that [[radiometric dating]] of rocks containing dinosaur bones shows them to have formed between 65 million years ago and 250 million years ago, whereas rocks with human bones in them are dated as being much newer (less than 5 million years old). Young Earth Creationists believe that these methods of dating rocks provide false results, and therefore reject this argument.

Creationists note that the fossil record contains mainly marine organisms and that a small sliver of the fossil record contains vertebrates and thus assert that we shouldn't expect to find many human fossils at all.<ref name="HaD" />
Moreover, as the biblical [[Great Flood|Flood]] would be a marine catastrophe, it would be expected that marine fossils would dominate the fossil record. This is in fact what we find.<ref name="NAB">Hodge, Bodie, [http://www.answersingenesis.org/PublicStore/pdfs/SampleChapter/10-2-267.pdf Why Don’t We Find Human & Dinosaur Fossils Together?] (chapter 13 of the New Answers Book), 2006.</ref>

Approximately 70% of the Earth is covered in salt water which would also explain the dominance of marine fossils. In addition, creation scientists assert there may have been a small pre-flood human population and that massive amounts of flood sediment are why we haven’t found human fossils in pre-biblical flood sediments.<ref name="NAB" />
Also, creation scientists point out that we don't find human bones buried with [[coelacanth]]s yet humans and coelacanths coexist today.<ref name="HaD" />

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

[[Category:Dinosaurs]]

Dinosaur

2008-07-26T18:31:44Z

HockeyFan: /* Different Perspectives */ not all

{{Taxonomy
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|class=Sauropsida
|subclass=Diapsida
|infraclass=Archosauromorpha
|superorder=Dinosauria
|order=Ornithischia; Saurischia
|suborder=
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'''Dinosaurs''' ([[Greek]]: δεινός (IPA: /dɛinos/) and σαύρος (/sauɾos/); ''terrible lizard'') were [[reptile|reptilian]] creatures which are now generally believed to be extinct.
They were known for their large size, although some species weighed just a few ounces.
The word ''dinosaur'' was coined in 1841 by [[Richard Owen]]<ref>Grigg, Russell, [http://creationontheweb.com/content/view/1956/ Dinosaurs and dragons: stamping on the legends], ''Creation''
14(3):10–14, June 1992</ref>, from the Greek words for "terrible lizard", and reflected the creatures' large size and fearsome appearance to the early paleontologists.

==Description==
Dinosaurs are classified into two orders based upon differences in pelvic structure: ''Saurischia'' ("lizard-hipped"), in which the ''pubis'' is pointed forward and down; and ''Ornithischia'' ("bird-hipped"), in which the ''pubis'' is pointed towards the rear.

===''Saurischia''===
Herbivorous species were almost all quadrupedal. They carried peg-like teeth which cut, rather than chewed, plant material; grinding of food was aided by gastroliths. Carnivorous species were exclusively bipedal.
*Sauropoda
::Species of this infraorder are characterized by long necks and tails, barrel-shaped bodies, and column-like legs. In three families (notably Diplodocidae, Brachiosauridae, and Titanosauroidea) there are species which are of extreme size, in excess of 125 feet in length and 100 tons, making them the largest animals to have walked the earth.
:::''[[Apatosaurus]]''
:::''[[Brachiosaurus]]''
:::''[[Ultrasaurus]]''
:::''[[Seismosaurus]]''
:::''[[Argentinosaurus]]''
:::''[[Diplodocus]]''

*Theropoda
::Exclusively bipedal; forearms meant for grasping or holding. Fossil evidence for several species indicate pack hunting.
:::''[[Coelophysis]]''
:::''[[Ornithomimus]]''
:::''[[Allosaurus]]''
:::''[[Tyrannosaurus]]''
:::''[[Deinonychus]]''
:::''[[Velociraptor]]''
:::''[[Giganotosaurus]]''

