Conservapedia - User contributions [en]

Oral tradition

2008-11-07T22:29:32Z

Melisande: categorize

'''Oral tradition''' refers to the transmission of knowledge by means of word of mouth, as opposed to writing it down. In pre-literate societies oral tradition was the only practical means of preserving knowledge.

Typically, knowledge would be preserved in the form of [[poetry]]. The reason for this is simple - poetry, or [[song]], because of its regular and repeating structure, is massively easier to memorise. This is why all ancient works take the form of poetry, since they are simply the written versions of the preceeding oral tradition. Today we think of poetry as rather ephemeral, and dealing with only certain subjects, but in pre-literate societies poetry, of necessecity, was employed to record any information that needed preserving, from dry genealogical lists to practical scientific knowledge. Of course, stories and myths were also recorded in this way, and when writing first emerged in any given area, the poems and songs were written down exactly as they were recited, thus preserving them until the present day.

[[Category:Abstinence Campaigns]]

Nuclear family

2008-11-07T22:27:34Z

Melisande: categorize

{{stub}}
{{quotebox|[[Feminist]] [[professor]] [[Alison Jagger]] calls the nuclear [[family ]]“a cornerstone of [[women]]’s [[oppression]]: it enforces women’s dependence on men, it enforces [[heterosexual]]ity and it imposes the prevailing masculine and feminine character structures on the next generation.” (”Feminist Politics and Human Nature,” 198 - cited in [http://elliotlakenews.wordpress.com/2007/02/01/feminism-has-communist-roots/ ‘Feminism’ Has Communist Roots]
}}

[[Category:Conservative values]]

Mark Hanna

2008-11-07T22:26:49Z

Melisande: /* Bibliography */ categorize

'''Mark Hanna''' (Marcus Alonzo Hanna, September 2, 1837 – February 15, 1904) was a leader of the [[Republican Party]] who rose to fame as the campaign manager of the successful Republican presidential candidate [[William McKinley]] in the realigning Presidential election of 1896. Hann thus supervised the first modern political campaign. A conservative businessman who got along well with labor unions, Hanna became one of the most powerful members of the U.S. Senate, supporting McKinley and promoting harmony between capital and labor.
==Early life==
Hanna was born of Scotch-Irish [[Quaker]] stock in New Lisbon, Ohio, where his father Leonard was a country physician, Leonard Hanna who brought the family to the boom town of Cleveland in 1852 and prospered in the grocery business. Mark attended the Cleveland Central High School, where he knew the young [[John D. Rockefeller]] and briefly attended Western Reserve College. After working for his father's grocery business, the young Hanna tried his hand in numerous business ventures, mostly without luck. He served briefly as a quartermaster in the Union Army during the [[Civil War]]; he remained a lifelong activist in veterans' organizations. (It is not true that he was awarded the Medal of Honor--that was an unrelated Marcus Hanna.) After 1867 he became rich as a shipper and broker serving the coal and iron industries. Cleveland was emerging as a major transshipping point between the [[Great Lakes]] ore deposits and the mills of eastern Ohio and western Pennsylvania, and Hanna loved making deals and bargains on a daily basis over a wide range of products and services. Hanna was one of the few industrialists fascinated less by profits than by the outdoor spectacle and indoor bargaining of politics.

Hanna was a long time member of St. John's Episcopal Church in Cleveland.
==Manager of campaigns==
Shoemaker (1992) shows during the 1870s and 1880s Hanna was one of several Midwestern Republicans who shifted their local and state parties from a focus on social issues like prohibition to economic issues. Hanna made the Ohio GOP an instrument for government promotion and protection of business in the 1890s. Hanna was a major advocate of the "Commonwealth Idea," a [[Alexander Hamilton|Hamiltonian]] Whiggish political philosophy which encouraged direct government action to speed up economic modernization and benefit the general interest.

Hanna made a transition into politics during the 1880s and in 1888, he managed Ohio Senator [[John Sherman]]'s unsuccessful effort to gain the Republican presidential nomination. Rep. William McKinley had been defeated for reelection to the House in 1890 on the issue of the high McKinley Tariff, but campaigned so well the GOP nominated him for governor of Ohio. Hanna helped McKinley win the 1891 and 1893 elections and became his chief advisor.
[[Image:~hanna96.jpg|thumb|350px|right|1896 Davenport cartoon of Mark Hanna as slave driver, from Hearst's ''New York Journal'']]

McKinley's only competition for the Republican nomination in 1896 was Speaker Thomas Reed of Maine, but McKinley was the better campaigner and Hanna had built a network of support especially in corrupt southern state conventions. With McKinley as the 1896 Republican nominee Hanna became Chairman of the [[Republican National Committee]], raised an unprecedented $3.5 million for McKinley's campaign for the [[gold standard]], high tariffs, high wages, [[pluralism]] and renewed prosperity. Most of the money came from corporations who feared that [[William Jennings Bryan]]'s more radical [[Free Silver]] policy would ruin the entire economy.

[[Image:1896PR.jpg|thumb|300px|Hanna set up publicity headquarters in Chicago]]

By October the [[U.S. Democratic Party, History|Democrats]] realized they were losing on Bryan's favorite issue (free silver to cause inflation) and targeted Hanna as the arch-villain who threatened to put corporate interests ahead of the national interest. As McKinley was highly likable, Hanna became a target of Bryanites, especially [[William Randolph Hearst]] and his ''[[New York Journal]]'', with cartoonists like Davenport portraying him as a bloated sinister figure with a cruel face, wearing a suit decorated with dollar signs.<ref> Jeansonne, 1988 </ref>

Hanna's campaign employed 1,400 people, who unleashed a flood of 250 million pamphlets, leaflets, posters, and stump speakers who reached every precinct warning of the dangers of Free Silver and Bryan's radicalism, while promising prosperity and pluralism for all if McKinley won. McKinley scored a landslide with an electoral vote of 271 to 176.

It was the most expensive campaign ever in U.S. politics, with the McKinley campaign outspending Bryan's by nearly 12 to 1. It set the standard for 20th century campaign tactics and funding, especially for its adroit use of publicity, its overall national plan, its strategic use of issues, and especially the candidate's own speech making.

Most important, Hanna nationalized presidential elections. No longer would candidates passively allow the state organizations to dominate the campaign; in conjunction with Bryan's unprecedented whistle-stop campaign that delivered over 500 speeches in 90 days, American election campaigning was permanently revolutionized.<ref> Jensen, (1971)</ref> See [[American election campaigns, 19th century]]

==Election to U.S. Senate==
[[Image:Hanna97.jpg|thumb|left|300px|Opper cartoon shows Hanna as Shylock driving a hard bargain in 1897. from ''Puck'']]

President McKinley appointed elderly Senator [[John Sherman]] to the cabinet, opening the way for the Ohio legislature to elect Hanna to the senate seat in March 1897. As the economy recovered and the triumph of the Spanish-American War bolstered McKinley's popularity, the 1900 rematch was a decisive victory and guaranteed Republican dominance of the [[Fourth Party System]].

[[Image:1900Hanna2.jpg|thumb|left|350px|Farmer Hanna prepares for the 1900 campaign by loading up with with patronage, money and promises]]

In the Senate Hanna became a leader in policy formation. Emerging from McKinley's shadow he played an key role in selecting the Panama route for the trans-oceanic canal. Senator Hanna was, however, disappointed at his failure to resurrect the Commonwealth Idea in support of granting governmental subsidies to the merchant marine.

Hanna's role as president of the [[National Civic Federation]], a major national interest group dedicated to arbitrating labor disputes outside of politics or the courts, demonstrated that Hanna anticipated the key policymaking role extra-party bureaucracies would assume in the emerging administrative state of the twentieth century. He succeeded to a considerable extent in attracting labor unions into the Republican coalition and heading off major strikes that would be not only economically damaging but politically and socially divisive.

[[Image:OPPER1900.jpg|thumb|250px|Opper cartoon shows the Trusts using Hanna as a nanny to sit on Roosevelt, while McKinley is a child playing war.]]

==Hanna and Roosevelt==
Hanna and [[Theodore Roosevelt]] had been allies in the 1890s, but they became rivals, initially due to their disagreement about the Spanish-American War. Roosevelt strongly favored war with Spain; Hanna resisted war until public opinion demanded it. In 1900, New York politicians wanted Governor Roosevelt to become vice president. Hanna was dubious but had no alternative candidate to stop it. One of the leading powers in the conservative faction of the Republican party, Hanna lost influence when McKinley was assassinated. Upon hearing the news, Hanna reputedly remarked that "Now that damn cowboy is president." Hanna and Roosevelt worked together (particularly on the Panama Canal) and although they remained personally cordial, they considered each other political rivals.

==Death and legacy==
Hanna was expected to run against Roosevelt for the Republican nomination for president in 1904 election, but Roosevelt's popularity and Hanna's ill health caused him to drop out of the contest in 1902. The rivalry was cut short by Hanna's death of typhoid fever, at the peak of his power. [[Karl Rove]] in 2000 and especially 2004 was influenced by the Hanna model in shaping the [[George W. Bush]] election campaigns.

Hanna's daughter Ruth married into the McCormick family in [[Chicago]]. As [[Ruth Hanna McCormick]] she served as a Republican in the [[United States House of Representatives]].

==Bibliography==
* Cole, Arthur C. "Hanna, Marcus Alonzo," ''Dictionary of American Biography'' (1932), Volume 4
* Croly, Herbert. ''Marcus Alonzo Hanna: His Life and Work'' (1912), still the leading biography [http://books.google.com/books?id=843LWVTdC00C&pg=PA84&dq=%22mark+hanna%22&num=30&as_brr=1 online edition]
* Dick, Charles N. W. "Marcus A. Hanna" ''Ohio Archaeological and Historical Collections'' (1904) v 13 pp 355-74 [http://books.google.com/books?id=V_nwbcNHyMAC&printsec=toc&dq=%22mark+hanna%22&num=30&as_brr=1&sig=gd6sEUbZOvFG2nMQ2-Fxx6leako#PPA355,M1 online edition]
* Glen Jeansonne, "Goldbugs, Silverites, and Satirists: Caricature and Humor in the Presidential Election of 1896." ''Journal of American Culture'' 1988 11(2): 1-8. Issn: 0191-1813
* Jensen, Richard. ''The Winning of the Midwest: Social and Political Conflict, 1888-1896'' (1971)
* Jones, Stanley L. ''The Presidential Election of 1896.'' the standard history.
* Morris, Edmund ''Theodore Rex'' 1901-1909. (2001); Biography of Roosevelt.
* Rhodes, James Ford. ''The McKinley and Roosevelt Administrations, 1897-1909'' (1922), Rhodes was Hanna's brother-in-law
* Shoemaker, Fred Chester. "Mark Hanna and the Transformation of the Republican Party." (Vol. 1-2) PhD dissertation, Ohio State U. 1992. 451 pp. DAI 1992 53(5): 1644-A. DA9227379

====notes====
<references/>

[[Category:Republicans]]

Litotes

2008-11-07T22:26:18Z

Melisande: categorize

In [[rhetoric]], '''litotes''' is a form of understatement that affirms a statement by negating its opposite. For example, one could say "She was not shy about stating her opinions," as opposed to saying "She stated her opinions boldly." Common litotic expressions include "Not bad," "No big deal," and "That doesn't surprise me."

[[Category:Dictionary]]

List of liberalism in America

2008-11-07T22:25:41Z

Melisande: categorize

This is a list of specific definitions of various liberal variances within the [[United States]].

*[[Conservapedia:Articles about liberals|Articles about liberals]]
*[[Classical liberal]]
*[[Drinking Liberally]]
*[[Godless liberal]]
*[[Hollywood values]]
*[[Last wordism]]
*[[Liberal arts]]
*[[Liberal Arts college]]
*[[Liberal bias]]
*[[Liberal celebrity obsession]]
*[[Essay:Liberal Behavior on Conservapedia|Liberal Behavior on Conservapedia]]
*[[Liberal Christianity]]
*[[Liberal deceit]]
*[[Liberal denial]]
*[[Liberal Elite]]
*[[Essay:Liberal Falsehoods|Liberal Falsehoods]]
*[[Liberal Fascism]]
*[[Liberal friendship]]
*[[Liberal Gloss]]
*[[Liberal grading]]
*[[Liberal hate speech]]
*[[Liberal hypocrisy]]
*[[Liberal hysteria]]
*[[Liberal ideology]]
*[[Essay:Liberal Intellectualism|Liberal Intellectualism]]
*[[Liberal labels]]
*[[Slander: Liberal Lies About the American Right|Liberal Lies About the American Right]]
*[[Liberal logic]]
*[[Liberal myths]]
*[[Liberal obfuscation]]
*[[Liberal quotient]]
*[[Liberal supremacist]]
*[[Liberal Style]]
*[[Liberal tools]]
*[[Liberal tricks]]
*[[Liberal values]]
*[[Massachusetts liberal]]
*[[Professor values]]

[[Category:Liberals]]

Irish Republican Brotherhood

2008-11-07T22:24:35Z

Melisande: categorize

The '''Irish Republican Brotherhood''', also commonly known as the IRB or the Fenians, was the largest and most influential of the nineteenth-century secret oath-bound societies in Ireland that were dedicated to ending British rule over Ireland by force and creating in its place an all-Ireland republican form of government completely independent of the [[British Empire]]. It had substantial support among Irish emigrants in north America and in 1867 a group of them invaded Canada in sympathy with the IRB leaders in Ireland who staged an uprising against British rule in the same year. Its leaders were the chief organisers of the [[Easter Rising]] in Dublin in 1916, the event which the Irish poet [[W.B.Yeats]], in his poem [[Easter 1916 (Poem)]] referred to as a 'terrible beauty'.

