Conservapedia - User contributions [en]

Property tax

2012-09-04T01:35:29Z

Joecyclist: Clarified the two aspects of property tax: land and buildings

'''Property tax''' is a tax levied on land and buildings ([[real estate]]) and on [[personal property]]. In the U.S. it is typically the main source of revenue for local government. High property taxes have the effect of depressing property values and ironically lowering tax revenues. There are two effects of this tax since the tax is levied both on the land value and the building value. The effect of the tax on land has the effect of lowering land cost, since it discourages land speculation, thus benefiting buyers and thereby making housing more affordable. The effect of the tax on the buildings has the effect of increasing costs and discouraging construction and job creation.

[[Category:Legal Terms]]

[[Category:Taxation]]

Hinduism

2012-08-22T22:57:18Z

Joecyclist: changed "an ancient hymns" to "an ancient collection of hymns"

[[Image:Hinduism.jpg|left|Hinduism]]
'''Hinduism''' is the fourth largest religion in the world and is the oldest among major religions.<ref>The largest being [[Christianity]], [[Islam]], Secular/Nonreligious/Agnostic/Atheist, and Hinduism, in that order[http://www.adherents.com/Religions_By_Adherents.html]</ref> Historians believe that it originated more than 5000 years ago.<ref>[http://hinduism.about.com/od/hinduism101/a/origin.htm Origin of Hinduism] (About.com)</ref> Hinduism is the first [[Dharmic religion]]. It is often referred to as "the religion of India;" about 800 million of the world's billion Hindus live in [[India]], so about 80 percent of Hindus are Indians.<ref>[http://www.censusindia.net/religiondata/Brief_analysis.pdf Census of India, religion data, brief analysis (PDF)]; "At the national level, of 1028 million population, 828 million (80.5 percent) have returned their religion as Hindus followed by 138 million (13.4 percent) as Muslims and 24 millions (2.3 percent) Christians. 19 million (1.9 percent) persons follow Sikh religion; 8 million (0.8 percent) are Buddhists and 4.2 million (0.4 percent) are Jains as per the 2001 Census. In addition to these, 6.6 million belong to ‘Other Religions and Persuasions’ including tribal religions which are not part of the six main religions stated above. About seven lakh (or 0.7 million) persons have not stated their religion."</ref>
According to a recent American survey, Hindus are the best educated and among the richest religious groups in the [[United States]].<ref>Hanerjee, Neela, [http://www.nytimes.com/2008/02/25/us/25cnd-religion.html?ei=5124&en=1f44cce06fd2c02a&ex=1361682000&adxnnl=1&partner=digg&exprod=digg&adxnnlx=1204020358-3HkVoV4zxeYh9vTOw6Tydw Americans Change Faiths at Rising Rate, Report Finds], New York Times, 25th February, 2008.</ref>
[[Image:Hinduism..jpg|240px|right|Shiva the Cosmic Dancer]]
Hindus believe in [[reincarnation]] and eventual communion with [[Brahman]] (God) as well as respect for all life forms. Their holy writings are known as the [[Vedas]]. Hindus outline the four goals of various humans (purusharthas) as: dharma (righteousness), artha (material success), kama (love/pleasure), and moksha (release from reincarnation/reunification with Brahman); above all four of these, in certain Hindu schools, is the goal of pure Love of God.

== Definition by law==

In 1966, the Supreme Court of [[India]] defined what Hinduism is for legal purposes:

1. Belief in the authority of the Vedas (an ancient collection of hymns to the gods, written in Sanskrit). The oldest collection of hymns in the Vedas is the Rig Veda, which was written between 1800 and 1300 B.C. The greatest Veda hymn is the “Bhagavat Gita,” a section in the Mahabharata concerning life’s never-ending spiritual journey towards perfection. Bhagavat Geeta is rendered as a dialogue between Shri [[Krishna]] (incarnation of [[Vishnu]]) and Arjuna (the great archer) in the middle of the battlefield.

2. Spirit of tolerance and willingness to understand and respect an opponent’s view.

3. Belief in world rhythms: long periods of creation, maintenance and dissolution follow each other in endless succession.

4. Belief in reincarnation (rebirth) and preexistence.

5. Belief that there are many ways to salvation.

6. Unlike most other religions, Hinduism is not defined by a specific set of philosophical concepts.

7. Belief in one god. Contrary to popular belief, Hinduism is not a [[polytheism|polytheistic]] religion. The Vedas, the primary Hindu holy scriptures states that there is only one [[God]] but can manifest in many forms. This is the reason why there are many deities. A common example used to explain this is that an individual can be called different names depending on the relationship has with another. A man can be a son to his parents, a nephew to his uncle, a father to his son, and a husband to his wife all at the same time. None of these different relationships suggest multiple people but rather different aspects of one person. The same is applied to God in Hinduism, which has no form and is infinite. Hindus may call God, Paratman (Supreme Soul), Brahmana (Eternal Spirit), or Ishvara (Supreme Lord). Deities have various names but represent aspects of God that manifest in the world. For example [[Agni]] (fire, Divine spark), Vayu (wind, or breath which could mean life force, [[Indra]] (in mythology king of gods but also refers to the senses such as vision, hearing, touch, taste), and [[Lakshmi]] (fortune).

