Conservapedia - User contributions [en]

Estonia

2009-07-29T15:28:09Z

Miacek: /* People */ reducing commitment

The Republic of '''Estonia''' (''Eesti Vabariik'') is the northernmost of the [[Baltic States]] in northern [[Europe]] (the others being [[Lithuania]] and [[Latvia]]), located on the [[Baltic Sea]] and the Gulf of [[Finland]]. The capital city is is [[Tallinn]].

==Geography==
Between 57.3 and 59.5 degrees latitude and 21.5 and 28.1 degrees longitude, Estonia lies on the eastern shores of the Baltic Sea on the level, northwestern part of the rising East European platform. Average elevation reaches only 50 meters (160 ft.).

The climate resembles New England's. Oil shale and limestone deposits, along with forests that cover 47% of the land, play key economic roles in this generally resource-poor country. Estonia boasts more than 1,500 lakes, numerous bogs, and 3,794 kilometers of coastline marked by numerous bays, straits, and inlets. Tallinn's Muuga port offers one of Europe's finest warm water harbor facilities.

Estonia's strategic location has precipitated many wars fought on its territory between other rival powers at its expense. In 1944, the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (U.S.S.R.) granted Russia the trans-Narva and Petseri regions on Estonia's eastern frontier. Russia and Estonia signed a border treaty in 2005 recognizing the current border. Estonia ratified the treaty in June 2005, but Russia subsequently revoked its signature to the treaty, due to a reference the Estonian Parliament inserted regarding the Peace Treaty of Tartu.

==People==
Estonians belong to the Balto-Finnic group of the Finno-Ugric peoples, as do the Finns and the Hungarians, though nearly half of the population is of various Russian origins, from the Soviet era. Archaeological research confirms the existence of human activity in the region as early as 8,000 BC, but by 3,500 BC the principal ancestors of the Estonians had arrived from the east.

Estonians have strong ties to the Nordic countries today stemming from deep cultural and religious influences gained over centuries during Scandinavian colonization and settlement. This highly literate society places great emphasis upon education, which is free and compulsory until age 16. About 20% of the population belongs to the following churches registered in Estonia: Estonian Evangelical Lutheran Church, Estonian Apostolic Orthodox Church, Estonian Orthodox Church subordinated to the Moscow Patriarchate, Baptist Church, Roman Catholic Church, and others.

As of November 2006, 84.6% of Estonia's population held Estonian citizenship, 7.6% were citizens of other countries (primarily Russia), and 8.8% were of undetermined citizenship.

Written with the Latin alphabet, Estonian is the language of the Estonian people and the official language of the country. Estonian is very difficult to learn for English-speakers: it has fourteen cases, which can be a challenge even for skilled linguists. During the Soviet era, the Russian language was imposed for official use.
*Population (2006): 1,324,333.
*Annual growth rate: -0.65%. Birth rate--10.04/1,000. Death rate--13.25/1,000. Net migration--3.2 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2006). Density--31/sq. km. Urban dwellers--70%.
*Ethnic groups: Estonians 68%, Russians 26%, Ukrainians 2%, Belarusians 1%, Finns 1%, other 2.2%.
*Religions: Evangelical Lutheran; the Estonian Apostolic Orthodox, subordinated to Constantinople; the Estonian Orthodox, subordinated to the Moscow Patriarchate; Baptist.
*Languages (2000 census): Estonian (official) 67.3%, Russian 29.7%, other 2.3%, unknown 0.7%.
*Education: Years compulsory--9. Attendance--218,600 students at 550 schools, plus 50,800 university students. Literacy--99.8%.
*Health: Infant mortality rate--7.73 deaths/1,000 live births. Life expectancy--66.3 yrs. men, 77.8 yrs. women.
*Work force: 659,600.

==Government==
Estonia is a parliamentary democracy, with a 101-member parliament (the Riigikogu) and a president who is elected indirectly by parliament or, if no candidate wins a two-thirds majority in parliament, by an electoral college composed of members of parliament and of local government representatives. Estonia holds presidential elections every five years. The last presidential election was in 2006. The President serves a maximum of two terms. The President is also the Supreme Commander of the National Defense of Estonia.

Parliamentary elections take place every four years; members are elected by proportional representation. The most recent elections took place on March 4, 2007. A party must gather at least 5% of the votes to take a seat in Parliament. Citizens 18 years of age or older may vote in parliamentary elections and be members of political parties. In addition, resident non-citizens and those who have lived permanently in the area for at least 5 years preceding the election may vote in local elections, although they may not run for office.

After parliamentary elections, the President traditionally asks the party with the most votes to form a new government. The President chooses the Prime Minister--usually the leader of the largest party or coalition in the Parliament--with the consent of the parliament to supervise the work of the government. The Estonian government has a total of 14 ministers.

At the local level, Estonians elect government councils by proportional representation. The individual councils vary in size, but election laws stipulate minimum size requirements depending on the population of the municipality.

Estonia's Supreme Court, the Riigikohus, has 19 justices, all of whom receive lifetime tenure appointments. The parliament appoints the Chief Justice on nomination by the President.

Estonians may vote via the Internet in local and parliamentary elections.

===Political Conditions===
Currently, half a dozen parties represent Estonia's 1.3 million citizens. The Reform Party, the Isamaa and Res Public Union, and the Social Democrats form the current government with 31, 19, and 10 seats in parliament, respectively. Other major parties include the Centre Party, the Estonian Greens, and the People’s Union.

Reform Party Chairman Andrus Ansip is the current Prime Minister of the coalition government.

Toomas Hendrik llves (Social Democrat Party), a former Ambassador to the United States, two-time Minister of Foreign Affairs, Estonian parliamentarian, and a former member of the European Parliament, is the President of Estonia. President Ilves narrowly defeated incumbent Arnold Rüütel in an electoral-college vote in September 2006, and he took office on October 9, 2006.

===Principal Government Officials===
*President--Toomas Hendrik Ilves
*Prime Minister--Andrus Ansip (Reform)
*Foreign Affairs--Urmas Paet (Reform)
*Internal Affairs--Juri Pihl (Social Democrats)
*Social Affairs--Maret Maripuu (Reform)

===Foreign Relations===
Estonia is party to most major international organizations. It is a UN, EU, and NATO member and a strong ally and partner of the United States on all fronts. It is deeply committed to good transatlantic relations and to promoting democracy and free-market economic policy globally.

