Conservapedia - User contributions [en]

Hypatia of Alexandria

2008-04-28T14:48:47Z

Kingrazorbill:

[[Image:Hypatia.jpg|right|thumb]]
'''Hypatia of Alexandria''' was a [[philosopher]], [[mathematician]], and [[astronomer]] living in the city of [[Alexandria]] from 370 A.D to 415 A.D. She wrote several treatises on conic sections and edited her father's work on [[Ptolemy]].

Much of her life is shrouded in mystique with sources not always in agreement and sometimes wildly contradictory, especially as regards the causes of her death. The main source about her has come from letters written by a devoted student.

Hypatia was a [[pagan]] who occupied the chair of Neo-Platonic study at Alexandria. She was blamed for a falling out between Cyric and Orestes in the city and was killed by a Christian mob during a riot.

Her works include:

* A Commentary on the Arithmetica of Diophantus
* A Commentary on the Conics of Apollonious

==Sources==

The New American Desk Encyclopedia, Penguin Group, 1989

==External Links==

* http://cosmopolis.com/people/hypatia.html
* [http://www.cosmopolis.com/alexandria/hypatia-bio-suda.html From the ancient writings, but a bit of a soap opera account]
* [http://www.womanastronomer.com/hypatia.htm Another very different account of her death]

[[Category:Philosophers]]
[[Category:Mathematicians]]
[[Category:Women]]

Apollo

2008-04-28T14:42:29Z

Kingrazorbill:

{{Disambiguation}}

The term Apollo may refer to:

*[[Apollo (mythology)]], the [[classical]] god of archery, medicine, healing, light, truth, and the plague.

*[[Project Apollo]], a series of human spaceflight missions undertaken by [[NASA]] using the Apollo spacecraft and Saturn launch vehicle, conducted during the years 1961 – 1974.

* [[Apollo Creed]], rival and later, friend of [[Rocky Balboa]]

Apollo

2008-04-28T14:42:04Z

Kingrazorbill:

Edvard Munch

2008-04-28T14:03:21Z

Kingrazorbill:

'''Edvard Munch''' lived from 1863 to 1944. He was a [[Norway|Norwegian]] post-impressionistic painter best known for the "''The Scream''" and leader of the Munch Bunch movement, an avant garde yoghurt collective.

{{DEFAULTSORT: Munch, Edvard}}
[[category:artists]]

Shotts

2008-04-28T13:56:14Z

Kingrazorbill:

[[Shotts]] is a town in [[Scotland]], situated between [[Glasgow]] and [[Edinburgh]]. The Shotts and Dykehead Pipe Band has won the World Pipe Band championship on a number of occasions.[http://www.sdcpb.com/] The town is most famous for its renowned luxury hotel HMP Shotts where visitors are invited to stay at the pleasure of the reigning British monarch. Many guests enjoy the experience so much the stay for long periods.

==External links==
*[http://www.shottshistorygroup.co.uk/ Shotts History Group] - A short history of Shotts
[[Category:Scottish Cities and Towns]]

Dundee

2008-04-28T13:53:06Z

Kingrazorbill:

'''Dundee''' is the fourth largest city in [[Scotland]], which lies on the northern bank of the [[River Tay|Firth of Tay]]. The population of the city is approximately 143,000. The economy of Dundee is said to be based on 'jam, jute journalism and giros', reflecting the presence of Keillors' marmalade and preserves factory, a long-established (but now defunct) trade in [[jute]] for sacking, and the continuing presence in the city of [[D.C. Thomson]], publishers of the [[Sunday Post]] and other newspapers, and a number of childrens' comics, including [[The BEANO]] and [[The Dandy]].

The ship which [[Scott of the Antarctic|Robert Scott]] took to Antarctica on his first voyage (the ''RRS Discovery'') was built in Dundee, and is now moored there, despite Scott's final and most famous expedition having largely been paid for by the people of [[Cardiff]] (from where the ill-fated crew set off).

On 28 December 1879 the [[Tay Rail Bridge]] collapsed whilst a train was crossing it, leading to the deaths of over 75 people on board. This event was commemorated in verse by the famous Scottish poet and tragedian [[William Topaz McGonagall]]

Controversy was caused in 2006 when Hasbro, the manufacturers of British versions of the board game [[Monopoly (board game)|Monopoly]], proposed replacing the Go to Jail square on the [[Aberdeen]] version with a Go to Dundee square. <ref>http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/scotland/tayside_and_central/5153684.stm</ref>. The plan was later dropped.<ref>http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/scotland/tayside_and_central/6069164.stm</ref>

==References==
<references/>

[[Category:Scottish Cities and Towns]]

Edinburgh

2008-04-28T13:50:05Z

Kingrazorbill: /* Famous natives of Edinburgh */

'''Edinburgh''' is the capital of [[Scotland]]. There is controversy over the origins of the name Edinburgh, which may derive from King Edwin of Northumbria (Edwins-burgh, burgh being the Northumbrian and later [[Scots]] word for fort or town) or from the earlier Gaelic 'Dún Eideann' (Fort of Edwin).

Edinburgh has a population of around half a million souls. It is the home of the [[Scottish Parliament]] at [[Holyrood]], the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland, and the world's largest annual arts festival, the [[Edinburgh International Festival]].

== The City and Its People ==

The city is also a centre of banking, commerce, education, and food processing. Natives of Edinburgh are called 'Edinburgers' or 'Buffties'.

== Education ==

There are three universities in Edinburgh - the University of Edinburgh (1583), Heriot Watt University (1965) and Napier University (1992). The city also has many notable private schools including Fettes College (the ''[[alma mater]]'' of [[Tony Blair]]), George Watson's College, George Heriot Academy, Castlebrae High School, Loreto College and the Marcia Blaine School for Girls. The school on which the [[St Trinian's]] films were based (St Trinnean's School) is also in Edinburgh.

== Sport ==

Edinburgh has two football clubs; Hibernian FC (nickname: the Hibees) and Heart of Midlothian FC (nickname: the Jambos). Both play in the Scottish Premier League. The famous author Sir [[Walter Scott]] wrote a novel ''The Heart of Midlothian'' based around the early days of the club and its founder [[Vladimir Romanov]], an exile from Tsarist [[Russia]] and boyfriend of the author [[Alexander Pushkin]]. [[Rugby]] is also popular, especially amongst the homosexual community.

== Culture ==

[[Paganism]] is still practiced in Edinburgh. Every 30th April sees the Pagan Beltane Fire Festival conducted on Calton Hill near Edinburgh City Centre where sacrifices (human and animal) are offered by the actor [[Christopher Lee]].<ref>http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/in_pictures/6610507.stm</ref>

== Famous natives of Edinburgh ==

*[[Sean Connery]] (actor)
*Irvine Welsh (author)
*Les McKeown (classical musician)
*[[James Connolly]] (trade unionist and Irish political agitator)
*Tam Paton (child psychologist)
*John Leslie (television presenter & relationship counsellor)
*[[Sir Arthur Conan Doyle]] (author)
*[[Robert Louis Stevenson]] (author)
*Ian Rankin (author)
*[[Walter Scott]] (author)
*James Clerk Maxwell (physicist)
*[[James Hutton]] (geologist)
*John Napier (mathematician)
*[[David Hume]] (philosopher)
*[[Adam Smith]] (philosopher and economist)
*[[Tony Blair]] (politician and entertainer)
*[[Malcolm Rifkind]] (politician)

==References==
<references/>

[[Category:Scottish Cities and Towns]]

Edinburgh

2008-04-28T13:48:45Z

Kingrazorbill: /* The City and Its People */

'''Edinburgh''' is the capital of [[Scotland]]. There is controversy over the origins of the name Edinburgh, which may derive from King Edwin of Northumbria (Edwins-burgh, burgh being the Northumbrian and later [[Scots]] word for fort or town) or from the earlier Gaelic 'Dún Eideann' (Fort of Edwin).

Edinburgh has a population of around half a million souls. It is the home of the [[Scottish Parliament]] at [[Holyrood]], the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland, and the world's largest annual arts festival, the [[Edinburgh International Festival]].