8. Secular multiplicity and accommodating flexibility in spiritual practices.

Relations between Hinduism and Christianity have also been shaped by unequal balances of political power and cultural influence. Although communities of Christians have lived in South India since the middle of the 1st millennium, the great expansion of Indian Christianity followed the efforts of missionaries working under the protection of the British colonial government. <ref> [http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-261549/Hinduism Hinduism and Christianity] Encyclopædia Britannica. </ref>

Some state governments such as Gujrat, Madhya Pradesh have passed anti-conversion laws, attempting to prevent Hindus from being forced or coerced into converting to other religions such as [[Islam]] and [[Christianity]].<ref>[http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2003/24470.htm India: International Religious Freedom Report 2003] (U.S. Department of State)</ref>

For more on Hinduism, see [[World History Lecture Three]].

==Believer?==
In Hinduism, according to one classification, believers are categorized into four distinct categories, acording to their beliefs.
* Advaita Astika: Believer of God & Believer of Scripture
* Advaita Nastika: Believer of God & Non-believer of Scripture
* Dvaita Astika: Non-believer of God & Believer of Scripture
* Dvaita Nastika: Non-believer of God & Non-believer of Scripture

==Criticisms==
===Sati===
''Sati'' was a practice during the medieval period whereby still-in-love Hindu widows jumped into the funeral pyre for the their husbands(together till death). It was developed in a blatant misinterpretation of their scriptures. In modern times, family members of the husband forced widows to burn to death. Thus this practice was abolished in the 19th century by the efforts of Ram Mohan Roy and Lord William Bentinck.

===Caste system===
Hinduism also has a "caste by profession" or ''varna'' system. Traditionally Hindu society is divided into four castes:
*''Brahmin'' (the highest caste in Hinduism)
*''Kshatriya'' (the warrior or ruling class)
*''Vaishya'' (merchants)
*''Shudra'' (unskilled laborers and servants)

In ancient times, caste was determined by profession, and could be changed by changing career. As time passed on, both Caste and Profession became defined by birth. <ref>[http://western-hindu.org/2008/01/27/the-caste-system/ The Caste System]</ref>

''Shudras'' were the lowest caste and were denied of many rights in past. Apart from these four main castes, there was a new addition in the modern distortion of the caste system, as the lowest caste and without any rights, called the ''Dalit'' (Untouchables).<ref>[http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/hinduism/living/caste.shtml The caste system] ''BBC''</ref> Historically these ''dalits'' are the victims of discrimination by higher castes. Even today there are many reports of discrimination against ''dalits''.<ref>[http://indianchristians.in/news/content/view/1954/44/ Dalits face discrimination in southern Tamil Nadu] ''All India Christian Council''</ref><ref>[http://www.hrw.org/english/docs/2007/02/13/india15303.htm India: ‘Hidden Apartheid’ of Discrimination Against Dalits] ''[[Human Rights Watch]]''</ref>

==See Also==
* [[Dharma]]

== External links ==
* [http://www.spaceandmotion.com/Philosophy-Hinduism-Hindu.htm Hindu Religion]
* [http://western-hindu.org/2008/01/27/the-caste-system/ The Caste System]
* [http://ethics.wikia.com/wiki/Param_Atma Parmatma]

==Further reading==
* Johnson, W. J. ''A Dictionary of Hinduism'' (2009) [http://www.amazon.com/Dictionary-Hinduism-W-J-Johnson/dp/0198610254/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1238980666&sr=1-1 excerpt and text search]
* Knott, Kim. ''Hinduism: A Very Short Introduction'' (2000) [http://www.questia.com/read/62971675?title=Hinduism%3a%20A%20Very%20Short%20Introduction online edition]
* Shattuck, Cybelle. ''Hinduism'' (1999) [http://www.questia.com/read/103395975?title=Hinduism online edition]
* Sullivan, Bruce M. ''Historical Dictionary of Hinduism'' (1997)
* Werner, Karel. ''A Popular Dictionary of Hinduism'' (1997) [http://www.amazon.com/Popular-Dictionary-Hinduism-Dictionaries-Religion/dp/0700710493/ref=sr_1_3?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1238980666&sr=1-3 excerpt and text search]
* Zaehner, R. C. ''Hinduism'' (1966) [http://www.questia.com/read/23180604?title=Hinduism online edition]

==References==
<references/>

[[Category:Hinduism| ]]
[[Category:Dharmic Religions]]
[[Category:India]]
[[category:Indian History]]

Sharia law

2012-08-15T17:11:54Z

Joecyclist: Corrected "Muslim fornicates" to "Muslim fornicatriess"

'''Sharia''' or '''Shari'a''' is the body of [[Islamic]] law. The term means "way" or "path"; it is the legal framework within which public and some private aspects of life are regulated for those living in a legal system based on [[Muslim]] principles of jurisprudence. It is not actually part of the canonical [[Qur'an]]; that is to say, it is not believed to be the direct word of [[Allah]] by Muslims, but rather the interpretation of it.
[[File:Sharia.jpg|right|300px]]
Sharia deals with many aspects of day-to-day life, including politics, economics, banking, business law, contract law, sexuality, and social issues. Some Islamic scholars accept Sharia as the body of precedent and legal theory established before the 19th century, while other scholars view Sharia as a changing body, and include Islamic legal theory from the contemporary period.