In the E.U., Estonia's priorities include supporting continued EU enlargement; raising EU competitiveness through innovation; joining the Eurozone; developing a unified European energy policy; enhancing and fostering the European Neighborhood Policy; and improving the EU relationship with Russia.

Estonia has active development assistance programs in many of the former Soviet countries (with a focus on Georgia, Ukraine, and Moldova), as well as in Afghanistan.

==Defense==
Estonia's regular armed forces--the Estonian Defense Forces--in peacetime number about 3,800 (Army 3,300, Navy 300, Air Force 200) persons, of whom about 1,500 are conscripts. The President of Estonia is the Commander in Chief of the Estonian Defense Forces. The National Defense Council, composed of the Chairman of the Parliament, the Prime Minister, the Chief of the Defense Forces, the Defense Minister, the Minister of Internal Affairs, the Minister of Foreign Affairs, and the Chairman of the Parliamentary National Defense Committee, advise the President on national defense matters.

Estonia officially became a member of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization on March 29, 2004 after depositing its instruments of treaty ratification in Washington, DC. The United States and Estonia cooperate intensively in the defense and security field.

Estonian defense spending has increased 13% annually since 2001. The Government of Estonia has expressed a firm commitment to meet the NATO goal of spending 2% of GDP by 2010; its current defense budget is 1.8% of GDP. In 2006, Estonia had deployed approximately 300 military personnel to support UN, NATO, and coalition military operations around the world and will increase its commitment in 2007. That number represents almost 10% of Estonia's military, a good indication of Estonia's willingness and ability to contribute to global security. Estonia currently has troops in Afghanistan, Iraq, Kosovo, and Bosnia.

==Economy==
Estonia is considered one of the most liberal economies in the world, ranking 7th in the Heritage Foundation's 2006 Economic Freedom Index (above the United States and just below the U.K.). Hallmarks of Estonia's free, market-based economy include a balanced budget, a flat-rate income tax system (the first in the world), a fully convertible currency pegged to the Euro, a competitive commercial banking sector, and a hospitable environment for foreign investment, including no tax on reinvested corporate profits (tax is not levied unless a distribution is made).

Estonia's liberal economic policies and macroeconomic stability have fostered exceptionally strong growth and better living standards than those of most new EU member states. The IMF projected real GDP growth at over 9% in 2006, slightly below its 2005 level. The economy benefits from strong electronics and telecommunications sectors; the country is so wired that it is nicknamed E-stonia. Bars and cafes are universally equipped with wireless connections. Skype, designed by Estonian developers, offers free calls over the Internet to millions of people worldwide. Tourism has also driven Estonia's economic growth, with beautifully restored Tallinn already a Baltic tourist landmark.
*GDP (2006): $13.3 billion.
*Real GDP growth rate (2006 est.): 9.8%.
*Per capita GDP (2006): $9,936.
*Inflation (2006): 4.4%.
*Unemployment (2006): 4.5%.
*Natural resources: Oil shale, phosphorus, limestone, blue clay.
*Agriculture (3% of 2006 GDP): Products--livestock production (milk, meat, eggs) and crop production (cereals and legumes, potatoes, forage crops). Arable land--433,100 hectares.
*Industry (26% of 2006 GDP): Types--engineering, electronics, wood and wood products, and textiles.
*Services (70% of 2006 GDP): Transit, information technology (IT), telecommunications, business services, retail, construction, real estate.
*Trade: Exports (2005)--$7.85 billion. Partners--Finland 26.5%, Sweden 12.9%, Latvia 8.8%, Russia 6.5%, Germany 6.2%, Lithuania 4.8%. Imports (2005)--$ 10.34 billion. Partners--Finland 19.8%, Germany 13.8%, Russia 9.4%, Sweden 8.8%, Lithuania 6.1%, Latvia 4.7%.
*Exchange rate (2006): 12.2 kroon (EEK)=U.S.$1.
*Foreign direct investment (June 2006): Sweden 53.3%, Finland 20.3%, Netherlands 2.6%, U.K. 2.5%, Norway 2.5%, U.S. 2.4%, Germany 1.6%, Denmark 1.5%, Russia 1.3%.

By the late 1990s, Estonia's trade regime was so liberal that adoption of EU and World Trade Organization (WTO) norms actually forced Estonia to impose tariffs in certain sectors, such as agriculture, which had previously been tariff-free. Openness to trade, rapid growth in investment, and an appreciating real exchange rate have resulted in large trade deficits in recent years. In the first six months of 2006, exports and imports both grew rapidly, with growth reaching 30.8% and 31% year-on-year, respectively.

Estonia supplies more than 90% of its electricity needs with locally mined oil shale; however, it imports all of its natural gas and petroleum (roughly 30% of total energy consumption) from Russia. Alternative energy sources such as wood, peat, and biomass make up about 9% of primary energy production. An undersea electricity cable inaugurated in December 2006 will allow Estonia to export electricity to Finland.

Notwithstanding these many achievements, the economy of Estonia still faces challenges. The income differential between Tallinn and the rest of the country has widened in recent years as the cost of living differential has narrowed. The formerly industrial northeast section of Estonia suffered from economic depression as a result of plant closings in the early 1990s, although even this region has experienced strong growth in the last two years. The labor force is shrinking due to low birth rates and emigration. This tight labor market and the government's restrictive labor and immigration policies have led to wage pressure and challenges to future competitiveness. Inflation above 3% has forced the government to push back adoption of the Euro from its original target of 2007.

The Estonian Finance Ministry predicts that the economy will grow by 8.7% in 2007. This compares with an estimated EU-wide GDP growth rate of 2.1% in 2006 and 2.4% in 2007. The unemployment rate in the second quarter of 2006 was 5.4%, below the EU-wide average of 8.5%.

====Foreign Trade====
Estonia is part of the European Union, and its trade policy is conducted in Brussels.

Estonia's business attitude toward the United States is positive, and business relations between the two countries are increasing. The primary competition for American companies in the Estonian marketplace is European suppliers, especially Finnish and Swedish companies.

Total U.S. exports to Estonia in 2005 were $138.4 million, forming 1.4% of total Estonian imports. In 2005 the principal imports from the United States were electronics, iron and steel, and machinery. Estonian exports to the United States grew 27% in 2005 to $240 million, making the U.S. Estonia's eighth-largest export market. U.S. imports from Estonia are primarily mineral fuels and oils, wood and wood products, and electronics.

