Conservapedia - User contributions [en]

Kurds

2011-09-06T02:11:43Z

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The '''Kurds''' are an [[ethnic group]] living in a region which extends from the Taurus mountains, to the Zagros Mountains in [[Turkey]], [[Iran]], and [[Iraq]]. <ref>Appiah & Gates, ''The Dictionary of Global Culture'', Alfred A. Knopf, New York 1997</ref> They speak Kurdish, a language belonging to the Indo-Iranian branch of the [[Indo-European language]] family. Most Kurds strongly desire a homeland, and their [[nationalism]] has led to them being persecuted, especially in [[Turkey]], which is home to more Kurds than any other nation. Most Kurds are [[Sunni]] [[Muslims]]; [[Sufism]] (a spiritual and universalist movement founded by [[Hazrat Inayat Khan]] early in the 20th century) is widely practiced as well.

==References==
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[[Category:Ethnicities]]
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Center for Veterinary Medicine

2011-09-06T02:11:40Z

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An agency within the [[Food and Drug Administration]] that is responsible for assuring that all animal drugs, feeds (including pet foods), and veterinary devices are safe for animals, properly labeled, and produce no human health hazards when used in food-producing animals.

==References==
[http://www.fsis.usda.gov/Help/A-Z_Index/index.asp USDA Index]

[[Category:United States Government Agencies]]
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Sin

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''<small>For the mathematical function, see [[sine]]</small>.''

'''Sin''' is a failure to conform to the standard of [[morality]], or the state of the world that results from such failure.

== Meaning of sin ==
The root meaning of the English word ''sin'' is actually, "He is guilty as charged." This in turn implies that the person committing the offense knew, or ought to have known, that his act would ''be'' an offense before he committed it. This word actually captures the meaning that many religious traditions ascribe to sin.

The [[Greek]] word used in the original [[New Testament]] and translated "sin" in English is '''ἁμαρτία''' (''hamartia'') (whence ''[[hamartoma]]'' a malformation of [[cell]]s that are within their usual place in the body). This word captures the ''[[Christian]]'' meaning of sin much better. ''Hamartia'' means ''missing a target.'' Thus sin does not require bad intentions, but might result from a misunderstanding. This is not to say that the consequences are any less dire, however. It does mean that sin need not be intentional; it can be a knowing (but not intentional), reckless, or negligent act.

=== Required: a moral context ===
Sin, which is a moral failure, cannot exist in the absence of a code of [[morality]].

This is not to say that sin requires a context of ''divinity.'' The context in which sin ceases to have meaning is not [[atheism]] ''per se'' but rather [[amoral]]ism -- the doctrine that says that no person may properly define what is moral for another, because no two people will ever value the same thing to the same degree, or value the same collection of things by the same rank structure.

Whether any man ''ever'' lives without some form of moral code--even if that code is, "I denounce as sin any disagreement with myself or any attempt to stand in my way"--is [[Debate:Can any man live without some code of morality?|debatable]]. Nevertheless, without ''some'' form of moral context, sin has no meaning.

== Differing views of sin ==
==== Jewish ====
In [[Judaism]], and certainly in ancient practice, the preferred method of [[atonement]] for sin was blood [[sacrifice]]. The Book of [[Leviticus]] prescribed multiple animal sacrifices for atonement for various types of sin. But by far the most important atonement--on the Day of Atonement (''[[Yom Kippur]]'')--was made by the high priest of the [[Hebrew]] people (originally [[Aaron]], brother of [[Moses]]). This involved making a blood sacrifice, entering the [[Holy of Holies]] (in [[Latin]], ''sanctum sanctorum''), and sprinkling some of the blood from the sacrifice on the [[Ark of the Covenant]].

Animal sacrifice has not been part of Jewish practice since the destruction of the [[Temple of Jerusalem]] by the future Emperor [[Titus]] in 70 AD. But the [[Old Testament]] did not imply that animal sacrifice was the sole ''necessary'' measure for reconciliation. Simple repentance and prayer sufficed numerous times in Bible history.

Today, though animal sacrifices are no longer observed, Jews do observe ''Yom Kippur'' and other festivals related to repentance and reconciliation. But a movement now exists to attempt to regain exclusive control of the [[Temple Mount]] area in [[Jerusalem]], rebuild the Temple, and resume the burnt offerings, sin offerings, and guilt offerings prescribed in the [[Torah]].

In traditional Jewish thought, sin may be balanced by the good deeds one performs throughout life; the image of scales weighing one's life are prominent in folklore, similar to other ancient Middle Eastern religions such as ancient Egypt.