There is not a strictly codified uniform set of laws pertaining to Sharia. It is more like a system of devising laws, based on the Qur'an, Hadith and centuries of debate, interpretation and precedent.

Before the 19th century, legal theory was considered the domain of the traditional legal schools of thought. Most [[Sunni]] Muslims follow Hanafi, Hanbali, Maliki or Shafii, while most [[Shia]] Muslims follow Jaafari (Hallaq 1997, Brown 1996, Aslan 2006).

Laws and practices under Sharia:

===Marriage laws===
* The Muslim man who is not currently a fornicator can only marry a Muslim woman who is not currently a fornicatress or a chaste woman from the people of the book.
* The Muslim woman who is not currently a fornicatress can only marry a Muslim man who is not currently a fornicator.
* The Muslim fornicator can only marry a Muslim fornicatress.
* The Muslim fornicatress can only marry a Muslim fornicator.
* Men can marry up to four wives, but only if they are treated equally. Those who do not consider themselves capable of maintaining just behavior between wives, should refrain from this practice.
* The woman cannot marry without the consent of her guardian. If she marries, her husband becomes her new guardian.
* The guardian may choose a suitable partner for a virgin girl, but the girl is free to contest and has the right to say 'no'.
* The guardian cannot marry the divorced woman or the widow if she didn't ask to be married.
* The number of husbands is limited to one.
* "Do not marry unless you give your wife something that is her right." It is obligatory for a man to give bride wealth (gifts) to the woman he marries.[5]

===Divorce laws===
* A woman who wishes to be divorced usually needs the consent of her husband. However, most schools allow her to obtain a divorce without her husband's consent if she can show the judge that her husband is mistreating her, failing to support her financially, or is impotent. If the husband consents she does not have to pay back the dower.{{fact}}
* Men have the right of unilateral divorce. A divorce is effective when the man tells his wife that he is divorcing her.
* Men may also reverse their decision and unilaterally reinstate the marriage. They can do this up to three times. On the third declaration of divorce, it is "permanent" and cannot be revoked. He can only remarry her after this time if she has been wed to another man and subsequently divorced.
* A divorced woman of reproductive age must wait three months before marrying again to ensure that she is not pregnant. Her ex-husband should support her financially during this period.{{fact}}
* Under certain circumstances (abuse, for instance), the wife may ask a judge to separate the couple.
* These are guidelines; Islamic law on divorce is different depending on the school of thought.

===Other laws===
* Dancing and other forms of "fun" entertainment are forbidden
* Music is sometimes banned in Sharia governments, notably by Islamist groups in [[Somalia]] and [[Afghanistan]].

===The penalty for theft===
*In accordance with the Qur'an and several hadith, theft is punished by imprisonment or amputation of hands or feet, depending on the number of times it was committed and depending on the item of theft.
===The penalty for adultery===
*In accordance with hadith, stoning to death is the penalty for married men and women who commit adultery. For unmarried men and women, the punishment prescribed in the Qur'an and hadith is 100 lashes.

==Nigeria==
In [[Nigeria]] in 2000, 12 northern states (Sokoto, Kebbi, Niger, Kano, Katsina, Kaduna, Jigawa, Yobe, Bauchi, Borno, Zamfara, and Gombe) reintroduced criminal law aspects of the Sharia legal system, which many Christians allege amounted to the adoption of a state religion. Moreover, the Nigerian Civil Liberties Organization contends that the establishment of a Commission for Religious Affairs in Zamfara State is tantamount to adopting Islam as a state religion.

Several northern states used state funds for the construction of mosques, teaching of Qadis (Shari'a court judges), and subsidies for the annual pilgrimage to Mecca. However, several other states, including northern states, apportioned funds to finance Christian pilgrimages to Jerusalem and to construct churches. States, whether predominantly Christian or Muslim, generally responded to the religious needs expressed by the majority of their residents.

The question of the constitutionality of the Shari'a legal system, as adopted in 12 northern states, has been debated at the Supreme Court. However, the court has not rendered a judgment on this issue, in part because of the often volatile relationships between religious groups.

== United States ==
Many financial institutions in the United States are using [[sharia-compliant finance]], or SCF. Problems presented by SCF include that it enables racketeering, antitrust activity, securities fraud, consumer fraud and material support for terror.<ref>David Yerushalmi, Esq., Civil Liability and Criminal Exposure for U.S. Financial Institutions and Businesses Engaged in Shariah-Compliant Finance (http://www.centerforsecuritypolicy.org/Modules/NewsManager/Center%20publication%20PDFs/Shairias%20Black%20Box%20(D%20Yerushalmi).pdf ).(Caution: large file).</ref> The Treasury Department has been co-sponsoring seminars on sharia-compliant finance with Harvard Law School's Islamic Finance Project in preparation for new projects to be undertaken by the department under [[President of the United States|President]] [[Barack Hussein Obama]]<ref>[http://www.christianworldviewnetwork.com/article.php/4162/Brannon-Howse/ COALITION TO STOP SHARIAH TO PROTEST U.S. TREASURY DEPARTMENT'S EFFORTS TO PROMOTE SEDITIOUS SHARIAH-COMPLIANT FINANCE], press release, November 5, 2008.</ref>

