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Nova Scotia

2012-05-27T19:45:59Z

ImCanadian: replaced "new" with "current" to describe Darrell Dexter. He's been Premier for 3 years, and hardly qualifies as new

'''Nova Scotia''' is a maritime [[Canadian]] province bordering on land [[New Brunswick]], and the [[Atlantic Ocean]], the [[Bay of Fundy]] and the Gulf of St. Lawrence. Its name is Latin for "New Scotland".

The province has a total area of 55,490 km<sup>2</sup> with a population of 932,966 (2007) <ref>[http://www.statcan.ca/Daily/English/070628/d070628c.htm| Statistics Canada Canada's population estimates]</ref> accounting for 2.8% of the national total. The per capita provincial income in 2006 was $27,323<ref>[http://www.gov.ns.ca/finance/statistics/agency/index.asp?p=5|Nova Scotia Ministry of Finance]</ref>.

The left-wing New Democrats easily won the provincial election in June, 2009, their first victory in the Atlantic provinces. The current premier is Darrell Dexter, with a strong majority of 31 seats. Incumbent Premier Rodney MacDonald dragged the Progressive Conservatives to a weak third-place finish losing 11 seats and keeping only 10 seats; the Liberals won 11.<ref> See [http://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/politics/ndp-wins-majority-in-nova-scotia/article1174489/ ''Globe and Mail'' June 10, 2009]</ref>

Nova Scotia has a large tourism industry attracting visitors from across Canada and the world. Several of the major attractions are the Halifax Citadel, and greater Halifax region. The highlands of [[Cape Breton Island]], the Atlantic Ocean shores and the quaint villages of the north shore on the Bay of Fundy. [[Alexander Graham Bell]]'s home and museum is also in the province [http://www.pc.gc.ca/lhn-nhs/ns/grahambell/index_e.asp/ National Historic Site]. <ref> [Reader's Digest Atlas of Canada], 1995, pg 51</ref>
==History==

Some historians believe that Celtic monks from [[Iceland]] might have settled in [[Cape Breton Island]] in 875AD.<ref> [Reader's Digest Atlas of Canada], 1995, pg 51</ref> [[John Cabot]] first visited Nova Scotia in 1497 and the first permanent settlement was established in 1605. The capital city is [[Halifax]], and Nova Scotia joined as on of the founders of confederation in 1867. In 1848 it was the first British colony to have responsible government. Prior to Confederation, Nova Scotia was the richest region in what is now Canada due to booming fishery and wooden boat-building industries. Nova Scotia lost its great source of early wealth with both the advent of steam powered sea vessels and the decline of the fisheries.

Nova Scotia was contested territory between the French and British (and the Indians) from 1500 down to 1763. It was ruled as a British colony until it became a founding member of the Dominion of Canada in 1867.
===1500 to 1763===
Following the voyages of the [[Norsemen]] around 1000 and the discoveries of [[John Cabot]] in 1497, European fishermen and navigators skirted the coast. The explorers examined the coasts of Nova Scotia, sounded its harbors, and prepared maps; fishermen frequented its bays and fishing banks.

The French made the first permanent colonization. In 1603 Pierre du Guast, Sieur de Monts, the patron and associate of [[Samuel de Champlain]], obtained by charter all those lands lying between 40 and 46 degrees north latitude. In the spring of 1605 he founded Port Royal on Annapolis Basin. It was the first permanent agricultural settlement of Europeans in territory now Canadian.

The British crown, ignoring the French claims, granted all the territories between the 34th and 45th parallels (including both St. Croix and Port Royal) to the London and Plymouth companies in 1606. Rival French and English charters, with their overlapping territories, provided a basis for conflict. Between 1613 and 1710 Nova Scotia or Acadie changed hands ten times. In 1621 New Scotland, called “Nova Scotia” in the Latin charter, was granted to Sir William Alexander by James I of England. In 1632 300 French settlers arrived; together with some who came in 1671 they were the ancestors of the Acadian people. By the Treaty of Ryswick in 1697 French sovereignty to Port Royal was again recognized but in 1710, the British seized Port Royal for the last time, changing its name to Annapolis Royal.

Louisbourg on Cape Breton Island enjoyed a brief but impressive existence as a New France colony during 1713-58. Founded as a military fortress, Louisbourg was a port for fishing and trade and an urban center for the French colonists. Louisbourg was founded at a time when there were no other French settlements on the island; it was the first crown-sponsored venture, in contrast to earlier private settlements. The settlement was divided into several distinct military zones to be fortified. Based on a fishing economy, Louisbourg was carefully planned to include public spaces for community gatherings, as well as churches and cemeteries. About 250 black slaves were brought from the West Indies to be house servants.

The French-speaking Acadians tried to remain neutral between France and Britain even as wars swirled around them. In 1749, in anticipation of another war with France, the British turned Nova Scotia into a military bastion, constructing a major new naval base of Halifax and subsidizing the migration of thousands of Protestant colonists. Once again they demanded an unqualified oath of loyalty to Britain from the Acadians, which they refused. The irresistible drift to war made the Acadian position increasingly untenable, and in 1755 Lieutenant-Governor Charles Lawrence and his council resolved to expel them from the colony. About 12,000 of the 18,000 were rounded up and resettled in Louisiana, as well as New England, France, England, and Saint Domingo, with many dying of disease in the process. <ref> Griffiths (2005); Farragher (2006)</ref>

The first newspaper anywhere in Canada, the Halifax ''Gazette,'' was founded in 1752.

===1763 to 1867===
Many of the 35,000 Loyalists who came to Nova Scotia as exiles from the Unityed States after 1780 were professional men, merchants, clergymen and former officeholders who felt that their loyalty merited privileged positions in the Empire they had so loyally supported. They were not welcomed by the current settlers (most of them Yankees), and the solution in 1784 was to hive off [[New Brunswick]], with vast tracts of virgin land, as a separate colony that welcomed the Loyalists.

Governor John Wentworth (1794-1808), a Yankee who had been governor of New Hampshire before the Revolution, stabilized the colony's finances, tried to settle free blacks exiled from Jamaica (they were finally resettled in Sierra Leone), and quieted the Indians. Responding to the wwar with France, he cracked down on internal dissent, especially of the democratic sort voiced by the Yankees. His feuds with William Cottnam Tonge escalated into a constitutional struggle between the governor-in-council and the House of Assembly, controlled by Tonge. Wentworth, steeped in corruption and nepotism (which is how he became a governor in the first place), assisted the Halifax merchants but neglected everyone else. London removed the reactionary governor in 1808 and replaced him with George Prevost.<ref> Judith Fingard, "Wentworth, Sir John," ''Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online (2000) [http://www.biographi.ca/EN/ShowBio.asp?BioId=36832&query=wentworth online edition] </ref>

The Napoleonic Wars (1793-1815) brought new wealth. Lumbering and shipbuilding developed rapidly, and naval expenditures poured money into Halifax, the main British base north of the Bahamas. Significant improvements in communications and in agriculture took place and Nova Scotia competed successfully with New England in fisheries and for the West Indies trade. With the passing of the 1807 Embargo Act by the U.S. and the outbreak of the [[War of 1812]], privateering against American ships, and smuggling into antiwar New England, became highly profitable. With peace in 1815 came depression, accentuated by a series of bad harvests.

Petitions for redress of grievances in the 1820s and 1830s led to a widespread movement for political reform. The appointed legislative council, sitting in secret and combining executive, legislative, and judicial functions, had for decades been the real center of power. The struggle culminated in responsible government in 1848, with an elected assembly exercising real power. It was the first responsible government in the British Empire overseas. Thenceforth no administration could remain in office unless it could command the confidence of a majority in the elected house of assembly.<ref> Beck (1985)</ref>

Economic development picked up after 1820, A relaxation in imperial trade laws helped expand the shipping trade; existing industry expanded, new industries were started, canals were begun, and steam power was introduced. The first locomotive had run on a short railroad at the coal mines in Pictou County in 1839, and in 1854 large-scale railroad building was undertaken. By 1876 there were rail connections with central Canada, and by 1891 there was a through line from Halifax to Sydney, in addition to numerous local lines. Railroad building, the Reciprocity Treaty of 1854 with the U.S., and business created by U.S. government purchases during the American Civil War (1861-65) all stimulated the booming economy.

Interest in education increased, and schools were established but public education was contested terrain. Conservative Premier Charles Tupper succeeded in passing major legislation in the 1860s. In 1864 he had passed his first Free School Act, establishing a system of state-subsidized common schools, subject to regulation by a superintendent of education. The act did not require local taxation but promised greater financial aid to school districts which did levy school taxes. Most rejected taxes so Tupper passed another act in 1865 imposing compulsory taxation. He attempted to appease Protestants by stressing that the new schools, while non-denominational, would still provide Christian instruction. However the Catholics wanted state-supported separate Catholic schools. Tupper gave control over school policy to the provincial cabinet, where Catholics were guaranteed representation, and he opposed the creation of publicly funded Catholic schools. But Tupper promised the Catholic archbishop Thomas Connolly that if they followed the prescribed course of study, Catholic-controlled public schools could offer religious instruction after hours and still receive public grants. This successful compromise ensured to Nova Scotia a degree of religious harmony far greater than in the other colonies, where the school issue exploded in the late 19th century. The 1864 act created a system of school inspectors to develop modernizing attitudes consistent with the social and political need for an informed citizenry. The social need for universal education interfered, however, with rural work patterns and traditional family structures, and was not fully accepted until the 20th century.<ref>Buckner (2000); Robert Lanning, "Awakening a Demand for Schooling: Educational Inspection's Impact on Rural Nova Scotia, 1855-74." ''Historical Studies in Education'' 2000 12(1-2): 129-142. Issn: 0843-5057 </ref>

===1867 to present===
The British North America Act, by which Nova Scotia became part of the Dominion of Canada, went into effect on July 1, 1867. Premier [[Charles Tupper]] had worked energetically to bring about the union. But it was controversial because localism, Protestant fears of Catholics and distrust of Canadians generally, and worries about loing free trade with America, were all intensified by the refusal of Tupper to consult Nova Scotia's voters on the subject. A movement for withdrawal from Canada developed, led by [[Joseph Howe]], the Liberal party leader. Howe's movement swept the 1867 elections but failed in its goal to withdraw from Canada because London was determined the union go forward. Howe did succeed in getting better financial terms for the province, and gained a national office for himself.<ref> Beck (2000)</ref> Long-term adverse factors came into play, such as the end of the Reciprocity Treaty with the U.S. which led to higher and damaging American tariffs on goods imported from Nova Scotia, the end of the American Civil War and the business it had generated, and the transition at sea from wood-wind-water sailing to steel steamships, all undercut the advantages Nova Scotia had enjoyed before 1867. Many residents for decades grumbled tha Confederation had slowed the economic progress of the province and it lagged other parts of Canada.