=== Christian views ===
''See also: [[Seven Deadly Sins]]''
==== Roman Catholic ====
Catholics classify sins as venial sin and mortal sin ([[grave sin]]).<ref> [http://www.saintaquinas.com/mortal_sin.html What is a Mortal Sin?]</ref>

[[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholic]] doctrine distinguishes [[original sin]], or the sin of [[Adam]], from ''personal'' sins, which require individual reconciliation with God. A personal sin may be ''mortal'' (a particularly grave matter that the perpetrator commits by deliberate intent) or ''venial'' (a less grave matter that could result from a misunderstanding). The RCC distinction is: Mortal sins cut a person off from the grace of God; venial sins do not, but still injure one's relationship to God. A mortal sin is defined in the Roman Catholic church as being any transgression (a) regarding a grave matter, (b) which was premeditated and (c) committed with full knowledge of its sinful nature. A venial sin is defined as any sin which does not fulfil all three conditions for a mortal sin.

The one mortal sin that, to a Catholic, would be unforgivable (because its successful commission leaves no opportunity for reconciliation later), is [[suicide]]. Beyond that, a person may receive reconciliation for a mortal sin by making [[confession]] to a [[priest]] and receiving the ceremony of [[absolution]]. One can reconcile from a venial sin by the sacrament of reconciliation, or by receiving communion, or [[Holy Eucharist]].

Roman Catholic doctrine historically included two other controversial holdings. One is [[purgatory]], a place where the soul must be held to "purge" him of all traces of sin before he can gain entry to [[heaven]]. Redemption from purgatory allegedly required the payment of a monetary fee by the deceased's relatives to the Church. The other is the [[indulgence]], a fee paid to the church by the perpetrator in advance. Indulgences have not been sold for centuries, and recently [[Pope]] [[Benedict XVI]] issued an [[encyclical]] casting doubt on the entire concept of purgatory.<ref>''Encyclical Letter, Spe Salvi, Of The Supreme Pontiff, Benedict XVI, To The Bishops, Priests, Deacons, Men And Women Religious, And All The Lay Faithful, On Christian Hope'' 30 November 2007 [http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/benedict_xvi/encyclicals/documents/hf_ben-xvi_enc_20071130_spe-salvi_en.html Vatican website] Accessed 3 January 2008.</ref>

===== Virgin Mary =====
Roman Catholic doctrine holds that not only was [[Jesus]] sinless, but so, also, was His Mother, [[Virgin Mary|Mary]]. The belief that the Virgin Mary was sinless at conception is called the [[Immaculate Conception]].

The [[Eastern Orthodox Church]] teaches that the Virgin Mary was born with Original Sin but that she was cleansed of this sin at the time of the Annunciation. The Church also teaches that by free will she did not commit any actual sin.

This doctrine, called ''Marianism'', is not ''universally'' held by all Catholics, however.

==== Anglican Communion ====
The [[Anglican Communion]], essentially the breakaway church of the [[United Kingdom]], retains the Roman Catholic tradition of confession and absolution of sin. But instead of an individual process, confession in Anglican churches is a group activity, and absolution is pronounced by a [[Minister (Protestant)|minister]] to the entire church-going group. Purgatory and indulgences have no place in Anglican doctrine.

==== Eastern and Oriental Orthodox ====

In the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]] there are no "categories" of sin as found in the Christian West. In the pre-Vatican II Roman Catholic catechism, sins were categorized as "mortal" and "venial." These categories do not exist in the Orthodox Church.

Orthodoxy believes that, while everyone bears the consequences of the first sin, the foremost of which is death, only Adam and Eve are guilty of that sin. Roman Catholicism teaches that everyone bears not only the consequence, but also the guilt, of that sin.

The Orthodox churches, including Greek Orthodox, Russian Orthodox, and Oriental Orthodox, differ little from [[Judaism]] in their holding of what sin is and how to reconcile it--except that animal sacrifices have never been part of Orthodox tradition.

==== The Reformation ====
In 1517, [[Martin Luther]] launched the [[Protestant Reformation]]. In his famous "95 theses" he asserted the doctrine of ''[[Sola Scriptura]]''--literally, "by Scripture only." Luther rejected out-of-hand most of the various categories of sin, and the elaborate rituals that attended its so-called reconciliation.

Sin, according to Luther, is any failure to observe God's commandments or other Godly precepts that one may determine from the New Testament. ''Reconciliation'' from sin was a ''private'' matter between God and any of His followers. A priest was ''not'' required, because that would imply that a human being, of whatever office, could stand in the place of God.