===''Ornithischia''===
Species of this group were all herbivorous; most were quadrupedal. Front teeth were lacking, while a predentary bone was present in the front of the lower jaw. Several species (mainly within ''Ceratopsia'') had a distinctive parrot-like beak.
*Ceratopsia
::Species of this infraorder carried one or more horns on their heads, as well as a shield-like frill to protect the neck.
:::''[[Triceratops]]''
:::''[[Pachyrhinosaurus]]''
:::''[[Torosaurus]]''
:::''[[Protoceratops]]''
:::''[[Styracosaurus]]''
*Stegosauria
::Large dinosaurs with a row of bony plates on top of their backs, and several spikes used as a defensive weapon at the end of their tails.
:::''[[Stegosaurus]]''
:::''[[Huayangosaurus]]''
:::''[[Kentrosaurus]]''
*Ankylosauria
::Heavily-armored dinosaurs, some with a row of spikes along each side, and possessing a bony tail club.
:::''[[Ankylosaurus]]''
:::''[[Euoplocephalus]]''
:::''[[Edmontonia]]''
*Ornithopods
::Large, herd-dwelling dinosaurs that could run bipedaly. Several species had a "boss" of bone on their heads (Pachycephalosaurs) which may have been used for head-butting similar to bighorn sheep; others a crest of bone (hadrosaurs) which may have been sound resonators.
:::''[[Camptosaurus]]''
:::''[[Iguanodon]]''
:::''[[Pachycephalosaurus]]''
:::''[[Parasaurolophus]]''
:::''[[Edmontosaurus]]''
:::''[[Bactrosaurus]]''
:::''[[Maiasaura]]''

==Highlights of the history of dinosaur paleontology==
[[Image:Osborn.jpg‎‎|200px|thumb|right|[[Henry Fairfield Osborn]]]]
In the United States during the 1900s, the public imagination was caught by the discoveries of [[Henry Fairfield Osborn]] (1857-1935) and the great competitive dinosaur hunters, [[Edward Drinker Cope]] (1847-1897) and [[Othniel Charles Marsh]] (1831-1899). Exploring in Wyoming, Colorado, and New Mexico, they found numerous fossil dinosaurs. Their museums worked out the techniques for mounting and displaying them.

Osborn was a proponent of ''orthogenesis,'' as were many paleontologists up through the middle of the twentieth century. These paleontologists interpreted the fossil record as showing sustained, continuing, unidirectional trends in [[Theory of evolution|evolution]], which they felt required some kind of driving principle in addition to natural selection. As the author of an encyclopedia article on variation and selection put it in 1911,
:Selection cannot create the materials on which it is supposed to operate... Both sides concur in the position assumed by Darwin, that the word "chance" in such a phrase as "chance variation" does not mean that the occurrences are independent of natural causation and so far undetermined, but covers in the first place our ignorance of the exact causation.... No doubt a large amount of variation is truly indefinite, so that many meaningless or useless variations arise... But there are several directions in which the field of variation appears to be not only limited but defined in a certain direction.... When beetles, or medusae, or cats vary, the range of possible variation is limited and determined by the beetle, medusa or cat constitution, and any possible further differentiation or specialization must be in a sense at least orthogenetic - that is to say, a continuation of the line along which the ancestors of the individual in question have been forced. Darwin himself showed that different species in a genus, or varieties in a species, tended to show parallel variations.<ref>Mitchell, Peter Chalmers (1911), ''Variation and Selection,'' ''Encyclopædia Britannica, 11th edition,'' volume 27 (TON-VES), p. 906</ref>

[[Roy Chapman Andrews]] (1884–1960), said to be the prototype for the fictional Indiana Jones, is famous for his discovery of fossil dinosaur eggs in Outer Mongolia.