Estonia's economy benefits from its location at the crossroads of East and West. Estonia lies just south of Finland and across the Baltic Sea from Sweden, both EU members. To the east are the huge potential markets of northwest Russia. Estonia's modern transportation and communication links provide a safe and reliable bridge for trade with former Soviet Union and Nordic countries. Many observers also see a potential role for Estonia as a future link in the supply chain from the Far East into the EU.

==History==
====Ancient====
Estonians are one of the longest-settled European peoples and have lived along the Baltic Sea for over 5,000 years. The Estonians were an independent nation until the 13th century A.D. The country was then subsequently conquered by Denmark, Germany, Poland, Sweden, and finally Russia, whose defeat of Sweden in 1721 resulted in the Uusikaupunki Peace Treaty, granting Russia rule over what became modern Estonia.

====First Period of Independence====
Independence remained out of reach for Estonia until the collapse of the Russian empire during [[World War I]]. Estonia declared itself an independent democratic republic in November 1918. In 1920, by the Peace Treaty of Tartu, Soviet Russia recognized Estonia's independence and renounced in perpetuity all rights to its territory.

The first constitution of the Republic of Estonia was adopted in 1920 and established a parliamentary form of government. Estonia's independence would last for 22 years, during which time Estonia guaranteed cultural autonomy to all minorities, including its small Jewish population, an act that was unique in Western Europe at the time.

====Soviet Period====
Leading up to [[World War II]], Estonia pursued a policy of neutrality. However, the Soviet Union forcibly incorporated Estonia as a result of the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact of 1939, in which Nazi Germany gave control of Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania to the Soviet Union in return for control of much of Poland. In August 1940, the U.S.S.R proclaimed Estonia a part of the Soviet Union as the Estonian Soviet Socialist Republic (E.S.S.R.). The United States never recognized Soviet sovereignty over Estonia, Latvia, or Lithuania.

During the course of WWII, Germany occupied Estonia for three years. In 1944, Stalin retook the country and resumed the mass deportations of ethnic Estonians to Siberia that had been initiated in 1941. Together with migration into Estonia from other parts of the Soviet Union, this resulted in the share of ethnic Estonians in the country decreasing from 88% in 1934 to 62% in 1989.

====Re-establishing Independence====
In the late 1980s, looser controls on freedom of expression under Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev reignited the Estonians' call for self-determination. By 1988, hundreds of thousands of people were gathering across Estonia to sing previously banned national songs in what became know as the "Singing Revolution."

In November 1988, Estonia's Supreme Soviet passed a declaration of sovereignty; in 1990, the name of the Republic of Estonia was restored, and during the August 1991 coup in the U.S.S.R, Estonia declared full independence. The U.S.S.R Supreme Soviet recognized independent Estonia on September 6, 1991. Unlike the experiences of Latvia and Lithuania, Estonia's revolution ended without blood spilled.

Estonia became a member of the United Nations on September 17, 1991 and is a signatory to a number of UN organizations and other international agreements, including IAEA, ICAO, UNCTAD, WHO, WIPO, UNESCO, ILO, IMF, and WB/EBRD. It is also a member of the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE).

After more than 3 years of negotiations, on August 31, 1994, the armed forces of the Russian Federation withdrew from Estonia.

====Modern Period: 1990s - Today====
In 1992, a constitutional assembly introduced amendments to the 1938 constitution. After the draft constitution was approved by popular referendum, it came into effect July 3, 1992. Presidential elections were held on September 20, 1992, with Lennart Meri as victor. Lennart Meri served two terms as president, implementing many reforms during his tenure. Meri was constitutionally barred from a third term. Arnold Rüütel became president in 2001; Toomas Hendrick Ilves in 2006. Since fully regaining independence, Estonia has had 13 governments with 7 different prime ministers elected: Mart Laar, Andres Tarand, Tiit Vähi, Mart Siimann, Siim Kallas, Juhan Parts, and Andrus Ansip.

Estonia began to adopt free-market policies even before it declared independence in mid-1991 and has continued to pursue reform aggressively ever since. For example, the government set privatization as an early priority and has now completed the process of putting most major industries in private hands. After independence the Government of Estonia took steps to simplify the tax system. Tax evasion is now relatively low by regional standards. Income tax is levied at a flat rate, a principle supported by all the major parties except the Center Party, for which a progressive tax system remains a keystone policy. Budget performance is exceptionally strong; the IMF projected a surplus of 3.4% of GDP in 2006.

An integral part of Estonia's transition to a market economy during the early 1990s involved reorienting foreign trade to the West and attracting foreign investment to upgrade the country's industry and commerce. In 1990, only 5% of Estonia's foreign trade was with the developed West; only 21% of this trade represented exports. About 87% of Estonia's trade was with the Soviet Union, and of that, 61% was with Russia. Estonia's main foreign trading partners today are Sweden, Finland, Germany and others in the West. Russia's share of Estonia's trade is less than 10%.

The introduction of the Estonian kroon in June 1992, with only U.S.$120 million in gold reserves and no internationally backed stabilization fund, proved decisive in stabilizing foreign trade. For stability, the kroon was pegged by special agreement to the deutsche mark (DM) at EKR8 = DM1 and later to the Euro. The new Estonian currency became the foundation for rational development of the economy. Money began to have clear value; the currency supply could be controlled from Tallinn, not Moscow; and long-term investment decisions could be made with greater confidence by both the state and private enterprise. The central bank is independent of the government but subordinate to the parliament. In addition to its president, the bank is managed by a board of directors, whose chair is also appointed by parliament.

The fall of the Soviet Union and the rapid contraction of Estonia's market to the East during the early 1990s caused Estonia's economy to shrink 36% from 1990 to 1994. But economic reforms in Estonia and the ability of its economy to reorient toward the West allowed Estonia's economy to pick up in 1995 with 4.6% growth and 4.0% growth in 1996. Russia's financial crisis in 1999 led to the only year of decline in Estonia's GDP since 1994--but the 0.7% decline was relatively small.