Halifax was a major assembly point for convoys and shipping to Britain from North America during World War I. The 1917 explosion in Halifax Harbour, caused by a collision between the French munitions ship Mont Blanc and the Norwegian relief ship Imo caused enormous destruction to the city.<ref>Bird (1967)</ref>

The first radio station began to broadcast in 1920.

Long-serving Liberal premier Angus L. Macdonald after World War II initiated large-scale spending programs for such services as health, education, labor union protection measures, and pensions. His successor Conservative Robert L. Stanfield served as premier during 1956-67. The more pragmatic Stanfield, though in favor of some government intervention in economic affairs, was cautious about social policy and unwilling to raise public expectations by trumpeting universalist schemes. Still, social provision was extended, notably in the building of new hospitals, for which funds were raised through a regressive sales tax. After 1960 there was increased emphasis on provincial assistance for local municipalities in health and education, with finances for university expansion. Generally, Stanfield, though a conservative, took a positive view of the state's role in helping citizens overcome poverty, ill-health, and discrimination and accepted the need to raise taxes to pay for such services.<ref> Jennifer Smith, "The Stanfield Government and Social Policy in Nova Scotia: 1956-1967." ''Journal of the Royal Nova Scotia Historical Society'' 2003 6: 1-16. </ref>

Nova Scotia was hard-hit by the [[Great Depression]], as demand plunged for coal and steel, and the prices of fish and lumber plummeted. Prosperity returned in World War II, especially as Halifax became a major staging point for convoys to Britain.

===Demographic history===
The Micmac, an Algonquian-speaking First Nation, inhabited the area when Europeans first arrived. The first explorers and fishermen brought European diseases (especially smallpox) which killed off most of the Indians.

After several failures at colonization, the French settled at Port Royal in 1605. The first Scottish settlements in Nova Scotia were made in 1629 at Baleine Cove on Cape Breton Island and at Port Royal. British settlement began with the founding of [[Halifax]] in 1749; about 2,500 settlers from the continent of Europe migrated to the province in 1750-1752. About 12,000 Acadians were expelled Between 1755 and 1762. Some 8,000 New England Yankees settled in Nova Scotia. Between 1772 and 1774 about 1,000 Yorkshiremen settled at the Isthmus of Chignecto. The shipload of Scots which reached Pictou in 1773 were the first of thousands who came in the 19th century.

By 1760 Royal authorities were eager to fill up the vacant lands in the province with Britons; in 1758 and 1759 Governor Lawrence issued proclamations inviting New Englanders to come into Nova Scotia. The influx began in 1760 and continued for several years, with the result that about 4,500 New Englanders, together with hundreds of Irish, Scots, and people of Yorkshire, moved into Nova Scotia. On the eve of the American Revolution about one half of the population were Yankees. In the American Revolution, few Nova Scotians took an active part on either side, though Halifax flourished as a main naval base. By the end of the Revolution in 1783 some 35,000 Loyalists, and disbanded soldiers decided to make their homes in the province.

After 1783, with the loss of the [[American Revolution]]Loyalists, and disbanded British soldiers doubled the population of Nova Scotia, and about 20,000 became permanent settlers there. Some freed blacks came with the Loyalists, but many moved on to Sierra Leone; several hundred remained and another 3,500, mostly escaped from Virginia, came after the [[War of 1812]]. The largest immigration came in 1815-51, with the arrival of some 55,000 Scottish, Irish, English, and Welsh settlers. By mid-century the population reached 275,000. After 1880 the coal and steel industries attracted immigrants from Britain and Western Europe.

On Cape Breton, the original Micmac Indians, Acadian French, Lowland Scots, Irish, Loyalists from New England, and English immigrants have all contributed to a history which has included cultural, religious, and political conflict as well as cooperation and synthesis. The Highland Scots became the largest community in the early 19th century, and their heritage in music, folklore, and language has survived government indifference, but it is now threatened by a synthetic marketable "tartan clan doll culture" aimed primarily at tourists.<ref>Steve Murdoch, "Cape Breton: Canada's "Highland" Island?" ''Northern Scotland'' 1998 18: 31-42. Issn: 0306-5278 </ref>

In the first quarter of the 20th century, Nova Scotia suffered significant rural depopulation, particularly in its eastern counties, which not only impacted it economically, but caused a turbulent political climate. Both George Murray, head of Nova Scotia's Liberal government, and his successor, E. H. Armstrong, implemented policy initiatives to improve rural life and modernize agricultural industry, and they secured federal assistance through loans and grants for agriculture, roads, and immigration. Murray was criticized for being too cautious in his reforms, while Armstrong, even with a Liberal federal government behind him, was unable to stop the eventual withdrawal of assistance. The situation only worsened with the post-World War II depression which brought the United Farmers Party to power in 1920 in the hardest hit areas of eastern Nova Scotia. The Liberals' failure to stem the decline of the area brought their defeat in the 1925 provincial election by "rejuvenated" Conservatives who capitalized on Armstrong's weakness. Rural depopulation and its impact on agriculture and society is key to understanding the province's politics in the early 20th century, when both provincial and federal politicians let down the people of rural Nova Scotia.<ref>Paul Brown, "'Come East, Young Man!' the Politics of Rural Depopulation in Nova Scotia, 1900-1925." ''Journal of the Royal Nova Scotia Historical Society''1998 1: 47-78. </ref>

In 1991 about 70 percent of the population was of British background, with people of English and Scottish ancestry predominating. Persons of French descent accounted for about 8 percent of the total. About 37 percent were Roman Catholic, 17 percent belonged to the United Church of Canada, 15 percent were Anglican, and 11 percent were Baptists. In 1991 the population was 54 percent urban and 46 percent rural. Migration from rural to urban areas was rapid until the late 1960s and insignificant since then.

===Economic and Business history===
An examination of Nova Scotia's trade and tariffs between 1830 and 1866 suggests that the colony was already moving toward free trade before the Reciprocity Treaty of 1854 with the U.S. took effect, but that the treaty still resulted in modest direct gains. The structure of the economy changed because markets for some commodities, such as coal, were strongly affected though markets for other goods were untouched. The Reciprocity Treaty complemented the earlier movement toward free trade and stimulated the export of commodities sold primarily to the United States.<ref>Marilyn Gerriets and Julian Gwyn, "Tariffs, Trade and Reciprocity: Nova Scotia, 1830-1866." ''Acadiensis'' 1996 25(2): 62-81. Issn: 0044-5851 </ref>

Between 1851 and 1871 agriculture was the single largest economic activity in Nova Scotia. After 1891, total rural population, farmland, grain production, cattle production, and number of farms all consistently declined through 1951. Despite this, certain agricultural products, such as apples and dairy products, showed increases in production. Nova Scotia's total food imports exceeded exports, but many specific products showed surpluses. Agriculture was far more significant to the Nova Scotia economy during 1851-1951 than is traditionally portrayed; the province experienced the same decline in agriculture as neighboring areas, including much of northern New England.<ref> MacKinnon, (1996); Kris Inwood, and Phyllis Wagg, "Wealth and Prosperity in Nova Scotia Agriculture, 1851-71." ''Canadian Historical Review'' 1994 75(2): 239-264. Issn: 0008-3755 Fulltext: in Ebsco </ref>

After Confederation, boosters of Halifax, Nova Scotia, expected federal help to make the city's natural harbor Canada's official winter port and a gateway for trade with Europe. Halifax's advantages included its location just off the Great Circle route and the closest proximity to Europe of any mainland North American port. But the Canadian Intercolonial Railway (ICR) took an indirect, southerly route for military and political reasons, and national leaders did not live up to promises to declare Halifax Canada's winter port. Despite appeals to nationalism and the ICR's own attempts to promote traffic to Halifax, most Canadian exports went though Boston, Massachusetts, or Portland, Maine. Wealthy Haligonians also failed to finance the construction of needed facilities. The outbreak of World War I finally boosted Halifax's harbor into prominence.<ref> James D. Frost, "Halifax: the Wharf of the Dominion, 1867-1914." ''Journal of the Royal Nova Scotia Historical Society'' 2005 8: 35-48. Issn: 1486-5920 </ref>