== The City and Its People ==

The city is also a centre of banking, commerce, education, and food processing. Natives of Edinburgh are called 'Edinburgers' or 'Buffties'.

== Education ==

There are three universities in Edinburgh - the University of Edinburgh (1583), Heriot Watt University (1965) and Napier University (1992). The city also has many notable private schools including Fettes College (the ''[[alma mater]]'' of [[Tony Blair]]), George Watson's College, George Heriot Academy, Castlebrae High School, Loreto College and the Marcia Blaine School for Girls. The school on which the [[St Trinian's]] films were based (St Trinnean's School) is also in Edinburgh.

== Sport ==

Edinburgh has two football clubs; Hibernian FC (nickname: the Hibees) and Heart of Midlothian FC (nickname: the Jambos). Both play in the Scottish Premier League. The famous author Sir [[Walter Scott]] wrote a novel ''The Heart of Midlothian'' based around the early days of the club and its founder [[Vladimir Romanov]], an exile from Tsarist [[Russia]] and boyfriend of the author [[Alexander Pushkin]]. [[Rugby]] is also popular, especially amongst the homosexual community.

== Culture ==

[[Paganism]] is still practiced in Edinburgh. Every 30th April sees the Pagan Beltane Fire Festival conducted on Calton Hill near Edinburgh City Centre where sacrifices (human and animal) are offered by the actor [[Christopher Lee]].<ref>http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/in_pictures/6610507.stm</ref>

== Famous natives of Edinburgh ==

*[[Sean Connery]] (actor)
*Irvine Welsh (author)
*Les McKeown (classical musician)
*[[James Connolly]] (trade unionist and Irish political agitator)
*Tam Paton (child psychologist)
*John Leslie (television presenter)
*[[Sir Arthur Conan Doyle]] (author)
*[[Robert Louis Stevenson]] (author)
*Ian Rankin (author)
*[[Walter Scott]] (author)
*James Clerk Maxwell (physicist)
*[[James Hutton]] (geologist)
*John Napier (mathematician)
*[[David Hume]] (philosopher)
*[[Adam Smith]] (philosopher and economist)
*[[Tony Blair]] (politician and entertainer)
*[[Malcolm Rifkind]] (politician)

==References==
<references/>

[[Category:Scottish Cities and Towns]]

Edinburgh

2008-04-28T13:48:22Z

Kingrazorbill: /* The City and Its People */

'''Edinburgh''' is the capital of [[Scotland]]. There is controversy over the origins of the name Edinburgh, which may derive from King Edwin of Northumbria (Edwins-burgh, burgh being the Northumbrian and later [[Scots]] word for fort or town) or from the earlier Gaelic 'Dún Eideann' (Fort of Edwin).

Edinburgh has a population of around half a million souls. It is the home of the [[Scottish Parliament]] at [[Holyrood]], the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland, and the world's largest annual arts festival, the [[Edinburgh International Festival]].

== The City and Its People ==

The city is also a centre of banking, commerce, education, and food processing. Natives of Edinburgh are called 'Edinburgers'or 'Buffties'.

== Education ==

There are three universities in Edinburgh - the University of Edinburgh (1583), Heriot Watt University (1965) and Napier University (1992). The city also has many notable private schools including Fettes College (the ''[[alma mater]]'' of [[Tony Blair]]), George Watson's College, George Heriot Academy, Castlebrae High School, Loreto College and the Marcia Blaine School for Girls. The school on which the [[St Trinian's]] films were based (St Trinnean's School) is also in Edinburgh.

== Sport ==

Edinburgh has two football clubs; Hibernian FC (nickname: the Hibees) and Heart of Midlothian FC (nickname: the Jambos). Both play in the Scottish Premier League. The famous author Sir [[Walter Scott]] wrote a novel ''The Heart of Midlothian'' based around the early days of the club and its founder [[Vladimir Romanov]], an exile from Tsarist [[Russia]] and boyfriend of the author [[Alexander Pushkin]]. [[Rugby]] is also popular, especially amongst the homosexual community.

== Culture ==

[[Paganism]] is still practiced in Edinburgh. Every 30th April sees the Pagan Beltane Fire Festival conducted on Calton Hill near Edinburgh City Centre where sacrifices (human and animal) are offered by the actor [[Christopher Lee]].<ref>http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/in_pictures/6610507.stm</ref>

== Famous natives of Edinburgh ==

*[[Sean Connery]] (actor)
*Irvine Welsh (author)
*Les McKeown (classical musician)
*[[James Connolly]] (trade unionist and Irish political agitator)
*Tam Paton (child psychologist)
*John Leslie (television presenter)
*[[Sir Arthur Conan Doyle]] (author)
*[[Robert Louis Stevenson]] (author)
*Ian Rankin (author)
*[[Walter Scott]] (author)
*James Clerk Maxwell (physicist)
*[[James Hutton]] (geologist)
*John Napier (mathematician)
*[[David Hume]] (philosopher)
*[[Adam Smith]] (philosopher and economist)
*[[Tony Blair]] (politician and entertainer)
*[[Malcolm Rifkind]] (politician)

==References==
<references/>

[[Category:Scottish Cities and Towns]]

East Lothian

2008-04-28T13:46:55Z

Kingrazorbill: /* Places of interest */

East Lothian is one of [[Scotland]]'s 32 local (unitary) council areas. It lies to the east of [[Edinburgh]] and Midlothian, and to the north of [[Borders]]. The administrative capital is Haddington (and it was formerly known as Haddingtonshire).

==History==
Originally inhabited by the primitive Gadgie People, East Lothian has since been overrun successively by Teuchters, Romans, Scots, Hibees, Saxons, and Normans. The Hun, though dominant in other parts of Scotland never really achieved a proper foothold in East Lothian.

==Major urban conurbations==

*[[Athelstaneford]]
*[[Cockenzie]]
*[[Dirleton]]
*[[Dunbar]]
*[[Drem]]
*[[East Fortune]]
*[[East Linton]]
*[[Gullane]]
*[[Haddington]]
*[[Longniddry]]
*[[Musselburgh]]
*[[North Berwick]]
*[[Prestonpans]]

==Places of interest==

*Aberlady Bay, a vast tidal mudflat and home to numerous species of rare birds, including waders, dippers, and doggers.
*Bass Rock, the world's largest gannet colony, with a lighthouse modelled on the Pharos at Alexandria.
*Dirleton Castle, the best preserved Saxon Motte and Baily castle north of the Tyne
*Gothenburg House in Prestonpans-home of the baroque bon viveur Baron Prestoungrange and his licentious court of hangers-on
*Museum of Flight, East Fortune, home of Concorde and the monument to the failed Scottish space program of the 1970s (including the remains of the 'Big Jessie' rocket)
*North Berwick Law, a dormant volcano that last erupted in 1746. The whale's jawbones at the summit were gifted by the King of Hawaii to Captain Morgan in 1843
*Tantallon Castle, whose curtain wall is one of the highest free-standing Mediaeval objects in Scotland.

[[Category:Scottish Counties and Regions]]

East Lothian

2008-04-28T13:46:34Z

Kingrazorbill: /* Places of interest */

East Lothian is one of [[Scotland]]'s 32 local (unitary) council areas. It lies to the east of [[Edinburgh]] and Midlothian, and to the north of [[Borders]]. The administrative capital is Haddington (and it was formerly known as Haddingtonshire).

==History==
Originally inhabited by the primitive Gadgie People, East Lothian has since been overrun successively by Teuchters, Romans, Scots, Hibees, Saxons, and Normans. The Hun, though dominant in other parts of Scotland never really achieved a proper foothold in East Lothian.