In the 1970, Robert Bakker catalyzed a new era of dinosaur paleontology with evidence that dinosaurs were fully warm-blooded ([[endotherms]]) and fast-moving.<ref>Benton, Michael J. (2000), ''Vertebrate Paleontology'' [http://books.google.com/books?vid=ISBN0632056142&id=PQuKO7xqjNQC&pg=PA217&lpg=PA217&dq=%22robert+bakker%22&sig=imoHNyurTTCpztNV0Pp2EU7Fj6c p. 217]</ref>

==Dinosaur Species==
Dinosaurs were immensely varied, and included both herbivores and carnivores. Although many have been found in the fossil record, paleontologists expect that they have barely scratched the surface of the vast superorder that the dinosaurs encompassed.<ref>[http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2006/09/060905-dinosaurs_2.html Vast Majority of Dinosaurs Still to Be Found, Scientists Say], ''National Geographic''</ref>

== Different Perspectives ==

Ever since the discovery of dinosaur fossils, there has been debate about whether and how dinosaurs fit into the history of life on Earth. Young-Earth creationists reject the [[uniformitarian]] time-scale, and therefore believe that humans and dinosaurs co-existed. Creationists also reject the now-popular idea that some dinosaurs evolved into birds.

===Creationary Perspective===
[[Image:Michelangeloflood.jpg|thumb|250px|left|''The [[Great Flood|Flood]]'', by [[Michaelangelo]], detail from the [[Sistine Chapel]], 1509.]]
[[Young earth creationists]] believe, from the biblical account, that dinosaurs were created on day 6 of the [[creation week]]<ref>''Genesis'' 1:25</ref> approximately 6,000 years ago, along with other land animals, and therefore co-existed with humans.
As such, they reject the [[Theory of Evolution]] and the beliefs of evolutionary scientists about the age of the earth.

They believe that dinosaurs lived in harmony with other animals, (probably including in the [[Garden of Eden]]) eating only plants<ref>''Genesis'' 1:29-30</ref>; that pairs of each dinosaur [[kind]] were taken onto [[Noah's Ark]] during the [[Great Flood]] and were preserved from drowning<ref>[http://www.creationontheweb.com/content/view/3967/ Were dinosaurs on Noah’s Ark?], ''Creation Ministries International''</ref>; that many of the fossilized dinosaur bones originated during the mass killing of the Flood<ref>Carl Wieland, [http://www.creationontheweb.com/content/view/219/ Dinosaur bones—just how old are they really?], ''Creation'', vol. 21 No. 1 p. 54</ref>; and that possibly some descendants of those dinosaurs taken aboard the Ark are still around today.<ref Name="Today">Robert Doolan, [http://www.creationontheweb.com/content/view/833/ Are dinosaurs alive today?], ''Creation'', vol. 15 No. 4 p. 12.</ref>

They use [[archaeological]], [[fossil]], and documentary evidence to argue that dinosaurs co-existed with mankind until at least relatively recent times.

Because the term only came into use in the 19th century, the [[Bible]] does not use the word "dinosaur." However, they are alleged to be mentioned in numerous places throughout the biblical account. For example, the [[behemoth]] in [[Job]] and the [[leviathan]] in [[Isaiah]] are sometimes said to be references to dinosaurs,<ref>Allan K. Steel, [http://www.creationontheweb.com/content/view/1799 Could Behemoth have been a dinosaur?], ''Journal of Creation'' vol. 15 No. 2 p. 42.</ref> <ref>[http://www.answersincreation.org/job4041a.htm], ''Answers in Creation''</ref>, although others have claimed that Behemoth and Leviathan are references to a hippopotamus or elephant and a crocodile respectively. Young-Earth creationists point out that the descriptions don't fit these creatures, including that hippopotamuses and elephants don't have a "tail like a cedar".

==== Extinction ====

Creationists reject the "Great Impact Theory", pointing out multiple problems with this theory. <ref>Jonathan Sarfati, [http://www.creationontheweb.com/content/view/2426 Did a meteor wipe out the dinosaurs?].</ref>

Creationists assert that evolutionists are frequently coming out with a "New Theory of Dinosaur Extinction" and that their theories are laden with false assumptions. <ref>Michael Matthews, [http://www.answersingenesis.org/docs2002/1115dinosaur.asp Dinosaur demise theory, version #451], ''Answers in Genesis''</ref> It is worth noting, however, that more and more of these theories are being harmonized with one another.<ref>[http://www.spaceref.com/news/viewpr.html?pid=21082 More Than a Meteor Likely Killed Dinosaurs 65 Million Years Ago], ''SpaceRef.com''</ref>