There is a very small population of polygamist Muslims in the United States.<ref>Pauline Bartolone, ''[http://newsinitiative.org/story/2007/07/27/for_these_muslims_polygamy_is For these Muslims, polygamy is an option]'', San Francisco Chronicle, August 5, 2007.</ref>

In the face of increasing support in [[atheist|some]] [[liberal|circles]] for the adoption of Sharia law in the United States (in the name of "[[multiculturalism]]"), Oklahoma voters overwhelmingly adopted an amendment to the state constitution putting an end to the use of Sharia law in their state courts. This amendment was quickly overturned by a [[Bill Clinton|Clinton]]-appointed federal judge.<ref>http://articles.cnn.com/2010-11-29/us/oklahoma.sharia.law_1_sharia-law-state-courts-international-law?_s=PM:US</ref>

==United Kingdom ==
In 2008, the [[Department for Work and Pensions]] in the [[United Kingdom]] revised its policies to provide for extra welfare benefits for men who have married more than one wife, as permitted by sharia law.<ref>Jonathan Wynne-Jones, [http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/newstopics/politics/1577395/Multiple-wives-will-mean-multiple-benefits.html Multiple wives will mean multiple benefits], ''Telegraph'', April 18, 2008.</ref>

==Further reading==
*'''Pendlebury, Richard''' ''Sharia UK: What exactly does it mean?'' [http://www.dailymail.co.uk/pages/live/articles/news/news.html?in_article_id=512973&in_page_id=1770 Daily Mail]. Accessed 9 February 2008
[[Category:Islam]]
*'''Barton, Fiona''', '''McBride, Alex''' ''A brutal beating and justice meted out in a humble back street cafe: how sharia law already operates in Britain'' [http://www.dailymail.co.uk/pages/live/articles/news/news.html?in_article_id=513218&in_page_id=1770 Daily Mail]. Accessed 9 February 2008

==Links==

*[http://www.actforamerica.org/ ACT! for America] Political organization opposed to sharia law, radical Islam, and allegations of [[Islamophobia]] aimed at conservatives.

== Notes ==
<references/>

Sharia law

2012-08-15T17:10:33Z

Joecyclist: Corrected "Muslim fornicates" to "Muslim fornicatriess"

'''Sharia''' or '''Shari'a''' is the body of [[Islamic]] law. The term means "way" or "path"; it is the legal framework within which public and some private aspects of life are regulated for those living in a legal system based on [[Muslim]] principles of jurisprudence. It is not actually part of the canonical [[Qur'an]]; that is to say, it is not believed to be the direct word of [[Allah]] by Muslims, but rather the interpretation of it.
[[File:Sharia.jpg|right|300px]]
Sharia deals with many aspects of day-to-day life, including politics, economics, banking, business law, contract law, sexuality, and social issues. Some Islamic scholars accept Sharia as the body of precedent and legal theory established before the 19th century, while other scholars view Sharia as a changing body, and include Islamic legal theory from the contemporary period.

There is not a strictly codified uniform set of laws pertaining to Sharia. It is more like a system of devising laws, based on the Qur'an, Hadith and centuries of debate, interpretation and precedent.

Before the 19th century, legal theory was considered the domain of the traditional legal schools of thought. Most [[Sunni]] Muslims follow Hanafi, Hanbali, Maliki or Shafii, while most [[Shia]] Muslims follow Jaafari (Hallaq 1997, Brown 1996, Aslan 2006).

Laws and practices under Sharia:

===Marriage laws===
* The Muslim man who is not currently a fornicator can only marry a Muslim woman who is not currently a fornicatress or a chaste woman from the people of the book.
* The Muslim woman who is not currently a fornicatress can only marry a Muslim man who is not currently a fornicator.
* The Muslim fornicator can only marry a Muslim fornicatress.
* The Muslim fornicates can only marry a Muslim fornicator.
* Men can marry up to four wives, but only if they are treated equally. Those who do not consider themselves capable of maintaining just behavior between wives, should refrain from this practice.
* The woman cannot marry without the consent of her guardian. If she marries, her husband becomes her new guardian.
* The guardian may choose a suitable partner for a virgin girl, but the girl is free to contest and has the right to say 'no'.
* The guardian cannot marry the divorced woman or the widow if she didn't ask to be married.
* The number of husbands is limited to one.
* "Do not marry unless you give your wife something that is her right." It is obligatory for a man to give bride wealth (gifts) to the woman he marries.[5]

===Divorce laws===
* A woman who wishes to be divorced usually needs the consent of her husband. However, most schools allow her to obtain a divorce without her husband's consent if she can show the judge that her husband is mistreating her, failing to support her financially, or is impotent. If the husband consents she does not have to pay back the dower.{{fact}}
* Men have the right of unilateral divorce. A divorce is effective when the man tells his wife that he is divorcing her.
* Men may also reverse their decision and unilaterally reinstate the marriage. They can do this up to three times. On the third declaration of divorce, it is "permanent" and cannot be revoked. He can only remarry her after this time if she has been wed to another man and subsequently divorced.
* A divorced woman of reproductive age must wait three months before marrying again to ensure that she is not pregnant. Her ex-husband should support her financially during this period.{{fact}}
* Under certain circumstances (abuse, for instance), the wife may ask a judge to separate the couple.
* These are guidelines; Islamic law on divorce is different depending on the school of thought.