[[Category:Ireland]]

John Millington Synge

2008-11-07T22:24:02Z

Melisande: categorize

'''Edmund John Millington Synge''' (April 16, 1871 - March 24, 1909) was an [[Ireland|Irish]] poet and playwright. Synge's best known work is ''The Playboy of the Western World''. He was also a cofounder of Dublin's [[Abbey Theater]].

Synge was born in Rathfarnham, now a [[Dublin]] suburb, the youngest of eight children. He attended private schools in Dublin and Bray, and studied at the Royal Irish Academy of Music. He earned a bachelor's degree from [[Trinity College Dublin]] in 1892. After college, Synge moved to [[Germany]], initially intending to study music. However, doubts about his musical ability persuaded him to pursue a career in literature.

The first of his plays to be performed was ''The Shadow of the Glen'' in 1903; the play was based on folk stories Synge had collected while living in the [[Aran Islands]]. The play for which Synge is best known, ''The Playboy of the Western World'', was first performed at the Abbey Theater in 1907. ''Playboy'' was a comedy centered on an apparent murder of a family member, and was greeted with hostility by the public. On night of the first performance, much of the audience rioted.

Synge died at 37 from [[Hodgkin's Disease]], a form of cancer that could not be treated at the time.

[[Category:Playwrights]]
[[Category:Poets]]

Sean Hannity

2008-11-07T22:23:31Z

Melisande: /* External Links */ categorize

[[Image:SHannity.jpg|right|thumb|230px]]
'''Sean Hannity''' (born December 30, 1961) is a [[conservative]] talk show host and [[television]] co-host of [[Fox News]]'s ''Hannity and Colmes'' show, as well as host of ''Hannity's America''. The youngest of four children, Hannity was born in [[New York City]] to Irish immigrants. He dropped out of college to embark on a [[radio]] career, and in 1988 was at a small-town station of WVNN in [[Huntsville, Alabama]]. He later broke into a Top 10 market in Atlanta at 640 AM WGST. His national recognition came as an occasional substitute host of the #1 radio show of all-time - ''The [[Rush Limbaugh]] Show''.{{fact|date=January 2008}} Allegedly on his first guest show, he dropped the golden EIB microphone because of a case of high nerves. The attention gained from substitute-hosting the show paved his way to national syndication.

==Television==
Sean Hannity was asked to join the newly formed Fox News Channel (FNC) in September 1996<ref>http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,1242,00.html</ref>.
He accepted the offer and became co-host with Alan Colmes of ''Hannity and Colmes'', a prime time one-hour debate-driven talk show focusing on the controversial issues and newsmakers of the day.<ref>http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,1242,00.html</ref> Today ''Hannity and Colmes'' ranks among the leading cable TV news show (just behind ''Larry King Live'' and the ''O'Reilly Factor''). Critics contend that the conservative Hannity is given more time to talk than the liberal Colmes. Hannity also has a Sunday show on Fox News, entitled ''Hannity's America''.

==Controversy==
Hannity angered traditional [[Catholics]] with his antagonistic treatment of Father Thomas Euteneuer on March 9, 2007, during which Hannity criticized Fr. Euteneuer for prominent sex scandals in the Catholic Church.<ref>http://thebadguy.wordpress.com/2007/03/15/video-of-the-hannity-euteneuer-squabble</ref> After heated remarks by Hannity during the interview, he finally asked the priest, "Wait, would you deny me Communion?" To which Fr. Euteneuer responded, "I would."<ref>http://www.renewamerica.us/columns/abbott/070320</ref>

==Books==
Hannity's books use patriotic rhetoric as a main theme. His first book, in 2002, was entitled ''Let Freedom Ring: Winning the War of Liberty over Liberalism''. The book remained on the ''New York Times'' bestseller list for 17 weeks.<ref>http://www.harpercollins.com/authors/24930/Sean_Hannity/index.aspx</ref>
In 2004 he wrote ''Deliver Us from Evil: Defeating Terrorism, Despotism, and Liberalism''. In this book he "reveals how the disgraceful history of appeasement has reached forward from the days of [[Neville Chamberlain]] and [[Jimmy Carter]] to corrupt the unrepentant leftists of the modern [[Democratic Party]] from [[Howard Dean]] and [[John Kerry]] to [[Bill Clinton|Bill]] and [[Hillary Clinton]]."

==Radio==
Hannity reaches approximately 12.5 million radio listeners each day, second only behind Rush Limbaugh.<ref>''Newsweek'', April 27, 2007, p. 29</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist|2}}

== See also ==

*[[Conservative Links]]

==External Links==
*[http://www.hannity.com/ Sean Hannity's Official Website]
*[http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,1242,00.html Biography] at Fox News

{{DEFAULTSORT:Hannity, Sean}}
[[Category:Conservative Commentators]]
[[Category:Broadcasters]]
[[Category:Tools]]

Bill O'Reilly

2008-11-07T22:22:49Z

Melisande: /* References */ categorize

[[Image:Bll.png|thumb|right|Bill O' Reilly On The O' Reilly Report]]
'''Bill O'Reilly''' is a commentator and host of the show ''The O'Reilly Factor'' on the [[Fox News Channel]], which he calls the "No Spin Zone." O'Reilly often remarks that his personal [[political]] viewpoint is not captured by the modern [[Democratic Party|Democratic]] and [[Republican Party|Republican]] archetypes and would rather call himself a "traditionalist" and "independent". In this vein, he has expressed support for some positions not traditionally associated with his political supporters, instead associated with [[liberals]], including [[anthropogenic climate change]] and [[civil union]]s for both [[heterosexual]] and [[homosexual]] couples.

''The O'Reilly Factor'' is the highest-rated hour on any cable news channel. Over 2.5 million people watch the show each night and millions more listen to his on radio show.<ref>[http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2004/09/23/60minutes/main645202.shtml Bill O'Reilly: "No Spin"] Transcript 60 Minutes with Mike Wallace aired Sept. 26, 2004. </ref>

Recently [[Conservative|conservatives]] criticized O'Reilly [http://www.conservapedia.com/Fox_News_Channel#Fox_News_Channel_and_Homosexuality regarding his views in relation to homosexuality].

==Early life/Education==
O'Reilly was born in 1949 [[New York City]] to parents William and Angela O'Reilly.<ref>{{cite news|author=Pragoff, Cat|title=Fox News' Bill O'Reilly was in classroom before newsroom|publisher=[[New Hampshire Union Leader]]|date=[[2005-02-09]]|page=D10}}</ref> After graduating from Chaminade High School, a private Catholic boys high school in Mineola in 1967, O'Reilly attended Marist College. While at Marist, O'Reilly played punter in the National Club [[American football|Football]] Association,<ref>{{cite web |author= Duffy, Don| title="Campus Stuff" (''The Circle'')|url=http://library.marist.edu/archives/Circle/1970/1970-11-19.pdf |publisher=[[Marist College]]|date=1970-11-19| accessdate=2008-05-12 }}</ref> and was also a writer for the school's newspaper, ''The Circle''. An honors student, he majored in history. O'Reilly received his [[Bachelor of Arts|B.A.]] in [[History]] in 1971, graduating as [[valedictorian]]. He played semi-professional [[baseball]] during this time, as a pitcher. O'Reilly later earned a master's degree in Broadcast Journalism from [[Yale University]] and another Master of Public Administration from [[Harvard]].

==Views on prejudice and racism==

O'Reilly has condemned white [[racist]] prejudice against U.S. blacks, although recently some remarks he made underscoring the fact that black-owned and [[Italian]]-owned restaurants are comparable were taken out of context by the far-left "watchdog" group [[Media Matters]]. <ref>http://mediamatters.org/items/200709260003?f=h_top</ref> Some asserted outrage over his use of the term "lynching party" when discussing [[Michelle Obama]], though in actuality he was defending her and not using the term in a racist context.

==Criticism==
O'Reilly has often been accused of berating his guests. He is deeply disliked by many on the [[leftist|far-left]], who often accuse him of distorting facts or [[slander]]ing those unfriendly to his position. He has occasionally been criticized by conservatives on certain issues such as his stance on [[gun control]].

==Trivia==

* O'Reilly and [[Stephen Colbert]] have a friendly rivalry <ref>http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/16698834/</ref>, even appearing on each others' shows.

== See also ==

*[[Conservative Links]]

==References==

<references/>

{{DEFAULTSORT: Oreilly, Bill}} 

[[Category:Conservative Commentators]]
[[Category:Tools]]

Jurassic Coast

2008-11-07T22:22:01Z

Melisande: categorize

The Jurassic Coast is a [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Site]] located on the South Coast of the [[UK]] in the counties of [[Dorset]] and [[Devon]]. It is an area of outstanding beauty and geological complexity. Some of the first [[dinosaur]] fossils to be discovered were unearthed here.

[[Category:Fossils]]

Gladys Knight & the Pips

2008-11-07T22:20:57Z

Melisande: categorize

'''Gladys Maria Knight''' was born on May 28, 1944,
her brother [[Merald "Bubba" Knight, Jr.]] on September 4, 1942
and her cousin, [[William Guest]] on July 2, 1941.
[[Edward "Eddie" Roy Patten]] was born on August 2, 1939,
each of them from [[Atlanta]]. Together they are one of the most
successful recording acts of the 60’s, 70’s and the 80’s.

At just seven years of age, Gladys Knight won [[Ted Mack]]’s televised
[[Amateur Hour]]. At fourteen Gladys and family members signed with
[[Brunswick Records]] with little success.

In the summer of 1961, Gladys Knight & the Pips tasted their first
number one R&B hit, “[[Every Beat of My Heart]]”, it also landed on the top ten
of the pop charts. “[[I Heard It Through the Grapevine]]” peaked at #2 in
1967, followed by “[[If I Were Your Woman]]” in 1970. “[[Neither One Of Us]]”
reached #2 in 1973 and Gladys & the Pips topped the pop
Hit Parade with their first #1, “[[Midnight Train To Georgia]]” in 1973,
followed by three more top five hits, “[[I’ve Got To Use My Imagination]]”,
“[[Best Thing That Could Ever Happen To Me]]” and “[[On and On]]”.

Joining [[Dionne Warwick]], [[Elton John]], [[Stevie Wonder]] and others in 1985,
Gladys Knight again hit #1 with “[[That’s What Friends Are For]]”.

With seven [[Grammy Award|Grammy Awards]], Gladys Knight and the Pips were
awarded a star on the [[Hollywood]] [[Walk of Fame]] in 1995.

[[Category:Music]]

Gas giant

2008-11-07T22:20:27Z

Melisande: categorize

A '''Gas giant''' is a type of [[planet]]. Gas giants consist of [[gas|gases]] and it is believed that there are [[solid]], super [[dense]] cores at their centre. Examples of Gas giants include [[Jupiter]] and [[Saturn]].

[[Category:Astronomy]]

Francesco Redi

2008-11-07T22:19:53Z

Melisande: categorize

{{quotebox|Redi placed meat in three flasks -- one open, one sealed and one covered with gauze. Maggots appeared in the open flask, as the flies were able to reach the meat. Maggots did not appear in the sealed flask or the flask covered by gauze. At the time, this experiment was not thought to disprove [[Spontaneous Generation]]. It merely proved that maggots did not come from meat. [http://www.allaboutscience.org/origin-of-life.htm] }}

[[Category:Theory of Evolution and Cases of Fraud, Hoaxes and Speculation]]

Firearm ownership

2008-11-07T22:19:33Z

Melisande: categorize

Concerning '''firearm ownership''', former [[NRA]] President [[Sandy Froman]] wrote:
{{cquote|Early [[American]]s were [[gun]] owners. Private [[firearm]] ownership was widespread from the coasts to the frontier, in both the [[North]] and the [[South]].<ref>http://www.wnd.com/news/article.asp?ARTICLE_ID=56047</ref>}}

==References list==

<references/>

[[Category:Conservative values]]

Evolution by natural selection

2008-11-07T22:17:47Z

Melisande: categorize

{{stub}}
[[Phillip E. Johnson]] told [[NOVA]]:
:If evolution by natural selection is a scientific doctrine, then the critique of that doctrine, and even of the fundamental [[assumption]] on which it's based, is a legitimate part of [[science]] as well. [http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/id/defense-id.html Intelligent Design on Trial - In Defense of Intelligent Design]

[[Category:Evolution]]

Fillmore!