The 1994-2004 period was mainly dominated by the Estonian EU and NATO accession processes. Estonia was the first Baltic country to start direct accession talks with the EU. Estonia applied to join the EU in November 1995 and, while participating in accession negotiations, continued its program of major economic and social reforms. This gave Estonia a good opportunity to take into account EU objectives and to exploit the experience of existing EU member states when carrying out reforms. Examples of reform in the social area included the launch of unemployment insurance in 2002 and the 1999 implementation of the Occupational Safety and Health Act, which regulates safety and health requirements in the work place as well as the organizational aspects of the occupational health system.

In 1999, Estonia joined the World Trade Organization, adding to its previous membership of the IMF, World Bank and the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development.

In November 2002, Estonia was one of seven Central and East European countries to be invited to join NATO; it officially became a member of NATO on March 29, 2004. In just fifteen years since re-establishing independence, Estonia has proven itself to be an excellent Ally, having built a military capable of participating in ever more complex and distant military operations.

EU accession negotiations proceeded rapidly, and Estonia joined the EU in May 2004, along with nine other countries, including its Baltic neighbors. The final decision was conditional on the outcome of a national referendum which was held in September 2003 and returned a large majority in favor of membership.

Estonia has developed into a strong international actor, through its membership in the EU and NATO; it is a capable advocate and promoter of stability and democracy in the former Soviet Union and beyond. Estonian troops have been in Afghanistan since 2002 and Iraq since 2003. It participates in the NATO training mission in Iraq and in the international police training mission for Iraq in Jordan. Estonia also provides peacekeepers for international missions in both Bosnia and Kosovo and contributes to EU battlegroups and NATO Response Force rotations. It supports democratic developments in key countries of the former Soviet Union and beyond by providing training to government and law enforcement officials as well as non-governmental organizations. It has valuable experience to offer new democracies from its own recent history, and it works hard to promote democracy, freedom, and stability worldwide.

{{Copyright Details (US Government)}}

Source = [http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/5377.htm]

[[Category:European Countries]]
[[Category:EU Members]]
[[Category:Baltic States]]

New Deal Coalition

2009-07-29T15:17:10Z

Miacek: /* African Americans */

The '''New Deal Coalition''' is a political coalition, which was created by [[Franklin Roosevelt]] in the 1930s. It included Democratic party organizations, big city machines, labor unions, minorities (racial, ethnic and religious, especially Blacks, Catholics and Jews), liberal farm groups, intellectuals, the Mountain West, and the white South. It was opposed by the [[Conservative Coalition]] of northern Republicans and southern Democrats. The New Deal Coalition dominated presidential elections from 1932 through 1964 (even including the two that Republican Eisenhower won). It lost control of Congress in 1937, but in a "last hurrah" controlled Congress and the White House during the "[[Great Society]]" of Democratic President Lyndon B. Johnson. The coalition fell apart after 1966 but it remains the model that Democratic party activists seek to replicate.

The coalition brought together liberal interest groups and voting blocks that supported the [[New Deal]] and voted for [[Democratic Party|Democratic]] presidential candidates from 1932 until approximately 1966, which made the Democratic Party the majority party during the [[Fifth Party System]].

==Roosevelt's Realignment==
The 1932 election brought about a major realignment in political party affiliation, and is widely considered to be a [[realigning election]] that created the [[Fifth Party System]]. Franklin Delano Roosevelt set up his [[New Deal]] and forged a coalition of Big City machines, labor unions, liberals, farmers, ethnic and racial minorities (especially Catholics, Jews and African Americans), and Southern whites. These disparate voting blocs together formed a majority of voters and handed the Democratic Party seven victories out of nine presidential elections (1932-36-40-48, 1960, 1964), as well as control of both houses of Congress during all but 4 years 1932-1980 (Republicans won in 1946 and 1952). Starting in the 1930s, the term "liberal" was used in U.S. politics to indicate supporters of the coalition, while "conservative" denoted its opponents. The coalition was never formally organized, and the constituent members often disagreed.

===Issues: Equality as core New Deal value===
World War Two had a surprisingly small impact on voting patterns. There was no great realignment, except perhaps among [[German Americans]], who moved toward the GOP. The war, however, promoted both the ideology and actuality of shared sacrifice and equality. Heavy income taxes, rationing of basic foods, clothing, and gasoline, and the shutoff of new housing and cars, together with the end of unemployment and very high paying war jobs for the unskilled and semiskilled, made for a radical shift toward economic equality. The index of income inequality shifted dramatically (the richest 5% received 34% of all disposable (after tax) income in 1929, 25% in 1940, and 16% in 1944. <ref> U.S. Bureau of the Census, ''Historical Statistics of the United States'' (1976) series G342 p 302; D'Ann Campbell, Women at War With America (1984).</ref>

New Dealers, shut out of the war agencies, controlled the price control agency (The OPA), and government propaganda. The wartime propaganda campaigns stressing shared sacrifice and the equality of all soldiers reflected a new consensus of egalitarian thinking. The combination obviously benefited the New Deal, and especially the labor union component of the coalition.<ref> Leff (1991) </ref> The unions seized their opportunity by attacking business for racking off excess profits, and by demanding higher wages in a nationwide wave of strikes in 1946.

Public opinion agreed (in July 1945) with the egalitarian argument about fat cats: 61% though big business owners and executives were paid too much, and 35% added doctors and lawyers. However, only 22% thought factory workers were paid too little, while 33% thought office workers were underpaid. Furthermore, a majority as early as summer 1942 identified "labor leaders" as "taking unfair advantage of the war to get money or power for themselves."<ref> OPOR 52, July 1945, from original cards; OPOR March 1942, in Hadley Cantril and Mildred Strunk, ''Public Opinion'' (1951) p. 1176, see also 396-7.</ref>

After the war, the unions retained recognition and made some wage gains at the cost of massive defeat of their candidates in 1946, and the passage of the hated [[Taft-Hartley Act]] in 1947. By 1946 the Republicans confronted the equality issue head-on in attacking rationing, especially the price controls on meat imposed by Office of Price Administration as an egalitarian device. The issue was a winner for the conservatives, with only 22% of the people supporting the government on this issue.<ref>See Gallup polls in Cantril and Strunk, Public Opinion, 437, 734 </ref>