William F. Stairs (1848-1904), scion of the powerful Stairs family, enlarged the family's multiple businesses by merging the cordage firms and sugar refineries and then creating the steel industry in Nova Scotia. In order to develop new regional sources of capital, Stairs was a pioneer in building legal and regulatory frameworks for these new forms of financial structure. Frost contrasts Stairs's success in promoting regional development with the obstacles that he had encountered in promoting regional interests, particularly at the federal level. The family finally sold its businesses in 1971, after 160 years.<ref> J.B. Cahill, "Stairs, William James." in ''Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online'' (2000) [http://www.biographi.ca/EN/ShowBio.asp?BioId=41203&query=stairs online edition]; Frost (2003)</ref>

In Halifax Samuel Cunard, with his father, Abraham, a master ship's carpenter, founded the A. Cunard & Co. cargo shipping company and later the Cunard Line, a pride of the British Empire. Samuel parlayed his father's modest waterfront real estate holdings into a succession of businesses that revolutionized transatlantic shipping and passenger travel with the introduction of steam power. He contributed to Halifax civic life through philanthropic activities, founding the Chamber of Commerce, and participating in banking, mining, and other commercial enterprises. He also became one of the largest landholders in the Maritime Provinces.<ref>John G. Langley, "Samuel Cunard 1787-1865: 'As Fine a Specimen of a Self-made Man as this Western Continent Can Boast Of.'" ''Journal of the Royal Nova Scotia Historical Society'' 2005 8: 92-115. Issn: 1486-5920 </ref>

The vertically-integrated industrial giant, the Nova Scotia Steel and Coal Company (known as Scotia), made large profits in the early 20th century from exporting staples, pig iron, and steel products to foreign and national markets. Initially aided by the company's tidewater location and control over all phases of production, these were not sufficient in the long run to overcome such forces of fragmentation as dispersed and limited regional markets, increased costs of producing poor quality resources, and the minimal presence of external economies. With Scotia's eventual demise, towns like Sydney Mines, Trenton, and New Glasgow suffered economic and population decline.<ref> L. D. McCann, "Fragmented Integration: the Nova Scotia Steel and Coal Company and the Anatomy of an Urban-industrial Landscape, c. 1912." ''Urban History Review'' 1994 22(2): 139-158. Issn: 0703-0428 </ref>

===Labour history===
Working conditions in the Halifax Naval Yard during 1775-1820 included officers who were corrupt; nepotism was common. The laborers endured poor working conditions and limited personal freedoms. However, the laborers were willing to remain there for many years because wages, even though sometimes late, were generally regular, and there was always the possibility of disability pay for those hurt on the job and pensions for those who stayed until retirement.<ref>Julian Gwyn, "the Culture of Work in the Halifax Naval Yard Before 1820." ''Journal of the Royal Nova Scotia Historical Society'' 1999 2: 118-144. </ref>

Families attempted to maximize economic well-being by diversifying the employment opportunities of the working members. Shipbuilding was a part-time activity that complemented seasonal farming and lumbering activities. They had larger family sizes, used land for farming and security of food production, and saw the importance of job location for participation in pluralist activities.<ref>Larry McCann, "Seasons of Labor: Family, Work, and Land in a Nineteenth-century Nova Scotia Shipbuilding Community." ''History of the Family'' 1999 4(4): 485-527. Issn: 1081-602x Fulltext: in Ebsco </ref>

The labour movement in Nova Scotia may be traced back to the late 18th century. As early as 1799 there was a Carpenters' Society at Halifax, and soon there were attempts at organization by other workmen and tradesmen. In 1816 Nova Scotia had an act against trade unions, the preamble of which declared that great numbers of master tradesmen, journeymen, and workmen in the town of Halifax and other parts of the province had, by unlawful meetings and combinations, endeavored to regulate the rate of wages and effectuate other illegal aims.

Unionization has primarily focused on craft rather than industrial lines, except in the coal mines and steel plants. There has been an increase in industrial unionism with the expansion of industry. After the middle of the 19th century international unionism and American influence became important, with international unionism entering the province in 1869, when a branch of the International Typographical Union was chartered in Halifax. The development of federated unions is seen in the organization of the Amalgamated Trade Unions of Halifax in 1889, which was succeeded by the Halifax District Trades and Labour Council in 1898. By the end of the 19th century there were more than 70 local unions in Nova Scotia.

The Provincial Workmen's Association began in 1879 as a miners' union; in 1898, faced by a challenge from the [[Knights of Labor]], it sought to embrace unions in all the industries of the province. The first local union of the [[United Mine Workers]] was established in 1908. After a struggle for control of the labour movement among the miners, the Provincial Workmen's Association was dissolved in 1917, and by 1919 the [[United Mine Workers]] had triumphed in the coal areas of the province. Success was credited to the aggressive leadership of legendary J. B. McLachlan (1869-1937), who left the coal mines of Scotland to migrate to Canada in 1902, became a Communist (1922 to 1936) and promoted a strong union and a tradition of independent labour politics. McLachlan’s battles with the American UMWA leadership, particularly the dictatorial [[John L. Lewis]], demonstrated his commitment to democratic unionism for the miners and a fighting union, but Lewis won and outsted McLachlan from power.<ref> Frank (1999)</ref> Women played an important, though largely ignored, role in the union movement in Newfoundland's Cape Breton coal towns during the troubled 1920's. Women did not work in the mines but acted as family financiers and engaged in an array of other supportive activities. Women's labor leagues organized a variety of social, educational, and fund-raising functions. Women also violently confronted scabs, policemen, and soldiers. They had to stretch the food dollar and show inventiveness in clothing their families. In effect, the union movement relied extensively on women.<ref>Steven. Penfold, "'Have You No Manhood in You?' Gender and Class in the Cape Breton Coal Towns, 1920-1926." ''Acadiensis'' 1994 23(2): 21-44. Issn: 0044-5851 </ref>

In 1936 union organizers from the [[CIO]] launched a new successful organizing drive at the Dominion Steel Company (DOSCO) plant in Sydney under the auspices of the Steel Workers Organizing Committee (SWOC). This effort drew the support of steelworkers in a way that previous organizing attempts had not. However, the militant and self-reliant traditions of the steelworkers collided with the cautious strategies and bureaucratic practices of the appointed SWOC leadership in the U.S. and Canada. As steelworkers at Sydney showed great solidarity in their struggle with DOSCO, they also resisted what they saw as undemocratic and highly accommodationist practices by the union's national and international leadership.<ref> Ron Crawley, "What Kind of Unionism: Struggles among Sydney Steel Workers in the SWOC Years, 1936-1942." ''Labour'' 1997 (39): 99-123. Issn: 0700-3862 </ref>

After 1940 the labour movement has spread throughout Nova Scotia. Although most Nova Scotia branches affiliated with the Trades and Labour Congress of Canada after it first entered the province in 1902, there were a growing number of Canadian Congress of Labour affiliates in later years. In 1956 these two groups merged to form the Canadian Labour Congress. In 1987 there were about 105,000 union members, almost half of them affiliated with the Canadian Labour Congress.

Labour legislation includes the Canada Trade Union Act of 1872 which made labour organizations more respectable, and the Nova Scotia Trade Union Act of 1937. It established the right of employees to organize and set the procedure for collective bargaining. Laws regulating the conditions and terms of employment are contained in a Labour Standards Code passed in 1972.
===Historical resources===
Historical libraries, in addition to research library at Dalhousie University at Halifax, include the Public Archives of Nova Scotia and the Nova Scotia Legislative Library. The museum of the Public Archives of Nova Scotia exhibits important documents, paintings, and relics of the province's history. Other museums include the Nova Scotia Museum, the Art Gallery of Nova Scotia, and the Maritime Museum of the Atlantic, all at Halifax; and fisheries museums at Lunenburg and at North East Margaree. The six national historic parks are: Fort Anne at Annapolis Royal, the site of early Acadian settlement; Fortress of Louisbourg, on Cape Breton Island, with the ruins of a walled city erected by the French in 1720- 1740; Port Royal near Annapolis Royal, with a restoration of the Habitation built in 1605; Grand Pre in "the Evangeline country"; Alexander Graham Bell, with a museum, at Baddeck; and Halifax Citadel, at Halifax. Important historic houses and buildings include the Perkins House, at Liverpool, which was built in 1766; the Ross-Thomson House, at Shelburne, which was erected in the 1780's; Uniacke House, built at Mount Uniacke near Halifax, in 1813-1815; the Wolfville Historic House at Wolfville; and Clifton (Haliburton Memorial Museum), the Windsor home of Judge Thomas Chandler Haliburton, author of the "Sam Slick" stories.