===Other laws===
* Dancing and other forms of "fun" entertainment are forbidden
* Music is sometimes banned in Sharia governments, notably by Islamist groups in [[Somalia]] and [[Afghanistan]].

===The penalty for theft===
*In accordance with the Qur'an and several hadith, theft is punished by imprisonment or amputation of hands or feet, depending on the number of times it was committed and depending on the item of theft.
===The penalty for adultery===
*In accordance with hadith, stoning to death is the penalty for married men and women who commit adultery. For unmarried men and women, the punishment prescribed in the Qur'an and hadith is 100 lashes.

==Nigeria==
In [[Nigeria]] in 2000, 12 northern states (Sokoto, Kebbi, Niger, Kano, Katsina, Kaduna, Jigawa, Yobe, Bauchi, Borno, Zamfara, and Gombe) reintroduced criminal law aspects of the Sharia legal system, which many Christians allege amounted to the adoption of a state religion. Moreover, the Nigerian Civil Liberties Organization contends that the establishment of a Commission for Religious Affairs in Zamfara State is tantamount to adopting Islam as a state religion.

Several northern states used state funds for the construction of mosques, teaching of Qadis (Shari'a court judges), and subsidies for the annual pilgrimage to Mecca. However, several other states, including northern states, apportioned funds to finance Christian pilgrimages to Jerusalem and to construct churches. States, whether predominantly Christian or Muslim, generally responded to the religious needs expressed by the majority of their residents.

The question of the constitutionality of the Shari'a legal system, as adopted in 12 northern states, has been debated at the Supreme Court. However, the court has not rendered a judgment on this issue, in part because of the often volatile relationships between religious groups.

== United States ==
Many financial institutions in the United States are using [[sharia-compliant finance]], or SCF. Problems presented by SCF include that it enables racketeering, antitrust activity, securities fraud, consumer fraud and material support for terror.<ref>David Yerushalmi, Esq., Civil Liability and Criminal Exposure for U.S. Financial Institutions and Businesses Engaged in Shariah-Compliant Finance (http://www.centerforsecuritypolicy.org/Modules/NewsManager/Center%20publication%20PDFs/Shairias%20Black%20Box%20(D%20Yerushalmi).pdf ).(Caution: large file).</ref> The Treasury Department has been co-sponsoring seminars on sharia-compliant finance with Harvard Law School's Islamic Finance Project in preparation for new projects to be undertaken by the department under [[President of the United States|President]] [[Barack Hussein Obama]]<ref>[http://www.christianworldviewnetwork.com/article.php/4162/Brannon-Howse/ COALITION TO STOP SHARIAH TO PROTEST U.S. TREASURY DEPARTMENT'S EFFORTS TO PROMOTE SEDITIOUS SHARIAH-COMPLIANT FINANCE], press release, November 5, 2008.</ref>

There is a very small population of polygamist Muslims in the United States.<ref>Pauline Bartolone, ''[http://newsinitiative.org/story/2007/07/27/for_these_muslims_polygamy_is For these Muslims, polygamy is an option]'', San Francisco Chronicle, August 5, 2007.</ref>

In the face of increasing support in [[atheist|some]] [[liberal|circles]] for the adoption of Sharia law in the United States (in the name of "[[multiculturalism]]"), Oklahoma voters overwhelmingly adopted an amendment to the state constitution putting an end to the use of Sharia law in their state courts. This amendment was quickly overturned by a [[Bill Clinton|Clinton]]-appointed federal judge.<ref>http://articles.cnn.com/2010-11-29/us/oklahoma.sharia.law_1_sharia-law-state-courts-international-law?_s=PM:US</ref>

==United Kingdom ==
In 2008, the [[Department for Work and Pensions]] in the [[United Kingdom]] revised its policies to provide for extra welfare benefits for men who have married more than one wife, as permitted by sharia law.<ref>Jonathan Wynne-Jones, [http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/newstopics/politics/1577395/Multiple-wives-will-mean-multiple-benefits.html Multiple wives will mean multiple benefits], ''Telegraph'', April 18, 2008.</ref>

==Further reading==
*'''Pendlebury, Richard''' ''Sharia UK: What exactly does it mean?'' [http://www.dailymail.co.uk/pages/live/articles/news/news.html?in_article_id=512973&in_page_id=1770 Daily Mail]. Accessed 9 February 2008
[[Category:Islam]]
*'''Barton, Fiona''', '''McBride, Alex''' ''A brutal beating and justice meted out in a humble back street cafe: how sharia law already operates in Britain'' [http://www.dailymail.co.uk/pages/live/articles/news/news.html?in_article_id=513218&in_page_id=1770 Daily Mail]. Accessed 9 February 2008

==Links==

*[http://www.actforamerica.org/ ACT! for America] Political organization opposed to sharia law, radical Islam, and allegations of [[Islamophobia]] aimed at conservatives.