==Major urban conurbations==

*[[Athelstaneford]]
*[[Cockenzie]]
*[[Dirleton]]
*[[Dunbar]]
*[[Drem]]
*[[East Fortune]]
*[[East Linton]]
*[[Gullane]]
*[[Haddington]]
*[[Longniddry]]
*[[Musselburgh]]
*[[North Berwick]]
*[[Prestonpans]]

==Places of interest==

*Aberlady Bay, a vast tidal mudflat and home to numerous species of rare birds, including waders, dippers, and doggers.
*Bass Rock, the world's largest gannet colony, with a lighthouse modelled on the Pharos at Alexandria.
*Dirleton Castle, the best preserved Saxon Motte and Baily castle north of the Tyne
*Gothenburg House in Prestonpans-home of the baroque bon viveur Baron Prestoungrange andhis licentious court of hangers-on
*Museum of Flight, East Fortune, home of Concorde and the monument to the failed Scottish space program of the 1970s (including the remains of the 'Big Jessie' rocket)
*North Berwick Law, a dormant volcano that last erupted in 1746. The whale's jawbones at the summit were gifted by the King of Hawaii to Captain Morgan in 1843
*Tantallon Castle, whose curtain wall is one of the highest free-standing Mediaeval objects in Scotland.

[[Category:Scottish Counties and Regions]]

Arthur Askey

2008-04-28T13:22:06Z

Kingrazorbill:

'''Arthur Bowden Askey''' (1900-1982) - 'Big-Hearted Arthur' - was a British entertainer and comedian who was a popular star of radio comedy during the mid twentieth century known for his catchphrase "Where's me washboard?". Born in Liverpool, he joined the army in [[World War I]] and gained entertainment experience in army concert parties; after the war (and a stint working in local government) he became a music hall entertainer. In 1938 he got his big break with the radio comedy programme ''Band Waggon'' with Richard Murdoch: the conceit of the show was that Askey and 'Stinker' Murdoch lived in a flat on the roof of the BBC's Broadcasting House. He appeared in several films, and following the war also became a much-respected television performer, though never achieving the heights of success that he had achieved in radio. His catchphrases were "Hello Playmates" and "Aye thang yew" ('I thank you'); and he is also remembered for his rendition of ''The Bee Song'':

''Oh what a glorious thing to be,''

''A healthy grown up busy busy bee,''

''Whiling away''

''The passing hours''

''Pinching all the pollen''

''From the cauliflow'rs.''

== Sources ==
http://ingeb.org/songs/owhatagl.html

[[Category:British Comedy]]
[[Category:Entertainment]]

Knotty Ash

2008-04-28T13:20:54Z

Kingrazorbill:

'''Knotty Ash''' is a suburb of [[Liverpool]]. It derived its name from a gnarled ash tree which once stood in the village centre.<ref> For a full account of the details of Knotty Ash Church records see: http://www.genuki.org.uk/big/eng/LAN/KnottyAsh/</ref>. In the 1960s it was the home of the vicious Diddy Men, a gang led by the notorious Ken Dodd who attacked people viciously with his 'ticklestick'

===References===

<references/>

[[Category:Suburbs of Liverpool]]

Glasgow

2008-04-28T13:13:16Z

Kingrazorbill: /* Famous Glaswegians */

[[Image:Glasgow Coat of Arms.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Glasgow's Coat of Arms c.1866]]
'''Glasgow''' is the largest city in [[Scotland]]. Founded by its patron saint [[Kentigern]] (or [[Mungo]]) around 540 AD it stands on both sides of the River Clyde.

The official motto of the city is ''Floreat Glasgua'' ("Let Glasgow Flourish"), a shortened version of the inscription on a bell that was made for the Tron Kirk on Trongate in 1637. The steeple still exists as part of the Tron Theatre. The inscription read: ''Lord, let Glasgow flovrichse throvgh the preaching of thy word and praising thy name.'' In 1663 the motto became: ''Lord, let Glasgow flourish through the preaching of thy word'' and in 1699 this was shortened to its current version.

The population of the city itself has declined from over a million inhabitants in the pre [[World War II]] era to around 600,000 today. However the population of the Greater Glasgow conurbation is approximately 2.3 million, roughly half the population of [[Scotland]].

Inhabitants of Glasgow are called Glaswegians but are often referred to by other Scots as "Keelies" or "Weegies".

== Buildings ==

Glasgow has many fine public buildings, notably Glasgow Cathedral, a large [[Gothic]] edifice, the City Chambers, [[Kelvingrove Museum and Art Gallery]], the Great Eastern Hotel, the [[University of Glasgow|University]] at Gilmorehill, the Armadillo designed by [[Norman Foster]], the School of Art designed by [[Charles Rennie Mackintosh]] and the Beresford Hotel, an art deco building on Sauchiehall St. The Beresford Hotel has now been converted to apartments having previously been a Bachelor Officer's Quarters for the US military during WWII, a second period as a hotel, the headquarters of Imperial Chemical Industries (ICI) in Scotland and a student Hall of Residence (Baird Hall) for the University of Strathclyde

Despite a long and proud industrial heritage Glasgow is studded with green spaces and recreation grounds (the name Glasgow comes from the Brythonic ''glas cau'' for "green hollow"). The slums of the industrial era have now been cleared and regenerated with many fine new dwellings and green spaces.

The poet [[Sir John Betjeman]] described Glasgow as the "finest Victorian city in the world".

== History ==

The site of the founding of St Mungo's church by the Molendinar Burn, a stream which flows into the [[River Clyde]], is now the site of Glasgow Cathedral. <ref>http://www.glasgow.gov.uk/en/AboutGlasgow/History/Earliest+Beginnings.htm</ref>
[[Image:uk-glasgow.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Glasgow and the River Clyde viewed looking east]]
Glasgow is famous for shipbuilding - the [[Queen Mary]], the [[Queen Elizabeth]], the [[Queen Elizabeth 2]] and the [[Lusitania]] are just some of the famous vessels which were "Clyde-built". Other industries include [[whisky]] distilling.

== Education ==

Glasgow has three universities - the [[University of Glasgow]] founded in 1451, the [[University of Strathclyde]], the former Royal College, which was raised to university status in 1965 and [[Glasgow Caledonian University]], previously Glasgow College of Technology, which has been a university since 1992.

== The People ==

Glasgow's population consists mainly of Lowland Scots, Gaels from the [[Highlands]] and [[Hebrides]] and the descendants of immigrants from [[Ireland]]. The early twentieth century saw arrivals from [[Italy]], [[Russia]], [[Lithuania]] and [[Poland]]. Some of these immigrants from Eastern Europe were [[Jews]] escaping pogroms but many came to work in the coalmines and steelworks in and around the city. The latter half of the twentieth century saw a new wave of immigration from [[India]] and [[Pakistan]]. With the recent accession of Poland to the [[European Union]] the city has played host to many young Poles seeking work in the city.

==Sport and Religion ==

Football and religion are normally seen as being inseparable in Glasgow. Scottish Football has for decades been dominated by two Glasgow clubs; [[Glasgow Rangers FC]] and [[Celtic FC]] (often erroneously called Glasgow Celtic). These are the two clubs with the strongest links to the religious community. Rangers predominantly draw their support, and until the 1980's their players, from members of the [[Protestantism|Protestant]] churches while Celtic historically draw their support from the [[Roman Catholic]] community. Due to the fixture scheduling of the [[Scottish Premier League]] the two teams meet each other at 4 times a year. <ref>http://www.scotprem.premiumtv.co.uk/page/FixturesandResults/0,,10002,00.html</ref>

== Politics ==

Due to its heavy working class culture and tradition of heavy industry Glasgow has always been associated with [[socialism]] and until the late 1940s was the heartland of the [[Independent Labour Party]]. The [[Communist Party of Great Britain]] also had a notable following in the city. All MPs currently returned to the UK Parliament represent the Labour Party. The last Conservative to represent a Parliamentary seat in Glasgow was Teddy (later Sir Teddy) Taylor who represented Glasgow Cathcart from 1964 to 1979 when he lost he seat to [[John Maxton]]. This was the only Conservative loss in the 1979 election and fore-shadowed the collapse in support of Conservatism throughout Scotland during the premiership of [[Margaret Thatcher]].

In the Scottish Parliament all 9 of the 10 Constituency MPs represent the Labour Party. The only non-Labour MSP is the Scottish National Party's [[Nicola Sturgeon]] in Glasgow Govan. The Proportionately Elected Regional List MPs for Glasgow comprise four from the [[Scottish National Party]], one from the [[Liberal Democrats]], one from the [[Green Party]] and the Conservative, [[Bill Aitken]].<ref>http://www.glasgow.gov.uk/en/YourCouncil/Elections_Voting/Election_Results/ElectionScotland2007/SPElectionResults.htm</ref>

These elections for the Scottish Parliament were held on 3rd May 2007.

