Conservapedia - User contributions [en]

Battle of Midway

2011-10-16T23:19:41Z

MarkGB: added link

[[Image:Midway Atoll.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Midway Atoll, as it looked in November, 1941]]
'''The Battle of Midway''', fought near the Central Pacific island of Midway on June 4-7, 1942, is considered the decisive battle of the war in the [[Pacific Ocean]]. Before this battle the Japanese were on the offensive, capturing territory throughout [[Asia]] and the Pacific. By their attack, the Japanese had planned to capture Midway to use as an advance base, as well as to entrap and destroy the [[U.S.]] Pacific Fleet. Because of communication intelligence successes, the [[U.S.]] Pacific Fleet surprised the Japanese forces, sinking the four Japanese carriers that had attacked [[Pearl Harbor]] only six months before, while only losing of one carrier. After Midway, the [[American]]s and their Allies took the offensive in the Pacific.

==Midway Atoll==
Midway is a small atoll nearly half-way across the Pacific, the westernmost inhabited member of the Hawaiian Island chain. Its two major islands, Sand and Eastern, have a combined area of only a few square miles. They are densely populated by several bird species, of which the most abundant is the [[Laysan Albatross]], popularly nicknamed the "Gooney Bird".

First visited in 1859, Midway formally became a United States possession in 1867. A trans-pacific cable station was established there in 1903. In 1935, Pan American Airways built a way station on Sand Island to support its new seaplane route between the U.S. and Asia. Midway was recommended as a patrol plane and submarine base in a 1938-39 study of national defense needs, and construction of a U.S. Navy base began soon thereafter. This included a seaplane hangar and other facilities on Sand Island and an airfield on the smaller Eastern Island.

The new base was bombarded by two Japanese Destroyers on December 7 1941, causing damage to some buildings and destroying one patrol plane. With the fall of [[Wake Island]] later in the month, Midway became the westernmost U.S. outpost in the Central Pacific. Land-based bombers and fighters were stationed on Eastern Island. U.S. Marines provided defensive artillery and infantry. Operating from Sand Island and the atoll's lagoon, PBY "Catalina" seaplanes actively patrolled toward the Japanese-held [[Marshall Islands]] and Wake, checking on enemy activities and guarding against further enemy attacks on Hawaii. There were occasional clashes when planes from Midway and those from the Japanese islands met over the Pacific.

==Prelude==
Following the outbreak of the Pacific War in December 1941, the Japanese armed forces conducted military operations against U.S., British Commonwealth, and Dutch possessions in the Pacific and Southeast Asia. The first phase of these operations, which was the seizure of Malaysia, Singapore, the Dutch East Indies, the Philippines, and various island groups in the central and western Pacific, was virtually complete by March 1942. The second phase, initiated by Japanese Imperial Headquarters on January 23, was designed to isolate and neutralize Australia and India. In the Pacific, this plan envisioned the seizure of bases in Papua/New Guinea and the Solomon Islands, which would be used to support future operations against New Caledonia, Fiji, and Samoa. By early March, with the seizure of Lae and Salamaua, the entire north coast of Papua/New Guinea had fallen to Japanese forces who were planning for an amphibious invasion of Port Moresby.

===Early intelligence===
By this time, two secure American naval intelligence centers were in operation in the Pacific: one in Melbourne, Australia, and another at Pearl Harbor ("Hypo"). A third, at Corregidor ("Cast"), was rapidly disintegrating under Japanese air and artillery attacks on the island. Its cryptanalysts and equipment were in the process of evacuation to Melbourne. These facilities intercepted Japanese radio communications and, through traffic analysis and codebreaking, uncovered the location of major fleet units and shore based air forces. More importantly, by translating messages and studying operational patterns, Melbourne and Hypo predicted future Japanese operations. The intelligence centers provided their analysis, through daily communications intelligence (COMINT) briefings and warning reports, to senior American commanders, including Commander in Chief, U.S. Fleet, Admiral [[Ernest J. King]], and Commander in Chief, Pacific Fleet, Admiral [[Chester W. Nimitz]].

===Coral Sea===
In early March, the Japanese postponed their planned seizure of Port Moresby because of previous events. An American carrier raid on Japanese shipping at Lae and Salamaua on the 10th, along with a previously unsuccessful attempt to attack Rabaul on February 20, had demonstrated to Commander in Chief, Fourth Fleet (Admiral Shigeyoshi Inouye), that Japanese were not assured of air superiority in the region. It was not until early May, when Admiral Inouye had three carriers for operations, that the invasion could begin. On May 7-8, the first carrier battle of the war took place in the Coral Sea. Each side had a carrier damaged, while the American lost the carrier USS ''Lexington'' and the Japanese lost the light carrier ''Shoho''. More important the Japanese broke off their invasion attempt. Significantly, American cryptanalysts had provided crucial order of battle and operational communications intelligence to the Allied commanders in the South Pacific.

==="AF"===
In addition to this advance toward Port Moresby, evidence that Japan was intent on expanding east of the Marshall Islands appeared in COMINT in early 1942. Land-based air units and equipment began appearing in message traffic to and from the Marshall Islands and the Mandates. On March 4, the designator "AF" began appearing in partially decoded messages. Then, on March 5 Japanese seaplanes, refueled from a submarine at French Frigate Shoals to the east of Midway, conducted a small armed reconnaissance mission over Oahu. Finally, on March 13, American cryptanalysts got the break they were looking for. Acting on a hunch that "AF" was Midway, they asked the radiomen there to send an open-air message indicating something was wrong with their water supply; the Japanese sent a message in turn indicating the "problem" with "AF". The result was both the breaking of the Japanese Navy's General-Purpose Code (JN 25) and the identification of "AF" as Midway Island.

==Japanese plan==
On April 16, after several months of discussion, Commander in Chief, Combined Fleet, Admiral [[Isoroku Yamamoto]], convinced the Imperial General Staff to agree to his Midway and Aleutians strategy for the summer. In Admiral Yamamoto's view, the capture of Midway Island would allow Japan to pursue its Asian policies behind an impregnable eastern shield of defenses in the Central Pacific. The centerpiece of this plan was a feint toward Alaska followed by an invasion of Midway. When the U.S. Pacific Fleet responded to the landings on Midway, Japanese carrier and battleship task forces, waiting unseen to the west of the Midway strike Force, would fall upon and destroy the unsuspecting Americans. If successful, the plan would effectively eliminate the U.S. Pacific Fleet for at least a year and provide a forward outpost from which ample warning of any future threat by the U.S. would come.

===The Doolittle Raid===
[[Image:Doolittle1.jpg|thumb|150px|right|April 18, 1942: the Doolittle Raid about to launch from USS ''Hornet''.]]
Two days later, Lieutenant Colonel [[James Doolittle]] and a small number of American airmen from the U.S. Army Air Corps took off from the carrier USS ''Hornet'' in land-based [[B-25]] bombers to attack the Japanese home islands. As a result of this attack, which caused the Japanese to want to extend their first line of defense as far east as possible, the Japanese advanced the date of their planned attack on Midway. On May 5, Imperial General Headquarters issued "Navy Order No. 18" directing Admiral Yamamoto to carry out the occupation of Midway Island and key points in the western Aleutians in cooperation with the Army.

At the same time, Japanese Navy communication activity in the vicinity of Japan dramatically increased, reflecting naval exercises conducted in preparation for both the Midway and Aleutian operations. On May 7, Hypo provided a translation of the agenda for a Japanese aviation conference, called by Commander in Chief, 1st Air Fleet (Vice Admiral Nagumo), scheduled for May 16. The conference concerned tactics to be employed in obtaining air superiority over a target, assisting in amphibious landings, and bombing and strafing attacks to wipe out local resistance. On May 9 Melbourne intercepted and translated "1st Air Fleet Striking Force Order No. 6," which confirmed the creation of a new carrier strike force and that a major Fleet movement would begin on May 21. In response to this COMINT, American cryptanalysts supplied warning notices of Japanese offensives scheduled for late May.

==American plans==
On May 19 the Officer in Charge of COMINT processing at Hypo (Commander Joseph J. Rochefort) and the intelligence officer for the Pacific Fleet (Lieutenant Commander Edwin T. Layton), identified Midway and Dutch Harbor, Aleutian Islands, as specific Japanese objectives. On May 22, following a radio deception operation, Melbourne completely confirmed that "AF" meant Midway. Hypo then discovered the date cipher used in Japanese message traffic. This meant analysts could determine exactly when the attack would take place. After examining previously intercepted messages, Hypo predicted an attack on Midway on 4 June. Admiral Nimitz used this estimate to plan American countermeasures.

On May 26, since COMINT suggested the Japanese intended to approach from that direction, submarine USS ''Gudgeon'' (SS-211) sailed for a surface patrol northwest of Midway. Also on the 26th, aircraft ferry USS ''Kitty Hawk'' (AKV-1) arrived at Midway with reinforcements for Marine Air Group 22, a light tank platoon earmarked for a mobile reserve, and the 3d Defense Battalion, equipped with 3-inch antiaircraft guns. On that same day, Task Force Sixteen (TF 16) under the command of Rear Admiral [[William F. Halsey]], and centered around USS ''Hornet'' (CV- 8) and USS ''Enterprise'' (CV-6), returned to Pearl Harbor from the South Pacific to begin preparations for the upcoming battle. Although suffering from damage inflicted by Japanese bombs during the 7-8 May [[Battle of the Coral Sea]], USS ''Yorktown'' (CV-5) returned the next day.

==Departure to battle==
Also on the 26th, the Japanese Northern Force, which included two light carriers, sailed from Ominato toward the Aleutians. The next day, Japanese forces began getting underway for Midway. Chief among them was First Mobile Force, Carrier Strike Force under Vice Admiral [[Chuichi Nagumo]], comprising the four large carriers ''Akagi'', ''Kaga'', ''Soryu'', and ''Hiryu'' with a total of 229 carrier aircraft. On the 28th, the Japanese First Fleet, the main body of warships under Admiral Yamamoto in his flagship, the super-battleship ''Yamato'', sortied from home waters. The Second Fleet, Escort Force (Rear Admiral Tanaka Raizo), including 15 transports, sailed from Saipan; Second Fleet, Occupation Support Force (Rear Admiral Kurita Takeo) sortied from Guam. These forces were supported by 17 patrol seaplanes.

TF 16 was put under the command of a destroyer commander, Rear Admiral [[Raymond A. Spruance]], and forming around ''Enterprise'' and ''Hornet'', departed Pearl Harbor on May 28 to take up a position northeast of Midway. Spruance replaced Halsey for this operation because Halsey was suffering from a painful attack of shingles. Two days later, Task Force Seventeen (TF 17) under the command of Rear Admiral [[Frank Jack Fletcher]], formed around the quickly repaired ''Yorktown'', and sailed from Pearl to join TF 16 northeast of Midway. When TF 17 and TF 16 joined about 350 miles northeast of Midway on June 2, Rear Admiral Fletcher became officer in tactical command. The three American carriers, augmented by cruiser-launched floatplanes, provided 234 aircraft afloat. These were supported by 110 fighters, bombers, and patrol planes at Midway. As part of pre-battle disposition, 25 fleet submarines under the command of Rear Admiral Robert H. English were deployed around Midway.