2008-11-07T22:17:28Z

Melisande: categorize

'''Fillmore!''' is a show created by the [[Disney Channel]]. It is about a [[middle school]] safety patrol who crack cases and beat up the culprits. Their leader is Fillmore! One of the episodes involved a virtual pet.

{{stub}}

[[Category:Television Shows]]
[[Category:Presidents of the United States]]

Fine Gael

2008-11-07T22:16:30Z

Melisande: /* Party Leaders */ categorize

{{AmericanPoliticalParty
| party_name = Fine Gael
| party_articletitle = Fine Gael
| party_logo =
| website = [http://www.finegael.ie]
| leader = [[Enda Kenny]]
| foundation = 1934
| colors = Blue (unofficial)
| footnotes =
}}
'''Fine Gael''' (pronounced "Fin-neh Gail") is one of the two major political parties in the [[Republic of Ireland]]. Due to the unique circumstances of the Irish political party system, Fine Gael (like its rival party [[Fíanna Fáil]]) does not have a distinct liberal or conservative ideology. Rather, it remains centrist, occasionally veering centre-left or centre-right depending on circumstances of who led the party. The party has not enjoyed as much electoral success as Fíanna Fáil, however they have made strong gains in the most recent general election. The last Fine Gael government was under the leadership of [[John Bruton]] from 1994 to 1997. Since then the party has served as the Main Opposition in the Dáil (parliament). The party's current leader is [[Enda Kenny]].

==History==
The party was borne out of the supporters of the [[1921 Anglo-Irish Treaty]] which ended the Irish War of Independance and established an Irish Free State. The treaty caused the split of the old Sinn Féin party (not to be confused with the current party of the same name), with the pro-treaty wing establishing a new party, ''Cumann na nGaedheal'' (Clan of the Gael). Cumann na nGaedheal was elected to government in 1922, and under the leadership of [[William T. Cosgrave]] it played a vital role in reconstructing an island that had been devastated by years of war. Among the Cosgrave government's achievements were successfully establishing a national power grid, successfully and quickly establishing a new national police force, the Garda Síochána (guardians of the peace), and building a new Irish economy - though the Crash of 1929 hindered this ambition.

The party lost the general election of 1932 to Fíanna Fáil, a party established by the anti-treaty branch of the old Sinn Féin. During its years in opposition, Cumann na nGaedheal underwent a number of changes, merging with the Catholic Centre Party and the newly-formed National Guard to form the new ''Fine Gael'' party in 1934, under the new leadership of Eoin O'Duffy. This was the same decade that [[fascism]] experienced a huge growth throughout Europe, and it had been observed that O'Duffy's National Guard had been emulating some superficial fascist elements - most notably the use of uniforms that saw them nicknamed Blueshirts. O'Duffy's experimentation in fascism did not meet well with Cosgrave and other party figures, and he was dismissed from the party. Fine Gael remained a party dedicated to democracy.

The 1940s and 1950s saw the party return to government as componants of so-called "Inter Party" coalitions containing other parties such as the [[Labour Party]] and the short-lived Clann na Poblachta (Republican Party). It was a Fine Gael [[Taoiseach]], [[John A. Costello]], who formally declared Ireland a republic in 1949.

The party was out of government throughout the 1960s, resuming office briefly under [[Liam Cosgrave]], the son of William Cosgrave, and then again in the 1980s under [[Garret FitzGerald]]. FitzGerald's tenure is generally regarded as Fine Gael's greatest moment to date. In this decade the party shifted towards the left, however a long stint in opposition in the late 1990s saw it revert to a more centrist position once more. The general election of 2002 saw one of Fine Gael's worst results in history, however it spent the next five years working hard to reverse this and made signifigant gains in the 2007 election.

==Party Leaders==
Those whose names are in bold have served as [[Taoiseach]].

''Cumann na nGaedheal''
* '''William T. Cosgrave (1922 - 1933)'''
''Fine Gael''
* Eoin O'Duffy (1933 - 1934)
* William T. Cosgrave (1935 - 1944)
* Richard Mulcahy (1944 - 1959)^
* James Dillon (1959 - 1965)
* '''Liam Cosgrave (1965 - 1977)'''
* '''Garret FitzGerald (1977 - 1987)'''
* Alan Dukes (1987 - 1990)
* '''John Bruton (1990 - 2001)'''
* Michael Noonan (2001 - 2002)
* Enda Kenny (2002 - )

^ Due to an internal disagreement, party leader Richard Mulachy did not serve as Taoiseach when the party headed a coalition government in 1948. [[John A. Costello]] served as Taoiseach instead.

[[Category:Ireland]]

Evangelist

2008-11-07T22:15:30Z

Melisande: categorize

{{stub}}
'''Evangelist''' (i vánjəlist) properly refers to a writer of [[Christian]] [[Gospel]] and is applied to the [[Apostle]]s [[Matthew]], [[Mark]], [[Luke]], and [[John]]. The term is now also commonly applied to Christians who actively [[witness]] to others with the aim of [[Conversion|converting]] them to the Christian faith.

==See also==
*[[Evangelism]]

[[Category:Christians]]

Englandspiel

2008-11-07T22:15:04Z

Melisande: categorize

'''Englandspiel''' was the codename given to a highly successful [[Germany|German]] counter-[[espionage]] operation in the [[Netherlands]] during [[World War II]]. The occupying German fores obtained the codes used by the Dutch reistance in radio contact with [[United Kingdom|Britain]], and by impersonating the resistance the Germans were able to capture 57 agents sent in from [[England]], and arrest hundreds of Dutch resistance personnel. The pinnacle of Englandspiel was the failure of Operation Market Garden, an Allied attempt to break through German lines at [[Arnhem]] in September of 1944.<ref>Recounted in the book ''A Bridge Too Far'', by Cornelius Ryan.</ref>

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

[[Category:World War II]]
[[Category:Spies]]

Edmund Scarborough

2008-11-07T22:14:21Z

Melisande: categorize

'''Colonel Edmund Scarborough''' (September 1617 - 1671) was an influential early settler of [[Virginia]] and member of the Virginia House of Burgesses from 1642 to 1671.

Scarborough was born in England; his father, Edmund Scarborough (1584-1635), was a barrister and graduate of [[Caius College]], who emigrated to Virginia with his family circa 1628.

On April 28, 1651, Scarborough led a raid of some fifty men, on the nearby Pocamoke Indian village after convincing the settlers that the Indians planned to attack. At least one historian doubts the veracity of his story and suggested that he may have invented the story in order to raise enough men for the attack the village. After capturing some of the villagers and binding them in changes the Indians did start attacking the English. In May all the men involved in the action were called to appear in court for their illegal actions.

By 1663 Col. Scarborough had become an enemy of the [[Quakers]] located in Accomack County, Virginia (including [[Ambrose Dixon]]). After the group of Quakers moved to [[Maryland]] where they were offered more religious freedom, Col. Scarborough used his positions as commander of His Majesty's Forces on Virginia's Eastern Shore and Surveyor-General of the Virginia Colony to lead a force of men into Maryland and claim the area for Virginia. Scarborough escaped condemnation for his actions thanks to his influence at the court of Charles II; his brother, Sir Charles Scarborough, was the king's physician.

His eldest son would drown as an adult in the York River on September 21, 1739.

[[Category:Conservative Commentators]]

Courage

2008-11-07T22:13:41Z

Melisande: categorize

'''Courage''' is the [[virtue]] of persevering in a good course of action despite one's fears

* "In premodern times, the courage of a leader often had to be physical. In the last 500 years it is more often moral. Moral courage is the ability to do what's right even when it is deeply unpopular, even dangerous. Courage is only found where there is the genuine possibility of loss -- loss of friends, reputation, status, power, possessions or, at the extremes, freedom or life." [http://jewishworldreview.com/cols/coulter070308.php3]

[[Category:Conservative values]]

Duty

2008-11-07T22:12:56Z

Melisande: categorize

'''Duty''' is something a person must fulfill. An example of duty is the US army's duty to protect the United States of America

[[Category:Conservative values]]

Dubstep

2008-11-07T22:12:23Z

Melisande: categorize

'''Dubstep''' is a genre of [[modern music]], first appearing in [[2002]], defined by its large [[bass|low end]], sparse rhythm and bass drops. Dubstep is most common in the [[United Kingdom]], where its popularity soared after being championed by Mary Anne Hobbs. Famous artists include [[Skream]], [[Benga]], [[Corki]], and [[Kode 9]].

[[Category:Dictionary]]
[[Category:Music]]

Didache

2008-11-07T22:11:57Z

Melisande: categorize

The '''Didache''' is one of the earliest [[Christian]] writings from the early [[first century]] Church outside of the books of the [[New Testament]]. It was not included in the [[Bible]]. The Didache is a book of instructions for the morals and practices of the early Church. Long thought to be lost, the text was rediscovered in 1883 and a number of [[English]] language translations now exist.

{{stub}}

==References==
* [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/04779a.htm New Advent Catholic Encyclopedia article on the Didache]

[[Category:Dictionary]]

Corn syrup

2008-11-07T22:11:16Z

Melisande: categorize

'''Corn syrup''' is a sweetener made from corn starch that is often added to foods (especially drinks) to sweeten them.

Cooks, especially candy makers, use corn syrup to prevent melted [[sugar]] ([[sucrose]]) from crystallizing when cooking or cooling which makes a grainy texture in something that should be smooth like taffy, fudge, or marshmallows.

There is some controversy over the industrial use of corn syrup as a sweetener for drinks, since it goes directly to the blood stream and potentially increases the risk of [[obesity]].

[[Category:Food and Drink]]

Constitution Day

2008-11-07T22:10:06Z

Melisande: categorize

'''Constitution Day''' is a day dedicated to commemorating the signing of the Constitution of the United States of America, and to honoring those Americans who have upheld it ever since. The Constitution was signed on September 17, 1787; in memory of this momentous event, Constitution Day is observed on September 17. It also marks the official beginning of [[Constitution Week]], which is observed each year from September 17 to September 23.

==History of Constitution Day==

While the history of Constitution Day begins with the signing of the Constitution in 1787, the day was formally recognized by joint resolution of Congress on February 29, 1952. A subsequent joint resolution, passed on August 2, 1956, requested that the President proclaim the week beginning September 17 and ending September 23 as "Constitution Week." [http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2007/08/20070822-5.html].

In 2004, as part of the Consolidated Appropriations Act of 2005, Congress mandated that any educational institution receiving Federal funding must observe Constitution Day with an appropriate educational program pertaining to the United States Constitution. [http://www.ed.gov/legislation/FedRegister/other/2005-2/052405b.html]

[[Category:Holidays]]

Christian Popular Music

2008-11-07T22:09:32Z

Melisande: categorize

Christian Popular Music is a style of [[music]] modeled on whatever music is currently popular in the youth culture at large, but with most if not all of the emphasis placed on [[Christian]] themes, spirituality, and other topics important to Christian Youth.

Some critics hold that pop music of any kind is demonic or harmful to Christian youth. However, most Christians agree that understanding and embracing so-called "youth culture" is a useful and exciting tool for helping teens find Jesus and live with Christianity as part of their lives, or if they are already Christian, keeping them an active part of the [[Church]] and of the teachings of Christ, and reminding them they have an external "family" of Love that comes with being a Christian.

Some popular styles of Christian music include: [[Christian Metal]], [[Christian rap]], [[Reggae]], modern country-western, and hip-hop.

==Lists of popular bands on Conservapedia==
*[[Extreme]]

[[Category:Christians]]
[[Category:Music]]

Burr conspiracy

2008-11-07T22:09:01Z

Melisande: categorize

The '''Burr conspiracy''' was an expedition of [[Aaron Burr]], the infamous [[Vice-president]] under [[Thomas Jefferson]]. His goal was ultimately to separate the western states from the Atlantic states. General James Wilkinson, had a personal interest in this military expedition in the West. He secretly turned on Burr, however, after Burr sent him a coded letter outlining his plans. In the coded letter, Burr explained that he had garnered support from some old cronies and had made a hideaway on Blennerhassett Island. Wilkinson decoded the letter and forwarded it to President Jefferson. Meanwhile, Burr intended to begin the conflict at [[Baton Rouge]]. It would have benefited himself and many other officials if his plot to divide the country had worked.