== Customs, Leisure and Culture ==

The city has a number of fine museums and galleries, notably the [[Kelvingrove Museum and Art Gallery]], the [[Burrell Collection]] in Pollok Park and the Museum of Religious Life which is situated in Provand's Lordship, the oldest house in Glasgow.

The Theatre Royal in Hope Street is the home of Scottish Opera and Scottish Ballet. The Royal Scottish National Orchestra has its home at the Royal Concert Hall in Buchanan Street. The Henry Wood Hall in Anderston is the base of the Scottish Chamber Orchestra.

Scottish Television and BBC Scotland both have studios on the south bank of the Clyde at Pacific Quay.

An annual event for the city is the ''Pride Scotia'' festival (colloquially called "Glasgay") organised by the city council for homosexuals, lesbians, bi-sexuals and transsexuals from Glasgow and farther afield. In 2006 it was the source of some controversy when several of the city's firefighters were disciplined for refusing to distribute fire safety leaflets to marchers in the event's parade. <ref>http://www.guardian.co.uk/firefighters/story/0,,1862956,00.html</ref> . Despite the concerns of the [[Roman Catholic]] [[Archbishop of Glasgow]] the left leaning local media supported the actions of [[Strathclyde Fire and Rescue]], the men's employers.

== Language ==

The official language is [[English]] although many of the city's inhabitants (traditionally the working class) employ the Glaswegian dialect which is a variant of [[Scots]]. This is sometimes colloquially known as the "Glesga Patter".

The ancient Celtic language [[Gaelic]] can often be heard in Glasgow, particularly in the West End where there is a sizable community from the [[Hebrides]].

With the recent wave of immigration from eastern Europe it is not unusual to hear the Polish tongue being spoken around the city.

== Famous Glaswegians ==

* [[Billy Connolly]] (Comedian and Actor)
* [[Charles Rennie Mackintosh]] (Architect)
* Sir William Burrell (Businessman, Philantropist who donated The [[Burrell Collection]] to the City)
* [[Gordon Jackson]] (Actor, The Great Escape, Upstairs Downstairs, The Professionals)
* [[Robbie Coltrane]] (Actor, Hagrid in the [[Harry Potter]] films)
* Billy Boyd (Actor, Pippin in the [[Lord of the Rings]] Trilogy)
* Jack McLean (journalist, author)
* Gerry McNee (journalist - "The Voice of a Football")
* Alan Cumming (actor)
* Ian and Janette Tough aka [[The Krankies]] (comedy duo),
* Johnny Beattie (Shakespearean actor)
* Frankie Miller (rock singer)
* Jim Kerr (rock singer with [[Simple Minds]])
* Stanley Baxter (comedian)
* Lulu (singer)
* Ian Brady (moors murderer)
* Andrew Agnew (Action Film Actor)
* [[Jerry Sadowitz]] (magician)
* Mark McManus (actor)
* Rikki Fulton (Comedian, half of the Francie & Josie comedy duo and creator of Rev I. M. Jolly)
* [[Angus Lennie]] (actor - ''The Great Escape'' and ''Crossroads'')
* [[John Martyn]] ( singer/songwriter)
* [[Claire Grogan]] (actor and singer)
* Pastor [[Jack Glass]] (preacher and ecumenist)
* [[Sir Alex Ferguson]] (football manager - [[Manchester United F.C.]])
*Rab C. Nesbitt (philosopher and style icon)

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

[[Category:Scottish Cities and Towns]]

Marathon (city)

2008-04-28T13:06:11Z

Kingrazorbill:

'''Marathon''' was the site of the [[Battle of Marathon]] during the [[Medic Wars]] in which [[Athens]] defeated [[Persia]] in 490 B.C. despite being outnumbered. A runner, named [[Pheidippedes]], was sent back to Athens, about 26 miles away, to inform the Athenians of the news, and dropped dead from exhaustion after making it back and telling the story. <ref>http://militaryhistory.about.com/od/grecopersianwars/a/marathon.htm</ref>

Today a '''marathon''' is a [[race (contest)|race]] for [[running|runners]]. The race length is 42,195 meters (about 26.2 miles). There are other derivatives as well. For instance a half-marathon race is 13 miles.

Marathon used to be the name for Snickers in the UK
==References==
<references/>

[[Category:Ancient Greece]]
[[Category:Sports]]

Thailand

2008-04-28T13:03:41Z

Kingrazorbill: /* Economy */

{{Country
|name =ราชอาณาจักรไทย <br/>''Ratcha Anachak Thai''
|map =Thailand rel 2002.jpg
|flag =Flag of Thailand.png
|arms =Thai Garuda emblem.png
|capital =Bangkok
|capital-raw =
|government =Constitutional Monarchy and Military Junta
|government-raw =
|language =Thai
|king =Bhumibol Adulyadej
|queen =
|monarch-raw =
|president =
|president-raw =
|chancellor =
|chancellor-raw =
|pm =Surayud Chulanont
|pm-raw =
|area =198,115 sq mi
|pop =62,828,706 (2006)
|pop-basis =
|gdp =$596.5 billion
|gdp-year =2006
|gdp-pc =$9,200
|currency =Bhat
|idd =
|tld =
}}
The '''Kingdom of Thailand''' is located in [[Southeast Asia]]. It is bordered by [[Cambodia]] and [[Laos]] to the east, [[Malaysia]] to its south, and [[Myanmar]] to its west. Its capitol is [[Bangkok]].

==People==
Thailand's population is relatively homogeneous. More than 85% speak a dialect of Thai and share a common culture. This core population includes the central Thai (33.7% of the population, including Bangkok), Northeastern Thai (34.2%), northern Thai (18.8%), and southern Thai (13.3%).

The language of the central Thai population is the language taught in schools and used in government. Several other small Thai-speaking groups include the Shan, Lue, and Phutai.

Up to 12% of Thai are of significant Chinese heritage, but the Sino-Thai community is the best integrated in Southeast Asia. Malay-speaking Muslims of the south comprise another significant minority group (2.3%). Other groups include the Khmer; the Mon, who are substantially assimilated with the Thai; and the Vietnamese. Smaller mountain-dwelling tribes, such as the Hmong and Mein, as well as the Karen, number about 788,024.
*Population (2006): 65.28 million. (Data based on Bank of Thailand.)
*Labor force (2006): 36.43 million.
*Annual population growth rate (2006 est.): 0.3%.
*Ethnic groups: Thai 89%, other 11%.
*Religions: Buddhist 94-95%, Muslim 4-5%, Christian, Hindu, Brahmin, other.
*Languages: Thai (official language); English is the second language of the elite; regional dialects.
*Education: Years compulsory--12. Literacy--94.9% male, 90.5% female.
*Health (2006 est.): Infant mortality rate--19.5/1,000. Life expectancy--68 years male, 75 years female.

The population is mostly rural, concentrated in the rice-growing areas of the central, northeastern, and northern regions. However, as Thailand continues to industrialize, its urban population--31.6% of total population, principally in the Bangkok area--is growing.

Thailand's highly successful government-sponsored family planning program has resulted in a dramatic decline in population growth from 3.1% in 1960 to less than 1% today. Life expectancy also has risen, a positive reflection of Thailand's efforts at public health education. However, the AIDS epidemic has had a major impact on the Thai population. Today, over 500,000 Thais live with HIV or AIDS--approximately 1.4% of the adult population. Each year, 25-30,000 Thais die from AIDS-related causes. Ninety percent of them are aged 20-49, the most productive sector of the workforce. The situation could have been worse; an aggressive public education campaign in the early 1990s reduced the number of new HIV infections from over 100,000 annually to around 15,000 annually now.

The constitution mandates 12 years of free education, however, this is not provided universally. Education accounts for 18.0% of total government expenditures.

Theravada Buddhism is the major religion of Thailand and is the religion of about 95% of its people. The government permits religious diversity, and other major religions are represented. Spirit worship and animism are widely practiced.