===Party loyalty===
In 1948 Truman and his fellow Democrats emphasized party loyalty, knowing they had a clear advantage in the electorate. Partisanship in 1948 was 49% Democratic, 30% Republican, and 22% independent. <ref> from AIPO #429, after adjusting for biases regarding education and city size; see also Everett Carl Ladd and Charles Hadley, ''Transformations of the American Party System'' (1975), 123, 321.</ref> They also emphasized the New Deal heritage, because the people had fond memories of it. Of Truman supporters, 92% thought the New Deal had done more good than harm, along with 87% of the undecided. Amazingly, a majority of Dewey supporters (54%) agreed. Thus Dewey's strategy of downplaying his disagreements with the New Deal ("me-tooism") was essential.<ref> AIPO 429. On Truman's aggressively liberal strategy, see Sean J. Savage, ''Truman and the Democratic Party'' (1997).</ref>

===Class and labor unions===
The importance of the union vote grew proportionately to the unions themselves. In 1936, only 7% of the labor force belonged to unions; then came the great organizing drives and by 1940 the total was 16%. The enlarged unionized industries dramatically, pulling up the proportion to 21%. Despite intense fears of a postwar reaction of the sort that had humbled them in the 1920s, union coverage of the non-farm labor force stabilized, and even grew, reaching 23% in 1948.<ref> ''Historical Statistics'' 178.</ref> The labor vote divided three ways, [[Congress of Industrial Organizations]] (CIO), AFL and non-unionized workers.

<TABLE BORDER>
<TR> <TD>
% Democratic Working class, 1936-1948<ref> George Gallup, ''The Political Almanac: 1952'' (1952) 37</ref>
</TD> </TR>
<TR> <TD></TD> <TD>
1936</TD>
<TD>1940</TD>
<TD>1944</TD><TD>
1948</TD> </TR>
<TR> <TD>
Non-Union</TD><TD>
72</TD><TD>
64</TD><TD>
56</TD><TD>
60</TD> </TR>
<TR> </TR>
<TR> <TD>
AFL</TD><TD>
80</TD><TD>
71</TD><TD>
69</TD><TD>
73</TD> </TR>
<TR> <TD>
CIO</TD><TD>
85</TD><TD>
79</TD><TD>
78</TD><TD>
76</TD> </TR>
<TR> </TR>
<TR> <TD>
Union Effect</TD><TD>
+8</TD><TD>
+8</TD><TD>
+16</TD><TD>
+14</TD> </TR>
<TR> <TD>
</TABLE>

The [[CIO]] was younger, more radical and poorer than the better- established [[AFL]], and its membership voted from 3 to 9 points more Democratic than the AFL members. However, both union groups were more Democratic than workers of similar occupations who did not belong to unions, by a factor of 8 to 16 points. That additional union effect can be attributed to the many vigorous get-out-the-Democratic-vote campaigns launched by the unions. They faced the problem of internecine warfare, but with the purging of the Communists in the late 1940s, the AFL and CIO were able to merge in 1955, at about the time union strength reached its peak.<ref> Irving Bernstein, ''The Turbulent Years'' (1970); Robert H. Zieger, ''The CIO, 1935-1955'' (1995); Steven Fraser, ''Labor Will Rule: Sidney Hillman and the Rise of American Labor'' (1991).</ref>

The strong class effects visible in the New Deal elections through 1948 were not just the product of working class action. The middle class played a central role, voting heavily Republican. Probably tax protest was a major motive. By 1952, however, the growing affluence of the working class weakened the protest power of the union vote, while the social mobility of many ethnics enlarged the middle class to include millions of people of Democratic heritage. Class did not quite disappear, but it did mostly fade away.<ref>Ladd and Hadley, 234; Norval D. Glenn, "Class And Party Support In The United States: Recent and Emerging Trends." ''Public Opinion Quarterly'' 1973 37(1): 1-20; Michael Hout, Clem Brooks, and Jeff Manza, "The Democratic Class Struggle in the United States, 1948-1992" American Sociological Review 1995 60(6): 805- 828; Avery M. Guest, "Class Consciousness And American Political Attitudes." Social Forces 1974 52(4): 496-510. </ref>

===White Ethnics===
The impact of the New Deal and the war on white ethnic groups was enormous, and has not been fully appreciated by historians. In the 1920s they were poor, were ignored politically marginal, and suffered a sharp inferiority complex. Political participation was low among the "new" immigrants (post 1890). The depression his these new immigrants hardest of all, for they had low skill levels and were concentrated in heavy industry. They needed the New Deal and its relief programs came through for them. In terms of politics, the Catholic ethnics were one of the largest and most critical voting blocs in the New Deal coalition. [[Al Smith]]'s nomination in 1928 had given a strong impetus to registration and voting among Catholics (and, perhaps, Lutherans as well), but that impetus had decayed. Roosevelt held all the Catholics up to 1940. In particular he held the Irish, who included most of the ethnic political leaders, despite Smith's repudiation of the New Deal. The Catholic ethnics were beholden to welfare programs (especially the WPA, PWA and CCC), to city machines, and to labor unions. The Irish, in control in large swaths of most major cities, flourished as never before.<ref>. Patrick D. Kennedy, "Chicago's Irish Americans And The Candidacies Of Franklin D. Roosevelt, 1932-1944." ''Illinois Historical Journal'' (1995) 88(4): 263-278. The best study of ethnic and religious voting is James C. Mott, "The Fate of an Alliance: The Roosevelt Coalition, 1932-1952," (PhD, U of Illinois-Chicago, 1988).</ref>

The Italians, despite superficial support for Mussolini, stayed with Roosevelt. <ref> See Rudolph J. Vecoli, "The Coming Of Age Of Italian Americans: 1945-1974," ''Ethnicity'' 1978 5(2): 119-147; and Stefano Luconi, "Machine Politics and the Consolidation of the Roosevelt Majority: The Case of Italian Americans in Pittsburgh and Philadelphia," ''Journal of American Ethnic History,'' 1996 15(2): 32-59.</ref>

Hispanic voters in the Southwest stared a new level of activity in 1944, but their main surge came with the [[Viva Kennedy]] campaign of 1960.<ref> Mario T. Garcia, "Americans All: The Mexican American Generation and the Politics Of Wartime Los Angeles, 1941-45," ''Social Science Quarterly'' 1984 65(2): 278-289.</ref> The war brought prosperity of the sort never dreamed of, plus an opportunity to demonstrate patriotism in action, in war factories and battlefields.