Meanwhile, on May 29, seaplane tender (destroyer) USS ''Thornton'' (AVD-11) arrived at French Frigate Shoals to relieve light minelayer USS ''Preble'' (DM-20) on patrol station there. The presence of U.S. ships at French Frigate Shoals prevented the Japanese from refueling flying boats to reconnoiter Pearl Harbor. Although the Japanese could not visually confirm the departure of Task Forces 16 and 17 from Pearl Harbor, American preparations to defend Midway were on the verge of discovery anyway. Japanese COMINT stations not only learned of carrier movements in and out of Pearl Harbor, simply by listening to increased air-ground radio chatter, but traffic analysis of "Urgent" American radio messages coming out of Pearl Harbor suggested at least one Task Force was at sea. Incredibly, these discoveries by Japanese COMINT were withheld from the Midway Strike Force because of Yamamoto's strict radio silence restrictions.

On June 3, in the preliminary moves of the Battle of Midway, American land-based aircraft from Midway located and attacked Japanese transports about 600 miles west of Midway Island. U.S. Army Air Force [[Boeing B-17]] "Flying Fortress" bombers inflicted no damage, however, and four Consolidated PBY "Catalinas" from VP-24 were sent out for a night attack on the approaching transports. As part of the overall Japanese plan, the Second Strike Force (Rear Admiral Kakuta Kikuji) bombed Dutch Harbor with planes from light carriers ''Ryujo'' and ''Junyo''. In an event whose importance became clear only later, one [[Mitsubishi Zero|Mitsubishi A6M "Zeke"]] carrier fighter was disabled by antiaircraft fire and made an emergency landing on Akutan Island. The pilot, fooled by the flat ground, flipped the plane over upon landing in a bog and was killed. American intelligence analysts later recovered and studied the plane to discover its strengths and weaknesses.

==The Battle==
===June 4, 1942===
[[Image:Yorktown1.jpg|thumb|150px|left|USS ''Yorktown'' shortly after being hit by three bombs on June 4, 1942]]
Just after midnight on June 4, Admiral Nimitz, based on patrol plane reports, advised Task Forces 16 and 17 of the course and speed of the Japanese "main body," also noting their distance of 574 miles from Midway. Shortly after dawn, a patrol plane spotted two Japanese carriers and their escorts, reporting "Many planes heading Midway from 320 degrees distant 150 miles!"

The first attack, however, took place when the four night-flying PBYs attacked the Japanese transports northwest of Midway with one PBY torpedoing fleet tanker ''Akebono Maru''. Later that morning, at roughly 0630, [[Aichi D3A]] ("Val") carrier bombers and [[Nakajima B5N]] ("Kate") torpedo planes, supported by A6M fighters ("[[Mitsubishi Zero|Zekes]]"), bombed Midway Island installations. Although defending U.S. Marine Corps [[Brewster Buffalo|Brewster F2A]] ("Buffalo") and Grumman F4F ("Wildcat") fighters suffered disastrous losses, losing 17 of 26 aloft, the Japanese only inflicted slight damage to the facilities on Midway. Motor Torpedo Boat PT-25 was also damaged by strafing in Midway lagoon.

Over the next two hours, Japanese "Zekes" on Combat Air Patrol (CAP) and antiaircraft fire from the Japanese fleet annihilated the repeated attacks by the American aircraft from Marine Corps Douglas SBD "Dauntless" and Vought SB2U "Vindicator" scout bombers from VMSB-241, Navy Grumman TBF "Avenger" torpedo bombers from VT-8 detachment, and U. S. Army Air Force torpedo-carrying Martin B-26 "Marauder" bombers sent out to attack the Japanese carriers. Army Air Force B-17s likewise bombed the Japanese carrier force without success, although without losses to themselves.
[[Image:Hiryu.jpg|thumb|150px|right|Japanese heavy carrier ''Hiryu'' on June 4, 1942]]
Between 0930 and 1030, [[Douglas TBD Devastator|Douglas TBD "Devastator"]] torpedo bombers from VT 3, VT-6, and VT-8 on the three American carriers attacked the Japanese carriers. Although nearly wiped out by the defending Japanese fighters and antiaircraft fire, they drew off enemy fighters, leaving the skies open for dive bombers from ''Enterprise'' and ''Yorktown''. VB-6 and VS-6 "Dauntlesses" from ''Enterprise'' bombed and fatally damaged carriers ''Kaga'' and ''Akagi'', while VB-3 "Dauntlesses" from ''Yorktown'' bombed and wrecked carrier ''Soryu''. The submarine USS ''Nautilus'' (SS-168) then fired torpedoes at the burning ''Kaga'' but her torpedoes did not explode.

At 1100, the one Japanese carrier that escaped destruction that morning, ''Hiryu'', launched "Val" dive bombers that temporarily disabled ''Yorktown'' around noon. Three and a half hours later, ''Hiryu's'' "Kate" torpedo planes struck a second blow, forcing ''Yorktown'''s abandonment. In return, "Dauntlesses" from ''Enterprise'' mortally damaged ''Hiryu'' in a strike around 1700 that afternoon. The destruction of the Carrier Strike Force compelled Admiral Yamamoto to abandon his Midway invasion plans, and the Japanese Fleet began to retire westward.

During the battle, Japanese destroyers had picked up three U.S. naval aviators from the water. After interrogation, however, all three Americans were murdered. One TBD pilot, Lieutenant George Gay escaped detection by the Japanese ships and was later rescued by a PBY.

===June 5, 1942===
On June 5, TF 16 under command of Rear Admiral Spruance pursued the Japanese fleet westward, while work continued to salvage the damaged ''Yorktown''. Both ''Akagi'' and ''Hiryu'', damaged the previous day, were scuttled by Japanese destroyers early on the 5th.

===June 6, 1942===
[[Image:Midway.jpg|thumb|150px|right|SBD Dauntless dive bombers from USS ''Hornet'' approaching the burning Japanese heavy cruiser ''Mikuma'' to make the third set of attacks on her, during the early afternoon of June 6, 1942.]]
[[Image:Hammann.jpg|thumb|150px|right|Sailors from USS ''Yorktown'' watch as USS ''Hammann'' sinks minutes after being struck by torpedoes from the Japanese submarine I-168.]]
The last air attacks of the battle took place on June 6 when dive bombers from ''Enterprise'' and ''Hornet'' bombed and sank heavy cruiser ''Mikuma'', and damaged destroyers ''Asashio'' and ''Arashio'',as well as the cruiser ''Mogami''. At Admiral Spruance's expressed orders, issued because of the destruction of three torpedo squadrons on June 4, "Devastators" from VT-6 that accompanied the strike did not attack because of the threat to them from surface antiaircraft fire. After recovering these planes, TF 16 turned eastward and broke off contact with the enemy. COMINT intercepts over the following two days documented the withdrawal of Japanese forces toward Saipan and the Home Islands.

Salvage operations had commenced onboard ''Yorktown'' when the Japanese submarine I-168 interrupted; torpedoes were fired at her as well as the destroyer tending ''Yorktown'', USS ''Hammann'' (DD-412), which sank within minutes. Screening destroyers depth-charged I-168 but the Japanese submarine escaped destruction. ''Yorktown'', suffering from numerous torpedo hits, finally rolled over and sank at dawn on June 7.

==Aftermath and Significance of the Battle==
On June 9, submarine USS ''Trout'' (SS-202) rescued two survivors from sunken Japanese heavy cruiser ''Mikuma''. Ten days later the seaplane tender USS ''Ballard'' (AVD-10) was directed by a PBY to the site where ''Hiryu'' crewmen were in the water. The tender rescued 35 Japanese survivors who, as members of the engineering department deep in the ship, had been left for dead in the abandonment of the carrier. On June 21, a PBY from VP-24 rescued two men from an ''Enterprise'' TBD about 360 miles north of Midway. These were the last survivors of the Battle of Midway to be recovered.

Thanks to American signals intelligence, judicious aircraft carrier tactics, and more than a little luck, the U.S. Navy had inflicted a smashing defeat on the Japanese Navy. Although the performance of the three American carrier air groups would later be considered uneven, their pilots and crew had won the day through courage, determination, and heroic sacrifice. The Japanese lost the four large carriers that had attacked Pearl Harbor, while the Americans only lost one carrier. More importantly, the Japanese lost over one hundred trained pilots, who could not be replaced. Recognizing this defeat for what it was, Admiral Nagumo's Chief of Staff later wrote: "I felt bitter… I felt like swearing." In a larger strategic sense, the Japanese offensive in the Pacific was derailed and their plans to advance on New Caledonia, Fiji, and Samoa postponed. The balance of sea power in the Pacific shifted from the Japan to an equity between America and Japan. Soon after the Battle of Midway the U.S. and their allies would take the offensive in the Pacific.

==References==
*[http://www.history.navy.mil/faqs/faq81-4.htm United States Navy official battle reports]
*Fuchida, Mitsuo. ''Midway: The Battle that Doomed Japan, the Japanese Navy's Story'', Naval Institute Press, Annapolis, MD (1955)
*Parshall, Jonathan, and Tully, Anthony. ''Shattered Sword: The Untold Story of the Battle of Midway'', Potomac Books, Dulles, VA (2005)
*Prange, Gordon W. ''Miracle at Midway'', McGraw-Hill, New York (1982)
*[http://www.archive.org/details/Battle.of.Midway.1942 Director John Ford's documentary of the battle]

{{License|license = This work is in the [[public domain]] in the United States because it is a work of the United States Federal Government under the terms of Title 17, Chapter 1, Section 105 of the US Code.}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Midway, Battle of}}
[[Category:World War II Battles]]

Zombie

2011-10-16T02:10:58Z

MarkGB:

The fictional creatures known as '''Zombies''' are the reanimated [[death|corpse]]s of dead persons.

==History==

The phrase originates with the [[Voodoo]] religion of the [[Caribbean]], where it is alleged, due to the historically high mortalities among living [[slavery|slave]] laborers, zombies were procured to work on plantations. In fact these zombies may actually have been living [[abduction|abductees]]; an extract of toxins from the [[puffer fish]] is believed to have been used in their preparation, rendering them tractable, speechless and impervious to sensations such as pain and fatigue.

==In Popular Culture==

Zombies commonly feature in a popular sub-genre of [[horror film]]s, such as ''[[Night of the Living Dead]]''. Cinematic zombies fall into two main categories: fast and slow. Slow zombies are frequently portrayed as mindless, lurching, animated cadavers animated only by an unquenchable lust for blood and human [[brain]]s, and can typically be put down permanently only by means of [[decapitation]] or a [[gun]]shot to the head. Fast zombies, such as in 28 Days Later, are usually portrayed as infected with a mind rotting diseases, such as rabies or mad cow, rather than reanimated corpses. Some variations stick to the destruction of the brain rule while others act more like normal humans in the way they respond to injuries. Moreover, both are usually able to spread their condition by a mere bite, causing anyone so injured to turn into a zombie in a matter of hours. Sometimes, blood or other bodily fluids can spread the infection.

Zombies are also common antagonists in [[fantasy]] [[role-playing game]]s, often being reanimated by [[necromancy|necromantic]] [[magic]]ians, where they are also usually classified as [[undead]] beings, and thus certain people, such as clerics, are able to utterly annihilate them with pure faith alone.

=== Famous movies involving zombies ===
*George A. Romero's "Dead series"
*The "Evil Dead" series (The Evil Dead, Evil Dead 2, Army of Darkness)
*The 28 * Later series.

=== Famous videogames involving Zombies ===
*Resident Evil series (various platforms) 
*Dead Rising (Xbox360) 
*House of the Dead (Arcade) 
*'Nazi Zombies' game mode in Call of Duty 5 and Black Ops (various platforms) 
*Left 4 Dead series (various platforms) 

=== Famous books involving Zombies ===
*[[World War Z]]
*The Zombie Survival Guide

==Other uses==

In computer terminology, a '''Zombie''' is a computer which has been infected by malware, usually without the owner suspecting anything, and made to perform as a server for spam or other malicious content, thus isolating the original bad actor from a trace by law enforcement. A large percentage of junk email and [[phishing]] attempts are transmitted by zombie networks.