==Further reading==
* [http://www.biographi.ca/EN/ ''The Dictionary of Canadian Biography''] (1966-2006), thousands of scholarly biographies of notables who died by 1930
* [http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com/index.cfm?PgNm=TCESubjects&Params=A1 ''Canadian Encyclopedia'' (2008)] reliable detailed encyclopedia, on-line free

==Bibliography==
===Surveys===
* Beck, J. Murray. ''The Government of Nova Scotia'' University of Toronto Press, 1957, the standard history
* Choyce, Lesley. ''Nova Scotia: Shaped by the Sea. A Living History.'' Toronto: Penguin Books Canada, 1996. 305 pp.
* Donovan, Kenneth, ed. ''The Island: New Perspectives on Cape Breton History, 1713-1990'' (1990)
* Donovan, Kenneth, ed. ''Cape Breton at 200: Historical Essays in Honour of the Island's Bicentennial, 1785-1985.'' Sydney, N.S.: U. College of Cape Breton Press, 1985. 261 pp.
* Fingard, Judith; Guildford, Janet; and Sutherland, David. ''Halifax: The First 250 Years'' Halifax: Formac, 1999. 192 pp.
* Girard, Philip; Phillips, Jim; and Cahill, Barry, ed. ''The Supreme Court of Nova Scotia, 1754-2004: From Imperial Bastion to Provincial Oracle'' U. of Toronto Press 2004. [http://www.h-net.msu.edu/reviews/showrev.cgi?path=314221129664916 online review in French]
* Hornsby, Stephen. ''Nineteenth Century Cape Breton: A Historical Geography'' (1992) * Johnson, Ralph S. ''Forests of Nova Scotia: A History.'' Tantallon: Nova Scotia Dept. of Lands and Forests; Four East Publ., 1986. 407 pp.
* Loomer, L. S. ''Windsor, Nova Scotia: A Journey in History.'' Windsor, N.S.: West Hants Hist. Soc., 1996. 399 pp.
* Robertson, Allen B. ''Tide & Timber: Hantsport, Nova Scotia, 1795-1995.'' Hantsport, N.S.: Lancelot, 1996. 182 pp.
* Robertson, Barbara R. ''Sawpower: Making Lumber in the Sawmills of Nova Scotia.'' Halifax: Nimbus; Nova Scotia Mus., 1986. 244 pp.
* Tennyson, Brian Douglas, ed. ''Cape Bretoniana: An Annotated Bibliography.'' U. of Toronto Press, 2005. 789 pp.

===Pre 1900===
* Beck, J. Murray. '' Joseph Howe: Volumes I: Conservative Reformer 1804-1848; vol 2: The Briton Becomes Canadian 1848-1873'' (1984)
**Beck, J. Murray. "Joseph Howe" in ''Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online'' (2000) [http://www.biographi.ca/EN/ShowBio.asp?BioId=39171&query=howe online edition]
* Beck, J. Murray. ''Politics of Nova Scotia. vol 1 1710-1896'' Tantallon, N.S.: Four East 1985 438 pp.
* Bell, Winthrop P. ''The "Foreign Protestants" and the Settlement of Nova Scotia: The History of a Piece of Arrested British Colonial Policy in the Eighteenth Century.'' (1961). reprint Fredericton: Acadiensis for Mount Allison U., Center for Canadian Studies, 1990. 673 pp.
* Brebner, John Bartlet. ''New England's Outpost. Acadia before the Conquest of Canada'' (1927)
* Brebner, John Bartlet. ''The Neutral Yankees of Nova Scotia: A Marginal Colony During the Revolutionary Years'' (1937)
* Buckner, Phillip Buckner. "Sir Charles Tupper," in ''Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online'' (2000) [http://www.biographi.ca/EN/ShowBio.asp?BioId=41869&query=tupper online edition]
* Byers, Mary and McBurney, Margaret. ''Atlantic Hearth: Early Homes and Families of Nova Scotia.'' U. of Toronto Press, 1994. 364 pp.
* Campey, Lucille H. ''After the Hector: The Scottish Pioneers of Nova Scotia and Cape Breton'' Toronto: Natural Heritage Books, 2004. 376 pp.
* J. A. Chisholm, ed. ''Speeches and Public Letters of Joseph Howe'' 2 vol Halifax, 1909
* Conrad, Margaret and Moody, Barry, ed. ''Planter Links: Community and Culture in Colonial Nova Scotia.'' Fredericton: Acadiensis, 2001. 236 pp. The Planters were New England Yankees
* Conrad, Margaret, ed. ''Intimate Relations: Family and Community in Planter Nova Scotia, 1759-1800.'' Fredericton: Acadiensis, 1995. 298 pp.
* Conrad, Margaret, ed. ''Making Adjustments: Change and Continuity in Planter Nova Scotia, 1759-1800.'' Fredericton: Acadiensis, 1991. 280 pp.
* Cuthbertson, Brian. ''Johnny Bluenose at the Polls: Epic Nova Scotian Election Battles, 1758-1848.'' Halifax: Formac, 1994. 344 pp.
* Desserud, Donald A. "Outpost's Response: The Language and Politics of Moderation in Eighteenth-Century Nova Scotia" [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=5002307961 ''American Review of Canadian Studies,'' Vol. 29, 1999 online]
* Faragher, John Mack. ''A Great and Noble Scheme: The Tragic Story of the Expulsion of the French Acadians from Their American Homeland'' (2006)
* Frost, James D. ''Merchant Princes: Halifax's First Family of Finance, Ships, and Steel'' Toronto: Lorimer, 2003. 376 pp.
* Griffiths, N. E. S. ''From Migrant to Acadian: A North American Border People, 1604-1755.'' McGill-Queen's U. Press, 2005. 633 pp.
* Gwyn, Julian. ''Excessive Expectations: Maritime Commerce and the Economic Development of Nova Scotia, 1740-1870'' McGill-Queen's U. Press, 1998. 291 pp.
* Hornsby, Stephen J. ''Nineteenth-Century Cape Breton: A Historical Geography.'' McGill-Queen's U. Press, 1992. 274 pp.
* Johnston, A. J. B. ''Control and Order in French Colonial Louisbourg, 1713-1758.'' Michigan State U. Press, 2001. 346 pp.
* Krause, Eric; Corbin, Carol; and O'Shea, William, ed. ''Aspects of Louisbourg: Essays on the History of an Eighteenth-Century French Community in North America.'' Sydney, N.S.: U. College of Cape Breton Press, 1995. 312 pp.
* Lanctôt, Léopold. ''L'Acadie des Origines, 1603-1771'' Montreal: Fleuve, 1988. 234 pp.
* MacKinnon, Neil. ''This Unfriendly Soil: The Loyalist Experience in Nova Scotia, 1783-1791.'' McGill-Queen's U. Press, 1986. 231 pp.
* Mancke, Elizabeth. ''The Fault Lines of Empire: Political Differentiation in Massachusetts and Nova Scotia, ca. 1760-1830'' [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=109185194 Routledge, 2005. 214 pp. online]
* Marble, Allan Everett. ''Surgeons, Smallpox, and the Poor: A History of Medicine and Social Conditions in Nova Scotia, 1749-1799.'' McGill-Queen's U. Press, 1993. 356 pp.
* Pryke, Kenneth G. ''Nova Scotia and Confederation, 1864-74'' (1979)
* Rawlyk, George ed. ''Joseph Howe: Opportunist? Man of Vision? Fustrated Politician?,'' (1967).
* Reid, John G. et al. ''The "Conquest" of Acadia, 1710: Imperial, Colonial, and Aboriginal Constructions.'' U. of Toronto Press, 2004. 297 pp.
* Schama, Simon. ''Rough Crossings: Britain, the Slaves and the American Revolution.'' 2006. deals with freed slaves in Nova Scotia in 1780s-1790s
* Waite, P. B. ''The Lives of Dalhousie University. Vol. 1: 1818-1925, Lord Dalhousie's College.'' McGill-Queen's U. Press 1994. 338 pp.
* Walker, James W. St. G. ''The Black Loyalists: The Search for a Promised Land in Nova Scotia and Sierra Leone, 1783-1870.'' (1976). 438 pp
* Whitelaw, William Menzies; ''The Maritimes and Canada before Confederation'' [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=900720 (1934) online]

===Since 1900===
* Beck, J. Murray. ''Politics of Nova Scotia. vol 2: 1896-1988.'' Tantallon, N.S.: Four East 1985 438 pp.
* Bickerton, James P. ''Nova Scotia, Ottawa and the Politics of Regional Development.'' U. of Toronto Press 1990. 412 pp.
* Bird, Michael J. ''The Town That Died: A Chronicle of the Halifax Disaster.'' (1967). 192 pp.
* Creighton, Wilfred. ''Forestkeeping: A History of the Department of Lands and Forests in Nova Scotia, 1926-1969.'' Halifax: Nova Scotia Dept. of Lands and Forests, 1988. 155 pp.
* Earle, Michael, ed. ''Workers and the State in Twentieth Century Nova Scotia.'' Fredericton: Acadiensis, 1989.
* Frank, David. ''J. B. McLachlan: A Biography - the Story of a Legendary Labour Leader and the Cape Breton Coal Miners.'' Toronto: Lorimer, 1999. 592 pp.
* Fraser, Dawn. ''Echoes from Labor's Wars: The Expanded Edition, Industrial Cape Breton in the 1920's, Echoes of World War One, Autobiography and Other Writings.'' Wreck Cove, N.S.: Breton Books, 1992. 177 pp.
* McKay, Ian. ''The Quest of the Folk: Antimodernism and Cultural Selection in Twentieth-Century Nova Scotia.'' McGill-Queen's U. Press, 1994. 371 pp.
* McKay, Ian. ''The Craft Transformed: An Essay on the Carpenters of Halifax, 1885-1985.'' Halifax, Holdfast, 1985. 148 pp.
* MacKinnon, Robert. "Agriculture and Rural Change in Nova Scotia, 1851-1951." ''Canadian Papers in Rural History'' 1996 10: 231-273.
* March, William DesB. ''Red Line: The Chronicle-Herald and Mail-Star, 1875-1954.'' Halifax, N.S.: Chebucto Agencies, 1986. 415 pp.
* Morton, Suzanne. ''Ideal Surroundings: Domestic Life in a Working-Class Suburb in the 1920s.'' U. of Toronto Press, 1995. 201 pp. about Richmond Heights
* Sandberg, L. Anders and Clancy, Peter. ''Against the Grain: Foresters and Politics in Nova Scotia.'' U. of British Columbia Press, 2000. 352 pp.
* Sandberg, L. Anders, ed. ''Trouble in the Woods: Forest Policy and Social Conflict in Nova Scotia and New Brunswick.'' Fredericton, Acadiensis, 1992. 234 pp.
* White, James Frank Edward. "Conscripted City: Halifax and the Second World War." PhD dissertation McMaster U. 1995. 482 pp. DAI 1996 56(8): 3267-3268-A. DANN98223 Fulltext: in ProQuest Dissertations & Theses