====Dinosaur-like creatures in history and modern sightings====

Creationists cite a number of reasons to believe that dinosaurs have existed until relatively recent times, and perhaps still survive.
[[Image:AZ_RockArtDino1a.jpg‎|right|150|thumb|right|Charles W. Gilmore, Curator of Vertebrate Paleontology with the United States National Museum, examined an ancient pictograph which he claimed portrays dinosaurs and man coexisting]]
* There have been a number of claimed sightings of dinosaur-like creatures.
** A thousand people reported seeing a dinosaur-like monster in two sightings around Sayram Lake in Xinjiang according to the Chinese publication, China Today.<ref name="Today" />
** Locals in the Congo have reported a creature they name ''Mokele-mbembe''<ref name="Today" /><ref>[http://www.mokelembembe.com/ Mokele-mbembe The Living Dinosaur!]</ref>, and from its description it appears to be a small plant-eating dinosaur. The reports have been taken seriously enough that a biologist from the [[University of Chicago]] has made several expeditions to find the creature. Another biologist has reported seeing the creature.<ref name="Today" />
** Dinosaur-like creatures have been seen by several people in two different parts of [[Papua New Guinea]] since 1990.<ref>Anon., [http://creationontheweb.com/content/view/381 A living dinosaur?], ''Creation'' 23(1):56, December 2000.<br />Irwin, Brian, [http://creationontheweb.com/content/view/5847 Theropod and sauropod dinosaurs sighted in PNG?] 1st July, 2008 (Creation Ministries International).</ref>
* There are drawings of creatures resembling dinosaurs.
** An expedition which included Charles W. Gilmore, Curator of Vertebrate Paleontology with the United States National Museum, examined an ancient pictograph which he claimed portrays dinosaurs and man coexisting.<ref>[http://www.creationism.org/swift/DohenyExpedition/Doheny01Main.htm Doheny Scientific Expedition, Hava Supai Canyon, Arizona], ''Creationism.org''</ref><ref>[http://www.christiancourier.com/articles/read/the_hava_supai_dinosaur_carving The Hava Supai Dinosaur Carving], ''ChristianCourier.com''</ref>.
** The [[Nile Mosaic of Palestrina]], a second century piece of art, is said to appear to be a piece of artwork that shows a dinosaur and man coexisting. <ref>[http://www.s8int.com/dinolit2.html Dinosaurs in Literature, Art & History-- Page 2], ''s8int.com''</ref>
** Engravings in the floor of [[Carlisle Cathedral]] appear to be of dinosaurs. They are on the tomb of bishop Richard Bell, who died in 1496.<ref>See picture on page 241 of Batten, Don, et. al., 2007, ''The Creation Answers Book''.</ref>
* Creatures matching dinosaurs and similar creatures have been described by various people groups.
** The description of the "[[Thunder bird]]" of [[American Indian]]s matches the descriptions of [[pterosaur]]s.<ref name="Today" />

* Descriptions of [[dragon]]s are widespread and match descriptions of dinosaurs, suggesting that dragons were real creatures and were actually dinosaurs.
** The World Book Encyclopedia states that: "The [[dragon]]s of legend are strangely like actual creatures that have lived in the past. They are much like the great reptiles [dinosaurs] which inhabited the earth long before man is supposed to have appeared on earth." <ref>Quoted in [http://www.creationscience.com/onlinebook/FAQ25.html What about the Dinosaurs?], ''CreationScience.com''</ref>. Dragons exist in the folklore of many European and Asian cultures.<ref name="WB2000">''Dragon'' entry in World Book Millennium 2000 CD ROM</ref> World Book Encyclopedia says, "In Europe, dragons are traditionally portrayed as ferocious beasts that represent the evils fought by human beings. But in Asia, especially in China and Japan, the animals are generally considered friendly creatures that ensure good luck and wealth."<ref Name="WB2000" />
** Dragons appear in the flag of [[Wales]], in traditional [[China|Chinese]] [[New Years' Day]] celebrations, and in the Chinese [[calendar]]. Every other creature on the calendar is a real creature.
[[Image:Palestrina1.jpg|right|thumb|A portion of the artwork the [[Nile Mosaic of Palestrina]]]]
* That dinosaurs are not known from the fossil record above the [[Cretaceous]] strata is not reason to believe that they have not survived until more recent times.
** Living specimens of orders of animals that were believed to have been extinct for millions of years have been found before, such as the Diatomyidae Squirrel <ref>[[Diatomyidae]] Squirrel [http://news.softpedia.com/news/They-Thought-It-Went-Extinct-11-Million-Years-Ago-19557.shtml]</ref>, the [[Wollemi Pine]] <ref>Wollemi Pine ''Biotechnology Australia'' [http://www.biotechnologyonline.gov.au/enviro/wollemi.cfm]</ref> and the [[Coelacanth]] <ref>Sulawesi Coelacanth. ''University Of California, Berkeley''[http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/vertebrates/coelacanth/coelacanths.html]</ref> <ref>More on the Coelacanth ''marinebio.org''[http://marinebio.org/species.asp?id=54]</ref>.