Another use of the term is in the construction "philosophical zombie" or "p-zombie"; this essentially a Gedankenexperiment to investigate whether it would be possible to determine, within a naturalistic framework, whether or not a being who behaved like a human being were conscious or not.

[[Category:Mythical Beasts]]
[[category:computers]]

Star Wars Episode VI: Return of the Jedi

2010-05-31T20:05:48Z

MarkGB:

{{Infobox Film
| name=Star Wars Episode VI: Return of the Jedi
| image=Star Wars Episode VI cover.jpg
| caption=
| director=Richard Marquand
| producer=[[George Lucas]] Howard Kazanjian
| writer=George Lucas Lawrence Kasdan
| narrator=
| starring=Mark Hamill [[Harrison Ford]] Carrie Fisher
| music=[[John Williams]]
| cinematography=Alan Hume
| editing=Sean Barton Duwayne Dunham Marcia Lucas George Lucas
| distributor=[[20th Century Fox]]
| released=May 25, 1983
| runtime=134 min
| country=USA
| language=English
| budget=
| gross=
| preceded_by=[[Star Wars Episode V: The Empire Strikes Back]]
| followed_by=
| website=
| amg_id=
| imdb_id=
}}

'''''Star Wars Episode VI: Return of the Jedi''''' is the third film released by George Lucas of his [[Star Wars]] series, though in the chronology it is the sixth and final chapter.

==Plot==

{{spoiler}}

In the movie's opening scene, [[droid]]s [[R2-D2]] and [[C3-PO]] come to the palace of [[Jabba the Hutt]], the galaxy's biggest crimelord (who is holding the frozen Han Solo prisoner), with a message from [[Luke Skywalker]] telling Jabba to release Han. [[Leia Organa Solo|Leia]] comes to the palace disguised as a bounty hunter and frees Han from the carbonite, but is captured by Jabba and made a slave. When Luke comes to the palace, Jabba drops him into a pit where he keeps a monster called a rancor. When Luke kills the monster, the enraged Jabba tells Luke, Han, and Chewbacca that they will be killed by being thrown into the [[Sarlacc]] pit.

Meanwhile, the Emperor has arrived on the partially constructed Death Star to survey the final phase of its building.

When Jabba's sail barge and the desert skiffs reach the pit, R2-D2, on the barge, throws Luke his [[lightsaber]]. In the ensuing battle and excitement, Leia strangles Jabba with her slave chain and helps Luke blow up the barge with a deck cannon.

Luke heads for Dagobah in his [[X-wing fighter]] and Han, Leia, R2, C3-PO, and Lando Calrissian join the Rebel fleet in the ''[[Millennium Falcon]]''. Yoda, on Dagobah, tells Luke that it is true: Vader is his father and that to truly become a [[Jedi]] he must face him. Yoda, 900 years old, dies shortly afterward and Luke joins the Rebels, who have discovered that the Empire is constructing the Death Star above the forest moon of Endor. On Endor is a shield generator which protects the Death Star until its weapons systems are operational. Han is assigned to lead the assault team on Endor, and Lando Calrissian leads the Rebel fighters<dash> Han lends him the ''Millennium Falcon'' for this purpose.

Using a captured Imperial shuttle, Han Solo, Chewbacca, Leia, and Luke, with a strike team of Rebels go to Endor with the intent to destroy the shield generator. Unbeknownst to them, the Emperor has set a huge number of Stormtroopers in ambush around the generator. The strike team meets up with some native tribes called "Ewoks" which are friendly and promise to aid them in attack. That night, Luke reveals to Leia that she is his sister and that he must confront Vader to turn him back to good. He turns himself in to Vader, but the Sith Lord tells him that "it is too late for me" and brings him up to the Death Star to the Emperor. The Emperor attempts to enrage Luke and turn him to evil, but Luke resists.

Meanwhile, the entire Rebel fleet drops out of hyperspace to attack the Death Star. As they approach it, their sensors tell them that the shield is still up and break off the attack, instead targeting the fleet of Star Destroyers which is standing by on the Emperor's commands.

The Rebels attack the shield generator building, only to discover the stormtroopers located in ambush. A fierce battle erupts in the forest, but, thanks to the Ewoks, the Rebels gain the upper hand and destroy the generator building.

[[Image:Luke_v_vader.jpg|right|thumb|300 px|Luke duels with Vader on the Death Star.]]

On the Death Star, the Emperor succeeds in making Luke angry and a [[lightsaber]] battle between Darth Vader and Luke begins. Luke fights mainly on the defensive, until Vader tells Luke that he cannnot be turned to the dark side, but perhaps Leia can. An enraged Luke attacks Vader, disarming him and cutting off his hand. The Emperor tells Luke to kill Vader and that if he does so, he will replace him. Luke, horrified, deactivates his lightsaber and throws it away, with the announcement "I am a Jedi, like my father before me."

The Emperor retaliates with Force lightning against Luke, badly wounding him. Luke calls to his father to save him, and Vader rebels, hurling Palpatine down a reactor shaft to his death, although he is badly injured by lightning in the process. As the ''Falcon'' and several other Rebel fighters speed to the Death Star's reactor room, Darth Vader tells Luke to unmask him so that he can look at him with his own eyes; as Vader cannot survive without the helmet, he dies shortly afterward. Luke brings out his body on a shuttle just as the station explodes, and later burns it in a funeral pile on Endor. At the end, the Force spirits of Yoda, Obi-Wan, and the freed Anakin appear to Luke.

==Re-release controversy==
In 2005, LucasFilm re-released all three of the original Star Wars films on DVD to coincide with the theatrical release of [[Star Wars: Episode III: Revenge of the Sith|Revenge of the Sith]]. In the original version, the freed Anakin was played by Sebastian Shaw. However, in the re-released version, Anakin was played by the actor in the Prequels, Hayden Christiansen. Some fans perceived this as an insult to Shaw.

[[Category:Star Wars]]
[[Category:Movies]]

A-4

2010-05-31T19:51:14Z

MarkGB: Redirected page to A-4 Skyhawk

#REDIRECT [[A-4 Skyhawk]]

F 18

2010-05-31T19:09:56Z

MarkGB: Redirected page to F/A-18 Hornet

#REDIRECT [[F/A-18 Hornet]]

United states

2010-05-31T19:03:35Z

MarkGB: Redirected page to United States of America

#REDIRECT [[United States of America]]

F4U

2010-05-31T19:02:44Z

MarkGB: Redirected page to F4U Corsair

#REDIRECT [[F4U Corsair]]

F6f

2010-05-31T18:59:19Z

MarkGB: Redirected page to F6F Hellcat

#REDIRECT [[F6F Hellcat]]

B 25

2010-05-30T22:17:08Z

MarkGB: Redirected page to B-25 Mitchell

#REDIRECT [[B-25 Mitchell]]

B 17

2010-05-30T22:15:06Z

MarkGB: Redirected page to B-17 Flying Fortress

#REDIRECT [[B-17 Flying Fortress]]

P 38

2010-05-30T22:13:30Z

MarkGB: Redirected page to P-38 Lightning

#REDIRECT [[P-38 Lightning]]

P 47

2010-05-30T22:10:58Z

MarkGB: Redirected page to P-47 Thunderbolt

#REDIRECT [[P-47 Thunderbolt]]

Economics Homework Thirteen Answers - Student Nine

2009-12-17T17:47:57Z

MarkGB: homework

'''Economics homework 13'''

'''Mark Brown'''

'''2.''' Free Trade

'''3.''' It is supposed to protect the banking system from collapse.

'''4.''' Inelastic

'''6.''' The high short run prices are to encourage people to purchase tickets early. If consumers wait till a few days before the flight they could force the airline to add another airplane to their schedule to carry the load. This increases their variable costs.

'''7.''' The firms sell slightly differentiated goods because if the goods were all the same, then they would be very price elastic. If one producer increased his price then many consumers would buy substitutes.

User:MarkGB

2009-12-05T23:19:12Z

MarkGB:

Hello,
I am a [[Homeschooling]] [[Christian]] living in New Jersey.I play soccer, run cross country, sail and ski.
My favorite place to sail is on the North Fork, Long Island and my favorite place to ski is Burke, Vermont

{{userboxtop}}
{{User CPLeader|Aschlafly}}
{{User Christian1}}
{{User American}}
{{User Reagan}}
{{User homeschool}}
{{User KnowsNoEvo}}
{{User Yankee fan}}
{{User Soccer1}}

User:MarkGB

2009-12-05T23:18:28Z

MarkGB: Created page with 'Hello, I am a Homeschooling Christian living in New Jersey.I play soccer, run cross country, sail and ski My favorite place to sail is on the North Fork, Long Island and ...'

Hello,
I am a [[Homeschooling]] [[Christian]] living in New Jersey.I play soccer, run cross country, sail and ski
My favorite place to sail is on the North Fork, Long Island and my favorite place to ski is Burke, Vermont

{{userboxtop}}
{{User CPLeader|Aschlafly}}
{{User Christian1}}
{{User American}}
{{User Reagan}}
{{User homeschool}}
{{User KnowsNoEvo}}
{{User Yankee fan}}
{{User Soccer1}}

P-26

2009-12-05T22:47:18Z

MarkGB: Redirected page to P-26 Peashooter

#REDIRECT [[P-26 Peashooter]]

P-26 Peashooter

2009-12-05T22:40:21Z

MarkGB:

[[File:P-26.jpg|thumb|right]]The '''P-26 Peashooter''' was the first all-metal, monoplane fighter built for the United States. Designed by [[Boeing]], the P-26 was first delivered to the Army Air Corps in 1934, and over 170 were built in total. Almost all had been withdrawn from American service by the outbreak of [[World War II]], but some served in the [[Chinese]] air force in the [[Second Sino-Japanese War]], and others saw action against the [[Japanese]] as part of the fledgling Philippine air force when the [[Philippines]] were invaded.<ref>http://www.aviation-history.com/boeing/p26.html</ref> It was powered by an air-cooled Pratt & Whitney engine of 600 hp, had fixed landing gear, and carried two nose-mounted Browning machine guns.<ref>''The Great Book of Combat Aircraft'', by Paolo Matricardi, VMB Publishers, 2006</ref>

==References==
<references/>

==Links==
*[http://www.historynet.com/boeing-p-26-peashooter.htm Boeing P-26 Peashooter] at History.net
*[http://www.boeing.com/history/boeing/p26.html Boeing P-26] at the Boeing website
*[http://users.accesscomm.ca/magnusfamily/ww2phi.htm P-26 victories in the Philippines] at Air Aces

[[Category:Aircraft]]
[[Category:World War II aircraft]]

File:P-26.jpg

2009-12-05T22:38:54Z

MarkGB:

Australia

2009-12-05T22:15:00Z

MarkGB: /* ANZUS and Defense */

{{Country
|name =''Commonwealth of Australia''
|map =Australia rel 1999.jpg
|map2 =Australia location.png
|flag =Flag of Australia.png
|arms =Australia coat-of-arms.jpg
|capital =Canberra
|capital-raw =
|government =Constitutional monarchy
|government-raw =
|language =English
|king =
|queen =Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom
|monarch-raw =
|president =
|president-raw =
|chancellor =
|chancellor-raw =
|pm =Kevin Rudd
|pm-raw =
|area =2,988,888 sq mi
|pop =21.8 million
|pop-basis =2009
|gdp =A$1.17 trillion
|gdp-year =2009
|gdp-pc =A$36,000
|currency =Australian dollar
|idd =
|tld =
}}
The [[Commonwealth]] of Australia is an independent nation that occupies the continent of Australia, with its west coast on the [[Indian Ocean]], east coast on the [[Pacific Ocean]] facing [[New Zealand]], southern coast on the [[Southern Ocean]] facing [[Antarctica]], and northern coast bordering [[Indonesia]] and [[Papua New Guinea]]. Australia is considered geographically as part of [[Oceania]], but has been establishing its place politically and commercially in [[South East Asia]].