====notes====
<references/>

== External Links ==
* [http://novascotia.com/en/home/default.aspx Nova Scotia Tourism]
[[Category:Canadian Provinces]]
[[Category:Canadian History]]
[[Category:British Empire]]

Canada

2012-05-27T19:40:09Z

ImCanadian: /* Culture */ removed reference to decriminalization of Marijuana in some parts of Canada. It is factually innacurate, and actually impossible, as criminal law is the same everywhere in Canada

{{Country
|name =''Canada''
|map =Canada pol99.jpg
|map2 =Loc of Canada.png
|flag =Flag of Canada.svg
|arms =Canada arms.png
|capital =Ottawa
|capital-raw =
|government =Parliamentary Democracy/Federal Constitutional monarchy
|government-raw =
|language =English, French
|king =
|queen =Elizabeth II
|monarch-raw =
|president =
|president-raw =
|chancellor =
|chancellor-raw =
|pm =Stephen Harper
|pm-raw =
|chairman =
|premier =
|area =
|pop =34,030,589
|pop-basis =2011
|gdp =$1.105 trillion
|gdp-year =2007
|gdp-pc =$35,133
|currency =Canadian dollar
|idd =
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}}
'''Canada''' is a [[country]] in [[North America]] which extends from the [[Pacific Ocean]] in the west to the [[Atlantic Ocean]] in the east and northward to the [[Arctic Ocean]]. Canada is the largest country by total area in [[North America]] and the second largest in the world behind [[Russia]]. It also has the longest coastline of any nation, as well as the longest border with the [[United States]] to the south and northwest. Its border with the US is the longest undefended border in the world.

Canada's motto, ''A Mari usque ad Mare'' (From sea to sea), is based on biblical scripture: "He shall have dominion from sea to sea and from the river unto the ends of the earth (Psalm 72:8)".<ref>[http://www.pch.gc.ca/progs/cpsc-ccsp/sc-cs/arm2_e.cfm The Arms of Canada- Description]</ref>

==Etymology==
The name Canada originated in 1535 by [[Jacques Cartier]] is based on the Iroquoian word "kanata", meaning "village."<ref name="Canadian_Encylopedia">[http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com/index.cfm?PgNm=TCE&ArticleId=A0001216 The Canadian Encyclopedia]</ref> By 1545, Europeans began referring to this region as Canada.

The name ''Dominion of Canada'' was adopted during [[British North America Act|confederation]] in 1867. The name continued until the [[Constitution Act]] of 1982, when "Canada" became the legal name. Canada Day, on July 1, used to known as be Dominion Day.

== Anthem==

The Canadian national anthem, '[[O Canada]]', was written by Sir Adolphe-Basile Routhier as a poem, to which music, composed by Calixa Lavallée, was later added, in 1880. The original was composed in French, and was first translated into English by Dr. Thomas Bedford Richardson of Toronto, Ontario, in 1906. However, it was not officially adopted as the national anthem until 1980.<ref>[http://www.pch.gc.ca/progs/cpsc-ccsp/sc-cs/anthem_e.cfm National Anthem: O Canada]</ref> It is important to distinguish between 'O Canada', the national anthem, and 'God Save The Queen', which is the Royal anthem, played as a salute to Her Majesty [[Queen Elizabeth II]] as Queen of Canada. The English lyrics and French lyrics have several notable differences, with the French version being slightly longer.

==Geography==
[[File:E-canada.jpg|thumb|450px|political map of Canada]]
At the time of Confederation, Canada was comprised of four provinces: Upper Canada (now Ontario), Lower Canada (now Québec), Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick. Since that time, six additional provinces have joined Canada or have been created. From west to east, the provinces are [[British Columbia]], [[Alberta]], [[Saskatchewan]], [[Manitoba]], [[Ontario]], [[Québec]], [[New Brunswick]], [[Prince Edward Island]], [[Nova Scotia]], and [[Newfoundland|Newfoundland and Labrador]]. Newfoundland was the last province to join Canada, in 1949. The provinces all elect a single (unicameral) legislature, headed by Premier, who is selected the same way as the Prime Minister. A Lieutenant-Governor represents the Queen, similar to the Governor General.
Canada has three territories: the [[Yukon Territory]], the [[Northwest Territories]], and [[Nunavut]],. Territories have only have those powers delegated to them by the federal government. Nunavut is the newest territory, created as a homeland for the Inuit people in 1999.

*Area: 9.9 million sq. km. (3.8 million sq. mi.); second-largest country in the world.
*Cities: Capital--Ottawa (pop. 1.1 million). Other major cities--Toronto (5.1 million), Montreal (3.6 million), Vancouver (2.1 million), Calgary (1.1 million), Edmonton (1.0 million), Quebec City (0.7 million), Winnipeg (0.7 million), Hamilton (0.7 million).
*Terrain: Mostly plains with mountains in the west and lowlands in the southeast.
*Climate: Temperate to arctic.
{{Clear}}

==People==
[[File:Canadian Aboriginal Festival.jpg|thumb|left|280px|Aboriginal leader at the 13th Annual Canadian Aboriginal Festival, 2006.]]
*Population (2008 est.): 33.1 million.
*Ethnic groups: British/Irish 28%, French 23%, other European 15%, Asian/Arab/African 6%, indigenous Amerindian 2%, mixed background 26%.
*Religions: Roman Catholic 43.6%, Protestant 29.2%, other Christian 4.3%, Muslim 2.0%, Jewish 1.1%, Buddhist 1.0%, Hindu 1.0% other 1.3%, none 16.5%.
*Languages: English (official) 57.8%, French (official) 22.1%, other 20.1% (including Chinese and aboriginal languages).
*Education: Literacy--99% of population aged 15 and over has at least a ninth-grade education.
*Health: Infant mortality rate--5.4/1,000. Life expectancy--77.7 yrs. male, 82.5 yrs. female.
*Work force (2008, 18.2 million): Goods-producing sector--25%, of which: manufacturing 15%; construction 6%; agriculture 2%; natural resources 2%; utilities 1%. Service-producing sector--75%, of which: trade 16%; health care and social assistance 11%; educational services 7%, accommodation and food services 7%; professional, scientific, and technical services 7%; finance 6%; public administration 5%; transportation and warehousing 5%; information, culture, and recreation 5%; other services 4%.

In 2005 the city of [[Vancouver]], [[British Columbia]] was voted "the world's best place to live".<ref> [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/4306936.stm Vancouver is "best place to live"]</ref>. Calgary has been named on several occasions the world's cleanest city.
Canada's population is increasingly urban, with 6 cities recording a population over 1 million ([[Toronto]], [[Montreal]], [[Vancouver]], [[Ottawa]]-Gatineau, [[Calgary]], [[Edmonton]]); these 6 cities represent over 45% of Canada's population. Canada is becoming an increasingly multicultural country, with most new immigrants settling in [[Toronto]], [[Montreal]] and [[Vancouver]]. [[Toronto]] is the world's most multicultural city, with 43% a member of a visible minority.<ref>http://www.canada.com/vancouversun/news/story.html?id=bb0fee45-b305-490a-b161-a21bcb1d7329&k=34160</ref>
[[Image:800px-Canada-satellite.jpg|right|thumb|200px|A satellite image of Canada.]]

====Culture====
Due to its colonial past, Canadian culture has historically been heavily influenced by British culture. Quebec maintains a French culture but has been largely cut off from Parisian trends for 250 years. Since 1800 Canadian culture has been greatly influenced by American culture, due to the proximity and the migration of people, ideas, and capital. Amidst this, Canadian culture has developed some unique characteristics, and many Canadian movies, authors, television shows, and musicians are equally popular in United States. Canadian culture has also been influenced by indigenous cultures, and by immigrant groups from around the world. It has the highest per capita immigration rate of any country in the world, with the percentage growing every day.<ref>http://www.statcan.ca/Daily/English/080402/d080402a.htm </ref>

Canada has two federal official languages, French and English. The province of Quebec has French as its official language, New Brunswick both French and English, making it the only bilingual province, and all other provinces English (although in some parts of Ontario French has special status). The territory of Nunavut has Inuktitut and Innuinaqtun as official languages in addition to French and English, the North West territories has eleven official languages, and the Yukon recognizes French and English.

Canada tends to reflect significantly more liberal social policies than the neighboring states of the northern U.S. One such example is the legalizing of [[gay marriage]] in June, 2005<ref>[http://www.cbc.ca/canada/story/2005/06/28/samesex050628.html CBC news article on passing of gay marriage law]</ref> The effects of these policies can be seen in comparing the suicide rates between Canada, and its closest, but more conservative neighbour, the US, where suicide is slightly less prevalent. <ref>[http://www.who.int/mental_health/prevention/suicide/suiciderates/en/ WHO: Suicide rates]</ref> It has been suggested that this slightly higher rate of suicide is induced by Seasonal Affective Disorder, a mental health disorder prevalent in northern countries due the the significantly reduced or non-existent daylight hours during the winter. Severe episodes of Seasonal Affective Disorder can cause suicidal thoughts. <ref>http://www.cmha.ca/bins/content_page.asp?cid=3-86-93-291</ref>

<center>
[[File:Toronto Canada 2009.jpg]]

Panorama of Toronto, Ontario.
</center>

===Sports===
See [[Canadian sports]]

Notable sports which are enjoyed throughout Canada include [[hockey]], [[curling]], [[lacrosse]], and [[football]]. Canada collected 18 medals in the Summer Olympics, more per capita than the United States but less than Australia. The country finished third overall in the Torino Winter Olympics, with a total of 24 medals, one less than the United States and 10 more than next-place [[Sweden]]. The most recent winter Olympics, was held in 2010 in Vancouver and Whistler. Canada finished third overall in medal count and was first in gold medal count with 14 gold. This was the first instance of Canada winning a gold medal on home ground and a moment of national pride.