==Government and Political Conditions==
Thailand is a constitutional monarchy. From 1992 until the 2006 coup, the country was a functioning democracy with constitutional changes of government. Elections for a democratically elected government are expected in December 2007. The King has been given little direct power under Thailand's constitutions but is a symbol of national identity and unity. King Bhumibol (Rama IX)--who has been on the throne since 1946--commands enormous popular respect and moral authority, which he has used on occasion to resolve political crises that have threatened national stability.

Under the interim constitution in force between the 2006 coup and the enactment of the 2007 constitution, a unicameral National Legislative Assembly was appointed by the military leadership. Under the 1997 constitution, the National Assembly consisted of two chambers--the Senate and the House of Representatives. The Senate was a non-partisan body with limited legislative powers, composed of 200 directly elected members from constituent districts, with every province having at least one Senator. The House of Representatives had 500 members, 400 of whom were directly elected from constituent districts, and the remainder drawn proportionally from party lists. Under the 2007 constitution, the Senate will have 150 members, 76 of whom will be directly elected (one per district). The remaining 74 will be appointed by a panel comprised of judges and senior independent officials from a list of candidates compiled by the Election Commission. The House will have 480 members, 400 of whom will be directly elected from constituent districts and the remainder drawn proportionally from party lists.

Thailand's legal system blends principles of traditional Thai and Western laws. Under the 1997 constitution, the Constitutional Court was the highest court of appeals, though its jurisdiction was limited to clearly defined constitutional issues. Its members were nominated by the Senate and appointed by the King. The Courts of Justice have jurisdiction over criminal and civil cases and are organized in three tiers: Courts of First Instance, the Court of Appeals, and the Supreme Court of Justice. Administrative courts have jurisdiction over suits between private parties and the government, and cases in which one government entity is suing another. In the current environment, the court system is largely the same, with the exception that the Constitutional Court has been replaced by a Constitutional Tribunal composed of judges from the other high courts. In Thailand's southern border provinces, where Muslims constitute the majority of the population, Provincial Islamic Committees have limited jurisdiction over probate, family, marriage, and divorce cases.

Thailand's 76 provinces include the metropolis of greater Bangkok. Bangkok's governor is popularly elected, but those of the remaining provinces are career civil servants appointed by the Ministry of Interior.

===Principal Government Officials===
*Chief of State--King Bhumibol Adulyadej
*Interim Prime Minister--Surayud Chulanont
*Interim Minister of Foreign Affairs--Nitya Pibulsongram
*Ambassador to the U.S.--Krit Garnjana-Goonchorn
*Ambassador to the UN--Laxanachantorn Laohaphan

===Foreign Relations===
Thailand's foreign policy includes support for ASEAN in the interest of regional stability and emphasis on a close and longstanding security relationship with the United States.

Thailand participates fully in international and regional organizations. It has developed increasingly close ties with other ASEAN members--Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore, Brunei, Laos, Cambodia, Burma, and Vietnam--whose foreign and economic ministers hold annual meetings. Regional cooperation is progressing in economic, trade, banking, political, and cultural matters.

Thailand continues to take an active role on the international stage. When East Timor gained independence from Indonesia, Thailand, for the first time in its history, contributed troops to the international peacekeeping effort. As part of its effort to increase international ties, Thailand has reached out to such regional organizations as the Organization of American States (OAS) and the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE). Thailand has contributed troops to reconstruction efforts in Afghanistan and Iraq.

==Economy==
The Thai economy is export-dependent, with exports of goods and services accounting for 68.6% of GDP in 2006. Thailand's recovery from the 1997-98 Asian financial crisis relied largely on external demand from the United States and other foreign markets. The Thaksin government took office in February 2001 with the intention of stimulating domestic demand and reducing Thailand's reliance on foreign trade and investment. From 2001-2006, the Thaksin administration embraced a "dual track" economic policy that combined domestic stimulus with Thailand's traditional promotion of open markets and foreign investment. Weak export demand held 2001 GDP growth to 2.2%. Beginning in 2002, however, domestic stimulus and export revival fueled a better performance, with real GDP growth at 7.1% in 2003 and 6.3% in 2004. In 2005, the economy decelerated to a 4.5% annual GDP growth rate due to the tsunami catastrophe, drought, and violence in the three southernmost provinces. For 2006, the rebound of production in agriculture and manufacturing coupled with soaring numbers of tourists increased GDP by 5.0% (year-on-year).
*GDP (2006): $206 billion.
*Annual GDP growth rate (2006): 5.0%.
*Per capita income (2006): $3,155.
*Unemployment rate (2006): 1.5% of total labor force.
*Natural resources: Tin, rubber, natural gas, tungsten, tantalum, timber, lead, fish, gypsum, lignite, fluorite.
*Agriculture (8.9% of GDP): Products--rice, tapioca, rubber, corn, sugarcane, coconuts, soybeans.
*Industry: Types--tourism, textiles, garments, agricultural processing, cement, integrated circuits, jewelry, electronics, and auto assembly.
*Trade (2006): Merchandise exports--$128.2 billion: textiles and footwear, fishery products, computers and parts, electronics, electrical appliances, jewelry, rice, tapioca products, integrated circuits, rubber, automobiles, mail-order brides. Major markets--ASEAN, U.S., EU, Japan, China, and Singapore. Merchandise imports--$125.9 billion: machinery and parts, petroleum, iron and steel, chemicals, vehicles and parts, jewelry, fish preparations, electrical appliances, fertilizers and pesticides. Major suppliers--Japan, ASEAN, Middle East, China, EU, and U.S.

Before the financial crisis, the Thai economy had years of manufacturing-led economic growth--averaging 9.4% for the decade up to 1996. Relatively abundant and inexpensive labor and natural resources, fiscal conservatism, open foreign investment policies, and encouragement of the private sector underlay the economic success in the years up to 1997. The economy is essentially a free-enterprise system. Certain services--such as power generation, transportation, and communications--are state-owned and operated, but the government is considering privatizing them in the wake of the financial crisis. The timetable for privatization of some state-owned enterprises, however, has slipped due to resistance from labor unions and parts of civil society. Despite the resistance, some firms were successfully privatized, such as Airports of Thailand (renamed from Airport Authority of Thailand), PTT Public Company Limited (renamed from the Petroleum Authority of Thailand), and MCOT (renamed from Mass Communication Authority of Thailand).

The Royal Thai Government welcomes foreign investment, and investors who are willing to meet certain requirements can apply for special investment privileges through the Board of Investment. To attract additional foreign investment, the government has modified its investment regulations. In a reaction to former Prime Minister Thaksin's sale of his telecommunications company to foreign investors, the interim Thai government introduced amendments to its Foreign Business Act during 2007 which would apply greater restrictions on the ability of non-Thais to own or control businesses operating in the Thai services sector.

The organized labor movement remains weak and divided in Thailand; less than 2% of the work force is unionized. In 2000, the State Enterprise Labor Relations Act (SELRA) was passed, giving public sector employees similar rights to those of private sector workers, including the right to unionize.

Roughly 40% of Thailand's labor force is employed in agriculture (data based on Bank of Thailand.) Rice is the country's most important crop; Thailand is the largest exporter in the world rice market. Other agricultural commodities produced in significant amounts include fish and fishery products, tapioca, rubber, corn, and sugar. Exports of processed foods such as canned tuna, canned pineapples, and frozen shrimp are on the rise.

Thailand's increasingly diversified manufacturing sector is the largest contributor to growth. Industries registering rapid increases in production included computers and electronics, furniture, wood products, canned food, toys, plastic products, gems, and jewelry. High-technology products such as integrated circuits and parts, hard disc drives, electrical appliances, vehicles, and vehicle parts are now leading Thailand's strong growth in exports. The appreciation of the Thai baht to the U.S. dollar relative to other regional currencies during the 2006-2007 period has dampened some of Thailand's exports, and export sector margins have been affected. To help arrest baht appreciation, the Bank of Thailand applied controls on the import of capital into the country in December 2006. Nevertheless, the baht continued to appreciate.