==Geography==
Australia is the only country to occupy an entire continent<ref>This refers just to the Australian mainland. Some authorities now include [[Papua New Guinea]], [[New Zealand]], and various other [[Pacific Ocean]] islands in the continent of "Oceania". See [http://worldatlas.com/webimage/countrys/au.htm WorldAtlas.com].</ref>, the smallest of the planet's seven continents.<ref>Some people count six, combining North and South America or Europe and Asia. See [http://worldatlas.com/aatlas/infopage/contnent.htm WorldAtlas.com].</ref>
It is 2,400 miles, (3,860 km) from east to west and 2,000 miles (3,220 km) from north to south, and covers an area of 2,967,877 sq miles (7,686,810 sq km). The Australian coastline is 22,812 miles long (36,735 kilometers), roughly the size as the mainland 48 states of the USA.

Australia has six states and two internal territories. The states are [[New South Wales]], [[Victoria]], [[Queensland]], [[Western Australia]], [[South Australia]] and [[Tasmania]]. The internal territories are the [[Northern Territory]] (responsible government since 1978) and the [[Australian Capital Territory]] (responsible government since 1988) which is the location of Australia's capital city, [[Canberra]]. External territories include [[Christmas Island]] and the [[Australian Antarctic Territory]].

====Low density====
80% of Australia's population, of just over 20,000,000 people, live on the coast line. It is one of the world's most sparsely populated countries (2.7 people per square kilometre)<ref>[http://www.abs.gov.au ABS]</ref>. Water is scarce and some cities have some form of water restrictions in place.

====Weather====
Weather extremes are common in Australia with temperatures sometimes measured into the high 40s Celsius (45 degrees Celsius = 113 degrees Fahrenheit). The city of Darwin was heavily damaged by Cyclone Tracy on Dec. 25, 1974, killing 66 people, and destroying 80% of the buildings. Darwin's utilities were knocked out and 35,000 people were evacuated.

Bush fires often ravage the southern states - one of the worst occurring on Ash Wednesday in 1983 when over 2,000 homes were destroyed and over 70 people lost their lives in Victoria and South Australia. In 2009 severe fires hit much of Victoria, worsened by hot dry winds and a severe drought.

====Flora and fauna====
Australia is noted for its unique biodiversity. Many animals are found only in Australia, the most well known examples are the group of marsupials ([[kangaroo]]s, [[wombat]]s, [[wallaby|wallabies]] and [[koala]]s), and the only two [[monotremes]], the [[platypus]] and the [[echidna]]. Examples of plants that are native to Australia are the [[banksia]], [[yellow wattle]] and [[gum tree]].

Current evolutionary studies indicate that Australia's unique wildlife is the result of Australia becoming an island, being cut off from the Asian land bridge between 40,000 t0 250,000 years ago on the uniformitarian timescale.

==People==
===Aborigines and Torres Straits Islanders===
Australia's indigenous inhabitants, a hunting-gathering people collectively referred to today as Aborigines and Torres Straits Islanders, arrived more than 40,000 years ago. Although their technical culture remained static--depending on wood, bone, and stone tools and weapons--their spiritual and social life was highly complex. Most spoke several languages, and confederacies sometimes linked widely scattered tribal groups. Indigenous population density ranged from one person per square mile along the coasts to one person per 35 square miles in the arid interior. When Captain James Cook claimed Australia for Great Britain in 1770, the native population may have numbered 300,000 in as many as 500 tribes speaking many different languages. In 2006 the indigenous population was approximately 517,200, representing about 2.5% of the population. Since the end of World War II, the government and the public have made efforts to be more responsive to aboriginal rights and needs, most recently with Prime Minister Rudd's historic apology to the indigenous people in February 2008.
===Immigrants===
Immigration has been vital to Australia's development since the beginning of European settlement in 1788. For generations, most settlers came from the British Isles, and the people of Australia are still predominantly of British or Irish origin, with a culture and outlook similar to those of Americans. a "White Australia" policy operated from 1901 to the 1960s; it encourages immigration by Europeans and blocked almost all other immigration.

The Chinese who arrived in the late 19th century to work in the gold mines left voluntarily or were expelled. Likewise most of the "Kanakas" --Polynesians--who came to work in the sugar fields were expatriated after 1901. Many Germans settled in South Australia, but those without Australian citizenship were put in camps during World War I and most were sent back to Germany after the war.
===Recent trends===
Since the end of World War II, Australia's population has more than doubled.

Non British/Irish immigration has increased significantly since World War II through an extensive, planned immigration program. Since 1945 around 6.6 million migrants have settled in Australia, including 690,000 refugee and humanitarian entrants. About 80% have remained; 24%--almost one in four--of Australians are foreign-born. Britain, Ireland, Italy, Greece, New Zealand, and the former Yugoslavia were the largest sources of post-war immigration, but New Zealand is closing on Britain as the largest source country for permanent migrants to Australia.

The barriers against Asians fell in the 1970s and thousands of immigrants from the Chinese diaspora resettled in Australia. Immigrants from India and the Philippines were numerous as well. ===Refugees===
Australia's humanitarian and refugee program of about 13,000 per year is in addition to other immigration programs. In recent years, refugees from Africa, the Middle East, and Southwest Asia have comprised the largest element in Australia's refugee program. Although Australia has scarcely more than three people per square kilometer, it is one of the world's most urbanized countries. Less than 2.5% of the population lives in remote or very remote areas.
*Population (2009 est.): 21.8 million.
*Annual population growth rate: 1.7%.
*Ethnic groups: European 92%, Asian 6%, Aboriginal 2%.
*Religions (2006): Catholic 26%, Anglican 19%, other Christian 19%, other non-Christian 1%, Buddhist 2.1%, Islam 1.7%, no religion 19%, and not stated 12%.
*Languages: English.
*Education: Years compulsory--to age 16 in all states and territories except New South Wales and the Northern Territory where it is 15, and Western Australia where it is 17. Literacy--over 99%.
*Health: Infant mortality rate--4.7/1,000. Life expectancy--males 78 yrs., females 83 yrs.
*Work force (10.8 million): Agriculture--3.3%; mining--1.5%; manufacturing--9.8%; retail trade--11.3%; public administration, defense, and safety--6%; construction--9.2%

====Religion====
Australia is a [[secular]] nation, in that it has no established religion associated with the Government.

According to the 2006 census, 64% of citizens consider themselves to be Christian, including 26% Roman Catholic, 19% Anglican, and 19% other Christian. Buddhists constitute 2.1% of the population, Muslims 1.7%, Hindus 0.7%, Jews 0.4%, and all others professing a religion 0.5%. Of Australia's 21 million people, about 1.5 million attend weekly religious services <ref>[http://www.ncls.org.au/default.aspx?docid=2250&track=82083| National Church Life Survey 2004]; U.S. State Department, "International Religious Freedom Report 2008" [http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2008/108400.htm online]</ref>.

In 1911, during the first census, 96% identified themselves as Christian. In recent decades traditional Christian denominations have seen their total number and proportion of affiliates stagnate or decrease significantly, although from 2001 to 2006, the total number of Pentecostal and charismatic Christians increased by 12.9%. Over the past decade, increased immigration from Southeast Asia and the Middle East considerably expanded the numbers of citizens who identify themselves as Buddhists, Hindus, and Muslims, and increased the ethnic diversity of existing Christian denominations. Between 2001 and 2006, the numbers increased for Buddhists by 17% (to 418,000), Muslims by 21% (to 340,393), Jews by 6% (to 89,000), and Hindus by 55% (to 148,131). In 2006 approximately 18.7% of citizens considered themselves to have no religion, up from 17% in 2001, and 11.2% made no statement regarding religious affiliation. According to a 2002 survey, 23% of adults had participated in church or religious activities during the previous 3 months.

The Australian public school system is "free, secular and compulsory" with the secular meaning without favour to any particular religion - most primary schools, however, do offer some form of non-compulsory religious education according to the parents' wishes. The state systems of a number of states offer studies in religion at the senior level.

There is a large Catholic school system in Australia with most parishes having their own primary school and many hundreds of Catholic high schools across the country. There are also a large number of independent schools founded by various religions or denominations of the Christian faith - some hold that religious background to be more important than others. None of the religious schools are funded by the government.

At the time of European settlement, aboriginal inhabitants followed religions that were animistic, involving belief in spirits behind the forces of nature and the influence of ancestral spirit beings. According to the 2006 census, 5,206 persons, or less than 0.03% of respondents, reported practicing aboriginal traditional religions, down from 5,244 in 2001. The 2006 census reported that almost 64% of Aborigines identify themselves as Christian and 20% listed no religion.

====Culture====
[[Image:Sidney opera house.jpg|thumb|right|200px|The Sydney Opera House, an iconic symbol of the nation]]
Much of Australia's culture is derived from European roots, but distinctive Australian features have evolved from the environment, aboriginal culture, and the influence of Australia's neighbors. The vigor and originality of the arts in Australia--film, opera, music, painting, theater, dance, and crafts--have achieved international recognition.

Australian actors and comedians such as Nicole Kidman, Rachel Griffiths, Cate Blanchett, Geoffrey Rush, Paul Hogan, Hugh Jackman, the late Heath Ledger, and Dame Edna Everage (Barry Humphries) have achieved enormous popularity in the United States. Directors such as Peter Weir, Philip Noyes, and Russell Mulcahy, the conductor Sir Charles Mackerras, and singers and musicians such as Olivia Newton-John, Men At Work, The Wiggles, AC/DC, Dame Joan Sutherland, Dame Nellie Melba, and Kylie Minogue are well known.

Australian artists with international reputations include Sidney Nolan, Russell Drysdale, Pro Hart, and Arthur Boyd. Writers who have achieved world recognition include Thomas Keneally, Colleen McCullough, Nevil Shute, Morris West, Jill Ker Conway, Peter Carey, Robert Hughes, Germaine Greer, and Nobel Prize winner Patrick White.

====Sports====
Australia is known as a sporting nation with success worldwide in [[swimming]], [[tennis]], [[rugby union]], [[cricket]], [[netball]],and [[basketball]]. Australians are very keen horse racers with the Melbourne Cup <ref>[http://www.melbournecup.com.au| Melbourne Cup]</ref> attracting up to 120,000 spectators at Flemington Race Course on the first Tuesday in November. There is a public holiday for the cup race in Melbourne, while the remainder of the country virtually pauses during the running.

Unique to Australia is a game known as [[Australian rules football]] or Aussie Rules, which is played on a [[cricket]] oval in winter. Australian rules football is the sport most attended in the states of [[Victoria]], [[South Australia]] and [[Western Australia]], and most attended overall in Australia; in 2006 2.5 million people had attended at least one Aussie Rules game in the preceding 12 months.[http://www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/abs@.nsf/ProductsbyCatalogue/1F8FAC9C2C7B1623CA2568A900139417?OpenDocument] Australian Rules Football was written by persons educated at the [[Rugby School]] in England and [[Cambridge University]] before the organisation of uniform football codes. It is not as popular in [[New South Wales]] and [[Queensland]] although premiership teams are based in these two states.

The other national football code is [[rugby league]]. Rugby league football is the most attended sport in New South Wales and Queensland with its premier club competition being the [[National Rugby League]].