====Cultural Style====
[[File:Canada Orchestra.jpg|thumb|Collegiate band.]]
Canadian culture puts stress on open-mindedness and tolerance of multiple viewpoints.<ref>See [http://www.telegraph.co.uk/global/main.jhtml?xml=/global/features/cucanada.xml&source=EMC-exp_01102008 National Cultural Profiles, a guide from the London ''Telegraph'' to the thinking patterns of all the world's major cultures]</ref> Canadian opinion shows a strong sense of wanting to be independent of the U.S., although their economy, society, and culture closely resembles the U.S., and most Canadians live a short drive from the border. Canada is usually contrasted as a "cultural mosaic" to the United States' "melting pot". Canadian and U.S. polls habitually confirm citizens of both countries view the relationship with each other in a highly positive light, and consider each other with a special respect afforded to common allies. <ref>http://www.freeonlineresearchpapers.com/canadian-cultural-mosaic-american-melting-pot</ref>
{{Clear}}

====Education====
[[File:Mount St Helens erupting at night by Paul Kane.jpg|thumb|330px|Mount St Helens erupting at night by Paul Kane, 1847.]]
Education in Canada is the responsibility of provincial and territorial governments; curriculum and marking schemes are completely removed from the control of the federal government. Each province uses a different method of administering education, with variation in the number of years and the curriculum. Quebec, for example has five years of secondary school finishing at the equivalent of grade 11 followed by two years of CEGEP, while Ontario has two years of kindergarten. Most provinces have kindergarten with school starting at age 5 going to grade 12 (age 17) as part of the public system. Some provinces have standardised provincial exams at the end of secondary school and/or at other designated grades.

Several provinces have two publicly funded school systems: public and private(e.g. Catholic). The constitution also guarantees education in one's first official language and, as such, all provinces and territories have both English and French language schooling. Additionally, private schools both religious and secular exist throughout the country. Alberta has an additional category, known as charter schools. Charter schools are schools that have been created in the community to surround a particular theme. They could be artistic, vocational, etc.

A source of comparison is the Human Development Index, a measurement of literacy, education, life expectancy and standard of living. Using this scale, Canada scores +.967 and the U.S. +950.

====Religion====
For the total population, in 2001, 12.9 million (44%) were Roman Catholic, with 8.7 million Protestants (29%). 4.9 million (16% ) report no religious affiliation (including atheists and agnostics). Other religions of significance in Canada include 580,000 Muslims; 330,000 Jews; 300,000 Buddhists; 297,000 Hindus; and 278,000 Sikhs.<ref> See [http://www40.statcan.gc.ca/l01/cst01/demo30a-eng.htm "Population by religion, by province and territory (2001 Census)"]</ref>

Catholicism formerly dominated Quebec until the "[[Quiet Revolution]]" of the 1960s, which has greatly reduced the power of the Catholic Church in Quebec, and its participation rates.
[[File:Gurion Hyman Jewish people of Canada.jpg|thumb|left|280px|Jewish people of Canada.]]
The proportion attending religious services on a regular basis has declined over the past 20 years. According to the General Social Survey (GSS), 21% of Canadians aged 15 and over reported they attended a religious service at least once a week in 2005, down from 30% in 1985.<ref> Colin Lindsay, "Canadians attend weekly religious services less than 20 years ago," [http://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/89-630-x/2008001/article/10650-eng.htm ''Statistics Canada'' (2008)]</ref> Between 1985 and 2004, the share of Canadians aged 15 and older reporting no religious affiliation increased by seven percentage points from 12% to 19%. 37% of Canadians who rarely attend formal services nevertheless regularly engage in personal religious practices. Of of those who had not attended any religious services over the previous year, 27% engaged in weekly religious practices on their own. Overall this group of adults who regularly engage in private religious practices, but infrequently or never attend religious services, represent, 21% of the adult population. This pattern was most prevalent among older Canadians.<ref> Warren Clark and Grant Schellenberg, "Who's religious?" [http://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/11-008-x/2006001/9181-eng.htm '"Statistics Canada'' (2008)]</ref>

Civil liberties organizations, the media, and some members of Parliament occasionally criticized federal and provincial human rights commissions and tribunals for their application of hate speech restrictions included in federal and provincial human rights acts, claiming that the commissions and tribunals at times limited free speech and expression, and religious rights. The commissions are required by law to process all complaints they receive.

A complaint against the editor of ''Catholic Insight'', alleging the magazine promoted hatred against homosexuals,remained before the Canadian Human Rights Commission at the end of 2008. The complainant alleged that he was upholding Catholic teaching on homosexuality in the magazine.

In June 2008 members of the Ontario legislature voted unanimously to maintain the tradition of reading the Lord's Prayer in the provincial legislature and to add a rotation of prayers from other major religious traditions and a moment of silent reflection for atheists. The vote was prompted by a proposal by Ontario's premier in February 2008 to discontinue the religious observance.

==Government==
The government of Canada is split into two orders, federal and provincial, as outlined by the BNA Act. Each has very specific responsibilities, with some overlap. For instance, universal health care is mandated by the Federal Government, but it is administered by the Provincial Governments. Neither level has supremacy over the other. The Federal Government is run out of [[Ottawa]], [[Ontario]]; the provincial governments are run out the ten provincial capitals.

The federal parliament is bicameral, including both a lower house - the [[Canadian House of Commons]] - and an upper house - the [[Canadian Senate]]. The parliamentary system is based on the British parliament. Members of Parliament represent specific geographical areas, generally chosen to have approximately equal population. A single member is elected from each on a [[first past the post]] system. The [[prime minister]] is usually the leader of the party with the most seats, though two or more parties may form a [[coalition]] to form a government.

The Senate is made up of senators appointed for life by the prime minister (acting on behalf of the Governor General).

In almost all cases, Acts of Parliament are created in the House of Commons. After passing three readings in the House of Commons, the bill is passed to the Senate. The job of the Senate is to further debate the proposed legislation, before passing it to the Governor General for Royal Assent. The Governor General is the official representative of Her Majesty [[Queen Elizabeth II]], Queen of Canada. The senators and the governor general are appointed positions by the sitting government. Senators are "lifetime" appointments and the Governor General will sit for, approximately, five yerars. The Prime Minister of Canada is the head of Government of Canada, acting as the Minister of the Crown, a practise inherited from the British system.
[[File:Stephen Harper Canada.jpg|thumb|left|220px|Prime Minister Stephen Harper.]]
All provincial legislatures are unicameral. The legislative process for provincial legislation is the same as for federal legislation, except that there is no Senate and the legislation is given royal assent by the provincial Lieutenants Governor, who represent the monarch at the provincial level.

From 1841 to 1844, the capital city of what would become Canada was located in [[Kingston|Kingston, Ontario]]. Subsequently the capital alternated between [[Toronto]] and [[Montreal]] until 1857, when the capital moved to [[Ottawa|Ottawa, Ontario]].
[[Image:Supreme Court of Canada.jpg|right|thumb|200px|The Supreme Court of Canada.]]
The 40th Canadian Federal General Election occurred on October 14, 2008.<ref>[http://www.cbc.ca/canada/story/2008/09/07/election-call.html "Vote set for Oct. 14"]</ref> Currently, the Prime Minister is The Right Honourable [[Stephen Harper]], a member of the [[Conservative Party of Canada]], while His Excellency [[David Lloyd Johnston]] is the Governor General. At present Canada is governed by a [[majority government]].<ref> http://www.cbc.ca/news/politics/canadavotes2011/</ref>

===Principal Government Officials===
*Head of State--Queen Elizabeth II
*Governor General--David Lloyd Johnston
*Prime Minister--Stephen Harper
*Minister of Foreign Affairs--Lawrence Cannon
*Ambassador to the United Nations--John McNee

===Politics===
On February 6, 2006, '''Stephen Harper,''' leader of the Conservative Party, became Canada's twenty-second prime minister, succeeding Liberal Paul Martin. A policy wonk from Alberta, Harper rose from the ranks of conservative political party staffers. In Parliament, he became Leader of the Opposition (2002-6). In 2003 he became head of the western-based Canadian Alliance. He was elected the first leader of the Conservative Party of Canada when it was created in 2003 through the merger of Harper's Canadian Alliance and Peter MacKay's Progressive Conservative Party. The January 23, 2006 election victory by the Conservative Party ended twelve years of Liberal Party rule that, in the end, was tainted by accusations of corruption and ethical missteps. In the federal election on October 14, 2008, the Conservatives won 38% of the vote and formed a second minority government with 143 seats in the House of Commons. The Liberals won 26% of the vote and 77 seats in the House of Commons. As the party with the second-largest number of seats, the Liberals form the "official opposition."