The United States is Thailand's largest export market and third-largest supplier after Japan and China. While Thailand's traditional major markets have been North America, Japan, and Europe, economic recovery among Thailand's regional trading partners has helped Thai export growth (21.6% in 2004, 15.0% in 2005, and 17.4% in 2006, and 16.6% in the first half of 2007). Due to domestic political uncertainty and concern about government's economic policies, Thai domestic demand and private investment were flat from early 2006 and remained flat at mid-2007.

Machinery and parts, vehicles, electronic integrated circuits, chemicals, crude oil and fuels, and iron and steel are among Thailand's principal imports. The moderation in import levels (7.0% increase in 2006 versus 26.0% in 2005) reflects the low confidence of both consumers and investors.

Thailand is a member of the World Trade Organization (WTO) and the Cairns Group of agricultural exporters. Tourism contributes significantly to the Thai economy (about 6%). Tourist arrivals, which declined in 2005 due to the tsunami catastrophe, recovered strongly in 2006.

Bangkok and its environs are the most prosperous part of Thailand, and the barren northeast is the poorest. An overriding concern of successive Thai Governments, and a particularly strong focus of the Thaksin government, has been to reduce these regional income differentials, which have been exacerbated by rapid economic growth in and around Bangkok and the financial crisis. The government has tried to stimulate provincial economic growth with programs such as the Eastern Seaboard project and the development of an alternate deep-sea port on Thailand's southern peninsula. It also is conducting discussions with Malaysia to focus on economic development along the Thai-Malaysian border.

Although the economy has demonstrated moderate positive growth since 1999, future performance depends on continued reform of the financial sector, corporate debt restructuring, attracting foreign investment, and increasing exports. Telecommunications, transportation networks, and electricity generation showed increasing strain during the period of sustained economic growth and may pose a future challenge. Thailand's growing shortage of engineers and skilled technical personnel may limit its future technological creativity and productivity.

==History==
Southeast Asia has been inhabited for more than half a million years. Archaeological studies suggest that by 4000 BC, communities in what is now Thailand had emerged as centers of early bronze metallurgy. This development, along with the cultivation of wet rice, provided the impetus for social and political organization. Research suggests that these innovations may actually have been transmitted from there to the rest of Asia, including to China.

The Thai are related linguistically to Tai groups originating in southern China. Migrations from southern China to Southeast Asia may have occurred in the 6th and 7th centuries. Malay, Mon, and Khmer civilizations flourished in the region prior to the arrival of the ethnic Tai.

Thais date the founding of their nation to the 13th century. According to tradition, in 1238, Thai chieftains overthrew their Khmer overlords at Sukhothai and established a Thai kingdom. After its decline, a new Thai kingdom emerged in 1350 on the Chao Praya River. At the same time, there was an equally important Tai kingdom of Lanna, centered in Chiang Mai, which rivaled Sukhothai and Ayutthaya for centuries, and which defines northern Thai identity to this day.

The first ruler of the Kingdom of Ayutthaya, King Rama Thibodi, made two important contributions to Thai history: the establishment and promotion of Theravada Buddhism as the official religion--to differentiate his kingdom from the neighboring Hindu kingdom of Angkor--and the compilation of the Dharmashastra, a legal code based on Hindu sources and traditional Thai custom. The Dharmashastra remained a tool of Thai law until late in the 19th century. Beginning with the Portuguese in the 16th century, Ayutthaya had some contact with the West, but until the 1800s, its relations with neighboring kingdoms and principalities, as well as with China, were of primary importance.

After more than 400 years of power, in 1767, the Kingdom of Ayutthaya was brought down by invading Burmese armies and its capital burned. After a single-reign capital established at Thonburi by Taksin, a new capital city was founded in 1782, across the Chao Phraya at the site of present-day Bangkok, by the founder of the Chakri dynasty. The first Chakri king was crowned Rama I. Rama I's heirs became increasingly concerned with the threat of European colonialism after British victories in neighboring Burma in 1826.

The first Thai recognition of Western power in the region was the Treaty of Amity and Commerce with the United Kingdom in 1826. In 1833, the United States began diplomatic exchanges with Siam, as Thailand was called until 1938. However, it was during the later reigns of Rama IV (or King Mongkut, 1851-68), and his son Rama V (King Chulalongkorn (1868-1910), that Thailand established firm rapprochement with Western powers. The Thais believe that the diplomatic skills of these monarchs, combined with the modernizing reforms of the Thai Government, made Siam the only country in South and Southeast Asia to avoid European colonization.

In 1932, a bloodless coup transformed the Government of Thailand from an absolute to a constitutional monarchy. King Prajadhipok (Rama VII) initially accepted this change but later surrendered the kingship to his 10-year-old nephew. Upon his abdication, King Prajadhipok said that the obligation of a ruler was to reign for the good of the whole people, not for a select few.

Although nominally a constitutional monarchy after 1932, Thailand was ruled by a series of military governments interspersed with brief periods of democracy. Following the 1932 revolution that imposed constitutional limits on the monarchy, Thai politics was dominated for a half-century by a military and bureaucratic elite. Changes of government were effected primarily by means of a long series of mostly bloodless coups. Thailand was occupied by the Japanese during the Second World War until Japan's defeat in 1945.

Beginning with a brief experiment in democracy during the mid-1970s, civilian democratic political institutions slowly gained greater authority, culminating in 1988 when Chatichai Choonavan--leader of the Thai Nation Party--assumed office as the country's first democratically elected Prime Minister in more than a decade. Three years later, yet another bloodless coup ended his term.

Shortly afterward, the military appointed Anand Panyarachun, a businessman and former diplomat, to head a largely civilian interim government and promised to hold elections in the near future. However, following inconclusive elections, former army commander Suchinda Kraprayoon was appointed Prime Minister. Thais reacted to the appointment by demanding an end to military influence in government. Demonstrations were violently suppressed by the military; in May 1992, soldiers killed at least 50 protesters.

Domestic and international reaction to the violence forced Suchinda to resign, and the nation once again turned to Anand Panyarachun, who was named interim Prime Minister until new elections in September 1992. In those elections, the political parties that had opposed the military in May 1992 won by a narrow majority, and Chuan Leekpai, a leader of the Democratic Party, became Prime Minister. Chuan dissolved Parliament in May 1995, and the Thai Nation Party won the largest number of parliamentary seats in subsequent elections. Party leader Banharn Silpa-Archa became Prime Minister but held the office only little more than a year. Following elections held in November 1996, Chavalit Youngchaiyudh formed a coalition government and became Prime Minister. The onset of the Asian financial crisis caused a loss of confidence in the Chavalit government and forced him to hand over power to Chuan Leekpai in November 1997. Chuan formed a coalition government based on the themes of prudent economic management and institution of political reforms mandated by Thailand's 1997 constitution.

In January 2001, telecommunications multimillionaire Thaksin Shinawatra and his Thai Rak Thai (TRT) party won a decisive victory on a populist platform of economic growth and development. In the February 2005 elections, Thaksin was re-elected by an even greater majority, sweeping 377 out of 500 parliamentary seats. Soon after Prime Minister Thaksin's second term began, allegations of corruption emerged against his government. Peaceful anti-government mass demonstrations grew, and thousands marched in the streets to demand Thaksin's resignation. Prime Minister Thaksin dissolved the Parliament in February 2006 and declared snap elections in April. The main opposition parties boycotted the polls, and the judiciary subsequently annulled the elections. A new round of elections was anticipated in November 2006.

On September 19, 2006, a group of top military officers overthrew the caretaker administration of Thaksin Shinawatra in a non-violent coup d'etat. Soon thereafter, the coup leaders issued an interim constitution and appointed Surayud Chulanont as interim Prime Minister for the approximately one-year period until a new constitution could be written and ratified and new democratic elections held. On August 19, 2007, Thai voters approved a new constitution in a national referendum. The government subsequently announced that general elections would take place December 23, 2007.

Since the end of the Second World War in 1945, Thailand has had very close relations with the United States. Threatened by communist revolutions in neighboring countries such as Vietnam, Cambodia, and Laos, Thailand actively sought U.S. assistance to contain communist expansion in the region. Thailand also has been an active member in multilateral organizations like the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) and the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) forum.