Jefferson had Burr arrested and tried by the [[Marshall Court]] in 1807. He was actually acquitted.

==Sources==
BJU Press, Writing & Grammar for Christian schools 11, p. 118-120

[[Category:American History]]

Suzanne Kosmos

2008-11-07T22:04:00Z

Melisande: fix redirect

#REDIRECT [[Suzanne Kosmas]]

Camel

2008-09-17T17:05:41Z

Melisande: wikify: God

{{Taxonomy|image = Bactrian_camel.jpg|kingdom = Animalia|phylum = Chordata|subphylum = Vertebrata|class = Mammalia| order = Artiodactyla|suborder = Tylopoda |family = Camelidae|genus = Camelus|species = C. dromedarius (Dromedary) C. bactrianus (Bactrian) C. gigas C. hesternus C. sivalensis }}
'''Camels''' are native to the dry and desert areas of western Asia and East Africa, and central and east Asia. The '''Dromedary''' or '''Arabian''' camel has a single hump, and the '''Bactrian camel''' has two humps. Their average life expectancy is up to 60 years.

A popular saying from the [[Bible]] spoken by [[Jesus]] is that "...it is easier for a camel to pass through the eye of a needle, than it is for a rich man to enter the kingdom of [[God]]." ([[Gospel of Matthew|Matthew]] 19:24)

{{Nb_zl_camelids}}
[[Category:Hoofed Mammals]]
[[Category:Biblical Animals]]
[[Category:Livestock]]
[[Category:Domestic Animals]]

Open source (software)

2008-09-17T17:05:15Z

Melisande: /* External Links */ make bulleted list

[[Image:Opensource.svg.png|right|100px|thumb|OSI logo]]
'''Open Source''' is a software development model being promoted by the non-profit '''Open Source Initiative (OSI)''' corporation and other organizations.
==Open Source==
Open Source refers to software where the [[source code]] is available for anyone to modify. There are many different licenses under which open source software is available<ref>http://www.opensource.org/licenses/alphabetical</ref>, all varying slightly to the degree on the conditions under which the software can be modified and redistributed.

Although the development model for open source software may seem counterintuitive, for many projects it has been shown to be very successful. Generally, open source software is distributed with the underlying source code available for anyone to freely modify and redistribute. This development model is very similar to university research, where discoveries and research is published in [[peer review|peer reviewed]] journals, which is then built upon by other researchers spawning further ideas and discoveries.

There is a common misconception that open source software must be given away for free, but this is incorrect.<ref>http://www.gnu.org/licenses/gpl-faq.html#DoesTheGPLAllowDownloadFee</ref> Although most open source software is indeed available for free, with the authors usually charging for consulting and other services, there is no obligation for them to do so.

==Examples==
Examples of well known open source software:
*[http://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/MediaWiki MediaWiki] - Wiki software used for sites such as Conservapedia and Wikipedia.
*[http://httpd.apache.org/ Apache] - Apache web server, the most popular web server in the world.<ref>http://news.netcraft.com/</ref>
*[http://www.mozilla.com/en-US/firefox/ Firefox] - [[Firefox]] web browser developed by the [http://www.mozilla.org/foundation/ Mozilla Foundation].
*[http://www.php.net/ PHP] - PHP: Hypertext Preprocessor, a scripting language used to create dynamic web sites such as Conservapedia.
*[[Linux]] - Operating system kernel used to create distributions such as the one running the server on which Conservapedia runs on.<ref>http://toolbar.netcraft.com/site_report?url=http://www.conservapedia.com</ref>

==External links==
*[http://www.opensource.org/ Open Source Initiative]

==References==
<references />
[[category: information technology]]

Native American

2008-09-17T17:04:43Z

Melisande: copyedit

'''Native American''' is a term that can either refer to an [[American Indian]] or to anyone born in [[America]] as an [[American]].

==See also==
*[[American Indian]]
*[[North American Indians]]

[[Category:Ethnicities]]
[[Category:United States]]

Satan

2008-09-17T17:04:13Z

Melisande: /* Jewish Views */ wikify

[[Image:GustaveDoreParadiseLostSatanProfile.jpg|right|thumb|Gustave Doré's depiction of Satan from John Milton's Paradise Lost.]]
'''Satan''' (from the Hebrew "ha-satan", meaning the "accuser", "tempter", "persecutor", "calumniator" or "adversary") was a member of the [[divine council]] of God referenced in the [[Old Testament]] in [[Job]]. He is referenced 11 times in Job and 4 other times in the Old Testament. The [[New Testament]] mentions Satan 34 times in all starting with the first book [[Matthew]] and ending with the last [[Revelation]]. In the Christian tradition he rebelled against [[God]] and is now the enemy of God and man alike. He is the father of lies and no good is found in him. He leads a host of fallen angels (or [[demon]]s) who know their days are numbered before they will be cast in the [[lake of fire]] and they seek to take as many humans as possible with them. Those who worship Satan are called [[satanism | Satanists]].

The three classic defenses against Satan are:

* mockery, which Satan cannot withstand due to his pride
* sunlight or exposure, from which Satan hides
* the [[Holy Spirit]], meaning "The Advocate" (i.e., defense lawyer), or the [[Armor of God]]<ref>Ephesians 6:1-17</ref>.

Note that Satan lacks self-restraint, which often leads him to failure. In addition, Satan delights in [[deceit]], even to the point of causing his downfall.

== History and Goals ==

In [[Christianity]] Satan's goal is to lead people away from the love of God, by tempting or tricking them. The only sources of supernatural power in the world are from either God (good) or Satan (evil). In the book of [[Genesis]], Satan takes the form of a snake and tempts Eve with fruit from a tree. This causes sin to come into the world. Satan, in the Book of Job, listens to God speak highly of Job and accuses Job to God before the host of angels that Job praises God only because he is blessed and would curse God if he was forced to suffer. God allows Satan to do what he will except to spare his life, and Satan causes Job to suffer immensely. (Job remained true to God through his hardships; Satan accused him further and punished him further, but could not get Job to break).

[[Jesus]] makes references to demonic possession on multiple occasions that He then casts out. Some believe that Satan is able to possess and control living humans on Earth even today. The Catholic church believes that priests (and sometimes only bishops) are able to [[exorcise]] this possession through Jesus.

In the [[New Testament]], Satan tries to tempt [[Jesus]] in the desert, and fails. Jesus warns extensively to beware of Satan as does [[Paul]].

Satan, is also called by several different names (the Devil, deceiver, Bealzebub, Beelzebul, Lucifer, [[Asmodeus]], Abaddon, "Old Scratch," the Crooked One, etc).

The notion of Satan, or an evil force, is noted in many if not all of the major world religions.

== Lucifer ==

'''Lucifer''' literally "Son of the Morning" (or "Light-Bearer") is mentioned in the [[Bible]] in the [[book of Isaiah]] (Isaiah 14:12). He is believed to have been cast down from [[heaven]] to [[hell]] after making 5 pronouncements initiating a rebellion against [[God]] by believing that he was equal or superior to God and would take power for himself.

* I will ascend into heaven
* I will exalt my throne above the stars of God
* I will sit also upon the mount of the congregation, in the sides of the north
* I will ascend above the heights of the clouds
* I will be like the most High

Lucifer is usually equated with [[satan]] in Christian tradition. And so, this gives more history of what caused satan's downfall. While 'satan' would be more of the title, 'Lucifer' would be the proper name.

Lucifer was one of the most powerful angels created by God. As “Light-Bearer” he may have been a Seraphim angel, which is the highest order of the angelic hierarchy. His fall from grace did not deprive Lucifer of his immense powers but did corrupt those powers for the wrongful work of interfering with God's plan for man's salvation.

[[Image:Paradise Lost 12.jpg|right|thumb|''The fall of Lucifer'' by Gustave Doré.]]

== Jewish Views ==

In the Jewish tradition, Satan is an angel who faithfully serves God as a prosecuting attorney - one who accuses men of wickedness and impiety. At the direction of God Satan may be permitted to test these accusations, such as in Job. In this view, Satan's goal is not to lead men away from their faithfulness to God, but merely to reveal the true depths of their devotion, although in [[I Chronicles]] 21:1 Satan provoked [[David]] to take a [[census]] of the people of Israel against the will of God and 70,000 men are slain because of it.
[[category:Abrahamic Religions]]

Evolutionism

2008-09-17T17:03:13Z

Melisande: /* Biblical Young Earth Creationist's problem with a Biblical Old Earth */ bible -> Bible

'''Evolutionism''', as opposed to [[Creationism]], is the ''advocacy of or belief in biological evolution''.<ref>"evolutionism." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. 20 Mar. 2007. <Dictionary.com http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/evolutionism>.</ref> Therefore one who ''believes in or supports a [[theory of evolution]]''<ref>"evolutionist." Dictionary.com Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc. 21 Mar. 2007. <Dictionary.com http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/evolutionist>.</ref> would be referred to as an ''evolutionist''. Evolutionism, used in a general sense, encompasses ''any'' type of biological evolutionist. Broken down into two categories, "Evolutionism" and "Evolutionists" usually involve Atheistic/Agnostic Evolutionists (evolution without God) and Theistic Evolutionists (evolution with God). Those categories can be further broken down, but they are the main two.

The word is used differently in different circles of thought. Generally [[Young Earth Creationism|Young Earth Creationists]] use it as a reference to what they believe is the [[world view]] or [[presupposition]] aspect of the scientific theory of evolution. The term is not necessarily used as a world view unto itself, but is more based off of and is possibly an extension of a variety of other world views including [[Materialism]], [[Naturalism]]<ref>[http://www.talkorigins.org/indexcc/CA/CA601.html CA601: Evolution and Naturalism] - TalkOrigins Archive</ref>, and [[Humanism]] in its broadest sense. Many that hold to the theory of evolution have been known to be [[Atheism|atheists]] as well, but this does not represent the entirety or whole.
{{cquote|''Evolutionism is a '''world-view''', which seeks to explain every aspect of this world in which we live. It encompasses a wide variety of topics, from astronomy to chemistry to biology. At its core, it teaches that there were different stages in the evolution of our universe...''<ref>[http://www.allaboutphilosophy.org/evolutionism.htm Evolutionism - AllAboutPhilosophy] - Accessed on March 22, 2007.</ref>}}

==Theistic Evolution==
[[Theistic Evolution|Theistic Evolutionists]] believe that God created the universe and did not intervene directly in the evolutionary process. In general, theistic evolutionists accept the evolutionist ideas of the age of the earth and common descent. Theistic evolutionists believe that at some point God intervened in a metaphysical fashion to give souls to some small group of human ancestors. The Catholic Church holds that this is consistent with the Catholic faith.<ref>[http://www.catholic.net/RCC/Periodicals/Dossier/0102-97/Article3.html Mark Brumley, Evolution and the Pope]</ref>

==Foundational question/starting point==
All the viewpoints take a ''step of faith'' as some might refer to it. In other words, there is a common starting point or foundational question (it's a God-related question) that each one asks, and then forms their conclusions around.

===According to biblical Creationists (Young Earth)===
* God exists (world view)
** Therefore we need to explain everything based on that "fact"
*** Thus science is done on the basis that "God exists"
**** The Bible comes ''before'' science. The science is based on the world view.

===According to biblical Theistic Evolutionists (Old Earth)===
There is disagreement among [[Theistic Evolution]]ists, as not all hold that God is not involved presently in His creation.

'''Impersonal God'''
* There is no personal/involved God (world view)
** Therefore we need to explain everything based on that "fact"
*** Thus science is done on the basis that God is not involved in His creation
**** ''Theistic Evolutionism'' comes ''before'' the ''Scientific Theory of Evolution''. The science is based on the world view.

'''Personal God'''
* There is a personal/involved God (world view)
** Therefore we need to explain everything based on that "fact"
*** Thus science is done on the basis that there is a "personal God"
**** ''Theistic Evolutionism'' comes ''before'' the ''Scientific Theory of Evolution''. The science is based on the world view.

===According to Atheistic Evolutionists===
Some proponents of the scientific theory of evolution reject the idea of a philosophy or world view that guides their conclusions in scientific experimentation. However evolutionists who are 'strong atheists' and who make a positive assertion that there is no God, do in fact have a world view; whereas 'weak atheists', who maintain there is probably no God due to lack of any objective evidence of Him, rely on science.

'''Strong Atheism'''
* There is no God (world view)
** Therefore we need to explain everything based on that "fact"
*** Thus science is done on the basis of there being no God (i.e. [[naturalism]])
**** Naturalism comes ''before'' the science. The science is based on the world view.

'''Weak Atheism'''
* So far, there is no objective proof of God
** Therefore, we do not need to interpret evidence to fit in with the "fact" of God's existence
*** Thus science is done on the basis of there being no God (i.e. [[naturalism]]) (unless His existence becomes objectively proven)
**** Naturalism comes ''before'' the science. The science is based on the world view.