Salvation was strictly by faith and strictly by grace. Luther drew directly on the letters of [[Paul]] that addressed this very subject.

==== The Baptist Tradition ====
The [[Baptist|Baptists]] would generally agree with Luther. Like him, Baptists hold that sin is an act or omission that displeases God, and the state of being that the perpetrator falls into, and remains in until he has confessed this sin.

Baptist churches do not tend to engage in corporate, collective confessions. Rather, Baptist practice depends heavily on {{Bible ref|book=Matthew|chap=18|verses=15-20|version=KJV}}, which prescribes this procedure for the handling of sin that gives offense to a fellow believer:

# The aggrieved person, or the minister if the aggrieved person has asked him to, tries to encourage the perpetrator to repent. ''Repentance'' (Greek ''metanoia'') means a change of mind, or a change of heart.
# Failing that, whoever tried to talk to the perpetrator the first time, tries a second time and brings a witness.
# If this still does not bring repentance, and a cessation of the behavior, then and only then does the matter come before the entire church. The minister lays out the case, and puts the matter to a vote as to whether the offender ought to be allowed to remain in fellowship.

Not all Baptist churches practice this discipline, however. In such environments, sin is a matter between the offender and God (and the person or persons to whom the offender might have given offense). Some observers suggest that churches suffer when they fail to practice discipline as they should.

==== Fundamentalists ====
: ''Main Article: [[Sin (Fundamentalism)]]''

The above article is a comprehensive theory of sin, and its effects on the offender, on mankind as a whole, and on the entire world.

=== Islam ===
In [[Islam]], sin is very simple: anything that runs counter to the will of [[Allah]] (Arabic for [[God]]). In Islam, sin is simply an act, never a state of being.

Islam recognizes five gradations of sin, in order of severity:

# Mistakes.
# Immorality.
# Transgressions.
# Wickedness and depravity.
# Ascribing a partner to God. Thus this one special instance of [[blasphemy]] is held worse than any other sin a man can commit.

In Islam, permanent reconciliation cannot come in life. Instead, at death, a person has his "good deeds" measured against his "bad deeds" (sins). If the good outweighs the bad, then the person must walk a tightrope over a lake of fire in order to cross into heaven. Islam, however, offers one important exception: any person who dies ''in the course of an act that advances the Muslim faith'' gains automatic entry into heaven, regardless of any prior sins he has committed. The usual, and some Muslims (particularly the [[Wahhabism|Wahabbi]] sect) say the only, context for such a death is ''[[jihad]]'', literally ''holy [[war]]''. Furthermore, ''jihad'' is a ''physical'' war against non-adherents to Islam.

Other Muslims will say that ''jihad'' is not physical at all, but refers instead to a personal struggle that every Muslim must engage in continually against sin and the temptations thereto.

Still others state that two forms of Jihad are known:
# The greater Jihad, which is the internal struggle within a person against sin.
# The lesser Jihad, physical war against the infidel.

Those who make that distinction state that what they call the "lesser jihad" is practiced only by fanatical holders to Islam. A ''fanatic'' is one who holds to a set of beliefs uncritically--that is, without being willing to judge them. Since the [[September 11, 2001 attacks|World Trade Center incident]], a number of Muslims ''have'' begun a critical analysis of Muslim doctrine (both verbal and written) and the place of Islam in the civilized world. Whether those voices can find sufficent logical support in the written texts that define Islam is debatable.

=== Totalitarianism ===
[[Totalitarianism]] is a [[philosophy]] of [[government]] that holds that the government ''must'' have absolute authority over ''all'' aspects of life. [[Communist]]s are totalitarians, just as the [[Nazi]]s were.

Totalitarian authorities and their apologists have their concept of sin as well: it is anything that works against the government, or tries to thwart its goals. This is true even in a regime that is explicitly [[Atheism|atheistic]] in world view. Reconciliation generally requires recantation.

=== Environmentalism ===
[[Environmentalism]] also has a standard of value: ''the good of the planet as a wild system.'' Anything that harms the earth or makes it less wild is sinful in this system. The controversy surrounding [[global warming]] is, at root, a controversy about environmentalism as a source of moral values, and the allegation that humans in general, and/or some humans in particular, have transgressed against the environmentalist moral standard.

== Summary ==
Some religious and philosophical traditions consider sin to be a deliberate act; others say that it can be merely a mistake. Some say that reconciliation for sin requires a certain work; others that reconciliation is by the grace of [[God]] (or, for some, a cult leader), and still others (most notably the Objectivists) say that reconciliation is not required, except perhaps to any particular affronted person.