Jewish voters joined the New Deal coalition late, but by 1936 and 1940 were enthusiastic; despite their rising social-economic status, they never abandoned the party and indeed kept trying to revive the New Deal coalition.<ref>Mott, "The Fate of an Alliance", 60-69; Ladd and Hadley, Transformations, 60-64; Leonard Dinnerstein, "Jews And The New Deal," ''American Jewish History'' 1983 72(4): 461-476; Alan M. Fisher, "Realignment Of The Jewish Vote?" ''Political Science Quarterly'' (1979) 94(1): 97-116.</ref>

Isolationist sentiment was strong among the Irish, Germans and Italians in 1940. Roosevelt's own personal intervention kept in line such key leaders as [[Joseph Kennedy]] and [[Jim Farley]].<ref> Michael Beschloss, ''Kennedy and Roosevelt: The Uneasy Alliance'' (1980); Thomas T. Spencer, "'Old' Democrats And New Deal Politics: Claude G. Bowers, James A. Farley, And The Changing Democratic Party, 1933- 1940," ''Indiana Magazine Of History'' 1996 92(1): 26-45. </ref> The Polish vote was of special importance because of its size in such critical cities as Chicago, Milwaukee, Detroit and Buffalo, and because Republicans made a vigorous effort to portray Yalta as a sellout of Polish interests. The Democrats worked hard to retain support, emphasizing class and union issues, and Catholic fears of nativism. The relatively small middle class Polish-American community moved Republican, but the large working class base remained loyal.<ref> Jack L. Hammersmith, "Franklin Roosevelt, the Polish Question, and the Election of 1944," ''Mid-America'' 1977 59(1): 5-17; Robert D. Ubriaco, Jr., "Bread And Butter Politics Or Foreign Policy Concerns? Class Versus Ethnicity In The Midwestern Polish American Community During The 1946 Congressional Elections," ''Polish American Studies'' 1994 51(2): 5-32. </ref>

Although voting realignments were few, perhaps the largest change came about in 1940, when a large fraction of the German-American voters switched to [[Wendell Willkie]], who of course was of German descent himself. As Willkie crusaded against the anti-business excesses of the New Deal, the Democrats counter-crusaded, arguing that the danger of an internal fifth column was grave, and broadly suggesting that Willkie along with isolationists like Lindbergh was pro-Nazi. Although FDR promised there would be no repeat of the anti-Hun hysteria of the First War, distrust levels were high. Of course, everyone knew what was happening to the Japanese on the West Coast. During the war the federal [[Office of War Information]] sponsored numerous polls to monitor possible disloyalty or slackerism. NORC did a study in spring 1942, based on two nationwide surveys. The Germans were slightly more hostile to Britain than non-Germans, and exactly the same versus USSR. People with both parents born in Germany were slightly less hostile to Germany (only 11% wanted to "destroy Germany as a nation" vs 26% of the whole US; only 19% thought Germany has used poison gas in ww2, versus 33%). People with one parent born in Germany were almost exactly like the national average. None of the reports indicated any pro-Nazi sentiment whatever.<ref> "A Study of the Effect of German and Italian Origin on Certain War Attitudes" (NORC special Report #6, copy in NORC, U Chicago).</ref>

===African Americans===
The political history of African-Americans has been studied primarily through the prism of the Civil Rights movement, with considerable evidence showing the Double-V campaign was successful in mobilizing Democratic votes--war against [[Nazism]] abroad and discrimination at home. The Republicans, however, continued a strong emphasis on civil rights that kept many traditional supporters in the fold. The Black vote would become critical in the 1960s, but in the 1930s and 1940s it was a junior partner in the coalition, and had little voice or respect.<ref>William J. McKenna, "The Negro Vote In Philadelphia Elections," Pennsylvania History 1965 32(4): 406-415; Ladd and Hadley, 60; James J. Kenneally, "Black Republicans During The New Deal: The Role Of Joseph W. Martin, Jr.," Review of Politics 1993 55(1): 117-139; Harvard Sitkoff, A New Deal for Blacks (1981); Nancy J. Weiss, Farewell to the Party of Lincoln: Black Politics in the Age of FDR (1983), stresses the welfare program as critical to the realignment.</ref>

===Regionalism===
Regionalism is a relatively neglected theme for the New Deal years, except for the reasonably extensive coverage of the South.<ref> George Brown Tindall, ''Disruption of the Solid South'' (1992); Tindall, ''The Emergence of the New South, 1913-1945'' (1967); Numan V. Bartley, ''The New South, 1945-1980'' (1995); Earl Black and Merle Black, ''The Rise of Southern Republicans'' (2003); William E. Leuchtenburg, ''The White House Looks South: Franklin D. Roosevelt, Harry S. Truman, Lyndon B. Johnson'' (2005) </ref> The West was a New Deal bastion, which like the South later switched to the GOP.<ref> Gerald D. Nash, ''American West Transformed: The Impact of the Second World War'' (1990); Peter F. Galderisi et al., ''The Politics of Realignment: Party Change in the Mountain West'' (1987); Heinz Eulau, ''The Western Public: 1952 and Beyond'' (1954); James Q. Wilson, "A Guide To Reagan Country. The Political Culture Of Southern California," ''Commentary'' 1967 43(5): 37-45.</ref> On the other hand, the East was a Republican bastion in the New Deal era. The Middle West has always been a highly competitive battle-ground. Just why the West and East switched is an open question. In the West, heavy immigration surely played a major role. In the East, the story perhaps is that of the downfall of the liberal wing of the GOP.<ref>Nicol C. Rae, ''The Decline and Fall of the Liberal Republicans: From 1952 to the Present'' (1989). </ref>

===Cities===
Roosevelt had a magnetic appeal to city dwellers, especially the poorer minorities who got recognition, unions, relief jobs and beer thanks to Roosevelt. Taxpayers, small business and the middle class voted for Roosevelt in 1936, but turned sharply against him after the recession of 1937-38 seemed to belie his promises of recovery. <ref> Jensen 1981</ref>

Roosevelt discovered an entirely new use for city machines in his reelection campaigns. Traditionally, local bosses minimized turnout so as to guarantee reliable control of their wards and legislative districts. To carry the electoral college, however, Roosevelt needed massive majorities in the largest cities to overcome the hostility of suburbs and towns. Roosevelt used the [[Works Progress Administration]] (1935-1942) as a national political machine through patronage given out by Postmaster General [[James A. Farley]] and WPA head [[Harry Hopkins]]. Men on relief could get WPA jobs regardless of their politics, but hundreds of thousands of supervisory jobs were given to local Democratic machines; one went to Ronald Reagan's father. The 3.5 million voters on relief payrolls during the 1936 election cast 82% percent of their ballots for Roosevelt. The vibrant labor unions, heavily based in the cities, likewise did their utmost for their benefactor, voting 80% for him, as did Irish, Italian and Jewish voters. In all, the nation's 106 cities over 100,000 population voted 70% for FDR in 1936, compared to 59% elsewhere. Roosevelt won reelection in 1940 thanks to the cities. In the North, the cities over 100,000 gave Roosevelt 60% of their votes, while the rest of the North favored Republican [[Wendell Willkie]] by 52%. It was just enough to provide the critical electoral college margin. <ref> Jensen 1981</ref>

With the start of full-scale war mobilization in the summer of 1940, the cities revived. The war economy pumped massive investments into new factories and funded round-the-clock munitions production, guaranteeing a job to anyone who showed up at the factory gate.