====Tourism====
Most tourists visit places such as Sydney Harbour, Uluru (Ayers Rock) in Central Australia and the Great Barrier Reef in Queensland. Other favourite destinations are the wine making areas of South Australia and northern Victoria, the Great Ocean Road in Victoria, the natural wonders of Tasmania and the huge outback expanses of Western Australia and the Northern Territory. Some cattle stations in Australia rival Texas in size and the distance between towns in some areas is enormous.

==Government==
Australia became a federated nation on January 1, 1901 under the [[Constitution of Australia]], and all former British colonies became states. The parliament met in Melbourne until the infrastructure was built for the capital city, [[Canberra]].

Australia has a [[Parliament|parliamentary system]] of government based on the British system with a [[bicameral]] system meeting as the [[Parliament of Australia]], consisting of the [[Australian House of Representatives]] and the [[Australian Senate]]. Each state and territory also has its own parliament.

The two other branches of government under the Constitution are the Executive ([[Governor-General of Australia]] taking advice from the Ministers) and the [[High Court of Australia]].

Australia is a democracy which has allowed men of European descent to vote since federation, with women gaining the vote in 1902 and Aboriginal men and women gaining suffrage in 1962. Voting is compulsory for all citizens who are 18 years old and over (with a few exceptions.)

Australia's Head of Government is the [[Prime Minister of Australia]]. The current Prime Minister is [[Kevin Rudd]], the leader of the parliamentary wing of the [[Australian Labor Party]] which won the federal election on 24 November 2007. The Deputy Prime Minister is [[Julia Gillard]], the first woman to hold the position, and the first woman to be Acting Prime Minister (during the temporary absence of Rudd on his first overseas trip.)

The Head of State is [[Queen Elizabeth II]], the Queen of Australia (who is the same person, but a different title, as the Queen of Great Britain.) Under the Constitution, and in practice, the authority of the Head of State is vested in the [[Governor-General of Australia]], currently Quentin Bryce AC, Previously Governor of [[Queensland]], who assents to acts of parliament, is the Commander in Chief of the military forces, and appoints all Ministers of the Government; all these various powers are normally exercised on advice from the Prime Minister.

The Government of Australia is exercised, day-to-day, by the Ministers through their various Departments of State.

====Voting====
{{main|Voting in Australia}}

Australia has [[preferential voting]], and voting is compulsory for adults (18 years and over), unless they have been deemed unfit to vote, either by mental illness or conviction for serious offences. Preferential voting encourages a multiplicity of parties and independent candidates, and counting the votes and allocating preferences can take some time where the results are close.

====Terms====
There is no limit on the time a person can be a Member of Parliament (MP) (elected, notionally, for 3 years, but the timing of elections is decided by the Prime Minister) or a Senator (elected for two cycles of the House of representatives.) The Prime Minister is normally a member of the House of Representatives, and the tenure is not limited by statute. Ministers may continue to serve for up to three months when not a Member or Senator, but must in that time be elected in order to continue. ([[John Gorton]] was a Senator when appointed leader of his party after the death of his predecessor. He immediately resigned from the Senate and stood for election to the House of Representatives, while remaining Prime Minister throughout.)

====Parliamentary political parties====
Currently, the main political parties in Australia are:
* [[Australian Greens]]
* [[Australian Labor Party]]
* [[Family First Party]]
* [[Liberal Party of Australia]]
* [[National Party of Australia]]
* One Nation Party

Despite the US connotation associated with the name, the Liberal Party is conservative in political stance. Robert Menzies helped found the Liberal Party in 1944 and was the Prime Minister from 1939 until 1941 and then again from 1949 until 1966.<ref> [http://www.liberals.net/liberalpartyhistory.htm History of the Liberal Party in Australia]</ref> The term "liberal" refers to the party's predominantly-[[free market|free-market]] approach to [[economics|economic management]].

The party currently in power is the [[Australian Labor Party]]. The Labor Party is also in government in all of the states and territories. The Prime Minister is Kevin Rudd.

Conservative Queensland polititian and businesswoman, Pauline Hanson formed the One Nation party to give a conservative voice to voters that were not being effectivly represented by the major partys. One Nation has held seats in both the Federal Senate and Lower House, and have been the subject of ridicule by left-leaning media commentators.

Though the Labor party is "social democratic" and the Liberals are "liberal conservatives", some of the smaller parties are more left leaning or more conservative than Labor and Liberal respectively.

''See also a [[list of Prime Ministers of Australia]].''

The Prime Minister of Australia is the most senior elected person in the country. The role is normally filled by the parliamentary leader of the party which forms the government.

===Principal Government Officials===
*Governor General--Quentin Bryce
*Prime Minister--Kevin Rudd
*Deputy Prime Minister--Julia Gillard
*Treasurer--Wayne Swan
*Foreign Minister--Stephen Smith
*Defense Minister--John Faulkner
*Trade Minister--Simon Crean

===Political Conditions===
Three political parties dominate the center of the Australian political spectrum. The Liberal Party (LP), nominally representing urban business interests, and its smaller coalition partner, The Nationals, nominally representing rural interests, are the more conservative parties. The Australian Labor Party (ALP) nominally represents workers, trade unions, and left-of-center groups. While the ALP, founded by labor unions, traditionally had been moderately socialist in its policies and approaches to social issues, today it is best described as a social democratic party. All political groups are tied by tradition to welfare programs. Over the last decade, Australia has increased welfare payments to families while imposing obligations on those receiving unemployment benefits and disability pensions. There is strong bipartisan sentiment on many international issues, including Australia's commitment to its alliance with the United States.

The ALP, under the leadership of Kevin Rudd, defeated the Liberal/National coalition, led by then-Prime Minister John Howard, in the November 24, 2007 election. The ALP now holds 83 seats in the House of Representatives, against 64 for the Liberal/National coalition, and 3 independents. The composition of the Senate is 37 seats for the coalition, 32 for the ALP, five seats for the Greens, one for Family First, and one independent.

Rudd and the ALP won the election with a message promising "new leadership" after 11 years of the Howard government. Rudd portrayed himself as an "economic conservative," while criticizing unpopular Howard government policies on workplace relations reform, climate change, and the war on Iraq. The Rudd government ratified the Kyoto Protocol and is working with the international community on combating climate change. It is undoing some labor market reforms instituted by the Howard government, such as statutory individual contracts. The Australian government's foreign policy shows strong continuity with that of its predecessors, stressing relations with four key countries: the United States, Japan, China, and Indonesia. The Rudd government strongly supports U.S. engagement in the Asia-Pacific region and increased Australia’s troop contribution in Afghanistan. It withdrew Australia's combat troops from Iraq in 2008; it intends to end its military mission in Iraq on July 31, 2009.

Australia has been an active participant in international affairs since federation in 1901, and Australian forces have fought beside the United States and other Allies in every significant conflict since World War I. On January 8, 1940, the governments of the United States and Australia announced the establishment of bilateral diplomatic relations. In 1944, Australia concluded an agreement with New Zealand dealing with the security, welfare, and advancement of the people of the independent territories of the Pacific (the ANZAC pact). After World War II, Australia played a role in the Far Eastern Commission in Japan and supported Indonesian independence during that country's revolt against the Dutch. Australia was one of the founding members of the United Nations, the South Pacific Commission, and the Colombo Plan. In addition to contributing to UN forces in Korea--it was the first country to announce it would do so after the United States--Australia sent troops to assist in putting down the 1948-1960 communist revolt in Malaya and later to combat the 1963-1965 Indonesian-supported invasion of Sarawak. The United States, Australia, and New Zealand signed the ANZUS Treaty in 1951, which remains Australia's pre-eminent formal security treaty alliance. Australia sent troops to assist South Vietnamese and U.S. forces in Vietnam, and joined coalition forces in the Persian Gulf conflict in 1991, in Afghanistan in 2001, and in Iraq in 2003.

Australia has been active in the Australia-New Zealand-U.K. agreement and the Five-Power Defense Arrangements--successive arrangements with Britain and New Zealand to ensure the security of Singapore and Malaysia.

One of the drafters of the UN Charter, Australia has given firm support to the United Nations and its specialized agencies. It was last a member of the Security Council in 1985-86, a member of the Economic and Social Council for 1986-89, and a member of the UN Human Rights Commission for 1994-96 and 2003-2005. Australia recently declared its intention to seek a non-permanent seat on the UN Security Council for 2013-2014. Australia takes a prominent part in many other UN activities, including peacekeeping, nonproliferation and disarmament negotiations, and narcotics control. Australia also is active in meetings of the Commonwealth Regional Heads of Government and the Pacific Islands Forum, and has been a leader in the Cairns Group--countries pressing for agricultural trade reform in World Trade Organization (WTO) negotiations--and in founding the APEC forum. In 2002, Australia joined the International Criminal Court.

Australia has devoted particular attention to relations between developed and developing nations, with emphasis on the ten countries of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) and the island states of the South Pacific. Australia is an active participant in the ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF), which promotes regional cooperation on security issues, and has been a member of the East Asia Summit since its inauguration in 2005. In September 1999, acting under a UN Security Council mandate, Australia led an international coalition to restore order in East Timor upon Indonesia's withdrawal from that territory. In 2006, Australia participated in an international peacekeeping operation in Timor-Leste (formerly East Timor). Australia led a regional mission to restore law and order in Solomon Islands in 2003 and again in 2006. Australia is part of the Asia Pacific Partnership on Clean Development and Climate, which also includes the United States.

The government is committed to increasing official development assistance to 0.5% of gross national income by 2015-2016. Australia budgeted A$3.79 billion (U.S. $3.03 billion) for FY 2008-2009 and has budgeted A$3.82 billion (U.S. $3.05 billion) for FY 2009-2010. The Australian aid program is currently concentrated in Southeast Asia (Papua New Guinea and Indonesia are the largest recipients) and the Pacific Islands. Selected aid flows are allocated to Africa, South Asia, and reconstruction in Afghanistan and Iraq. Contributions to multilateral organizations and other expenses account for about one-third of the foreign assistance budget.

===ANZUS and Defense===
The Australia, New Zealand, United States (ANZUS) security treaty was concluded at San Francisco on September 1, 1951, and entered into force on April 29, 1952. The treaty bound the signatories to recognize that an armed attack in the Pacific area on any of them would endanger the peace and safety of the others. It committed them to consult in the event of a threat and, in the event of attack, to meet the common danger in accordance with their respective constitutional processes. The three nations also pledged to maintain and develop individual and collective capabilities to resist attack.

In 1984, the nature of the ANZUS alliance changed after the Government of New Zealand refused access to its ports by nuclear-weapons-capable and nuclear-powered ships of the U.S. Navy. The United States suspended defense obligations to New Zealand, and annual bilateral meetings between the U.S. Secretary of State and the Australian Foreign Minister replaced annual meetings of the ANZUS Council of Foreign Ministers. The first bilateral meeting was held in Canberra in 1985. At the second, in San Francisco in 1986, the United States and Australia announced that the United States was suspending its treaty security obligations to New Zealand pending the restoration of port access. Since 1985, U.S. Secretaries of State and Defense and the Australian Foreign and Defense Ministers have held 20 Australia-U.S. Ministerial consultations (AUSMIN), alternating between Australia and the United States. The next AUSMIN is scheduled to take place in Australia in 2010.

The U.S.-Australia alliance under the ANZUS Treaty remains in full force. AUSMIN meetings are supplemented by consultations between the U.S. Combatant Commander, Pacific and the Australian Chief of Defense Force. There also are regular civilian and military consultations between the two governments at lower levels.