== Notes ==
<references/>

Durango

2012-08-15T16:08:28Z

Joecyclist: Corrected "captital" to "capital"

'''Durango''' is a state in central [[Mexico]]. Its capital is also called Durango.
[[category:Mexican States]]

Libertarianism

2012-08-15T15:50:49Z

Joecyclist: /* Libertarian Philosophy */ changed "person hood" to "personhood"

'''Libertarianism''' is a [[Political Philosophy|political philosophy]] that believes in minimizing or entirely eliminating government interventionism in many aspects of life including economic, personal, and in foreign policy matters. Libertarians tend to oppose the rules established by traditional marriage and religious values. The [[French]] [[term]] of ''[[Laissez faire|Laissez-Faire]]'', or ''let us do'', is a term that describes some aspects of the libertarian belief. <ref>"Libertarians are neither. Unlike Liberals or Conservatives, Libertarians advocate a high degree of both personal and economic liberty. For example, Libertarians advocate freedom in economic matters, so we're in favor of lowering taxes, slashing bureaucratic regulation of business, and charitable -- rather than government -- welfare. But Libertarians are also socially tolerant. We won't demand laws or restrictions on other people who we may not agree because of personal actions or lifestyles.

Think of us as a group of people with a "live and let live" mentality and a balanced checkbook." [http://www.lp.org/article_85.shtml]</ref> Libertarianism tends to emphasize a form of individual ''liberty'', and tends to support rights of private property.

The first systematic libertarian was [[Herbert Spencer]] (1820-1903), an English political philosopher whose books such as ''The Man Versus the State'' (1884) had a major impact in Europe and America in the late 19th century.<ref>Chris Matthew Sciabarra, "The First Libertarian," ''Liberty'' (Aug 1999) [http://www.nyu.edu/projects/sciabarra/essays/spencer.htm online] </ref> The chief American representative was [[Yale]] professor [[William Graham Sumner]].

[[Ronald Reagan]] stated in 1975, "I believe the very heart and soul of conservatism is libertarianism....The basis of conservatism is a desire for less government interference or less centralized authority or more individual freedom and this is a pretty general description also of what libertarianism is....Now, I can’t say that I will agree with all the things that the present group who call themselves Libertarians in the sense of a party say, because I think that like in any political movement there are shades, and there are libertarians who are almost over at the point of wanting no government at all or anarchy. I believe there are legitimate government functions. There is a legitimate need in an orderly society for some government to maintain freedom or we will have tyranny by individuals."<ref> see [http://www.reason.com/news/show/29318.html "Inside Ronald Reagan: A Reason Interview" (July 1975)]</ref>

== Libertarian Philosophy ==

Libertarianism is best summed up in the Non-Aggression Principle, which states that government (or "private police agencies" in the anarcho-capitalist variant) should only exist to protect life, liberty, and property from force and fraud.

Libertarianism is closely related to liberalism, if this word is interpreted according to its original meaning of [[classical liberal|classical liberalism]]. Libertarians in America tend to be [[liberal]] on social issues but [[conservative]] on economic issues. Libertarians generally oppose government regulation of drugs, prostitution, and marriage (including bans of [[same-sex marriage]]. The Libertarian Party officially supports legalized [[abortion]], however, libertarians themselves are divided on the issue, since government protection from force depends on the personhood of the unborn baby (or fetus). However, libertarians are uniformly opposed to government funding for abortions (such as through [[Planned Parenthood]]). Furthermore, they oppose restrictions on [[pornography]]. However, they also oppose [[universal health care]], [[taxes]] and the [[welfare state]]. They are strong supporters of [[school choice]], and oppose continuing the [[public school]] system. Some libertarians support [[school vouchers]], while others are skeptical due to the issue of government influence over [[private education]].

Libertarians support an expansive view of liberty as the proper basis for organizing civil society. They tend to define liberty as the freedom to do whatever one wishes up to the point that one's behavior begins to interfere with another's person or property through coercive means. At the point of interference, each party would become subject to certain principled rules for adjudicating disputes, generally accepting that one who has demonstrated a proven lack of respect for the rights of others should be subject to sanctions, including possible constraints on their freedom. They believe that liberty is the right of every individual.

Libertarians generally defend the ideal of freedom from the perspective of how little one is constrained by authority, i.e., how much one is allowed to do (also referred to as negative liberty). This ideal is distinguished from a view of freedom focused on how much one is able to do (also called positive liberty).

== Libertarian Factions ==

Libertarians tend to use the word "libertarian" (small "l") to refer to the philosophy, and "Libertarian" (capital "L") to refer to the party. Thus, more libertarians exist than members of the [[Libertarian Party]]. Two general factions exist in the libertarian movement. The first are those libertarians who apply the principles of right to person and property to an absolute. They believe that no person, group, or government is above the right to violate these two things. They thus believe that government itself is illegitimate because it violates person and property. These libertarians subscribe to [[anarcho-capitalism]], as first named by [[Murray N. Rothbard]]. They believe that law and security can be handled by private means in the free market. The other faction believes in a very limited government. They are often referred to as [[Minarchism|minarchists]]. Libertarian minarchists want the state to only enforce law and order but generally nothing else. [[Ayn Rand]] was a minarchist.