===Comparison===
The various viewpoints can be compared in general ways as they all have some sort of starting point. The general Creationist starting point is God, which then all the universe is based on including that of science. Some ''Theistic Evolutionists'' hold to a similar God idea, yet emphasize a somewhat secondary origin<ref>Some Theistic Evolutionists believe that God created the universe and yet He is no longer involved in it. Therefore "secondary origin" is referring to the idea that God is the origin of the universe, but not necessarily ''You and Me''.</ref> in the evolutionary process. Atheistic evolutionists say that we must prove God by science, therefore their intellectual starting point is science itself.

==Controversy==
===Usage of Terminology===
The term ''evolutionism'' uses the suffix ''-ism'', which is commonly used to designate varieties of philosophical opinion, and some people who support evolution prefer to use other terms. Others are happy to call themselves evolutionists, and the terms have been in common use for a century. For example, the most popular American proponent of evolution called himself an evolutionist, <ref>"I count myself among the evolutionists", S.J. Gould [http://www.stephenjaygould.org/library/gould_fact-and-theory.html], also "Evolutionists have been very clear about this distinction of fact and theory". [http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/evolution-fact.html]</ref> and his obituary read "Evolutionist Stephen Jay Gould dead".<ref>S.F. Chronicle, 1981 [http://sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2002/05/21/MN175165.DTL]</ref> This is all part of the controversy over evolution itself (see [[Origins debate]]).

Some Atheistic/Agnostic Evolutionists say that the term ''Evolutionism'' is simply a false Creationist perception,
or pejorative assertion that science represents merely another religion. They disagree that the theory of evolution is based on a [[philosophy]] or [[world view]]. They say that the perception finds no grounding in reality, other than as a rhetorical dramatization. However, according to creationists, this disagreement arises from a misunderstanding of terms. Biblical [[Young Earth Creationism|Young Earth Creationists]] hold both terms in philosophically equal light, up to a certain point. They would say that the term "Evolutionism" has the same or very similar meaning to "Creationism" as it relates to a supposed philosophical/foundational starting point or question (does God exist?). They say the term "Evolutionism" refers to a subset of a combination of world views, while the scientific theory of evolution is the result of the ''Evolutionist'' presupposition. In other words, they say that Evolutionism is the collective world view behind the scientific theory of evolution. However, that's where the similarities end with Creationism.

===Religion and Evolutionism===
Some Creationists point out that they see various religious aspects, not in the theory of evolution itself (although they don't exclude that necessarily), but in the Evolutionists themselves. Some will say how Evolutionists have a ''religious fervor'' over what Creationists believe is false science. Some Evolutionists have historically misunderstood this for Creationists labeling science itself as a religion. M. Green, a Creationist, put it this way in his ''Faith of Darwinism'' (emphasis added).
{{cquote|''Today the tables are turned. The modified, but still characteristically Darwinian theory has itself become an orthodoxy, preached by its adherents with '''religious fervor''', and doubted, they feel, only by a few muddlers imperfect in scientific faith.<ref name="mgreen" />''}}

Evolution has been a recent source of controversy in the [[United States]]{{fact}}. Some prominent Americans seriously question evolution{{fact}}, based on a feeling that it conflicts with religious beliefs. However, according to Evolutionists, at least one aspect of religion and evolution is not mutually exclusive. Some deeply religious evolutionists believe that God set evolution into effect, which is no detraction to His majesty. This is referring to the theory of [[Theistic Evolution]].
===Religiosity and the Cult of Personality Surrounding Charles Darwin===
There is a cult of personality and type of religiosity currently surrounding Charles Darwin. [[Stephen Jay Gould]] wrote the following in 1978: "[A]ll theories [of natural selection] cite God in their support, and ... Darwin comes close to this status among evolutionary biologists".<ref>http://www.bradburyac.mistral.co.uk/dar1.html</ref> In 2002, Michael White similarly wrote: "Of course today, for biologists, Darwin is second only to God, and for many he may rank still higher."<ref>http://www.bradburyac.mistral.co.uk/dar1.html</ref>

===Biblical Young Earth Creationist's problem with a Biblical Old Earth===

Taking the Bible literally, there are no gaps permitting an undocumented period of time between the creation week and the fall of the temple in Jerusalem in 587 BC <ref>http://web.newsguy.com/rubyredinger/age.html</ref>, which is well established by archaeology and secular history. Accordingly, the birth of Adam can be placed at approximately 4,163 BC and the initial creation of the universe six days prior.

==Quotes==
'''''Evolutionism requires faith'' quotes (by Evolutionists)''':
{{cquote|'''Michael Ruse''' ''Evolution is promoted by its practitioners as more than mere science. Evolution is promulgated as an ideology, a [[secular religion]] -- a full-fledged alternative to Christianity, with meaning and morality. I am an ardent evolutionist and an ex-Christian, but I must admit that in this one complaint -- and Mr. Gish is but one of many to make it -- the literalists are absolutely right. Evolution is a religion. This was true of evolution in the beginning, and it is true of evolution still today.''<ref>MICHAEL RUSE [http://www.omniology.com/HowEvolutionBecameReligion.html HOW EVOLUTION BECAME A RELIGION]</ref>}}
'''''Evolutionism requires faith'' quotes (by Creationists)''':<ref>[http://www.nwcreation.net/evolutionism.html Evolutionism - Is Evolution a Religion?] - Northwest Creation Network</ref>
{{cquote|'''L.N. Matthews''' ''The fact of evolution is the backbone of biology, and biology is thus in the peculiar position of being a science founded on an unproved theory - is it then a science or faith? <ref>L.N. Matthews, "Introduction" to Charles Darwin, Origin of the Species, pp. x, xi (1971 edition)</ref>''}}
{{cquote|'''J.W.N. Sullivan''' ''The hypothesis that life has developed from inorganic matter is, at present, still an article of faith. <ref>J.W.N. Sullivan, Limitations of Science (1933), p95.</ref>''}}
{{cquote|'''[[R.L. Wysong]]''' ''Evolution requires plenty of faith; a faith in L-proteins that defy chance formation; a faith in the formation of DNA codes which, if generated spontaneously, would spell only pandemonium; a faith in a primitive environment that, in reality, would fiendishly devour any chemical precursors to life; a faith in experiments that prove nothing but the need for intelligence in the beginning; a faith in a primitive ocean that would not thicken, but would only haplessly dilute chemicals; a faith in natural laws of thermodynamics and biogenesis that actually deny the possibility for the spontaneous generation of life; a faith in future scientific revelations that, when realized, always seem to present more dilemmas to the evolutionists; faith in improbabilities that treasonously tell two stories—one denying evolution, the other confirming the Creator; faith in transformations that remain fixed; faith in mutations and natural selection that add to a double negative for evolution; faith in fossils that embarrassingly show fixity through time, regular absence of transitional forms and striking testimony to a worldwide water deluge; a faith in time which proves to only promote degradation in the absence of mind; and faith in reductionism that ends up reducing the materialist's arguments to zero and forcing the need to invoke a supernatural Creator. <ref>R.L. Wysong, The Creation-Evolution Controversy (1981), p. 455.</ref>''}}
{{cquote|'''T. Lessl''' ''"By calling evolution fact, the process of evolution is removed from dispute; it is no longer merely a scientific construct, but now stands apart from humankind and its perceptual frailties. Sagan apparently wishes to accomplish what Peter Berger calls `objectification,' the attribution of objective reality to a humanly produced concept . . With evolution no longer regarded as a mere human construct, but now as a part of the natural order of the cosmos, evolution becomes a sacred archetype against which human actions can be weighed. Evolution is a sacred object or process in that it becomes endowed with mysterious and awesome power." <ref>T. Lessl, Science and the Sacred Cosmos: The Ideological Rhetoric of Carl Sagan," Quarterly Journal of Speech, 71:178 (1985).</ref>''}}
{{cquote|'''M. Grene''' ''"Today the tables are turned. The modified, but still characteristically Darwinian theory has itself become an orthodoxy, preached by its adherents with religious fervor, and doubted, they feel, only by a few muddlers imperfect in scientific faith." <ref name="mgreen">M. Grene, Faith of Darwinism," Encounter, November (1959), p49.</ref>''}}

==See also==
*[[Creationism]]
*[[Faith]]
*[[Humanism]]
*[[Naturalistic religions]]
*[[Religion]]
*[[Theism]]

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==External links==
'''Notes'''
:'''''Affirmative''' articles that attempt to rebut the faith claim of creationists.''
:'''''Critical''' articles that claim evolutionism involves faith.''

{| class="wikitable" width="100%"
! Affirmative !! Critical
|-
| valign="top" width="50%"|
'''TalkOrigins'''
*[http://www.talkorigins.org/indexcc/CA/CA612.html CA612: Evolution requiring faith]
**[http://creationwiki.org/%28Talk.Origins%29_Evolution_requires_as_much_faith_as_creationism CreationWiki response]
*[http://www.talkorigins.org/indexcc/CA/CA610.html CA610: Evolution religious]
**[http://creationwiki.org/%28Talk.Origins%29_Evolution_is_a_religion CreationWiki response]
*[http://www.talkorigins.org/indexcc/CA/CA001.html CA001: Evolution is the foundation of an immoral world view]
**[http://creationwiki.org/%28Talk.Origins%29_Evolution_is_the_foundation_of_an_immoral_worldview CreationWiki response]
*[http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/evolphil/metaphysics.html Evolution and Philosophy: Metaphysics]
'''EvoWiki'''
*[http://wiki.cotch.net/index.php/Evolution_is_the_foundation_of_an_immoral_worldview Evolution is the foundation of an immoral world view]

| valign="top" width="50%"|
'''DrDino'''
* [http://www.drdino.com/articles.php?spec=25 Evolution Is Based On Modern Myths]
'''Creationists.org'''
* [http://www.creationists.org/evolutionisreligion.html Evolution is a Religion]
'''Northwest Creation Network'''
* [http://www.nwcreation.net/evolutionism.html Evolutionism - Is Evolution a religion?]
'''Creation Ministries International'''
* [http://www.creationontheweb.com/content/view/1491/ Evolution as religion]
* [http://www.creationontheweb.com/content/view/4139 Leading anti-creationist philosopher admits that evolution is a religion]
'''Answers in Genesis'''
* [http://www.answersingenesis.org/docs2002/0930religion.asp The Religion of Evolution]
* [http://www.answersingenesis.org/home/area/the-lie/chapter2.asp Evolution is Religion]
'''CreationWiki'''
*[http://creationwiki.org/%28Talk.Origins%29_Evolution_requires_as_much_faith_as_creationism Evolution requires as much faith as creationism] - Rebuttal of TalkOrigins Archive
*[http://creationwiki.org/%28Talk.Origins%29_Evolution_is_a_religion Evolution is a religion] - Rebuttal of TalkOrigins Archive
'''Institute for Creation Research'''
* [http://www.icr.org/article/201/ Evolution is Religion, not Science (1)], [http://www.icr.org/article/455/ (2)]
|}

[[Category:Naturalism]]

Rat

2008-09-17T17:02:21Z

Melisande: grammar

A '''rat''' is a small [[rodent]] found on all [[continent]]s except [[Antarctica]]. In the wild, rats are often considered to be [[pest]]s. They may be associated with the transmission of disease. Infected fleas living in the fur of rats are supposed to have spread [[bubonic plague]]. The [[taxonomy|genus]] ''Rattus'' includes over 50 species.

==Habitat==
Rats are capable of surviving in a wide range of different environments ranging from grasslands, forests, urban settlements, ships, and the unforgiving [[arctic]]. They tend to thrive around [[human beings]].

==Diet==
Rats can survive on an extremely diverse diet, including [[seed]]s, [[fruit]]s, small [[bird]]s and [[mammal]]s, scraps and even garbage.

==Pets==
Rats can make good pets. They are usually kept in a [[cage]] or a [[terrarium]], sometimes with other rats or [[mice]]. Domestic rats are curious, clean, and gentle creatures with a lifespan of approximately three years.

[[category:Rodents]]

Village

2008-09-17T17:01:50Z

Melisande: link commercial

A '''village''' is generally a small settled community, smaller than a [[city]] or a [[town]] but larger than a [[hamlet]] consisting of just a handful of houses or farmsteads. Villages have generally been formed for the purpose of agricultural or specialised industrial production, or for activities such as quarrying or coal-mining; by contrast, the function of towns also includes the provision of [[commercial]] and marketing services for surrounding villages.

'''''The Village''''' is also a film written and directed by [[M. Night Shyamalan]].