* The recent dinosaur tissue find is a strong rebuttal of the claim that dinosaurs lived millions of years ago. <ref>Carl Wieland, [http://www.creationontheweb.com/content/view/3042 Still soft and stretchy], ''Creation Ministries International''</ref>



==== Dinosaurs and birds ====
Creationists contend that the idea that birds are descendants of dinosaurs is not demonstrated by the evidence <ref>[http://www.creationontheweb.com/content/view/3833/106/ Bird evolution?], ''Creation Ministries International''</ref> <ref>Andy McIntosh, [http://www.creationontheweb.com/content/view/540/ 100 years of airplanes—but these weren’t the first flying machines!], ''Creation'' vol. 26 No. 1 p. 44</ref>, and that the dinosaur-bird connection is even disputed by some evolutionists.

In his article, "Fifteen ways to refute materialistic bigotry", Dr. [[Jonathan Sarfati]] wrote regarding dinosaurs being descendants of birds:
{{cquote|“The same logic applies to the dinosaur-[[bird]] debate. It is perfectly in order for creationists to cite [[Alan Feduccia|Feduccia]]’s devastating criticism against the idea that birds evolved ‘ground up’ from running dinosaurs (the cursorial theory). But the dino-to-bird advocates counter with equally powerful arguments against Feduccia’s ‘trees-down’ (arboreal) theory. The evidence indicates that the critics are ''both'' right — birds did not evolve either from running dinos or from tree-living mini-crocodiles. In fact, birds did not evolve from non-birds at all!<ref>Jonathan Sarfati, [http://www.creationontheweb.com/content/view/2610 15 ways to refute materialistic bigotry], ''Creation Ministries International''</ref>}}

Creationists also cite the evolutionist and [[atheism|atheist]] [[Ernst Mayr]]<ref>Matthews, Michael, [http://www.answersingenesis.org/docs2003/1208mayr.asp 99 and still fighting God], 8th December, 2003 (Answers in Genesis).</ref> who stated the following:
{{cquote|“It must be admitted, however, that it is a considerable strain on one’s credulity to assume that finely balanced systems such as certain sense organs (the eye of vertebrates, or the bird’s feather) could be improved by random mutations." <ref>[http://www.creationscience.com/onlinebook/ReferencesandNotes10.html In the Beginning: Compelling Evidence for Creation and the Flood], ''Center for Scientific Creation''</ref>}}

The March 2003 issue of ''Scientific American'' is also cited by creationists:
{{cquote|Of all the body coverings nature has designed, feathers are the most various and the most mysterious...The origin of feathers is a specific instance of the much more general question of the origin of evolutionary novelties--structures that have no clear antecedents in ancestral animals and no clear related structures (homologues) in contemporary relatives. Although evolutionary theory provides a robust explanation for the appearance of minor variations in the size and shape of creatures and their component parts, it does not yet give as much guidance for understanding the emergence of entirely new structures, including digits, limbs, eyes and feathers...." <ref>Michael Matthews, [http://www.answersingenesis.org/docs2003/0313sciam.asp Scientific American admits creationists hit a sore spot], ''Answers in Genesis''</ref> <ref>[http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?articleID=000CD7F6-B16F-1E41-89E0809EC588EEDF Which Came First, the Feather or the Bird?], ''Scientific American''</ref>}}