Libertarians tend to view liberalism as a philosophy advocating less government interference in private morality and more government control of business, and view conservatism as a philosophy advocating more government interference in private morality and less government control of business, while they view libertarianism as advocating less government control in all areas. However, there have been fusionist attempts to mix libertarianism and with social conservatism. This is noted in particular by [[paleolibertarianism|paleolibertarians]]. They believe that social conservatism is a natural entity in a free society, but do not believe that it can be enforced by state interventionism. For instance, they may personally oppose [[homosexuality]], but advocate for [[marriage privatization]] rather than believing that government should sanction "marriage" exclusively between a man and a woman.

Outside the United States, the term "libertarian" refers to [[Anarchism|left-wing anarchism]].

== Libertarian Thought in America ==

While there are libertarian factions within the [[Democratic]] and [[Republican]] [[parties]], neither party is particularly well aligned with libertarian thought. While the Republican Party sometimes adopts libertarian-sounding rhetoric of small government in economic affairs, many libertarians see it as being a force that has increased government interventionism in these affairs. Libertarians generally, for example, are opposed to the [[USA PATRIOT Act]], which they believe increases government power and removes protections on the liberty and privacy of the public. Most conservatives, on the other hand, view it as a necessary government program and believe security to be more important than personal liberty and privacy. Libertarians point out that such a view contradicts those of the founding fathers, such as Benjamin Franklin, who summarized it most eloquently, "Those who would give up Essential Liberty to purchase a little Temporary Safety, deserve neither Liberty nor Safety." Libertarians are also generally opposed to the [[Iraq War]], unlike the majority of conservatives.

While all libertarians agree in general on the principles of the desirability of maximizing individual liberty and avoiding excessive government interference with the operation of the free market, individual libertarians have opinions that differ wildly within these general principles.

The libertarian movement generally praises the [[United States Constitution]], regarding it as the proper scope of the national government. They believe that the Democratic and Republican parties have overstepped constitutional limits. Anarcho-capitalist libertarians, on the other hand, view the implementation of the constitution as the very reason the national government is the size it is today.

== Notable Libertarians ==
Libertarian-oriented writers include [[Frédéric Bastiat]], [[William Leggett]], [[John Stuart Mill]], [[Henry David Thoreau]], [[Lysander Spooner]], [[Herbert Spencer]], [[William Graham Sumner]], [[Carl Menger]], [[Ludwig von Mises]], Rose Wilder Lane, [[Albert Jay Nock]], [[Henry Hazlett]], and [[Isabel Paterson]].

The most influential libertarian of the 20th century was [[Milton Friedman]] (1912-2006), a leader of the [[Chicago School of Economics]].

*[[Ron Paul]], 1988 Libertarian Party and 2008 & 2012 Republican Party presidential candidate. Ron Paul is considered to be of the Constitutionalist and [[paleolibertarianism|paleolibertarian]] schools of libertarian thought.
*[[Gary Johnson]], businessman, former Governor of New Mexico (as a Republican), and 2012 Libertarian Party nominee.
*The psychiatrist Thomas Szasz, opponent of the therapeutic state and compulsory mental institutionalization.
*Nobel Laureate economists [[Milton Friedman]], [[F.A. Hayek]], [[Ronald Coase]], Gary Becker, James Buchanan, [[George Stigler]], and Vernon Smith.
*The novelist [[Ayn Rand]] advocated a philosophy of ''Objectivism'', embodying some libertarian thought, although differing from libertarianism in many ways. Some of her novels, such as ''Atlas Shrugged'', have become icons of some people in the libertarian movement, while others find her materialism and atheism incompatible with moral ethics and natural rights and law.
*[[Robert LeFevre]], significant in promoting libertarian philosophy in the 1950s and 1960s before it was a well-defined movement, with his "Freedom School" seminars on political and economic philosophy.
*[[Karl Hess]], speechwriter for [[Barry Goldwater]] credited with penning Goldwater's famous 1964 statement "Extremism in the defense of liberty is no vice". Hess later became a major figure in the Libertarian Party.
*[[Murray N. Rothbard]] was nicknamed "Mr. Libertarian." He brought to life the anarcho-capitalist movement. Rothbard was an economist of the [[Austrian School of Economics|Austrian School]].
*[[Samuel Edward Konkin III]], a significant figure in 1970s libertarianism, whose influence waned considerably after the rise of the Libertarian Party as he opposed political parties and voting as being against libertarian principles. He proposed instead a purely marketplace-based route to a free society, such as [[tax resistance]] and doing business "off the books".
*[[Robert A. Heinlein]], science fiction author, whose 1966 novel ''The Moon Is A Harsh Mistress'' was an influence on the movement.
*[[L. Neil Smith]], [[J. Neil Schulman]], and [[Brad Linaweaver]], science fiction writers.
*Several popular financial writers including [[Harry Browne]] and [[Howard J. Ruff]]. Browne would later run for President, twice, on the Libertarian Party ticket. Ruff declared his political philosophy as libertarian but as a socially conservative [[Mormon]] made an exception on issues like abortion and prostitution, where he disagreed with the libertarian view.
*[[Penn and Teller]], stage magicians turned libertarian evangelists preaching [[atheism]] and promoting libertarian philosophies, including controversial positions such as legalization of prostitution and drugs in their Showtime series, which sports a name that cannot for reasons of good taste be expressed here.
*The Canadian rock band [[Rush]], which has been together since 1968, often explores libertarian themes in their lyrics, like in "Free Will", "Tom Sawyer" and "Something for Nothing". Drummer and Lyricist [[Neil Peart]] claims to be a "left leaning libertarian." <ref>[http://www.theadvocates.org/celebrities/neil-peart.html]</ref>,
*Humorist Dave Barry, actor/comedian Drew Carey, actor Denis Leary, former MTV VJ Lisa "Kennedy" Montgomery, actor Kurt Russell, investigative reporter [[John Stossel]], and the late rocker Frank Zappa have all referred to themselves as being aligned with or openly supporting the Libertarian Party.
*Trey Parker and Matt Stone, the creators of [[South Park]], proclaimed that they are libertarians. South Park is vulgar, supports evolution, and often offends conservative positions like religion. However, they also make fun of liberals' positions such as political correctness and environmentalism. <ref>[http://www.reason.com/news/show/116787.html] Parker and Stone, Reason Magazine</ref>. The phrases "South Park Conservative" (the name of a book) and "South Park Republican" are used to describe the followers of these beliefs.
*[[Ed Clark]], the Libertarian Party's 1980 nominee for President. Clark obtained the highest popular vote percentage to date for a Libertarian candidate.