[[Category:Geography]]

An Inconvenient Truth

2008-09-17T16:52:00Z

Melisande: /* Awards */ fix bulleted list

[[Image:Capitalistexploitation.JPG|thumb|200px|right|Al Gore has created a way to [[profit]] from an alleged [[global catastrophe]].<ref>''New Mexico Daily Lobo'', September 28, 2007, pg. 8.</ref><ref>[http://www.humanevents.com/article.php?id=22663 The Money and Connections Behind Al Gore’s Carbon Crusade],
by Deborah Corey Barnes, ''Human Events'', 10/03/2007.</ref>]]

'''"An Inconvenient Truth"''' is a [[global warming]] slide show made into a prize-winning film narrated by former U.S. Vice President [[Al Gore]].
It provides a one-sided account of the [[anthropogenic global warming theory]], giving all the arguments in favor of supporting the sort of "[[greenhouse gas]]" reductions required by the [[Kyoto Protocol]].

The film ignores the evidence that atmospheric temperature is cyclical in nature and has gone up and down continuously over the course of many thousands of years. (see [[climate cycles]]).

According to the Madison, Wisconsin ''Capital Times'', [[Reid Bryson]], founding chairman of the department of meteorology at the [[University of Wisconsin-Madison]] and of the Institute for Environmental Studies, now known as the [[Gaylord Nelson]] Institute for Environmental Studies and also known as the father of scientific climatology considers global warming a bunch of hooey. Reid said, "Don't make me throw up...it's not science..." <ref>[http://robertsteely.townhall.com/Default.aspx?mode=post&g=abc72f45-f361-42a9-b73c-c01a506f1437 Father of Climatology Throws Up at the Thought of Al Gore's 'An Inconvenient Truth'], Noel Sheppard, June 18, 2007. Retrieved from Townhall.com June 20, 2007.</ref>

Reid said,
{{Cquote|There is a lot of money to be made in this," he added. "If you want to be an eminent scientist you have to have a lot of grad students and a lot of grants. You can't get grants unless you say, 'Oh global warming, yes, yes, carbon dioxide. <ref>''Local scientist calls global warming theory hooey'', Samara Kalk Derby, The Capital Times, 6/18/2007. </ref>}}

Author Noel Sheppard cites a new study in ''Science Magazine'' <ref>[http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/summary/313/5786/452 Climate Change: Can We Detect Trends in Extreme Tropical Cyclones?], Christopher W. Landsea, Bruce A. Harper, Karl Hoarau, John A. Knaff, ''Science'', 28 July 2006: Vol. 313. no. 5786, pp. 452 - 454.</ref> written by a group of scientists including two members of the [[National Oceanic & Atmospheric Administration]] that refutes this central contention in Al Gores "[[schlockumentary]]" that the "apparition called global warming is responsible for an upsurge in hurricane activity and intensity," including the [[Hurricane Katrina]] disaster. <ref>[http://www.americanthinker.com/2006/12/michael_moore_issues_iraq_with.html The Inconvenient Truth: Hurricanes and Global Warming], By Noel Sheppard, ''American Thinker'', August 02, 2006.</ref>

==Scientific inaccuracies in the film==

Copied verbatim from the ''[[Chicago Sun-Times]]'' (except for the last example<ref>http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,301067,00.html</ref>) 
Many of the assertions Gore makes in his movie, ''An Inconvenient Truth,'' have been refuted by science, both before and after he made them. Gore can show sincerity in his plea for scientific honesty by publicly acknowledging where science has rebutted his claims.

{|border=1 cellpadding=3
|'''Gore claim'''
|'''Peer-reviewed science'''
|----
|Gore claims that the Himalayan glaciers are shrinking and global warming is to blame.
|Yet the September 2006 issue of the American Meteorological Society's Journal of Climate reported, Glaciers are growing in the Himalayan Mountains, confounding global warming alarmists who recently claimed the glaciers were shrinking and that global warming was to blame.
|----
|Gore claims the snowcap atop Africa's Mt. Kilimanjaro is shrinking and that global warming is to blame.
|Yet according to the November 23, 2003, issue of Nature magazine, Although it's tempting to blame the ice loss on global warming, researchers think that deforestation of the mountain's foothills is the more likely culprit. Without the forests' humidity, previously moisture-laden winds blew dry. No longer replenished with water, the ice is evaporating in the strong equatorial sunshine.
|----
|Gore claims global warming is causing more tornadoes.
|Yet the United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change stated in February that there has been no scientific link established between global warming and tornadoes.
|----
|Gore claims global warming is causing more frequent and severe hurricanes.
|However, hurricane expert Chris Landsea published a study on May 1 documenting that hurricane activity is no higher now than in decades past. Hurricane expert William Gray reported just a few days earlier, on April 27, that the number of major hurricanes making landfall on the U.S. Atlantic coast has declined in the past 40 years. Hurricane scientists reported in the April 18 Geophysical Research Letters that global warming enhances wind shear, which will prevent a significant increase in future hurricane activity.
|----
|Gore claims global warming is causing an expansion of African deserts.
|However, the Sept. 16, 2002, issue of New Scientist reports, Africa's deserts are in 'spectacular' retreat . . . making farming viable again in what were some of the most arid parts of Africa.
|----
|Gore argues Greenland is in rapid meltdown, and that this threatens to raise sea levels by 20 feet.
|But according to a 2005 study in the Journal of Glaciology, the Greenland ice sheet is thinning at the margins and growing inland, with a small overall mass gain. In late 2006, researchers at the Danish Meteorological Institute reported that the past two decades were the coldest for Greenland since the 1910s.
|----
|Gore claims the Antarctic ice sheet is melting because of global warming.
|Yet the Jan. 14, 2002, issue of Nature magazine reported Antarctica as a whole has been dramatically cooling for decades. More recently, scientists reported in the September 2006 issue of the British journal Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society Series A: Mathematical, Physical, and Engineering Sciences, that satellite measurements of the Antarctic ice sheet showed significant growth between 1992 and 2003. And the U.N. Climate Change panel reported in February 2007 that Antarctica is unlikely to lose any ice mass during the remainder of the century.
|----
|Gore claims that polar bears were drowning while searching for icy habitats melted by global warming.
|The British High Court in making a determination if Al Gore's 'documentary' should be shown in secondary schools found that the only drowned polar bears the court was aware of were four that died following a storm.
|----
|}

==35 Errors Discovered==
[[Image:Inconvenient Truth watch.jpg|right|150px]]
Global warming critic Christopher Monckton released a report called ''35 Inconvenient Truths'', which described 35 gross errors and exaggerations found within Gore's film. Some of the errors are directly contradicted by the IPCC.<ref>http://scienceandpublicpolicy.org/monckton/goreerrors.html</ref>

==Gore's contributions to global warming==
:''"There are many who still do not believe that global warming is a problem at all. And it's no wonder: because they are the targets of a massive and well-organized campaign of [[disinformation]] lavishly funded by polluters who are determined to prevent any action to reduce the greenhouse gas emissions that cause global warming out of a fear that their profits might be affected if they had to stop dumping so much pollution into the atmosphere."''
Sean Hannity reported on Fox News Channel's ''Hannity & Colmes'', February 18, 2007, that when Al Gore was running his campaign: ''"On January 27th, 2000, Gore campaign in Concord and Manchester, New Hampshire, and on that very same day reimbursed the Thomas Lee Company $1,400 for the use of their corporate jet. That evening he left New Hampshire and flew back to Washington aboard Air Force Two, the vice president's official plane is a 757, which means that the flight from New Hampshire to Washington, well, the vice president emitted more than 22,000 pounds of CO2."'' <ref>http://newsbusters.org/node/10951</ref>

== Awards ==
Despite its many scientific inaccuracies, the film has received several awards:


*Academy Awards (The Oscars) 2007
*Chicago Film Critics Association
*Dallas-Fort Worth Film Critics Association
*Florida Film Critics 2006
*Kansas City Film Critics Awards 2006
*Las Vegas Film Critics Circle 2006
*National Board of Review
*New York Film Critics Online
*New York Film Critics Society
*Ohio Film Critics Awards 2006
*Oklahoma Film Critics Circle Awards 2006
*Online Film Critics 2006
*Phoenix Film Critics Circle 2006
*Satellite Awards (Nominated) 2006
*St. Louis Film Critics Awards 2006
*Toronto Film Critics Circle (Nominated) 2006
*Utah Film Critics Awards 2006
*Washington D.C. Film Critics Association 2006


==References==
<references/>

==See also==

*[[Runaway greenhouse effect]]
*[[Anthropogenic global warming theory]]
*[[Environmentalism]]

[[Category:Environmentalism]]
[[Category:Global Warming]]
[[Category:schlockumentary]]

Pancreas

2008-09-17T16:48:03Z

Melisande: wikify

The '''pancreas''' is one of the internal bodily organs. It performs both [[endocrine]] and [[exocrine]] functions. Its endocrine function is primarily the secretion of the hormone [[insulin]], which helps regulate blood sugar. Its exocrine function is the secretion of digestive enzymes into the [[duodenum]] whereby they break down food into their various component molecules.

[[Diabetes]] mellitus is a common result of the failure of the endocrine pancreas, causing insufficient insulin to be secreted to adequately control blood glucose levels. Failure of the exocrine pancreas can occur in early childhood, often as a consequence of [[cystic fibrosis]] as the secretory ducts fail to function correctly, leading to deficient secretion of digestive enzymes.

[[Pancreatitis]] is a relatively common disease of the pancreas, most commonly associated with disease of excess (such as [[gallstone]]s and [[alcoholism]]), and is an excruciatingly painful inflammation causing abdominal pain commonly described as being the worst pain imaginable by sufferers.

[[category:Anatomy]]

Evolution syndrome

2008-09-17T16:42:32Z

Melisande: capitalization

'''Evolution syndrome''' is the tendency of some people to compulsively insist that their belief in [[evolution]] must somehow be true, and to spend nearly all their time pushing that belief on others. It is reflected on the Internet by people who devote over 90% of their edits and postings to pushing their belief in evolution and in insisting on [[censoring]] alternative views of the issue.<ref>[http://www.cofe.anglican.org/darwin/malcolmbrown.html Dr Malcolm Brown]</ref>

'''Evolution syndrome''' particularly afflicts people who have some educational background without having the intellectual depth of more accomplished peers.<ref>[http://www.cofe.anglican.org/darwin/bishopswindon.html Dr Lee Rayfield]</ref>

'''Evolution syndrome''' can be seen on [[wiki]]s, [[Usenet]] groups, faculty positions below full professorships, and some less selective doctoral programs.<ref>[http://www.cofe.anglican.org/darwin On the Origin of Darwin]</ref>

There is a high incidence of [[atheism]] among those who suffer from '''evolution syndrome'''. <ref>[http://www.cofe.anglican.org/darwin/faith.html Darwin and faith]</ref>

== See also ==

*[[Stockholm Syndrome]]

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

Dione (moon)

2008-09-17T03:09:31Z

Melisande: /* Problems for uniformitarian theories posed by Dione */ link tidal lock

{{Planet
|name=Dione
|image=Dione cassini big.jpg
|caption=Bright cliffs on Dione, taken by spacecraft [[Cassini-Huygens Mission|Cassini]]
|date=March 21, 1684<ref name=usgs>"[http://planetarynames.wr.usgs.gov/append7.html Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature: Planetary Body Names and Discoverers]." US Geological Survey, Jennifer Blue, ed. March 31, 2008. Accessed April 17, 2008.</ref>
|discname=[[Giovanni Domenico Cassini]]<ref name=usgs/>
|origname=Titaness, sister of Kronos, mother (by Zeus) of Aphrodite<ref name=usgs/>
|primary=Saturn
|order=13
|periapsis=376,570 km<ref name=calc>Calculated</ref>
|apoapsis=378,230 km<ref name=calc/>
|semimajor=377,400 km<ref name=saturnsatfact>Williams, David R. "[http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/factsheet/saturniansatfact.html Saturnian Satellite Fact Sheet]." National Space Science Data Center, [[National Aeronautics and Space Administration|NASA]], November 23, 2007. Accessed June 4, 2008.</ref><ref name=arval>"[http://www.oarval.org/ClasSaten.htm Classic Satellites of the Solar System]." ''Observatorio ARVAL'', April 15, 2007. Accessed June 12, 2008.</ref>
|eccentricity=0.0022<ref name=saturnsatfact/>
|sidereal=2.736915 da<ref name=saturnsatfact/><ref name=arval/>
|orbitspeed=10.03 km/s<ref name=Hamilton>Hamilton, Calvin J. "[http://www.solarviews.com/eng/dione.htm Entry for Dione]." ''Views of the Solar System'', 2005. Accessed June 12, 2008.</ref>
|inclination=0.02°<ref name=saturnsatfact/>
|siderealday=2.736915 da<ref name=saturnsatfact/>
|rotatespeed=14.9 m/s<ref name=calc/>
|axialtilt=0°<ref name=saturnsatfact/>
|mass=1.1 * 1021 kg<ref name=saturnsatfact/>
|density=1477.4 kg/m³<ref name=Thomas>Thomas, P.C., Veverka, J., Helfenstein, P., ''et al''. "[http://www.lpi.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2006/pdf/1639.pdf Shapes of the Saturnian Icy Satellites]." ''37th Annual Lunar and Planetary Science Conference'', 2006. Accessed June 12, 2008.</ref>
|meanradius=561.6 km<ref name=Thomas/>
|polarradius=560.3 km<ref name=Thomas/>
|surfacegrav=0.223 m/s²<ref name=Hamilton/>
|escapespeed=0.5 km/s<ref name=Hamilton/>
|surfacearea=3,940,800 km²<ref name=calc/>
|meantemp=86.59 K<ref name=Hamilton/>
|composition=Water-ice mantle and rocky core<ref name=Hamilton/>
|color=Neutral gray
|albedo=0.7<ref name=saturnsatfact/>
}}'''Dione''' or '''Saturn IV''' is the thirteenth innermost confirmed [[moon]] of [[Saturn]] and the fourth (or perhaps fifth) moon of Saturn to be discovered. It is also one of the seven moons of Saturn of [[Dwarf Planet|dwarf planet]] size.