Creationists also assert that the comparative anatomy analysis done by evolutionists comparing bird bones and dinosaur bones is flawed. <ref>Dr. David N. Menton, [http://www.answersingenesis.org/docs2005/0328discovery.asp "Ostrich-osaurus" Discovery?], ''Answers in Genesis''</ref>

===Evolutionary/Old Earth Perspective===

The view of [[Theory of evolution|evolutionists]] and others who accept the uniformitarian timescale is that dinosaurs existed on earth from 230 million years ago to 65 million years ago. In this view, the entire population of dinosaurs were wiped out by a mass extinction event (usually thought to be an asteroid) about 65 million years ago.
This precludes humans and dinosaurs co-existing.

====Extinction====

According to most scientists, close to 65 million years ago, at the end of the [[Cretaceous]] period, and the beginning of what is called the [[Tertiary]] period, an event occurred which has come to be known as the [[K-T Event]]. This event would have obliterated most life on Earth, plunging the world into something that would now be likened to global nuclear winter, through which few extant species could survive. Although these scientists dispute the nature of the K-T Event (selecting among any number of catastrophes that could have caused the significant global cooling that resulted), most find that the claimed K-T Event was caused by the collision of a massive asteroid with the Earth, the dust and debris from which would have shrouded the sky for thousands of years, cooling Earth considerably.<ref>Kevin O Pope, "Meteorite impact and the mass extinction of species at the Cretaceous/Tertiary boundary," Proceedings of the National Academy of Science, available at [http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/full/95/19/11028]</ref> According to this view, the dinosaurs did not survive this cataclysm.<ref>[http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2002/08/0823_020823_asteroid.html Prehistoric Asteroid "Killed Everything"], ''National Geographic''</ref> A layer of rock containing high concentrations of [[Iridium]], a metal that is extremely rare on earth but common in asteroids, is said to be due to the vaporization and then fall of dust from the meteorite's impact, and its compression within the subsequent geological record.<ref>''Ibid''</ref>The evidence of a large impact crater can be found in rocks of the [[Yucatán]] Peninsula of the supposed age of this layer.<ref>[http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2003/03/0307_030307_impactcrater.html "Dinosaur-Killer" Asteroid Crater Imaged for First Time], ''National Geographic''</ref> <ref>http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/education/events/cowen1b.html</ref>
Creationists assert that the assumptions underpinning the methods used by modern geologists are incorrect, and even though the validity of a large impact is accepted, this does not consitute proof that the impact caused the extinction of the dinosaurs—although the abundance of dinosaur fossils in rocks found higher in the rock layers than the impact is drastically less than their abundance in rocks lower down.{{fact}}

====An Explosion of new species ====

The mass extinction of the dinosaurs removed a major food competitor, and predator, of smaller animals. As a result of a new "vacancy" in the food chain, following the [[K-T Event]], vast speciation occurred, as the evolutionary pressure of a new cold age propelled animal species to adapt or die out. According to this view, [[mammals]] were some of the main beneficiaries of this explosion: their fur allowed them to adapt to the cold, and their small size allowed them to conserve energy relative to the huge dinosaurs of the previous age.<ref>Bennet, Shostak, Jakotsky, "Life in the Universe," viewable at [http://www.amazon.com/Life-Universe-Jeffrey-Bennett/dp/0805385770]</ref>

====Dinosaurs and Birds====

As a number of feathered fossils (claimed to be dinosaurs) have been discovered, and evolutionary scientists claim the similarity in the bone structure between birds and dinosaurs show that modern birds are a descendants of dinosaurs. This is often cited as an example of [[macroevolution]].<ref>[http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2004/10/1006_041006_feathery_dino.html New Dinosaur Discovered: T. Rex Cousin Had Feathers], ''National Geographic''</ref> Cladists place modern birds within the clade dinosauria, meaning that they consider all bird species today as, technically, dinosaurs.<ref>[http://tolweb.org/Dinosauria/14883/1999.01.01 Tree of Life Web Project.] 1999. Dinosauria. Version 01 January 1999 (temporary). Accessed 30 May 2007.</ref>