ANZUS has no integrated defense structure or dedicated forces. However, in fulfillment of ANZUS obligations, Australia and the United States conduct a variety of joint activities. These include military exercises ranging from naval and landing exercises at the task-group level to battalion-level special forces training to numerous smaller-scale exercises, assigning officers to each other's armed services, and standardizing, where possible, equipment and operational doctrine. The two countries also operate joint defense facilities in Australia.

Following the terrorist attacks on the United States on September 11, 2001, then-Prime Minister Howard and U.S. President George W. Bush jointly invoked the ANZUS Treaty for the first time on September 14, 2001. Australia was one of the earliest participants in Operation Enduring Freedom. Australian Defense Forces participated in coalition military action against Iraq in Operation Iraqi Freedom. Australian combat forces began their withdrawal from Iraq in mid-2008 and forces are to be fully removed by July 2009. Australia has approximately 1,000 troops deployed in Afghanistan and also provides significant development and capacity building assistance to the country. Based on growing defense commitments, Australia decided to increase the Australian Army from 26,000 to 30,000 over the next several years. This will enable the reestablishment of two infantry battalions, as well as enabling troops, such as a new unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) unit.

The Australian Government has stated its intention to maintain its investment in future capability of the Australian Defense Force (ADF). To do so, the government has committed to a 3% annual growth in real defense funding through 2018--and 2.2% annual real growth beyond--to ensure the ADF can continue to meet capability and interoperability goals. The Australian Defense Force numbers about 54,000 active duty personnel, with planned increases to 57,000 within the next decade. The Royal Australian Navy's (RAN) front-line fleet currently includes 12 frigates, including 4 of the Adelaide class and 8 Australian-built ANZAC class. In August 2004, Australia selected the Aegis Combat Control System for its three air warfare destroyers (AWD), which will start coming into service in 2014. The F/A-18 fighter, built in Australia under license from the U.S. manufacturer, is the principal combat aircraft of the Royal Australian Air Force, backed by the U.S.-built F-111 strike aircraft. In October 2002, Australia became a Level III partner in the U.S.-led Joint Strike Fighter (JSF) program. Additionally, the Australian Government signed the JSF Production, Sustainment and Follow-on Development MOU in 2006. Australia is projected to buy up to 100 JSF aircraft with deliveries starting in 2013 and running through 2020. The F-111 strike aircraft are scheduled to exit service by 2010 and will be replaced by 24 McDonnell Douglas F/A-18F Super Hornet fighters as an interim strike capability with deliveries commencing in 2010. The Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF) took delivery of the last aircraft in its buy of 4 Lockheed C-17 strategic airlift aircraft in 2008. In addition, Boeing will provide the Commonwealth of Australia's RAAF with an Airborne Early Warning and Control (AEW&C) system based on the Next-Generation 737-700 aircraft as the airborne platform. Recent U.S. sales to the Australian Army include the M1A1 AIM tank, as well as Hellfire and JAVELIN munitions. Future opportunities include CH-47 helicopter replacements, navy helicopter replacements, light and medium cargo aircraft replacements and artillery systems.

In May 2009, the Australian Government released its Defense White Paper, outlining Australia’s long-term strategic outlook. In addition to buying the JSF aircraft, the White Paper proposes to double Australia’s submarine fleet to 12, replace the ANZAC class frigates, and replace the army’s armored personnel carriers.

==Economy==
Since the 1980s, Australia has undertaken significant structural reform of its economy and has transformed itself from an inward-looking, highly protected, and regulated marketplace to an open, internationally competitive, export-oriented economy. Key economic reforms included unilaterally reducing high tariffs and other protective barriers to free trade, floating the Australian dollar, deregulating the financial services sector, including liberalizing access for foreign banks, increasing flexibility in the labor market, reducing duplication and increasing efficiency between the federal and state branches of government, privatizing many government-owned monopolies, and reforming the taxation system, including introducing a broad-based Goods and Services Tax (GST) and large reductions in income tax rates.

Australia enjoys a higher standard of living than any G7 country other than the United States. Australia's economic standing in the world is a result of a commitment to best-practice macroeconomic policy settings, including the delegation of the conduct of monetary policy to the independent Reserve Bank of Australia, and a broad acceptance of prudent fiscal policy where the government aims for fiscal balance over the economic cycle. Largely due to the fall in revenue as a result of the global economic downturn, net government debt is projected to reach about A$188 billion (U.S. $150.4 billion) in four years. The previous government, drawing from budget surpluses, created the “Future Fund” to provide for future liabilities resulting from the retirement of civil servants. The Government of Australia is predicting negative 0.5% growth in the 2009-2010 fiscal year; the International Monetary Fund (IMF) predicted growth to be negative 1.4% for 2009.

Over 2008, unemployment has risen to around 5.5% from 4.2%, and the labor market participation has remained at around 65%. Both the federal and state governments have recognized the need to invest heavily in water, transport, ports, telecommunications, and education infrastructure to expand Australia's supply capacity. The largest river system in Australia, the Murray-Darling, and related coastal lakes and wetlands in South Australia are critically threatened and the government has developed a plan to improve irrigation infrastructure and efficiency and buy back unused water allocations along the river.
*GDP (2009-2010 estimate): A$1.17 trillion (U.S. $893.6 billion).
*Inflation rate (year to March 2009): 2.5% per annum.
*Reserve Bank official interest rate (May 2009): 3.00%.
*Trade: Exports ($178.9 billion, 2008 estimate)--coal, iron ore, gold, meat, wool, alumina, wheat, machinery and transport equipment. Major markets--Japan, China, South Korea, U.S. ($10.7 billion), and New Zealand. Imports ($187.2 billion, 2008 estimate)--machinery and transport equipment, computers and office machines, telecommunication equipment and parts; crude oil and petroleum products. Major suppliers--China, United States ($23.96 billion), Japan, Singapore, and Germany.
*Exchange rate (2009): U.S. $1 = A$1.25.

====Energy====
Australia is rich in natural resources with significant petroleum, natural gas and coal reserves. Australia’s energy consumption is dominated by coal, which fuels most of the country’s power generation. Petroleum accounts for a large share of energy consumption, but due to declining output, Australia is facing a growing dependence on petroleum imports. Over the past two decades, Australia has steadily consumed increasing amounts of natural gas, which is likely to continue over the medium term.<ref> See Energy Information Administration, "Australia" (2009) [http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/cabs/Australia/Background.html online]</ref>

Australia is one of the four countries (along with Norway, Canada and Mexico) belonging to the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) that is a significant net energy exporter. Australia is the world’s largest coal exporter and is the fifth largest exporter of liquefied natural gas (LNG). Australia’s prospects for expanding energy exports in the future are promising as Asian demand for both coal and LNG rises. However, Australia can expect increasing export competition from China (coal) and Indonesia (coal and LNG).

In July 2005, the Australian government formed the Australian Energy Regulator (AER). The AER is responsible for economic regulation in Australian energy markets. In addition, the AER promotes investment in the energy sector to ensure supply security, while monitoring prices faced by end users. In 2006, Australia’s 13 government bodies transferred energy regulation responsibility to the AER. The AER is seeking $23 billion in infrastructure investments over the next 15 years.

====Comparing Australian and U.S. Economic and Health statistics====
Whilst the Australian society is similar in many aspects to those of the U.S., a comparison of key economic (in $U.S.) and health indicators highlights some interesting fundamental differences:

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! !!Australia!!U.S.
|-
| '''GDP Per Capita'''
| $32,900.00
| $43,500.00
|-
| '''Budget Deficit/Surplus''' Per capita
| $444.00 surplus. Australia has had budget surpluses every year since 2001
| $841.00 deficit
|-
| '''Public Debt'''
| 14.1% of GDP
| 64.7% of GDP
|-
| '''Military Expenditure'''
| 2.5 % of GDP
| 4.06% of GDP
|-
| '''Life Expectancy at Birth''' (combined male and female)
| 80.5 years
| 77.85 years
|-
| '''Infant Mortality Rates''' deaths/1,000 live births
| 4.63
| 6.43
|-
| '''HIV/AIDS Prevalence Rates'''
| 0.1% of population
| 0.6% of population
|}
Australia has a universal health scheme and significant subsidies on most prescription medications.

== History==
''see main article [[History of Australia]]''

Australia was uninhabited until stone-culture peoples arrived, perhaps by boat across the waters separating the island from the Indonesia archipelago more than 40,000 years ago. Portuguese, Spanish, Dutch, and English explorers observed the island before 1770, when Captain Cook explored the east coast and claimed it for Great Britain. (Three American colonists were crew members aboard Cook's ship, the Endeavour).

On January 26, 1788 (now celebrated as Australia Day), the First Fleet landed at Sydney and the Colony of New South Wales was established. Many, but by no means all, of the first settlers were convicts, some condemned for offenses that today would often be thought trivial. From the mid-19th century convict transportation to Australia significantly declined; the last ship to arrive was in 1868. Many officers of the Royal Navy received grants and established large farms and ranches. Ranchers who used government lands for their herds of sheep were informally called "squatters"; despite the term, most were wealthy. The discovery of gold in 1851 led to increased immigration, wealth, and trade. A third of the new arrivals were Irish Catholics, and there emerged a political and cultural tension between them and the Protestant British.

The six colonies that became the states of the Australian Commonwealth were established in the following order: New South Wales, 1788; Tasmania, 1825; Western Australia, 1829; South Australia, 1836; Victoria, 1851; and Queensland, 1859. Settlement preceded these dates in most cases.

Negotiations between Australians and the government in London led Parliament to create the '''Commonwealth of Australia''' in 1900, effective January 1, 1901.

In 1911, control of the Northern Territory was transferred from South Australia to the Commonwealth. Also that year, the Australian Capital Territory (where the national capital, Canberra, is located), was established. The Northern Territory and Australian Capital Territory were granted self-government in 1978 and 1988, respectively.

In May 1927, the seat of government was transferred to Canberra, a planned city designed by American Walter Burley Griffin. Australia passed the Statute of Westminster Adoption Act on October 9, 1942 (with effect as of September 3, 1939), which officially established Australia's complete autonomy in both internal and external affairs and formalized a situation that had existed for years.<ref> The Australia Act (effective March 3, 1986) eliminated almost all remaining vestiges of British legal authority, including the ability to appeal to the British Privy Council.</ref>

In practice the monarch is only normally involved in the appointment and removal of the governor-general and governors. In 1998,republicans were givena free hand to choose the form of republic they wanted. This was put to the people in 1999, and enjoyed strong support among the politicans and in the mainstream media. But a campaign led by a group, [http://www.norepublic.com.au Australians for Constitutional Monarchy ] resulted in the defeat of the referendum in all states and 72% of electorates. Republicans remain unable to agree on how to replace the present system--whether with a powerful elected president responsible directly to the people, or with a weak president chosen by the government (as in Germany), the model which was rejected in 1999 because of distrust of politicians.