[[atheism|Atheists]] typically lack a concept of sin, and may even ridicule it. More generally, ''amoral'' individuals deny that sin exists, because sin presupposes a moral code that someone might breach.
==Further reading==
* Bretzke, James T. ''A Morally Complex World: Engaging Contemporary Moral Theology'' (2004) [http://www.amazon.com/Morally-Complex-World-Engaging-Contemporary/dp/0814651585/ref=sr_1_5?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1260605470&sr=1-5 excerpt and text search]
* Connolly, Hugh. ''Sin'' (2002) 168pp very brief history of sin in Christian theology; 120pp
* Paulson, Ronald. ''Sin and Evil: Moral Values in Literature''(2007) 403pp.; focus on Swift, Dickens, Hawthorne, Melville, James, Conrad, Faulkner, Greene, and Vonnegut

== References ==
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Aristarchus

2011-09-06T02:11:28Z

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'''Aristarchus''' (310-230 BC) was a [[Greece|Greek]] [[astronomy|astronomer]] who realized that the [[sun]] was larger than the [[earth]]. He was reported by [[Archimedes]] to have taught that the earth orbited a motionless sun<ref>The New American Desk Encyclopedia, Penguin Group, 1989</ref>, and that the sun is at the center of the [[universe]].

==References==
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Criminology

2011-09-06T02:11:26Z

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'''Criminology''' is the sociology-based study of [[crime]] and the [[criminal justice system]].

[[Category:Criminology]]
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P-adic values

2011-09-06T02:11:24Z

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Given a [[prime number]] p, the '''p-adic value''' is the function, denoted <math>v_p</math>, which takes as its argument a natural number n and returns the power of p appearing in the [[prime factorization]] of that number (equivalently, the highest power of p which divides n):
<math>v_p(x)=\max\{n:p^n\mid x\}</math>. For example, the p-adic values of 60 for p=2,3,5,7,11,13... are 2,1,1,0,0,0,.... One can associate with the p-adic valuation an absolute value <math>|n|_p=p^{-v_P(n)}</math>.

By convention, <math>v_p(0)=\infty</math> for all primes p.

Here are some important properties of p-adic values:

* p-adic values convert multiplication into addition (akin to the logarithm function): <math>v_p(xy) = v_p(x) + v_p(y)</math>.
* p-adic values satisfy the [[Archimedes|archimedean]] inequality: <math>v_p(x+y) \le \min\{v_p(x),v_p(y)\}</math>.
* Equality holds in the above so long as <math>v_p(x)\ne v_p(y)</math>.
* The [[Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic|fundamental theorem of arithmetic]] can be restated compactly using p-adic values: For all natural numbers n, <math>n=\prod_pp^{v_p(n)}</math> where p ranges over all primes.
* p-adic values can be extended to the rational numbers by defining <math>v_p(x/y)=v_p(x)-v_p(y)</math> for all integers x,y.
* Ostrowski's theorem states that the only absolute values on the field of rational numbers are the real [[absolute value]] (which some mathematicians view as the "prime at infinity") and the p-adic absolute values described above.

p-adic values are used most commonly in [[number theory]] and [[algebra]], especially in the theory of [[commutative]] [[ring]]s.

Completing the field of rational numbers with respect to p-adic values yiels the field of [[p-adic numbers]].

[[Category:Mathematics]]
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Penner-Teller solution

2011-09-06T02:11:22Z

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The '''Penner-Teller solution''' to [[global warming]]

* slight injections of sun-blocking particulates into the upper atmosphere would immediately erase all Earth warming of the past 200 years. Teller estimated the cost to achieve this cooler temperature at about $1 billion. A similar additional amount would probably be required annually to maintain the cooling. [http://hypsithermal.wordpress.com/2008/08/31/assault-on-reason-by-expert-al-gore/]

See:
*[[energy technology]]

[[Category:Global Warming]]
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William James

2011-09-06T02:11:20Z

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'''William James''' is considered the father of modern [[psychology]]. His ''The Principles of Psychology'' was published by [[Holt]] in 1890. <ref>http://www.des.emory.edu/mfp/jphotos.html</ref> One of his most famous works is ''The Varieties of Religious Experience''. He was the brother of the author [[Henry James]]. He is also known as one of the great three classic American pragmatists.

==Radical empericism==
Often overlooked, radical [[empiricism]] is school of thought that is a continuation of James's ideas. Later Jamesian scholars include the [[liberal]] theologians [[Henry Nelson Wieman‎]] and [[Bernard Eugene Meland‎]].

==References==

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