==End of New Deal coalition==
The coalition fell apart in many ways but started with Farley and Roosevelts break over the third term nominee in 1940. The first cause was lack of a leader of the stature of Roosevelt. The closest was perhaps [[Lyndon Johnson]], who deliberately tried to reinvigorate the old coalition, but in fact drove its constituents apart. New issues such as [[civil rights]], the [[Vietnam War]], abortion, gay rights, affirmative action, and urban riots tended to split the coalition and drive many members away. Meanwhile, the Republican party made major gains by promising lower taxes and control of crime.
7
The big-city machines faded away in the 1940s, with a few exceptions, such as [[Chicago]] and [[Albany, New York|Albany]]. The New Deal had made them heavily dependent on the WPA for patronage, and, when Congress shut down the WPA, the cities could not find a substitute. Furthermore, World War II brought such a surge of prosperity that the relief mechanism of the WPA, CCC, etc. was no longer useful as a political tool.<ref> Erie, ''Rainbow's End'' (1988). </ref>

Labor unions crested in size and power in the 1950s, then went into steady decline. They continue into the 21st century as major backers of the Democrats, but with so few members they have lost much of their influence.<ref>Stanley Aronowitz, ''From the Ashes of the Old: American Labor and America's Future'' (1998) ch 7</ref>

Intellectuals gave increasing support to Democrats since 1932. The Vietnam War, however, caused a serious split, with the [[New Left]] reluctant to support most Democratic presidential candidates.<ref> Tevi Troy, ''Intellectuals and the American Presidency: Philosophers, Jesters, or Technicians?'' (2003)</ref>

[[Image:Fdr-Dems-2003.jpg|thumb"250px|''Time'' magazine, May 19, 2003 comments on the collapse of the New Deal coalition]]

The European ethnic groups came of age after the 1960s. [[Ronald Reagan]] pulled many of the working class social conservatives into the Republican party as [[Reagan Democrat]]s. Many middle class ethnics saw the Democratic party as a working class party and preferred the GOP as the middle class party. In recent years Democratic rhetoric has heavily stresssed the "Democrats are for the middle class" theme. The Jewish community still comprises a core Democratic constituency; in 2004 74% voted for Kerry, in 2006 87% voted for Democratic House candidates.<ref> William B. Prendergast, ''The Catholic Voter in American Politics: The Passing of the Democratic Monolith,'' (1999). Exit polls from CNN at [http://www.cnn.com/ELECTION/2006/pages/results/states/US/H/00/epolls.0.html] </ref>

African Americans grew stronger in their Democratic loyalties and in their numbers. By the 1960s, they were a much more important part of the coalition than in the 1930s. Their Democratic loyalties cut across all income and geographic lines to form the single most unified bloc of voters in the country.<ref> Hanes Walton, ''African American Power and Politics: The Political Context Variable'' (1997)</ref>

===1988 election===

The challenge for the GOP in 1988 was to hold onto Reagan's coalition for their nominee [[George Bush]], while preventing the revitalization of the New Deal Coalition. Bush won handily over Massachusetts governor [[Mike Dukakis]]. In terms of the coalition, Bush carried 60.6% of the white Southerners and 53.0% of the northern white ethnics. He won a relatively high 40.7% of labor union members, but carried only 17.1% of the liberals and 8.0% of the blacks. One reason for Bush's success was his emphasis on cultural issues (like his opposition to abortion and affirmative action), while Dukakis deemphasized social issues and stressed instead his managereial expertise.<ref> Joel Lieske, "Cultural Issues and Images in the 1988 Presidential Campaign: Why the Democrats Lost. Again!,"
''PS: Political Science and Politics,'' Vol. 24, No. 2. (Jun., 1991), pp. 180-187, esp. p. 182. [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=1049-0965%28199106%2924%3A2%3C180%3ACIAIIT%3E2.0.CO%3B2-5 in JSTOR]</ref>

===Region: Realignment in South ===
White Southerners abandoned cotton and tobacco farming, and moved to the cities where the New Deal programs had faded away after 1942. Beginning in the 1950s, the southern cities and suburbs started voting Republican in presidential elections. The white South saw the support northern Democrats gave to the [[Civil Rights Movement]] as a direct political assault on their interests and opened the way to protest votes for [[Barry Goldwater]], who in 1964 was the first Republican to carry the deep south. [[Jimmy Carter]] and [[Bill Clinton]] lured many of the Southern whites back at the level of Presidential voting, but by 2000 white males in the South were 2-1 Republican and, indeed, formed a major part of the Republican coalition.<ref> Earl Black and Merle Black, ''Politics and Society in the South,'' 1987. </ref>

In many ways, it was the [[civil rights]] movement that ultimately heralded the demise of the coalition. Democrats had traditionally solid support in Southern states (the ''[[Solid South]]''), but this electoral dominance began eroding in 1964, when [[Barry Goldwater]] carried the Deep South (and little else). In the 1968 election, the South once again abandoned its traditional support for the Democrats by supporting Nixon or segregationist third-party candidate [[George C. Wallace]]. Once the segregation ended in 1965, the argument that only southern Democrats could protect segregation faded. The South was no longer dirt poor, rural and dependent on crops like tobacco. As it modernized the Republicans took over the southern states one by one, first at the presidential level, then for Congress, governor and legislature. In 1976 the South rallied behind native son [[Jimmy Carter]], a Democrat; 1992 and 1996 the Democrats nominated two southerners and split the region's electoral votes. By 2000 the region was solidly Republican except for Florida. <ref> Thomas F. Schaller, ''Whistling Past Dixie: How Democrats Can Win Without the South'' (2006) </ref>

Since the 1990s Democrats solidified their hold on the Northeast and on California, with Republicans holding the south and southwest. The Midwest has been a closely matched battleground for 150 years; Illinois has become much more Democratic, and Minnesota has become less so. Since 1994 the division between the two parties is virtually even in both houses of Congress, as of 2008, and no party has established the kind of dominance that the Democrats were able to exert during the period of the New Deal coalition.