== See also ==
* [[Australian dollar]]
* [[Currency#Australia|Currency: Australia]]

==Bibliography==

===References===
* Bambrick, Susan ed. ''The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Australia'' (1994)
* Davison, Graeme, John Hirst, and Stuart Macintyre, eds. ''The Oxford Companion to Australian History'' (2001) online at many academic libraries; also [http://www.amazon.com/Oxford-Companion-Australian-History/dp/019551503X/ref=sr_1_6?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1209696680&sr=8-6 excerpt and text search]
* O'Shane, Pat et al. ''Australia: The Complete Encyclopedia'' (2001)
* Shaw, John, ed. ''Collins Australian Encyclopedia'' (1984)
* Serle. Percival, ed. ''Dictionary of Australian Biography'' (1949) [http://gutenberg.net.au/dictbiog/00-dict-biogIndex.html online edition]
[[File:Aussie1.jpg|thumb|280px]]
===Guides===
* ''Australia For Dummies'' by Marc Llewellyn and Lee Mylne. (2008) [http://www.amazon.com/Australia-Dummies-Travel-Marc-Llewellyn/dp/0470178345/ref=sr_1_8?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1254126338&sr=1-8 excerpt and text search]
* '' Central Australia: Adelaide to Darwin'' by Charles Rawlings-Way and Meg Worby (2009) [http://www.amazon.com/Central-Australia-Adelaide-Darwin-Regional/dp/1741046637/ref=sr_1_17?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1254126389&sr=1-17 excerpt and text search]
* ''Frommer's Australia 2009'' by Lee Mylne et al. (2008) [http://www.amazon.com/Frommers-Australia-2009-Complete/dp/0470345446/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1254126132&sr=1-1 excerpt and text search]
* ''Moon Living Abroad in Australia'' by James M. Lane (2008) [http://www.amazon.com/Moon-Living-Abroad-Australia-James/dp/1598801392/ref=sr_1_24?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1254126389&sr=1-24 excerpt and text search]
* ''The Rough Guide to Australia'' by Margo Daly et al. (2009) [http://www.amazon.com/Rough-Guide-Australia-Travel-Guides/dp/1848360738/ref=sr_1_13?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1254126389&sr=1-13 excerpt and text search]
* Vaisutis, Justine et al. ''Lonely Planet Sydney & New South Wales'' (2009) [http://www.amazon.com/Australia-Country-Guide-Justine-Vaisutis/dp/174179160X/ref=sr_1_4?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1254126132&sr=1-4 excerpt and text search]

===Economics and business===
* Kelly, Paul. ''The End of Certainty: Power, Politics and Business in Australia,'' (1994)
* McLean, Ian W. "Consumer Prices and Expenditure Patterns in Australia 1850-1914." ''Australian Economic History Review''(1999) 39(1): 1-28; includes a consumer price index (CPI) for the period 1850 to 1914. Issn: 0004-8992 Fulltext: [[Ebsco]]
* Moran, Anthony. ''Australia: Nation, Belonging, and Globalization'' Routledge, 2004 [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=108858937 online edition]
*Robinson GM, Loughran RJ, and Tranter PJ. ''Australia and New Zealand: economy, society and environment''.(2000)

===Environment and Geography===
* Appleton, Richard, and Barbara Appleton. ''The Cambridge Dictionary of Australian Places'' (1993)
* Dovers, Stephen. ''Australian Environmental History: Essays & Cases'' (1995) [http://www.amazon.com/Australian-Environmental-History-Essays-Cases/dp/0195534824/ref=sr_1_8/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1193540375&sr=1-8 excerpt and text search]
* Garden, Don. ''Australia, New Zealand, and the Pacific: An Environmental Hisory.'' ABC-CLIO, 2005. 398 pp.
* Hutton, Drew, and Libby Connors. ''History of the Australian Environment Movement'' (1999) [http://www.amazon.com/History-Australian-Environment-Movement-Hutton/dp/052145686X/ref=sr_1_4/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1193540375&sr=1-4 excerpt and text search]
* Lines, William. ''Taming the Great South Land: A History of the Conquest of Nature in Australia'' (1992)
*Powell JM . ''An Historical Geography of Modern Australia: The Restive Fringe''. (1988)
*Robinson GM, Loughran RJ, and Tranter PJ. ''Australia and New Zealand: economy, society and environment''.(2000)

===History===
see [[History of Australia]] for more detaile guide
* Atkinson, Alan. ''The Europeans in Australia: A History. Vol. 2: Democracy.'' (2005). 440 pp.
* Barker, Anthony. ''What Happened When: A Chronology of Australia from 1788.'' Allen & Unwin. 2000. [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=108433410 online edition]
* Basset, Jan. ''The Oxford Illustrated Dictionary of Australian History'' (1998)
* Bolton, Geoffrey. ''The Oxford History of Australia: Volume 5: 1942-1995. The Middle Way'' (2005)
* Clarke, Frank G. ''The History of Australia'' (2002). [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=101344125 online edition]
* Davison, Graeme, John Hirst, and Stuart Macintyre, eds. ''The Oxford Companion to Australian History'' (2001) online at many academic libraries; also [http://www.amazon.com/Oxford-Companion-Australian-History/dp/019551503X/ref=sr_1_6?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1209696680&sr=8-6 excerpt and text search]
* Day, David. ''Claiming a Continent: A New History of Australia'' (2001);
* Edwards, John. ''Curtin's Gift: Reinterpreting Australia's Greatest Prime Minister,'' (2005) [http://www.questia.com/read/108661368 online edition]
* Hughes, Robert. ''The Fatal Shore: The Epic of Australia’s Founding'' (1988). [http://www.amazon.com/Fatal-Shore-Robert-Hughes/dp/0099448548/ref=pd_bbs_3/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1193540375&sr=1-3 excerpt and text search]
* Kemp, Rod, and Marion Stanton, eds. ''Speaking for Australia: Parliamentary Speeches That Shaped Our Nation'' Allen & Unwin, 2004 [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=110168653 online edition]
* Kingston, Beverley. ''The Oxford History of Australia: Volume 3: 1860-1900 Glad, Confident Morning'' (1993)
* Kociumbas, Jan. ''The Oxford History of Australia: Volume 2: 1770-1860 Possessions'' (1995)
* Macintyre, Stuart. ''The Oxford History of Australia: Volume 4: 1901-42, the Succeeding Age'' (1993)
* Macintyre, Stuart. ''A Concise History of Australia'' (2nd. ed. 2009) [http://www.amazon.com/Concise-History-Australia-Cambridge-Histories/dp/0521735939/ref=sr_1_14?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1254126389&sr=1-14 excerpt and text search]
* Martin, A. W. ''Robert Menzies: A Life'' (2 vol 1993-99), online at ACLS e-books
* Megalogenis, George. ''The Longest Decade'' (2nd ed. 2009), politics 1990-2008
* Schreuder, Deryck, and Stuart Ward, eds. ''Australia's Empire'' (Oxford History of the British Empire Companion Series) (2008) [http://www.amazon.com/Australias-Empire-History-British-Companion/dp/0199273731/ref=sr_1_2?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1226788019&sr=8-2 excerpt and text search]
* Serle. Percival, ed. ''Dictionary of Australian Biography'' (1949)[http://gutenberg.net.au/dictbiog/00-dict-biogIndex.html online edition]
* Taylor, Peter. ''The Atlas of Australian History'' (1991)
* Welsh, Frank. ;;Australia: A New History of the Great Southern Land'' (2008)

===International Relations and Military===
* Bridge, Carl ed., ''Munich to Vietnam: Australia's Relations with Britain and the United States since the 1930s,'' Melbourne University Press 1991
* Dennis, Peter, Jeffrey Grey, Ewan Morris, and Robin Prior. ''The Oxford Companion to Australian Military History.'' 1996)
* Firth, Stewart. ''Australia in International Politics: An Introduction to Australian Foreign Policy'' (2005) [http://www.questia.com/read/108662470 online edition]
* Grant, Ian. ''A Dictionary of Australian Military History - from Colonial Times to the Gulf War'' (1992)
* Lee, David. ''Search for Security: The Political Economy of Australia's Postwar Foreign and Defence Policy'' (1995)
* McLean, David. "From British Colony to American Satellite? Australia and the USA during the Cold War," ''Australian Journal of Politics & History" (2006) 52 (1), 64–79. Rejects satellite model. [http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1467-8497.2006.00408a.x online at Blackwell-Synergy]
* McLean, David. "Australia in the Cold War: a Historiographical Review." ''International History Review'' (2001) 23(2): 299-321. Issn: 0707-5332
* Murphy, John. ''Harvest of Fear: A History of Australia's Vietnam War'' (1993)
* Watt, Alan. ''The Evolution of Australian Foreign Policy 1938–1965,'' Cambridge University Press, 1967

===Culture and society===
* Bebbington, Warren. ''A Dictionary of Australian Music'' (1999)
* Bennett, Bruce et al. ''The Oxford Literary History of Australia'' (1999)
* Bennett, Tony, and David Carter. ''Culture in Australia: Policies, Publics and Programs'' (2001) [http://www.amazon.com/Culture-Australia-Reshaping-Australian-Institutions/dp/0521004039/ref=sr_1_47/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1193533775&sr=8-47 excerpt and text search]
* Breward, Ian. ''A History of the Churches in Australasia.'' (2002). 474 pp.
* Carey, Hilary. ''Believing in Australia: A Cultural History of Religions'' (1996)
* Horton, David. ''The Encyclopedia of Aboriginal Australia: Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander History, Society and Culture'' (2001)
* Huggan Graham. ''Postcolonialism, Racism, Transnationalism'' (Oxford Studies in Postcolonial Literatures) (2007) [http://www.amazon.com/Australian-Literature-Postcolonialism-Transnationalism-Postcolonial/dp/0199274622/ref=sr_1_10?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1209696680&sr=8-10 excerpt and text search]
* Jupp, James, ed. ''The Australian People: An Encyclopedia of the Nation, its People and their Origins'' (2nd ed. 2002) 960pp [http://www.amazon.com/gp/reader/0521807891/ref=sib_dp_pt/103-4827826-5463040#reader-link excerpt and text search]
* Jupp, James. ''The English in Australia'' (2004) [http://www.amazon.com/gp/reader/0521542952/ref=sib_dp_pt/103-4827826-5463040#reader-link excerpt and text search]
* Kleinert, Sylvia. and Margo Neale. ''The Oxford Companion to Aboriginal Art and Culture'' (2001)
* Leitner, Gerhard. ''Australia's Many Voices: Australian English--the National Language'' (2004) [http://www.amazon.com/gp/reader/3110181940/ref=sib_dp_pt/103-4827826-5463040#reader-link excerpt and text search]
* Love, J.W. ed. ''Australia and the Pacific Islands'' (Garland Encyclopedia of World Music, Volume 9) (1998) [http://www.amazon.com/Australia-Pacific-Islands-Garland-Encyclopedia/dp/0824060385/ref=sr_1_14/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1193533487&sr=8-14 excerpt and text search]
* McAllister, Ian, Steve Dowrick, Riaz Hassan; ''The Cambridge Handbook of the Social Sciences in Australia'' Cambridge University Press, 2003 [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=108131347 online edition]
* McCulloch, Alan. ''Encyclopedia of Australian Art'' 2 vol (1984)
* McDonald, John. ''Federation: Australian Art and Society, 1901-2001. Natl. Gallery of Australia, 2002. 264 pp.
* Moran, Albert. ''Historical Dictionary of Australian Radio and Television'' (2007)
* Nile, Richard. ''The Making of the Australian Literary Imagination.'' (2002). 315 pp.
* Rickard, John, ''Australia: A Cultural History'' (1988)
* Webby, Elizabeth. ''The Cambridge Companion to Australian Literature'' (2000) [http://www.amazon.com/Cambridge-Companion-Australian-Literature-Companions/dp/0521658438/ref=sr_1_7?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1209696680&sr=8-7 excerpt and text search]
* Wilde, William H. et al eds. ''The Oxford Companion to Australian Literature'' (1995) online at [[OUP]] [http://www.amazon.com/Oxford-Companion-Australian-Literature/dp/019553381X/ref=sr_1_3?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1209696680&sr=8-3 excerpt and text search]
* ''The Oxford Literary History of Australia.''
* Samuels, Selina, ed. ''Australian Writers, 1915-50.'' (2002). 510 pp.
* Sayers, Andrew. ''Australian Art'' (2001) [http://www.amazon.com/Australian-Art-Oxford-History/dp/0192842145/ref=sr_1_7/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1193540375&sr=1-7 excerpt and text search]
* Webby, Elizabeth, ed. ''The Cambridge Companion to Australian Literature'' (2006)
* Wannan, Bill. ''A Dictionary of Australian Folklore: Lore, Legends, Myths and Traditions'' (1988)