== Discovery and naming ==
[[Giovanni Domenico Cassini]] discovered Dione, along with the moons [[Tethys (moon)|Tethys]], [[Rhea (moon)|Rhea]], and [[Iapetus (moon)|Iapetus]], in the latter half of the seventeenth century, during the reign of "Sun-King" [[Louis XIV]] of [[France]].<ref name=usgs/> Cassini named these moons the "Sidera Lodoicea" in honor of the king. Later generations (especially after the French Revolution) would not retain such regal flattery.<ref name=Boulay>Boulay, J. C. "[http://jcboulay.free.fr/astro/sommaire/astronomie/univers/galaxie/etoile/systeme_solaire/saturne/satellites/page_saturne_satellites1.htm Saturne: les satellites]." ''Astronomie-astronautique''. Accessed June 5, 2008.</ref>

Sir John Herschel, son of the astronomer [[William Herschel]], suggested the current names of the seven largest satellites of Saturn, including Rhea. [[Titan (moon)|Titan]] received a generic name, and the other six received names of the Titans of mythology. Dione was the sister of Kronos or Cronus and mother (by Zeus) of Aphrodite.<ref name=Lasell>Lassell, William. "[http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu/full/seri/MNRAS/0008//0000042.000.html Satellites of Saturn]." ''Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society'', 8(3):42-43, January 14, 1848. Accessed June 4, 2008.</ref>

== Orbital characteristics ==
Dione is in a somewhat circular orbit around Saturn, at an average distance of 377,400 km. Its sidereal month is about 2.74 Earth days.

Dione appears to be in a 2:1 orbital resonance with [[Enceladus]], an inner moon. Some astronomers suggest that this causes significant [[tidal heating]] on Enceladus.<ref name=Britannica>Hubbard, William B. "[http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9030539 Dione]." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 12 June 2008.</ref>

=== Co-orbital objects ===
Dione shares its orbit with two other moons that occupy its Trojan points, with [[Helene]] in the leading point and [[Polydeuces]] in the trailing point.

== Rotational characteristics ==
Dione is in [[tidal lock]] with Saturn, and thus always keeps the same face toward Saturn. Hamilton estimates that Dione has been locked in its present orientation for several billions of years, because its 70% albedo is evenly distributed between the leading hemisphere and the trailing.<ref name=Hamilton/>

== Physical characteristics ==
Dione is the third most dense moon of Saturn (after [[Enceladus]] and [[Titan (moon)|Titan]]. It likely consists of a silicate core and a [[water]]-ice mantle.

=== Surface ===
Surprisingly, most of Dione's craters are found on the trailing hemisphere, not the leading. Shoemaker and Wolfe have suggested, from their studies of the [[Galilean moons]], that the leading hemisphere of any moon in [[tidal lock]] ought to have more craters than the trailing hemisphere.<ref name=Shoemaker>Shoemaker, E. M., and Wolfe, R. F. "[http://adsabs.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/nph-bib_query?bibcode=1982stjp.conf..277S&db_key=AST&data_type=HTML&format=&high=45eb6e10af25897 Cratering time scales for the Galilean satellites]." ''Satellites of Jupiter'', Tucson, [[Arizona]]: University of Arizona Press, 1982, pp. 277-339. Accessed June 12, 2008.</ref>

This has led some astronomers to propose that, in the time when many bodies in the solar system underwent heavy bombardment, Dione was in tidal lock in an orientation opposite to that which Dione now has with respect to Saturn. Hamilton suggests that any object large enough to create an impact crater 35 km or wider in diameter would have given Dione sufficient energy to turn itself 180° about and come to a new tidal lock. He also points out that Dione has a number of craters more than 100 km in diameter.<ref name=Hamilton/>

Neukum ''et al.'' estimated that the surface of Dione, like those of several other moons of Saturn, must be geologically old on account of the number of craters found, and their distribution.<ref name=Neukum>Neukum, G., Wagner, R., Denk, T., ''et al.'' "[http://www.lpi.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2005/pdf/2034.pdf The Cratering Record of the Saturnian Satellites Phoebe, Tethys, Dione, and Iapetus in Comparison: First Results from Analysis of the Cassini ISS Imaging Data]." ''36th Annual Lunar and Planetary Science Conference'', 2005. Accessed June 12, 2008.</ref>

Dione also has multiple linear streaks on its trailing hemisphere. Astronomers once thought that these resulted from a massive remodeling of the surface of Dione, and that a later period of bombardment erased the streaks on the leading hemisphere. Data from the Cassini orbiter has disproved this hypothesis. The streaks are now known to be tectonic fractures, many of which slice through the impact craters and are therefore geologically younger than the craters.<ref name=Arnett>Arnett, Bill. "[http://www.nineplanets.org/dione.html Entry for Dione]." ''The <s>Nine</s> 8 Planets'', February 27, 2005. Accessed June 12, 2008</ref><ref name=planetsoc>"[http://www.planetary.org/explore/topics/saturn/dione.html Entry for Dione]." ''The Planetary Society'', 2008. Accessed June 12, 2008.</ref>

[[Image:Dione crescent.jpg|thumb|800px|center|Crescent phase of Dione against the Sun, taken by Cassini]]
== Problems for uniformitarian theories posed by Dione ==
The greater concentration of impact craters on the trailing hemisphere defies the usual model for the bombardment of a body in [[tidal lock]]. Most astronomers therefore suggests that multiple impacts could have turned Dione about, perhaps multiple times, before Dione settled into its present orientation. But any object having enough momentum to turn the satellite about ought to have left it in a far more eccentric orbit than it is now in.

== Observation and Exploration ==
The first spacecraft to visit Dione was [[Voyager 1]], which took several high-quality images. The [[Cassini-Huygens Mission|Cassini]] Orbiter has taken several images of much higher quality, especially on October 11, 2005, when Cassini made one targeted rendezvous with Dione. Mission planners have scheduled another rendezvous with Dione during the first two-year extension of the Cassini mission.

== Gallery ==
<gallery>
Image:Dione ringside.jpg|Dione in the shadow of Saturn's rings
Image:Dione stressed.jpg|Deep canyons on Dione's trailing hemisphere
</gallery>

== Video ==
* [http://saturn.jpl.nasa.gov/multimedia/videos/video-details.cfm?videoID=99 Video of Cassini's rendezvous with Dione on October 11, 2005].

== References ==
{{reflist|2}}

{{Solarsystem}}
[[Category:Astronomy]]

Indian Removal Act of 1830

2008-09-17T03:01:30Z

Melisande: /* See also */ make bulleted list

The '''Indian Removal Act''' was signed into law by President [[Andrew Jackson]] on May 28, 1830, authorizing the president to grant unsettled lands west of the [[Mississippi River]] in exchange for Indian lands within existing state borders.

The story of westward expansion by European Americans is a basic theme of the American experience, but it is also a history of Indian dislocation by purchase, war, disease, and treaty. The Constitution of 1789 empowered [[Congress]] to "regulate commerce with foreign nations, and among the several States, and with the Indian tribes." [http://www.law.cornell.edu/constitution/constitution.articlei.html] Federal policy regarded each tribe as a sovereign entity capable of signing binding treaties with the [[United States]] government. In the first 40 years of the new republic, the United States signed multiple treaties with Indian tribes which usually followed a basic pattern: the signatory tribe withdrew to a prescribed reservation and in return the Federal Government promised to provide supplies, food, and often an annuity. In 1830, [[Congress]] passed the Indian Removal Act, a bill engineered by President Andrew Jackson. The act promised a voluntary and fair exchange of lands, and opened the door for the militias of trans-Appalachian and southern states to move the Indians across the Mississippi by force. The Indians' destination was to be an "Indian Territory" set aside west of [[Iowa]], [[Missouri]], and [[Arkansas]].

The [[Cherokee]] nation resisted, however, and claimed in court to be a foreign nation that was not subject to [[Georgia]] laws. In its 1831 ruling on [[Cherokee Nation v. the State of Georgia]], the Supreme Court decided that it had no jurisdiction over the question, and described the Indian tribes as domestic dependent nations. In 1835, Congress ratified the Treaty of New Enchola in which the Cherokees agreed to relocation. Under the power of federal troops and Georgia state militia, the Cherokee tribe made their trek to the plains across the Mississippi. Thousands of resisters died en route in what is now called the [[Trail of Tears]].

The United States government's conflict with Indian tribes was directly related to advancing civilization. To make matter more difficult, Indians generally had a different concept of land ownership than European Americans, emphasizing land use for hunting, farming, or dwelling for the tribe, but not recognizing the concept of individual ownership. Indian society was loose, decentralized, and non-authoritarian where "chiefs" were often men of respect and informal authority, but not designated by the tribe to make decisions. The result was that treaties were often signed with Indian leaders who did not have the backing of everyone in the tribe.

==Text of Jackson's Second Annual Message to Congress, December 6, 1930==
'''Andrew Jackson's Second Annual Message'''

It gives me pleasure to announce to Congress that the benevolent policy of the Government, steadily pursued for nearly thirty years, in relation to the removal of the Indians beyond the white settlements is approaching to a happy consummation. Two important tribes have accepted the provision made for their removal at the last session of Congress, and it is believed that their example will induce the remaining tribes also to seek the same obvious advantages.

The consequences of a speedy removal will be important to the United States, to individual States, and to the Indians themselves. The pecuniary advantages which it promises to the Government are the least of its recommendations. It puts an end to all possible danger of collision between the authorities of the General and State Governments on account of the Indians. It will place a dense and civilized population in large tracts of country now occupied by a few savage hunters. By opening the whole territory between Tennessee on the north and Louisiana on the south to the settlement of the whites it will incalculably strengthen the southwestern frontier and render the adjacent States strong enough to repel future invasions without remote aid. It will relieve the whole State of Mississippi and the western part of Alabama of Indian occupancy, and enable those States to advance rapidly in population, wealth, and power. It will separate the Indians from immediate contact with settlements of whites; free them from the power of the States; enable them to pursue happiness in their own way and under their own rude institutions; will retard the progress of decay, which is lessening their numbers, and perhaps cause them gradually, under the protection of the Government and through the influence of good counsels, to cast off their savage habits and become an interesting, civilized, and Christian community.

What good man would prefer a country covered with forests and ranged by a few thousand savages to our extensive Republic, studded with cities, towns, and prosperous farms embellished with all the improvements which art can devise or industry execute, occupied by more than 12,000,000 happy people, and filled with all the blessings of liberty, civilization and religion?

The present policy of the Government is but a continuation of the same progressive change by a milder process. The tribes which occupied the countries now constituting the Eastern States were annihilated or have melted away to make room for the whites. The waves of population and civilization are rolling to the westward, and we now propose to acquire the countries occupied by the red men of the South and West by a fair exchange, and, at the expense of the United States, to send them to land where their existence may be prolonged and perhaps made perpetual. Doubtless it will be painful to leave the graves of their fathers; but what do they more than our ancestors did or than our children are now doing? To better their condition in an unknown land our forefathers left all that was dear in earthly objects. Our children by thousands yearly leave the land of their birth to seek new homes in distant regions. Does Humanity weep at these painful separations from everything, animate and inanimate, with which the young heart has become entwined? Far from it. It is rather a source of joy that our country affords scope where our young population may range unconstrained in body or in mind, developing the power and facilities of man in their highest perfection. These remove hundreds and almost thousands of miles at their own expense, purchase the lands they occupy, and support themselves at their new homes from the moment of their arrival. Can it be cruel in this Government when, by events which it can not control, the Indian is made discontented in his ancient home to purchase his lands, to give him a new and extensive territory, to pay the expense of his removal, and support him a year in his new abode? How many thousands of our own people would gladly embrace the opportunity of removing to the West on such conditions! If the offers made to the Indians were extended to them, they would be hailed with gratitude and joy.