==Dinosaur fossils and Human Fossils and Geological Strata ==
It is sometimes asserted that if human bones aren’t found with dinosaur bones, then dinosaurs and man didn’t live together.<ref name="HaD">Hodge, Bodie, [http://www.answersingenesis.org/articles/am/v1/n1/humans-and-dinosaurs If humans and dinosaurs lived together, why don’t we find human fossils with dinosaur fossils?] ''Answers'' 1(1):52, May 2006.</ref><ref>[http://www.talkorigins.org/indexcc/CH/CH710.html Claim CH710] (The TalkOrigins Archive)</ref>
Creation scientists point out that this is a false assumption; if human bones aren’t found buried with dinosaur bones, it simply means they weren't buried together.<ref name="HaD" />

Evolutionists point out that [[radiometric dating]] of rocks containing dinosaur bones shows them to have formed between 65 million years ago and 250 million years ago, whereas rocks with human bones in them are dated as being much newer (less than 5 million years old). Young Earth Creationists believe that these methods of dating rocks provide false results, and therefore reject this argument.

Creationists note that the fossil record contains mainly marine organisms and that a small sliver of the fossil record contains vertebrates and thus assert that we shouldn't expect to find many human fossils at all.<ref name="HaD" />
Moreover, as the biblical [[Great Flood|Flood]] would be a marine catastrophe, it would be expected that marine fossils would dominate the fossil record. This is in fact what we find.<ref name="NAB">Hodge, Bodie, [http://www.answersingenesis.org/PublicStore/pdfs/SampleChapter/10-2-267.pdf Why Don’t We Find Human & Dinosaur Fossils Together?] (chapter 13 of the New Answers Book), 2006.</ref>

Approximately 70% of the Earth is covered in salt water which would also explain the dominance of marine fossils. In addition, creation scientists assert there may have been a small pre-flood human population and that massive amounts of flood sediment are why we haven’t found human fossils in pre-biblical flood sediments.<ref name="NAB" />
Also, creation scientists point out that we don't find human bones buried with [[coelacanth]]s yet humans and coelacanths coexist today.<ref name="HaD" />

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

[[Category:Dinosaurs]]

Romans

2008-07-26T18:29:21Z

HockeyFan:

'''Romans''' are inhabitants of the city of [[Rome]]. Historically, ''Romans'' were [[citizens]] of the [[Roman Empire]].

''Romans'' can also refer to the [[Bible|biblical]] [[Epistle to the Romans]], a letter written by [[Saint Paul]] to the early Christian church in Rome.

==Ancient Romans==
Roman citizenship was a privileged status in the Empire. Residents of conquered territories and Roman client states generally had a lesser form of citizenship.

[[Category:Romans]]

England

2008-07-26T18:28:27Z

HockeyFan:

[[Image:England.gif|right|thumb|300px|England]]
'''England''' is a constituent country of the [[United Kingdom]] located on the island of [[Great Britain]] in the north-west of [[Europe]].
It is home of the [[English]] language currently spoken by perhaps a billion people, and was the seat of an empire that spanned the globe.
The parliament of the United Kingdom is in England, as well as the majority of the population, making this area politically and economically important to the UK as a whole.