==Primary sources==
* [http://samizdat.stores.yahoo.net/auslitandhis.html Australia: Literature and History 136 e-books]

==External links==
* [http://www.fed.gov.au Australian Government portal]
* [http://www.aph.gov.au Australian Parliament House (Reps & Senate) portal]
* [http://www.gg.gov.au Governor-General of Australia]
*[http://www.nationsonline.org/oneworld/oceania.htm Australia and Oceania]
* [http://www.norepublic.com.au Australians for Constitutional Monarchy]
* [http://www.crownedrepublic.com.au The Crowned Republic ]

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

{| style="width: 100%; background:transparent; border: 2px solid #000099;" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="1"
!colspan=2 style="width: 100%; text-align: center; background-color: #000088; color: white; "|'''Copyright Details'''
|-
!style="background-color: #000088; color:white;"|License:
|style=" background-color: none;"| Some of the text for this article is in the [[Public Domain]] in the United States because it is a work of the United States Federal Government under the terms of Title 17, Chapter 1, Section 105 of the U.S. Code
|-
!style=" background-color: #000088; color:white;"|Source:
|style="background-color: none;border-top: 2px solid black"| File available from the {{{1|[[United States Federal Government]] [http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/2698.htm]}}}.
|}

[[Category:Oceanian Countries]]
[[Category:Continents]]
[[Category:Australia]]
[[Category:Christian-Majority Countries]]
[[Category:British Empire]]
[[Category:Bibliographies]]

Economics Homework Ten Answers - Student Nine

2009-11-19T02:27:46Z

MarkGB: homework

'''1.''' An externality is a benefit or harm that comes from a transaction and affects people uninvolved in the transaction.

'''2.''' If your total revenue was maximized and your marginal revenue was positive, then your total revenue would increase. This is not possible, because your total revenue is maximized. If your marginal revenue was negative, then you would decrease your output. Then your total revenue would increase.

'''3.''' My favorite is question 35. It is a difficult question that requires some thought, but it is really just math.

'''4.''' A cigarette is a negative externality.
A positive externality could be an aircraft carrier.

'''5.''' It would be a bad idea because if one person bought it, then any number of people could enjoy it without paying.

'''6.''' A and B are substitutes, because when the price for good B increases, the demand for good A increases.
C and D are complements because when price for good D increases, demand for good C decreases.

F4U Corsair

2009-11-06T22:09:46Z

MarkGB:

[[File:Corsair_02.jpg|right]] The Vought F4U Corsair was one of the most formidable American fighter and attack aircraft in [[World War II]]. They were used by the US Navy, US marines, and the New Zealand Air Force. They were in such high demand that companies other than Vought such as Goodyear and Brewster.

In 1938, the US Navy requested a single engine high speed fighter capable of carrying 4 guns and small bombs. It was first tested with a 1,805 horsepower engine which propelled it up to 405 miles per hour. On its first flights there were many problems, including engine failure, over speeding, and control failure. When it was first used in combat, the 4 machine guns that it was given were insufficient, and it was given 6 machine guns.

The F4U Corsair had a very distinctive shape. The inverted gull wing gave it excellent maneuverability, as well as allowing the large propeller to clear the ground. It was much faster than the Japanese Zero and more maneuverable, except at slow speeds. For this reason the Corsair pilots tried to combat at high speeds.

===Operators ===
[[Argentina]]

[[El Salvador]]

[[France]]

[[Honduras]]

[[New Zealand]]

[[United Kingdom]]

[[United states]]

===Specifications===
Crew: 1

Length: 33 ft 4 in

Wingspan: 41 ft

Height:16 ft 1 in

Empty weight: 8982 lb

Loaded weight: 14,000 lb

Maximum speed: 425 mph

Range:1015 miles

Armament: 6 machine guns, 2000 lb bombs

F4U Corsair

2009-11-06T22:07:32Z

MarkGB:

[[File:Corsair_02.jpg|right]] The Vought F4U Corsair was one of the most formidable American fighter and attack aircraft in World War II. They were used by the US Navy, US marines, and the New Zealand Air Force. They were in such high demand that companies other than Vought such as Goodyear and Brewster.

In 1938, the US Navy requested a single engine high speed fighter capable of carrying 4 guns and small bombs. It was first tested with a 1,805 horsepower engine which propelled it up to 405 miles per hour. On its first flights there were many problems, including engine failure, over speeding, and control failure. When it was first used in combat, the 4 machine guns that it was given were insufficient, and it was given 6 machine guns.

The F4U Corsair had a very distinctive shape. The inverted gull wing gave it excellent maneuverability, as well as allowing the large propeller to clear the ground. It was much faster than the Japanese Zero and more maneuverable, except at slow speeds. For this reason the Corsair pilots tried to combat at high speeds.

===Operators ===
Argentina

El Salvador

France

Honduras

New Zealand

United Kingdom

United states

===Specifications===
Crew: 1

Length: 33 ft 4 in

Wingspan: 41 ft

Height:16 ft 1 in

Empty weight: 8982 lb

Loaded weight: 14,000 lb

Maximum speed: 425 mph

Range:1015 miles

Armament: 6 machine guns, 2000 lb bombs

F4U Corsair

2009-11-06T02:00:35Z

MarkGB:

[[File:Example.jpg]] The Vought F4U Corsair was one of the most formidable American fighter and attack aircraft in World War II. They were used by the US Navy, US marines, and the New Zealand Air Force. They were in such high demand that companies other than Vought such as Goodyear and Brewster.

In 1938, the US Navy requested a single engine high speed fighter capable of carrying 4 guns and small bombs. It was first tested with a 1,805 horsepower engine which propelled it up to 405 miles per hour. On its first flights there were many problems, including engine failure, over speeding, and control failure. When it was first used in combat, the 4 machine guns that it was given were insufficient, and it was given 6 machine guns.

The F4U Corsair had a very distinctive shape. The inverted gull wing gave it excellent maneuverability, as well as allowing the large propeller to clear the ground. It was much faster than the Japanese Zero and more maneuverable, except at slow speeds. For this reason the Corsair pilots tried to combat at high speeds.

===Operators ===
Argentina

El Salvador

France

Honduras

New Zealand

United Kingdom

United states

===Specifications===
Crew: 1

Length: 33 ft 4 in

Wingspan: 41 ft

Height:16 ft 1 in

Empty weight: 8982 lb

Loaded weight: 14,000 lb

Maximum speed: 425 mph

Range:1015 miles

Armament: 6 machine guns, 2000 lb bombs

Economics Homework Seven Answers - Student Nine

2009-10-29T15:28:06Z

MarkGB: homework

'''Economics Homework 7'''

Mark B.

'''1.''' ''a)'' Many buyers and sellers; ''b)'' goods that are perfect substitutes for each other; ''c)'' perfect knowledge in the market; and ''d)'' perfect mobility of resources.

'''2.''' I could use competition to motivate me to be a better runner. If, in practice, I can run a mile in 5:50, and in a race I can do it in 5:30, the other people running with me increase the competition and push me to run harder.

'''3.''' skipped

'''4.''' The good conversation sometimes drives out the bad and sometimes it goes the other way. It depends on who's involved in the conversation, and also on whether or not the bad talkers have the have open minds to good conversation.

5. Total costs is your fixed cost and variable cost added together. Average cost is the total cost divided by quantity. Marginal cost is the cost it takes to make one more unit.

'''6.''' Loss in wealth = ($15x85)+(50x$20)+(10x$25)+(5x$30), therefore loss in wealth is $2675.

'''7.''' There is not perfect competition: a) there are many buyers, but few sellers; b) they are not perfect substitutes- homeschooling has 1 on 1 teaching and public schools do not; c) there is not perfect knowledge- the buyers (parents) do not know what homeschooling is usually like; d) there are not identical costs.

Economics Homework Four Answers - Student Nine

2009-10-08T13:30:03Z

MarkGB: homework

Economics Homework, Mark

'''1.''' Utility

'''2.''' (a) Your consumer surplus is $1000.

(b) The consumer surplus is the total benefit which a buyer gets when buying a good. For example, if someone wanted a new laptop so badly that he was willing to pay $1800 for it, and he bought it for $1500, then his consumer surplus is $300. Consumer surplus = total benefit - total cost

'''3.''' You can spend your time best by hiking for 3 hours, and then reading for 2 hours. The three hours of hiking give you a total utility of 23 units, and the 2 hours of reading give you a total utility of 11 units. twenty-three plus eleven is 34, so your total utility was 34.

'''4.''' In order to maximize my benefits from the purchase, I would tell the dealer that the car was used, and therefore not worth as much. The free market will drive the price down.

'''5.''' If there are two goods that are perfect substitutes for each other, then you are equally happy with 1 of good X as you are with 1 of good Y. Because you are indifferent whether you have 1 of one good and 1 of another, you can subtract 1 of good X and add 1 of good Y and still be on the indifference curve.

'''6.''' The substitution effect happens when the price of a good increases, and people tend not to buy as much of it. They buy instead cheaper substitutes.

'''7.''' The free market usually comes first, because to give money to charity you have to earn it somehow.

Economics Homework Two Answers - Student Nine

2009-09-15T01:43:07Z

MarkGB:

Mark B Economics Homework #2

1. Price, Quantity

2. Quantity = 12. P= $18

3. When the supply of a good or service increases, the price decreases because there is more of the product, and buyers can negotiate a lower price. When the demand for a good increases, the price should go up because there is incentive for a seller to raise his price.

4. If a grocery store lowers the price for its ripened fruit, the point where the price intersects the demand moves down and to the right, which is an increase in demand.

5. a) 600 tickets; $3,000
b)Yes, the tickets will sell out unless you have more than 1000 seats. Yes, you will have to wait in line because demand exceeds supply. I would oppose such a law because it doesn’t go along with the free market.

6. Time isn’t money itself, but you can convert time into money by trading it for your time working.

7. Waiting lists develop in those countries because the quantity of demand increases as more people can afford the service. As the prices go down, fewer people want to provide the service, so there are not enough doctors to treat everyone for the medical services.

Economics Homework Two Answers - Student Nine

2009-09-15T01:40:00Z

MarkGB: Created page with 'Mark B Economics Homework #2 1. Price, Quantity 2. Quantity = 12. P= $18 3. When the supply of a good or service increases, the price decreases because there is more o...'

Mark B Economics Homework #2

1. Price, Quantity

2. Quantity = 12. P= $18

3. When the supply of a good or service increases, the price decreases because there is more of the product, and buyers can negotiate a lower price. When the demand for a good increases, the price should go up because there is incentive for a seller to raise his price.

4. If a grocery store lowers the price for its ripened fruit, the point where the price intersects the demand moves down and to the right, which is an increase in demand.

5. (a) 600 tickets; $3,000

(b) Yes, the tickets will sell out unless you have more than 1000 seats. Yes, you will have to wait in line because demand exceeds supply. I would oppose such a law because it doesn’t go along with the free market.

6. Time isn’t money itself, but you can convert time into money by trading it for your time working.

7. Waiting lists develop in those countries because the quantity of demand increases as more people can afford the service. As the prices go down, fewer people want to provide the service, so there are not enough doctors to treat everyone for the medical services.