== External links ==
* [http://www.faqs.org/faqs/libertarian/faq/ Libertarian FAQ]
* [http://dmoz.org/Society/Politics/Liberalism/Libertarianism/ Open Directory libertarian links ]
* [http://chelm.freeyellow.com/black_index.html Black Libertarians]
* [http://libertarianwiki.org/Main_Page Libertarian Wiki]
* [http://www.l4l.org/ Libertarians for Life]
* [http://www.independent.org/ The Independent Institute]
* [http://www.mises.org/ Ludwig von Mises Institute]
* [http://www.fee.org/ Foundation for Economic Education]

== See also ==
* [[Herbert Spencer]]
* [[Democratic Freedom Caucus]]
* [[Republican Liberty Caucus]]
==Further reading==
* Boaz, David. '' The Libertarian Reader: Classic and Contemporary Writings from Lao Tzu to Milton Friedman'' (1998) [http://www.amazon.com/Libertarian-Reader-Contemporary-Writings-Friedman/dp/0684847671/ref=sr_1_18?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1223323253&sr=8-18 excerpt and text search]
* Doherty, Brian. ''Radicals for Capitalism: A Freewheeling History of the Modern American Libertarian Movement'' (2008) [http://www.amazon.com/Radicals-Capitalism-Freewheeling-American-Libertarian/dp/1586485725/ref=sr_1_2?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1259466101&sr=1-2 excerpt and text search]
* Hamowy, Ronald, ed. ''The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism'' (Sage, 2008), 644pp, sponsored by the Cato Institute; [http://www.sage-ereference.com/PublicBrowse.html Online at some academic libraries] also [http://books.google.com/books?id=yxNgXs3TkJYC&dq=intitle:Encyclopedia+intitle:of+intitle:Libertarianism&lr=&as_drrb_is=q&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=&as_maxm_is=0&as_maxy_is=&num=30&as_brr=0 excerpt and text search]
* Murray, Charles. ''What It Means to Be a Libertarian'' (1997) [http://www.amazon.com/What-Means-Libertarian-Charles-Murray/dp/0767900391/ref=sr_1_16?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1223322878&sr=8-16 excerpt and text search]
* Tilman, Rick. ''Ideology and Utopia in the Social Philosophy of the Libertarian Economists'' (2001) [http://www.amazon.com/Philosophy-Libertarian-Economists-Contributions-Economics/dp/0313315582/ref=sr_1_5?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1223322878&sr=8-5 excerpt and text search]

== References ==
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Property tax

2012-08-15T15:14:19Z

Joecyclist: Added separate explanations for effect of tax on land and tax on buildings

'''Property tax''' is a tax levied on land and buildings ([[real estate]]) and on [[personal property]]. In the U.S. it is typically the main source of revenue for local government. High property taxes have the effect of depressing property values and ironically lowering tax revenues. The effect of the tax on land has the effect of lowering land cost, since it discourages land speculation, thus benefiting buyers and thereby making housing more affordable. The effect of the tax on the buildings has the effect of increasing costs and discouraging construction and job creation.

[[Category:Legal Terms]]

[[Category:Taxation]]

Henry George

2012-08-10T15:56:16Z

Joecyclist: Added biblical bases of his ideas

'''Henry George''' (1839-1897) was an [[American]] [[economist]] who wrote one of the most widely read [[economic]] treatises in history: ''Progress and Poverty'' (1879). The thesis of the book is the proposal that all government revenue should come from a single tax on land. He argued that land, unlike other [[factors of production]], is supplied by nature and that [[rent]] is unearned surplus. The landless deserve their share of this surplus as a birthright, according to George.

Many of his ideas are based on the Mosaic law, especially the Law of Jubilee. <ref>http://whatwouldjesustax.com/docs/George_Moses.htm</ref>

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