== History ==

The prehistoric inhabitants of the island of Britain were largely Celtic.
From AD 43, the [[Romans]] invaded [[Britain]] and took control over the southern half of the islands, where they founded the fort of "Londinium", which later became [[London]]. As the [[Roman Empire]] abandoned its frontier territories, [[Germanic]] tribes, specifically the [[Angles]], [[Saxons]] and [[Jutes]], began to settle over the majority of the island. Kingdoms formed, such as Northumbria (Anglian) in the north, Wessex (named after the West Saxons) in the south west and Kent (probably founded by Jutes, and now the name of a county) in the south east. Parts of the regions now known as [[Wales]], [[Scotland]], and the county of Cornwall continued to be independent Celtic nations for some time after this. The Germanic invaders were still [[pagan]]s when they conquered part of Britain (e.g. [[Penda]] of Mercia was (allegedly) the last pagan King). The English peoples were converted to [[Christianity]], however, in the 7th Century AD. This happened from two directions: the mission of [[St. Augustine]], emissary of Gregory the Great came initially to Kent, while the (successful) mission to the Northumbrian Angles (and from there to peoples further south) was from the [[Celtic]] church based in northern British monasteries such as [[Iona]] and [[Lindisfarne]]. The entire [[British Isles]] later came under the sway of [[Roman Catholicism]] as the powerful Northumbrian King, Oswy, chose in favour of Roman practice in AD 664 ('Synod of Whitby').
[[Image:London England.jpg|right|300px]]
Later, in 1066 AD, the Norman French Duke [[William the Conqueror]] defeated the last [[Anglo-Saxon]] King, [[Harold Godwinson]]. William established himself as king of England, and the present day English monarchy traces its descent from William.

Amongst the privileged elite [[French]] language and customs became a part of English culture, however for the most part the common population continued to use their own language and customs. William retained significant territories on mainland Europe, in what is now France. For many hundreds of years England fought a series of wars (including the [[Hundred Years War]]) for possession of northern France. These did not end until 1588 with the loss of [[Calais]]. The [[Channel Islands]] are still a crown dependency to this day.

On the basis of their territories in England and France the Norman monarchs became influential in Europe. In 1215 rebellious noble force [[King John]] to sign the [[Magna Carta]], essentially a charter guaranteeing the rights of the king's subject nobles and the church, and setting forward the precedent that the monarch's powers were bound by law. In 1455-1487 a series of conflicts called the [[War of the Roses]] were fought between noble families for control of the throne.

== Religion ==
In 1533 AD King [[Henry VIII]] formed the [[Protestantism|Protestant]] [[Church of England]] after the pope refused to annul the marriage between the King and Catherine of Aragon. Henry established himself as the head of the church and made it the state religion of England. This situation continues to this day, although in much modified form. The Queen is still the nominal head of the church, although purely as a figurehead. Decisions technically taken by the Queen are in fact done only on the advice of her ministers, who in matters of the church invariably act on the advice of the church leaders. Until recently certain bishops of the Church of England were automatically given seats in the House of Lords. The Church of England is closely involved with the ceremonial associated with England, for example at coronations or royal weddings.

Since the [[Reformation]] the country has remained primarily Anglican with the notable exception of the Catholic reign of [[Mary I]]. More recently, the number of [[Roman Catholics]] is poised to overtake the number of [[Anglicans]] in the country, a trend that is likely to continue with an influx of migrants from Catholic countries such as [[Ireland]] and recent [[EU]] accession countries such as [[Poland]][http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/article1386939.ece]. As with the UK as a whole, the significant minority religions include [[Hinduism]], [[Judaism]] and [[Islam]].

A 2001 census gave the following figures for religious affiliation: [[Christianity]]: 71.6%, [[Islam]]: 3.1%, [[Hindu]]: 1.1%, [[Sikh]]: 0.7%, [[Jewish]]: 0.5%, and [[Buddhist]]: 0.3%, No Faith: 22.3%. Aprroximately 7% of responders did not answer the question.<ref>http://www.statistics.gov.uk/census2001/profiles/commentaries/ethnicity.asp </ref>

== Influence ==

England is the home of the English language, which was later spread to all parts of the world by the [[British Empire]], along with traditional English concepts such as universal suffrage, parliamentary government, the jury system, and freedom of speech.

== See also ==
*[[English Bill of Rights]]
*[[English Civil War]]
*[[English Painting]]

[[Category:United Kingdom]]
[[Category:England| ]]
[[Category:European Countries]]

User:HockeyFan

2008-07-26T18:14:17Z

HockeyFan: hi

I'm a Canadian living in Mississippi. Interested in science, religion and politics.