== References ==
1. Wile, Dr. Jay L. ''Exploring Creation With Geography.'' Anderson: Apologia Educational Ministries, Inc. 2007 <br>
2. [https://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/th.html CIA world factbook]
<references/>

{{License|license = This work is in the [[public domain]] in the United States because it is a work of the United States Federal Government under the terms of Title 17, Chapter 1, Section 105 of the US Code.| source = [http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/2814.htm]}}

[[Category:Asian Countries]]

Kazakhstan

2008-04-28T12:38:25Z

Kingrazorbill: /* Natural Resources */

[[Image:Kz-map.gif|right|thumb|300px|Map of Kazakhstan]]
'''Kazakhstan''' (Republic of Kazakhstan), is a country in Central [[Asia]]. Its capital is Astana. It is a former member of the [[USSR]]. With an area of approximately 2.7 million square kilometers, Kazakhstan is the ninth largest country in the world. It is a landlocked nation, bordering [[China]], [[Russia]], [[Kyrgyzstan]], [[Uzbekistan]], [[Turkmenistan]], and the [[Caspian Sea]]. The [[Aral Sea]] is also partially contained within Kazakhstan's borders, and the country's government has made recent efforts to save the Aral Sea from environmental disaster [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/6538073.stm].

==People==
*Population (July 2006 est.): 15.2 million--down from 16.2 million in 1989; second most-populated country in Central Asia.
*Population growth rate (2006 est.): 0.3%. Population distribution: 56.4% of population lives in urban areas. Twenty-six cities had approximate populations of more than 50,000 in 1999--Astana (capital) 529,000, Almaty (former capital) 1.2 million, Karaganda 440,000, Shymkent 370,000, Taraz 340,000, Ust-Kamenogorsk 310,000, Pavlodar 300,000.
*Large scale emigration of ethnic Russians, Germans, and Ukrainians accounts for most of the population decrease since 1989.
*Population density: 14.5 people per sq. mi. (U.S. density 2000: 79.6 people per sq. mi.).
*Ethnic groups (2002): Kazakh 55.8%, Russian 28.3%, Ukrainian 3.3%, Uzbek 2.6%, German 1.8%, Uyghur 1.5%, other 5.0%.
*Religion: Sunni Muslim 47%, Russian Orthodox 44%, Protestant 2%, other 7%.
*Language: Kazakhstan is a bilingual country. Kazakh language has the status of the "state" language, while Russian is declared the "official" language. Russian is used routinely in business; 64.4% of population speaks the Kazakh language.
*Health (2006 est.): Infant mortality rate--28.3/1,000. Life expectancy--66.89 years (male 61.56 yrs.; female 72.52 yrs.). *Health care (2005 est.)--30.3 doctors and 68.2 hospital beds per 10,000 persons.
*Education: Mandatory universal secondary education. School system consists of kindergarten, primary school (grades 1-4), secondary school (grades 5-9), and high school (grades 10-11). Literacy rate--98.4%.
*Work force (2005, 7.85 million): Industry and construction--18.1%; agriculture and fishing--32.9%; services--49%.

==Government and Political Conditions==
Kazakhstan is a constitutional republic with a strong presidency. It is divided into 14 oblasts and the two municipal districts of Almaty and Astana. Each is headed by an akim (provincial governor) appointed by the president. Municipal akims are appointed by oblast akims. The Government of Kazakhstan transferred its capital from Almaty to Astana on June 10, 1998.

The president is the head of state. The president also is the commander in chief of the armed forces and may veto legislation that has been passed by the Parliament. President Nursultan Nazarbayev has been in office since Kazakhstan became independent. In 1995, President Nazarbayev called for a referendum that expanded his presidential powers: only he can initiate constitutional amendments, appoint and dismiss the government, dissolve Parliament, call referenda, and appoint administrative heads of regions and cities. The prime minister, who serves at the pleasure of the president, chairs the Cabinet of Ministers and serves as Kazakhstan's head of government. There are three deputy prime ministers and 16 ministers in the Cabinet.

Kazakhstan has a bicameral Parliament, comprised of a lower house (the Mazhilis) and upper house (the Senate). Single mandate districts popularly elect 67 seats in the Mazhilis; there also are 10 members elected by party-list vote. The Senate has 39 members. Two senators are selected by each of the elected assemblies (Maslikhats) of Kazakhstan's 16 principal administrative divisions (14 regions, or oblasts, plus the cities of Astana and Almaty). The president appoints the remaining seven senators. Mazhilis deputies and the government both have the right of legislative initiative, though the government proposes most legislation considered by the Parliament.

Elections to the Mazhilis in September 2004 yielded a lower house dominated by the pro-government Otan party, headed by President Nazarbayev. Two other parties considered sympathetic to the president, including the agrarian-industrial bloc AIST and the Asar party, founded by President Nazarbayev’s daughter, won most of the remaining seats (Asar and Otan subsequently merged in July 2006 to form the new Otan party). Opposition parties, which were officially registered and competed in the elections, won a single seat during elections that the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe said fell short of international standards. The opposition party Ak Zhol refused to take the seat in protest of the flawed elections.

In December 2005, President Nazarbayev won a new 7-year term in an election that the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe said fell short of international standards. Official results gave the president 91% of the vote, although independent exit polls found this figure to be somewhat inflated. Opposition candidates Zharmakhan Tuyakbay (For a Just Kazakhstan) and Alikhan Baymenov (Ak Zhol) were able to compete freely in this election.

===Principal Government Officials===
*President--Nursultan Nazarbayev
*Head of Presidential Administration--Adilbek Dzhaksybekov
*Prosecutor General--Rashid Tusupbekov
*National Security Committee (KNB) Chairman--Amangeldy Shabdarbayev
*Prime Minister--Karim Masimov
*Deputy Prime Minister--Aslan Musin
*State Secretary--Oralbay Abdykarimov

===Foreign Relations===
Kazakhstan has stable relationships with all of its neighbors. Kazakhstan is a member of the United Nations, Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe, and North Atlantic Cooperation Council. It also is an active participant in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization's (NATO) Partnership for Peace program. Kazakhstan also is a member of the Commonwealth of Independent States and the Shanghai Cooperation Organization along with Russia, China, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan. Kazakhstan, Russia, Belarus, Kyrgyzstan, and Tajikistan established the Eurasian Economic Community in 2000 to re-energize earlier efforts at harmonizing trade tariffs and the creation of a free trade zone under a customs union. Kazakhstan is the founding member of the Conference for Interaction and Confidence in Asia. Kazakhstan also engages in regional security dialogue with ASEAN (Association of South East Asian Nations).

==Economy==
Kazakhstan's economy grew by 8.5% in 2006. Gross domestic product (GDP) grew 9.4% in 2005, 9.1 % in 2004, 9.2% in 2003, 9.5% in 2002, and 13.2% in 2001.

Kazakhstan's monetary policy has been well managed. In 2006, inflation remained relatively steady at 8.6%, up from 7.5% in 2005. Inflation from 2001-2003 was 6.4%, 6.6%, and 6.8%, respectively. Because of its strong macroeconomic performance and financial health, Kazakhstan became the first former Soviet republic to repay all of its debt to the International Monetary Fund (IMF) in 2000, 7 years ahead of schedule. In March 2002, the U.S. Department of Commerce graduated Kazakhstan to market economy status under U.S. trade law. The change in status recognized substantive market economy reforms in the areas of currency convertibility, wage rate determination, openness to foreign investment, and government control over the means of production and allocation of resources.

In September 2002, Kazakhstan became the first country in the former Soviet Union to receive an investment-grade credit rating from a major international credit rating agency. Estimated level of external debt in 2005 was $41.66 billion. In 2004, Kazakhstan's gross foreign debt was about $26.03 billion. Kazakhstan has been successful in reducing the ratio of debt to GDP in recent years. In 2005, total governmental debt was $5 billion, which amounts to 8.9% of GDP. In 2000, total government debt equaled 21.7% of GDP.