The Conservatives made unexpected gains in Quebec by winning ten seats in the January 2006 election, but failed to increase their number of seats in the province in the 2008 election. The separatist Bloc Quebecois (BQ) had a majority (49) of Quebec's 75 seats (the BQ runs candidates only in Quebec). The left-leaning New Democratic Party (NDP) had 37 seats, and two independents also sat in Parliament. Harper beat off a threatening no-confidence vote in late 2008 by warning that a government that included the BQ separatists --who want Quebec to break away from Canada--was hostile to Canada's national unity.

On May 2, 2011 there was another election. The outcome was very dramatic and ground breaking. The Liberals traditionally placing first or second were reduced to just 34 seats becoming the third party of Canada. This happened from vote splitting in Ontario in which the leftists split their votes between the Liberals and the NDP. The Bloc Quebecois were destroyed in Quebec as the so called "Orange Crush" of the NDP swept that province taking 59 out of 75 seats, leaving the BQ with a mere 4 seats. The NDP had their best results of all time and for the first time in history became the Official Opposition. The Conservatives came out on top though with 166 seats giving them their coveted majority.

===Policy===
[[File:Afghanistan Canadian army.JPEG|thumb|280px|Canadian army at Afghanistan.]]
Policy priorities of the Conservatives under Harper have remained fairly consistent since 2006: fighting the [[Recession of 2008]]; aiding the ailing [[Automobile]] industry; improving accountability and ethics in government; lowering taxes; fighting crime; reinvesting in defense; bolstering Canada's Arctic sovereignty; promoting national unity; and raising the profile of Canada's role abroad, through its combat mission in Afghanistan, contributions to stabilization in Haiti, and renewed partnership with Latin America. Harper has been friendly with the U.S., despite growing Canadian annoyance with restrictions on border crossings. Harper has been a strong supporter of [[NAFTA]], and works to increase Canada's oil exports to the U.S. He remains strong in the polls as Canada has suffered less from the worldwide [[Recession of 2008]] than the EU or the U.S.

[[Quebec]], with 23% of the national population, its distinctive French-language ("francophone") culture, angered the western provinces by wielding undue influence on the Federal Government and its repeated threats to national unity. Until Harper of Alberta became prime minister in 2006, the western provinces had denounced Ottawa's failure to appreciate the oil interests, Canada's major industry. Ontario complains that it pays out far more to the Federal Government than it gets back in revenues, while the Atlantic Provinces seek to assert greater control over fishing and mineral rights off their shores. The Federal Government ceded some power in a few areas of provincial jurisdiction, while seeking to strengthen the federal role in many other areas such as inter-provincial trade and the regulation of securities.

====National Unity====
Popular support for Quebec sovereignty appears to be on the wane, although Francophone pride in that province's unique cultural and linguistic identity remains very strong. Most Quebec voters seem to appreciate the economic benefits of remaining in the Canadian confederation and aim to advance their separate Francophone identity within the confederation. In a provincial election held on December 8, 2008, provincial Liberal Leader Jean Charest won a majority government. The separatist Parti Quebecois placed second.

====Quebec Secession Movement and the October Crisis====
[[File:Quebec1759.jpg|thumb|300px|left|Painting of British landing at Quebec, 1759.]]
There are trivial separatist movements lobbying for independence from Canada in British Columbia, Alberta, and Quebec. The only movement of real significance is in Quebec, where the province has twice voted on whether or not to separate from Canada, once in 1980 and again in 1995; the vote in 1995 failed by just 1 percent. On November 27, 2006, the Federal Government passed a motion declaring Québec a nation "within a united Canada". <ref> http://www2.parl.gc.ca/HousePublications/Publication.aspx?Pub=hansard&Language=E&Mode=1&Parl=39&Ses=1&DocId=2544166&File=0#OOB-1799206</ref>

This movement did reach a violent level however when the [[FLQ]] (Front de liberation du Quebec) undertook a series of letterbombings from 1963-1970[http://www.canadianencyclopedia.ca/index.cfm?PgNm=TCE&Params=A1ARTA0005880.com] The terror campaign reached a fever pitch when Pierre Laport and James Cross were kidnapped in their own homes by gun wielding FLQ members. [http://archives.cbc.ca/politics/civil_unrest/topics/101/] The government initiated a crackdown in which the War Measures Act was put in place. The only time where the measure has been enacted in peace time [http://www.trutv.com/library/crime/terrorists_spies/terrorists/flq/11.html]. The measure was widely supported by Canadians at the time. The action was short lived however as the members of the FLQ were tracked down and arrested. The body of Pierre Laport was discovered in the trunk of a car outside a Canadian military base. James Cross was released after intense negotiations with the government. The remaining members of the FLQ were either jailed or as a result of negotiations deported to Cuba.

===Taxation===
The average tax rate in Canada is higher than in the United States. In 2003, Canada's tax burden equals about 33.8% of GDP placing it in the middle of the G7 countries, with Japan lowest at 25.3% and France highest at 43.4% <ref>[http://www.fin.gc.ca/activty/faq1e.html#Taxation Department of Finance Canada: FAQs]</ref>. The US rate is roughly 25.6%; this discrepancy is consistent with the differing levels of social services which the governments funds. Canada also has managed to run without a budget deficit for a number of years.

Equalization payments, worth 11.7 billion Canadian dollars are made by the federal government to the provinces from richer provinces (currently Alberta, Newfoundland<ref>[http://www.cbc.ca/canada/newfoundland-labrador/story/2008/11/03/have-not.html]</ref>, and British Columbia) and the poorer provinces (Ontario, <ref>[http://www.cbc.ca/canada/story/2008/11/03/flaherty-ministers.html]</ref>, Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island, New Brunswick, Quebec, Manitoba and Saskatchewan) . This is to ensure that reasonably uniform standards of services and taxation are kept between the richer and poorer provinces.<ref>Budget 2007 [http://www.budget.gc.ca/2007/bp/bpc4e.html]</ref> These payments have not been without controversy as provinces begin to make more revenues from natural resources they do not want to give up the Equalization payments.

British Columbia has the lowest corporate tax rate in North America <ref>http://www.investbc.com/businessclimate.htm</ref>.

Canada also has a national sales tax, the Goods and Services Tax (GST) of 5% on all purchases. Some provinces add an additional percentage in the form of a Provincial Sales Tax (PST), or a combined Harmonized Sales Tax (HST) combining GST and the Provincial Sales Tax. Based on actual income, and a number of other factors, the government will refund GST/HST to eligible tax payers in quarterly installments on the fifth of the month in July, October, January, and April.

====Public Health Care====
[[File:Trudeau.jpg|thumb|Pierre Elliot Trudeau.]]
In 1984, the Federal Government, under the leadership of the Liberals and The Right Honourable [[Pierre Trudeau|Pierre Elliot Trudeau]], enacted the Canada Health Act. This act was based on the five principles of "universality, accessibility, portability, comprehensiveness, and public administration"<ref>[http://www.fin.gc.ca/FEDPROV/hise.html History of Canada Health and Social Transfer]</ref>. This public health care system is run in partnership by Health Canada and provincial Ministries of Health, who both contribute tax revenues. The federal government sets policy, while the provinces are responsible for actual administration. In 1995, the Canada Health and Social Transfer was created to replace existing systems for the transferal of tax funding to the provinces to administer social programs. The rationale behind the system is to allow all Canadians equal access to equal treatment, regardless of socio-economic status.

In Canada health care is frequently listed as top issue in election campaigns and is both a topic of frequent debate and a point of pride for many Canadians, Tommy Douglas the founder of medicare was, for example, voted the "Greatest Canadian" on a CBC television programme in 2004 <ref>
http://www.cbc.ca/greatest/</ref>.

The current state of Canada's public health care system is gathering increasing media attention due to rising wait times. [[David Gratzer]] wrote:
<blockquote>... government researchers have provided the best data on the doctor shortage, noting, for example, that more than 1.5 million Ontarians (or 12 percent of that province’s population) can’t find family physicians. <ref>[http://city-journal.org/html/17_3_canadian_healthcare.html The Ugly Truth about Canadian Healthcare] </ref></blockquote>
Most of the blame for the current state of affairs has been placed on successive government mismanagement. This represents a failure of the federal government to properly regulate the level of service being offered in the provinces. People regularly have to wait between four and eight months for surgeries. The median wait time for an MRI across Canada is 10.3 weeks in 2006.<ref>http://www.fraserinstitute.ca/shared/readmore.asp?sNav=nr&id=753</ref> In fact, former Prime Minister [[Jean Chretien|Jean Chrétien]] campaigned on a promise to shut down private MRI clinics because it creates a two tier system, regardless of the demand for more facilities.

In recent years, there has been suggestion from some lobby groups that Canada should adopt a two-tier health care system, while others have expressed strong opposition to this idea, including the federal government under the Liberal Party. Some argue that Canada already does have a two-tier health care system as the very wealthy can go to the United States for treatment. The argument for allowing private health care is twofold. The first reason is that competition may improve the quality of products and services, while the increase in options will allow those with the means to access private health care and may relieve some of the burden off the public system. Critics argue that health is a right, and that everyone should have access to the same standard of care.

Recently, in [[Québec]], a provincial judge has ruled that private health care providers must be allowed to compete with the government-run health care system.