And is it supposed that the wandering savage has a stronger attachment to his home than the settled, civilized Christian? Is it more afflicting to him to leave the graves of his fathers than it is to our brothers and children? Rightly considered, the policy of the General Government toward the red man is not only liberal, but generous. He is unwilling to submit to the laws of the States and mingle with their population. To save him from this alternative, or perhaps utter annihilation, the General Government kindly offers him a new home, and proposes to pay the whole expense of his removal and settlement.

==Text of the Indian Removal Act==
'''CHAP. CXLVIII.'''--An Act to provide for an exchange of lands with the Indians residing in any of the states or territories, and for their removal west of the river Mississippi.

Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America, in Congress assembled, That it shall and may be lawful for the President of the United States to cause so much of any territory belonging to the United States, west of the river Mississippi, not included in any state or organized territory, and to which the Indian title has been extinguished, as he may judge necessary, to be divided into a suitable number of districts, for the reception of such tribes or nations of Indians as may choose to exchange the lands where they now reside, and remove there; and to cause each of said districts to be so described by natural or artificial marks, as to be easily distinguished from every other.

===SEC. 2.===
And be it further enacted, That it shall and may be lawful for the President to exchange any or all of such districts, so to be laid off and described, with any tribe or nation within the limits of any of the states or territories, and with which the United States have existing treaties, for the whole or any part or portion of the territory claimed and occupied by such tribe or nation, within the bounds of any one or more of the states or territories, where the land claimed and occupied by the Indians, is owned by the United States, or the United States are bound to the state within which it lies to extinguish the Indian claim thereto.

===SEC. 3.===
And be it further enacted, That in the making of any such exchange or exchanges, it shall and may be lawful for the President solemnly to assure the tribe or nation with which the exchange is made, that the United States will forever secure and guaranty to them, and their heirs or successors, the country so exchanged with them; and if they prefer it, that the United States will cause a patent or grant to be made and executed to them for the same: Provided always, That such lands shall revert to the United States, if the Indians become extinct, or abandon the same.

===SEC. 4.===
And be it further enacted, That if, upon any of the lands now occupied by the Indians, and to be exchanged for, there should be such improvements as add value to the land claimed by any individual or individuals of such tribes or nations, it shall and may be lawful for the President to cause such value to be ascertained by appraisement or otherwise, and to cause such ascertained value to be paid to the person or persons rightfully claiming such improvements. And upon the payment of such valuation, the improvements so valued and paid for, shall pass to the United States, and possession shall not afterwards be permitted to any of the same tribe.

===SEC. 5.===
And be it further enacted, That upon the making of any such exchange as is contemplated by this act, it shall and may be lawful for the President to cause such aid and assistance to be furnished to the emigrants as may be necessary and proper to enable them to remove to, and settle in, the country for which they may have exchanged; and also, to give them such aid and assistance as may be necessary for their support and subsistence for the first year after their removal.

===SEC. 6.===
And be it further enacted, That it shall and may be lawful for the President to cause such tribe or nation to be protected, at their new residence, against all interruption or disturbance from any other tribe or nation of Indians, or from any other person or persons whatever.

===SEC. 7.===
And be it further enacted, That it shall and may be lawful for the President to have the same superintendence and care over any tribe or nation in the country to which they may remove, as contemplated by this act, that he is now authorized to have over them at their present places of residence.

==See also==
*[[Manifest Destiny]]

==Links==
*[http://www.law.cornell.edu/constitution/constitution.articlei.html Article I] - US Constitution
*[http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/ampage?collId=llrd&fileName=010/llrd010.db&recNum=438 Outline of Jackson's Indian removal policy, December 6, 1830]
*[http://www.civics-online.org/library/formatted/texts/indian_act.html Civics Online; text of the Indian Removal Act]

[[Category:United States History]]
[[Category:Native Americans]]

Anatolia

2008-09-17T03:00:46Z

Melisande: grammar

'''Anatolia''' was the ancient term for what is now [[Turkey]]. It was an important part of the Byzantine Empire and its temporary loss to [[Islam]] in the 11th century helped to lead to the Byzantine downfall. The ravaging that took place could not be recovered and so an area where armies of up to 150,000 men used to be raised became barren.

{{stub2}}

[[Category:Turkey]]

Indifference curve

2008-09-17T02:59:14Z

Melisande: bold

The '''indifference curve''' is a graph of utilities such that every point along a curve has the same amount of total [[utility]]. A person should be "indifferent" to where he is along the curve, because his total [[utility]] is constant.

== Example ==

Let’s take an example. Suppose you are working on the homework for this course with three friends - Chris, Stephanie and Kevin. Someone says they are hungry and go to look for snacks. You see a half-eaten bag of potato chips and you pop a bag of popcorn. However, there is not enough food for everyone, so have to ration who receives what.

You count 24 potato chips and 40 kernels of corn. Uh oh. There are four of you. On average, that’s only 6 potato chips and 10 kernels of corn per person. You tell everyone that.

But Chris likes potato chips more than corn; Stephanie prefers the opposite. To decide how to allocate the food, you ask Chris and Stephanie to draw their indifference curves with potato chips on the y-axis and corn on the x-axis. In graphing Chris's utility for two goods, you can construct a series of “indifference curves” for him. On a separate graph, you can also construct indifference curves for Stephanie.

You learn from the curve that Chris is just as happy with 9 potato chips and 2 kernels of corn as receiving 6 potato chips and 10 kernels of corn. Chris’s utility is same in both cases. Meanwhile, Stephanie is just as happy receiving 18 kernels of corn and 1 chip. Fine, you give Chris 9 chips and 2 kernels and Stephanie 18 kernels and 1 chip.

Was this worth it? You bet: now you have two extra potato chips that you would not have had by splitting everything equally. Chris and Stephanie are just as happy, and you can share the additional chips with Kevin.

[[category:economics]]

Severn Bridge

2008-09-17T02:54:20Z

Melisande: fix link

The [[Severn Bridge]] is a [[suspension bridge]] carrying the [[M48]] [[motorway]] across the [[River Severn]], linking [[Aust]] in [[Gloucestershire]], [[England]] with [[Beachley]] in [[Gloucestershire]]; the motorway immediately crosses the [[River Wye]] to [[Chepstow]] in [[Monmouthshire]], [[Wales]].

Since the opening of the [[Second Severn Crossing]], the Severn Bridge has been known as the [[Old Severn Bridge]].

[[Category:Bridges]]

Alexander the Great

2008-09-17T02:43:44Z

Melisande: /* Early Death */ grammar

[[Image:Alexander_the_Great_2.jpg|thumb|150px|Alexander the Great]]
[[Image:Alexander_the_Great.jpg|thumb|225px|Painting of Alexander the Great]]
'''Alexander the Great''' was born in 356 BC to [[Philip II of Macedon]]. While growing up, Alexander was tutored by [[Aristotle]] from whom he learned philosophy and geography among other subjects. Alexander's father was a warrior and unified Greece under his overall rule after defeating them militarily. A young Alexander successfully led a cavalry regiment during this campaign in the decisive [[Battle of Chaeronea]]. Phillip planned to conquer [[Persia]] next, but was assassinated in 336. It is generally agreed that Alexander was not part of the plot, although his mother who was estranged from Phillip might have been.

==Ruler of Macedonia==

His father's death left a twenty year-old Alexander king of Macedonia and Greece. The Greeks had no love of being ruled by anyone, especially not by "barbarians" (What they called the Macedonians who generally lacked their level of sophistication and refinement.) With the death of Phillip, they revolted believing they could easily break away from the new young ruler. They were about to become the first people to experience the depth of his military genius.

Once Alexander reconquered [[Greece]], he decided to put into action his father’s plan of conquering Persia, led by the Persian king [[Darius]]. He formed an army of thirty thousand foot soldiers, five thousand cavalry men, and engineers to build siege engines.

==Conquest of Persia==

In four years Alexander conquered the Phoenician cities of [[Tyre]] and [[Sidon]], the countries of [[Canaan]] and [[Egypt]], the Persian cities of [[Susa]] and [[Persepolis]], and many other lands. Wherever he went, Alexander triumphed and spread Greek language and culture. Palestine fell in 332, and Greek conquest and [[Hellenization]] became a new threat to [[Judaism]] and its traditions. The Persians first attempted to stop Alexander at the [[Battle of Granicus]] in 334 and then offered resistance to Alexander with massive armies in two great battles, the [[Battle of Issus]] in 333 and the [[Battle of Arbela]] in 331. Alexander won every battle. The failure of the huge battles left the Persians helpless. The Persian capital was captured and sacked shortly after that. Alexander wasn't satisfied with just conquering Persia. He also wanted to conquer the unknown and continued east into [[India]]. Finally when he reached the [[Indus River]], his homesick army decided that they would go no farther. Alexander sadly withdraw from extending his military conquests and decided to set up a capital for his new empire in [[Babylon]]. He had never been defeated in battle. Alexander sought to bring about a blending of Greek and Persian cultures, even encouraging his men to take Persian wives.

==Early Death==

In 323 BC, after a period of very heavy drinking, Alexander died of fever. He had ruled in Babylon for about a year. To what extent he could have continued to bring about a harmony of cultures is unknown. Failing to appoint a heir to carry on his legacy, his vast Empire descended into a generation of civil strife aka [[the Wars of the Diadochi]] upon his death. When the dust cleared, his empire had been broken into 4 different parts, never again to re-emerge.

Although he is never mentioned by name, it is commonly believed that the [[book of Daniel]] in the [[Bible]] makes reference to Alexander and his sudden demise.

== See also ==

*[[Cleopatra]]
*[[Julius Caesar]]
*[[The Crusades]]
*[[Byzantine Empire]]
*[[The Diadochi]]
*[[Plutarch]]

[[Category:Military Commanders]]
[[Category:Ancient Greece]]
[[Category:Monarchs]]

Halting problem

2008-09-16T03:03:31Z

Melisande: spelling: undecideabe -> undecidabe

The '''Halting Problem''' is a problem in theoretical [[computer science]] which measures the effectiveness with which [[computer]]s execute [[algorithm]]s. In the theoretical formulation, computers are represented by [[Turing machine]]s and algorithms are represented by an infinitely long piece of tape that moves around inside the Turing machine. The tape has instructions for the machine; if it can execute this instruction it moves to the next piece of tape, if it cannot, the machine halts. The Halting Problem asks for a reliable prediction of whether a particular machine will halt before you put the tape into it.

[[Alan Turing]], the founding father of theoretical computer science, showed the Halting Problem is [[undecidable]]. In other words, one can never truly rely on a computer to halt its computations. While this is theoretically significant, in practice most computer programs have been written so that they do not have [[runtime error]]s.

[[Category:Computer Science]]

Ich bin ein Berliner

2008-09-16T02:58:21Z

Melisande: sp. belegured -> beleguered

'''"Ich bin ein Berliner"''' was [[John F. Kennedy]]'s famous statement on June 26, 1963, to the beleaguered citizens of West [[Berlin]] during the height of the [[Cold War]].

There is an urban legend stating that "Ich bin ein Berliner" can be wilfully mistaken to mean "I am a [[Berliner|donut]]", and that this mistake caused some ridicule among his audience. This is incorrect, since a Berliner is not known as such in Berlin, but as a ''Pfannkuchen''. It is also quite clear from recordings that the audience responded with cheering rather than laughter.

It is also said that the grammatically correct thing for Kennedy to have said would actually have been "Ich bin Berliner" meaning "I am a person from Berlin". This is also incorrect, since "Ich bin Berliner" indicates specifically that the person is from or living in Berlin. By adding the indefinite article ''ein'', the speaker instead indicates a figurative relationship or that he only shares some characteristics with the group indicated. It is clear that this was in fact Kennedy's intended meaning at the time.<ref>Eichhoff, Jürgen: '"Ich bin ein Berliner": a History and a Linguistic Clarification', ''Monatshefte'' 85 (1993), 71-80</ref>

==See also==

*[[Iron Curtain]]
*[[Berlin Wall]]
*[[Cold War]]

<references/>

[[Category:Cold War]]

Tomb Raider

2008-09-16T02:55:08Z

Melisande: sp. pharoas -> pharoahs

A '''tomb raider''' is a term describing anyone who breaks into tombs for the purposes of primarily looting and/or [[vandalism]].

Tomb raiding was common in past centuries in places like Egypt, where the ancient tombs of the Pharaohs often yielded much treasure for the raiders. Tomb raiding still happens today around the world.

Today the term Tomb Raider is more associated with a series of violent video games.

[[Category:Video Games]]