The upturn in economic growth, combined with the results of earlier tax and financial sector reforms, dramatically improved government finances from the 1999 budget deficit level of 3.5% of GDP to a deficit of 0.5% of GDP in 2005. Government revenues grew from 19.8% of GDP in 1999 to 22.6% of GDP in 2001 to 25.7% of GDP in 2005. In 2000, Kazakhstan adopted a new tax code in an effort to consolidate these gains. On November 29, 2003 the Law on Changes to Tax Code was adopted, which reduced the value added tax (from 16% to 15%), the social tax (from 21% to 20%), and the personal income tax (from 30% to 20%). Kazakhstan furthered its reforms by adopting a new land code on June 20, 2003 and a customs code on April 5, 2003.

Oil and gas is the leading economic sector. Production of oil and gas condensate in Kazakhstan amounted to 61.9 million tons in 2005, which was 4.3% more than in 2004. Kazakhstan exported 52.4 million tons of oil and gas condensate a year in 2004 and 2005. Natural gas production in Kazakhstan in 2005 amounted to 14.5 billion cubic meters, a 25% increase from 2004. Kazakhstan holds about 4 billion tons of proven recoverable oil reserves and 3 trillion cubic meters of gas. Industry analysts believe that planned expansion of oil production, coupled with the development of new fields, will enable the country to produce as much as 3 million barrels per day by 2015, lifting Kazakhstan into the ranks of the world's top 10 oil-producing nations. Kazakhstan's 2005 oil exports were valued at $17.4 billion, representing over 70% of overall exports. Major oil and gas fields and their recoverable oil reserves are Tengiz (7 billion barrels); Karachaganak (8 billion barrels and 1,350 billion cubic meters of natural gas); and Kashagan (7-9 billion barrels). Starting in 2004, the Government of Kazakhstan increased its take of oil deals by increasing taxation of new oil projects.

Kazakhstan instituted an ambitious pension reform program in 1998. There are 14 saving pension funds, one of which is state controlled. The National Bank oversees and regulates the pension funds. The pension funds' growing demand for quality investment outlets triggered rapid development of the debt securities market. Pension fund capital is being invested almost exclusively in corporate and government bonds, including Government of Kazakhstan Eurobonds. The Kazakhstani banking system is developing rapidly. Its capitalization now exceeds $1 billion. The National Bank has introduced deposit insurance in its campaign to strengthen the banking sector. Several major foreign banks have branches in Kazakhstan, including ABN-AMRO, Citibank, and HSBC.

====Agriculture====
Agriculture accounted for 10.3% of Kazakhstan's GDP in 2005. Grain (Kazakhstan is the seventh-largest producer of wheat in the world) and livestock are the most important agricultural commodities. Agricultural land occupies more than 220 million hectares, about 68% of which consists of pasture and hay land. Chief livestock products are dairy goods, leather, meat, and wool. The country's major crops include wheat, barley, cotton, and rice. Wheat is the leading agricultural commodity in Kazakhstan's export trade. Kazakhstan harvests 14-15 million tons of wheat per year.

====Natural Resources====
Oil, gas, and mineral exports are key to Kazakhstan's economic success. Since 1993, Kazakhstan’s extractive industries have attracted $30.7 billion in foreign investment, which represents almost 76% of the total foreign direct investment in Kazakhstan for that period. Kazakhstan has significant deposits of coal, iron ore, copper, zinc, uranium, potassium and gold.

==History==
Nomadic tribes have been living in the region that is now Kazakhstan since the first century BC, although the land has been inhabited at least as far back as the Stone Age. From the fourth century AD through the beginning of the 13th century, the territory of Kazakhstan was ruled by a series of nomadic nations. Following the Mongolian invasion in the early 13th century, administrative districts were established under the Mongol Empire, which eventually became the territories of the Kazakh Khanate. The major medieval cities of Taraz and Turkestan were founded along the northern route of the Great Silk Road during this period.

Traditional nomadic life on the vast steppe and semi-desert lands was characterized by a constant search for new pasture to support the livestock-based economy. The Kazakhs emerged from a mixture of tribes living in the region in about the 15th century and by the middle of the 16th century had developed a common language, culture, and economy. In the early 1600s, the Kazakh Khanate separated into the Great, Middle and Little (or Small) Hordes--confederations based on extended family networks. Political disunion, competition among the hordes, and a lack of an internal market weakened the Kazakh Khanate. The beginning of the 18th century marked the zenith of the Kazakh Khanate. The following 150 years saw the gradual colonization of the Kazakh-controlled territories by tsarist Russia.

The process of colonization was a combination of voluntary integration into the Russian Empire and outright seizure. The Little Horde and part of the Middle Horde signed treaties of protection with Russia in the 1730s and 1740s. Major parts of the northeast and central Kazakh territories were incorporated into the Russian Empire by 1840. With the Russian seizure of territories belonging to the Senior Horde in the 1860s, the tsars effectively ruled over most of the territory belonging to what is now the Republic of Kazakhstan.

The Russian Empire introduced a system of administration and built military garrisons in its effort to establish a presence in Central Asia in the so-called "Great Game" between it and Great Britain. Russian efforts to impose its system aroused the resentment of the Kazakh people, and by the 1860s, most Kazakhs resisted Russia's annexation largely because of the disruption it wrought upon the traditional nomadic lifestyle and livestock-based economy. The Kazakh national movement, which began in the late 1800s, sought to preserve the Kazakh language and identity. There were uprisings against colonial rule during the final years of tsarist Russia, with the most serious occurring in 1916. The destruction of the nomadic life, prior to and during the Communist period, created a Kazakh diaspora in neighboring countries, especially western China. Since independence in 1991, the government has encouraged the return of ethnic Kazakhs by offering subsidies for returnees.

Although there was a brief period of autonomy during the tumultuous period following the collapse of the Russian Empire, the Kazakhs eventually succumbed to Soviet rule. In 1920, the area of present-day Kazakhstan became an autonomous republic within Russia and, in 1936, a Soviet republic.

Soviet repression of the traditional elites, along with forced collectivization in late 1920s-1930s, brought about mass hunger and led to unrest. Soviet rule, however, took hold, and a communist apparatus steadily worked to fully integrate Kazakhstan into the Soviet system. Kazakhstan experienced population inflows of thousands exiled from other parts of the Soviet Union during the 1930s and later became home for hundreds of thousands evacuated from the Second World War battlefields. The Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic (SSR) contributed five national divisions to the Soviet Union's World War II effort.

The period of the Second World War marked an increase in industrialization and increased mineral extraction in support of the war effort. At the time of Soviet leader Josif Stalin's death, however, Kazakhstan still had an overwhelmingly agricultural-based economy. In 1953, Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev initiated the ambitious "Virgin Lands" program to turn the traditional pasturelands of Kazakhstan into a major grain-producing region for the Soviet Union. The Virgin Lands policy, along with later modernizations under Soviet leader Leonid Brezhnev, sped up the development of the agricultural sector, which to this day remains the source of livelihood for a large percentage of Kazakhstan's population.

Growing tensions within Soviet society led to a demand for political and economic reforms, which came to a head in the 1980s. In December 1986, mass demonstrations by young ethnic Kazakhs took place in Almaty to protest the methods of the communist system. Soviet troops suppressed the unrest, and dozens of demonstrators were jailed. In the waning days of Soviet rule, discontent continued to grow and find expression under Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev's policy of glasnost. Caught up in the groundswell of Soviet republics seeking greater autonomy, Kazakhstan declared its sovereignty as a republic within the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (U.S.S.R.) in October 1990. Following the August 1991 abortive coup attempt in Moscow and the subsequent dissolution of the Soviet Union, Kazakhstan declared independence on December 16, 1991.

The years following independence have been marked by significant reforms to the Soviet command-economy and political monopoly on power. Under Nursultan Nazarbayev, who initially came to power in 1989 as the head of the Kazakh Communist Party and was eventually elected President in 1991, Kazakhstan has made significant progress toward developing a market economy, for which it was recognized by the United States in 2002. The country has enjoyed significant economic growth since 2000, partly due to its large oil, gas, and mineral reserves.

{{License|license = This work is in the [[public domain]] in the United States because it is a work of the United States Federal Government under the terms of Title 17, Chapter 1, Section 105 of the US Code.| source = [http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/5487.htm]}}

[[Category:Asian Countries]]
[[Category:Former Soviet Countries]]