==Defense==
As of the most recent cabinet shuffle, Conservative MP Peter MacKay has assumed the role of Minister of National Defense.
[[File:Canadian Army ambulance Medical Truck.jpg|left|250px]]
The [[Canadian Forces]] is comprised of the Regular Force and the Reserve Force. The Regular and Reserve Forces employ over 62,000 and 25,000 members respectively. While the various branches wear distinctive elemental uniforms (DEU), the Royal Canadian Navy, Canadian Army and the Royal Canadian Air Force were amalgamated in 1968 into one common command structure <ref>http://www.forces.gc.ca/site/about/index_e.asp</ref>.
The Canadian Forces are <ref>http://www.canadianally.com/ca/forces-cf-en.asp</ref>equipped with modern vehicles such as the Canadian-built LAV III, the German-built Leopard CII tanks and both the American-built CF-18 Hornet and CC-177 Globemaster III. The Canadian government spends about 17 billion Canadian dollars annually on defence<ref>[http://www.tbs-sct.gc.ca/est-pre/20072008/me-bd/part1/ME-030_e.asp http://www.tbs-sct.gc.ca/est-pre/20072008/me-bd/part1/ME-030_e.asp]</ref>.

The Conservative government has continued the trend of increased defense spending initiated by the Liberals, and have also taken steps to decrease red-tape preventing the troops from having the necessary equipment to keep them safe and effective. They have also taken steps to establish Canada's sovereignty over its arctic regions.

Over 3000 Canadian troops are currently deployed around the world, with over 2500 in [[Afghanistan]] where they are assisting in anti-terrorism and reconstruction operations. Another 500 are deployed to the Middle East where they are attached to a US-led coalition fleet and the Standing NATO Maritime Group 1 (SNMG1). These are prime examples of Canada's capability for interoperability with foreign military forces.

==Economy==
[[File:Urmas Paet Canadian Minister of International Trade Peter Van Loan, 2010.jpg|thumb|250px|The Minister of International Trade Peter Van Loan with Urmas Paet, Estonian Foreign Minister, 2010.]]
*GDP (2007): $1.266 trillion.
*Real GDP growth rate (2007): 2.7%.
*Per capita GDP (2007): $38,435.
*Natural resources: Petroleum and natural gas, hydroelectric power, metals and minerals, fish, forests, wildlife, abundant fresh water.
*Agriculture: Products--wheat, livestock and meat, feed grains, oil seeds, dairy products, tobacco, fruits, vegetables.
*Industry: Types--motor vehicles and parts, machinery and equipment, aircraft and components, other diversified manufacturing, fish and forest products, processed and unprocessed minerals.
*Trade: U.S. merchandise exports to Canada (2007)--$248.9 billion: motor vehicles and spare parts, industrial and electrical machinery, plastics, computers, chemicals, petroleum products and natural gas, and agricultural products. In 2007, 65% of Canada's imports came from the United States. U.S. merchandise imports from Canada (2007)--$313.1 billion: motor vehicles and spare parts, crude petroleum and natural gas, forest products, agricultural products, metals, industrial machinery, and aircraft. In 2007, 76% of Canada's exports went to the U.S.

===Business===

Canada has invested heavily in high-tech, export-oriented businesses, achieving major success in:
* Aerospace: Canada’s global share of aerospace activity has tripled in the last 20 years, making Canada the world’s 5th largest aerospace producer.
* Ag-biotech: Canadian firms’ revenues exceed those of US agro-based companies and are more than double those of Japan and the UK.
* Agri-food: Canada is the world’s fourth-largest exporter of agricultural products.
* Automotive: Canada is among the Top 10 automotive countries and the 3rd largest exporter of automotive products after Japan and the U.S. Most of the output goes to the U.S. market.
* Biotechnology: Canada is a leader in biotechnology—one of the top five countries in the world.
* Plastics: Canada is the world’s fourth largest exporter of moulds and eighth largest exporter of plastics processing machinery.
* see also [[Canadian railways]]
[[File:O-bad-for-canada.jpg|thumb|200px|Leading Canadian newsmagazine evaluates Obama's threat to Canada, June 29, 2009]]

Canadians worry that Obama's economic policies will damage Canada's economy, especially [[cap and trade]], the Buy America rule in the 2009 stimulus, and environmental hostility to Canadian oil produced from oil sands.

===Energy===
Canada has vast natural resources and is one of the world’s largest producers and exporters of energy. In 2005, Canada produced 19.1 quadrillion British Thermal Units (Btu) of total energy, the fifth-largest amount in the world. Since 1980, Canada’s total energy production has increased by 86%, while its total energy consumption has increased by only 48% during that period. Almost all of Canada’s energy exports go to the United States, making it the largest foreign source of U.S. energy imports: Canada is consistently among the top sources for U.S. oil imports, and it is the largest source of U.S. natural gas and electricity imports.<ref> See Energy Information Administration, [http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/cabs/Canada/Background.html "Canada" (2009 report)] </ref>

In 2005, the largest source of energy consumption in Canada was oil (31%), followed by hydroelectricity (25%) and natural gas (24%). Both coal (12%) and nuclear (7%) constitute a smaller share of the country’s overall energy mix. From 1985-2005, Canada’s overall energy mix has remained relatively stable, though hydroelectricity has decreased from 31%to 25%, as oil drilling is more popular than dam building. As of 2011, the trend has reversed, and Hydroelectricity is making 32 % of the country's electricity. The remainder is produced by oil, and renewables.

==History==
* See [[History of Canada]]

[[File:VC John Robert Osborn Statue Military of Canada Hong Kong.jpg|thumb|left|300px|Statue, Military of Canada, John Robert Osborn, VC, [[Hong Kong]]'s Park.]]

==Further Reading==
* '''See [[History of Canada]] for a more detailed bibliography.'''

* [http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com/index.cfm?PgNm=TCESubjects&Params=A1 ''Canadian Encyclopedia'' (2008)] reliable detailed encyclopedia, on-line free
* Artibise, Alan F. J., ed. ''Interdisciplinary Approaches to Canadian Society: A Guide to the Literature.'' McGill-Queen's U. Press, 1990. 156 pp.
* Bickerton, James, and Alain Gagnon. ''Canadian Politics'' (2004) 584 pages, textbook
* Blore, Shawn. ''Frommer's Canada'' (2004) 828 pages travel guide
* Campbell, Robert Malcolm et al. ''The Real Worlds of Canadian Politics: Cases in Process and Policy,'' (2004) 342 pages
* Conrad, Margaret, and Alvin Finkel. ''Canada: A National History.'' (2003), college textbook.
* DK Publishing. ''Canada'' (Eyewitness Travel Guides) by Hugh Thompson (2002) [http://www.amazon.com/Canada-Eyewitness-Travel-Guides-Publishing/dp/0789495619/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1249580319&sr=1-1 excerpt and text search]
* Hallowell, Gerald, ed. ''The Oxford Companion to Canadian History'' (2004) 1650 very good entries
* Johnson, William. ''Stephen Harper and the Future of Canada'' (2006) [http://www.amazon.com/Stephen-Harper-Future-William-Johnson/dp/0771095546/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1239348955&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Morton, Desmond. ''A Short History of Canada'' 5th ed (2001)
* ''National Atlas of Canada'' (1st ed. 1906; 2nd ed. 1915; 3rd ed. 1957; 4th ed. 1974; 6th ed. 1999 is electronic)
* Pammett, Jon H., and Christopher Dornan. ''The Canadian Federal Election of 2006'' (2006)
* Pryke, Kenneth G. and Walter C. Soderlund, eds. ''Profiles of Canada.'' (2003). 3rd edition of textbook
* Toye, William, ed. ''The Oxford Companion to Canadian Literature.'' (1983). 843 pp.
* Wells, Paul. ''Right Side Up: the Fall of Paul Martin and the Rise of Stephen Harper's New Conservatism'' (2006)
* Westhues, Anne. '' Canadian Social Policy: Issues and Perspectives,'' 2003

== External links ==
* [http://www.gc.ca/ Government of Canada]
* [http://www.parl.gc.ca/ Parliament of Canada]
* [http://www.pch.gc.ca/ Department of Canadian Heritage]
* [http://cansim2.statcan.gc.ca/cgi-win/cnsmcgi.pgm?Lang=Eng&SP_Action=Main-Principal&SP_Mode=2 Statistics Canada current data]
* [https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ca.html CIA World Factbook:Canada]
* [http://www.forces.ca The Canadian Forces], military
* [http://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/11-516-x/3000140-eng.htm ''Historical Statistics of Canada'' (1983)] The major historical data source.
*[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zwDvF0NtgdU Canadian National Anthem]
*[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kNlTwaPQQH4&feature=related Canadian National Anthem (French)]
*[http://www.asianramblings.com/travel/hong-kong/battle-hong-kong/canadian-heroes-china-john-robert-osborn/ Battle of Hong Kong - Canadian Heroes in China: John Robert Osborn, VC.]
=== Political Party Websites (Major) ===
* [http://www.conservative.ca Conservative Party of Canada]
* [http://www.liberal.ca Liberal Party of Canada]
* [http://www.ndp.ca New Democratic Party of Canada]
* [http://www.blocquebecois.org Bloc Québécois]
* [http://www.greenparty.ca Green Party of Canada]

=== Political Party Websites (Minor) ===
* [http://http://www.fpnpoc.ca/ First Peoples National Party of Canada]
* [http://www.partyofalberta.org/ Party of Alberta]
* [http://www.progressivecanadian.org/ Progressive Canadian Party]
* [http://www.mlpc.ca/ Marxist-Leninist Party]
* [http://www.canadianactionparty.ca/ Canadian Action Party]
* [http://www.peoplespoliticalpower.ca/ People's Political Power Party]
* [http://www.animalalliance.ca/ Animal Alliance Environment Voters Party]
* [http://www.westernblockparty.com/ Western Bloc Party]
* [http://www.chp.ca/en/index.html Christian Heritage Party of Canada]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Canada| ]]
[[Category:North American Countries]]
[[Category:NATO members]]
[[Category:Christian-Majority Countries]]
[[Category:Canadian History]]