==New Deal Coalition: voting %D 1948-1964==
<TABLE BORDER>
<TR> <TD>
% Democratic vote in major groups, presidency 1948-1964</TD> </TR>
<TR> <TD></TD> <TD>
1948</TD><TD>
1952</TD><TD>
1956</TD><TD>
1960</TD><TD>
1964</TD> </TR>
<TR> <TD>
all voters</TD><TD>
50</TD><TD>
45</TD><TD>
42</TD><TD>
50</TD><TD>
61</TD> </TR>
<TR> </TR>
<TR> <TD>
White</TD><TD>
50</TD><TD>
43</TD><TD>
41</TD><TD>
49</TD><TD>
59</TD> </TR>
<TR> <TD>
Black</TD><TD>
50</TD><TD>
79</TD><TD>
61</TD><TD>
68</TD><TD>
94</TD> </TR>
<TR> </TR>
<TR> <TD>
College </TD><TD>
22</TD><TD>
34</TD><TD>
31</TD><TD>
39</TD><TD>
52</TD> </TR>
<TR> <TD>
High School</TD><TD>
51</TD><TD>
45</TD><TD>
42</TD><TD>
52</TD><TD>
62</TD> </TR>
<TR> <TD>
Grade School</TD><TD>
64</TD><TD>
52</TD><TD>
50</TD><TD>
55</TD><TD>
66</TD> </TR>
<TR> </TR>
<TR> <TD>
Professional & Business</TD><TD>
19</TD><TD>
36</TD><TD>
32</TD><TD>
42</TD><TD>
54</TD> </TR>
<TR> <TD>
White Collar</TD><TD>
47</TD><TD>
40</TD><TD>
37</TD><TD>
48</TD><TD>
57</TD> </TR>
<TR> <TD>
Manual worker</TD><TD>
66</TD><TD>
55</TD><TD>
50</TD><TD>
60</TD><TD>
71</TD> </TR>
<TR> <TD>
Farmer</TD><TD>
60</TD><TD>
33</TD><TD>
46</TD><TD>
48</TD><TD>
53</TD> </TR>
<TR> </TR>
<TR> <TD>
Union member</TD><TD>
76</TD><TD></TD> <TD>
51</TD><TD>
62</TD><TD>
77</TD> </TR>
<TR> <TD>
Not union</TD><TD>
42</TD><TD></TD> <TD>
35</TD><TD>
44</TD><TD>
56</TD> </TR>
<TR> </TR>
<TR> <TD>
Protestant </TD><TD>
43</TD><TD>
37</TD><TD>
37</TD><TD>
38</TD><TD>
55</TD> </TR>
<TR> <TD>
Catholic</TD><TD>
62</TD><TD>
56</TD><TD>
51</TD><TD>
78</TD><TD>
76</TD> </TR>
<TR> </TR>
<TR> <TD>
Republican</TD><TD></TD> <TD>
8</TD><TD>
4</TD><TD>
5</TD><TD>
20</TD> </TR>
<TR> <TD>
Independent</TD><TD></TD> <TD>
35</TD><TD>
30</TD><TD>
43</TD><TD>
56</TD> </TR>
<TR> <TD>
Democrat</TD><TD></TD> <TD>
77</TD><TD>
85</TD><TD>
84</TD><TD>
87</TD> </TR>
<TR> </TR>
<TR> <TD>
East</TD><TD>
48</TD><TD>
45</TD><TD>
40</TD><TD>
53</TD><TD>
68</TD> </TR>
<TR> <TD>
Midwest</TD><TD>
50</TD><TD>
42</TD><TD>
41</TD><TD>
48</TD><TD>
61</TD> </TR>
<TR> <TD>
West</TD><TD>
49</TD><TD>
42</TD><TD>
43</TD><TD>
49</TD><TD>
60</TD> </TR>
<TR> <TD>
South</TD><TD>
53</TD><TD>
51</TD><TD>
49</TD><TD>
51</TD><TD>
52</TD> </TR>
<TR> </TR>
<TR> <TD>
</TD> </TR>
</TABLE>
Source: Gallup Polls in Gallup (1972)

==Bibliography==
* Allswang, John M. ''New Deal and American Politics'' (1978)
* Andersen, Kristi. ''The Creation of a Democratic Majority, 1928-1936'' (1979)
* Campbell, James E. "Sources of the New Deal Realignment: The Contributions of Conversion and Mobilization to Partisan Change," ''The Western Political Quarterly'' Vol. 38, No. 3 (Sep., 1985), pp. 357-376 [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0043-4078%28198509%2938%3A3%3C357%3ASOTNDR%3E2.0.CO%3B2-4 in JSTOR]
* [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=98754501 Cantril, Hadley and Mildred Strunk, eds. ''Public Opinion, 1935-1946'' (1951)], massive compilation of many public opinion polls from US, UK, Canada, Australia, and elsewhere.
* Erie, Steven P. ''Rainbow's End: Irish-Americans and the Dilemmas of Urban Machine Politics, 1840—1985'' (1988).
* Gallup, George. ''The Gallup Poll: Public opinion, 1935-1971'' (3 vol 1972)
* Gallup, George. ''The Political Almanac: 1952'' (1952), convenient compendium of election returns and polls
* Glenn, Norval D. "Class And Party Support In The United States: Recent and Emerging Trends." ''Public Opinion Quarterly'' 1973 37(1): 1-20
* Guest, Avery M. "Class Consciousness And American Political Attitudes." ''Social Forces'' (1974) 52(4): 496-510.
* Hout, Michael, Clem Brooks, and Jeff Manza, "The Democratic Class Struggle in the United States, 1948-1992" ''American Sociological Review'' 1995 60(6): 805- 828;
* James, Scott C. ''Presidents, Parties, and the State: A Party System Perspective on Democratic Regulatory Choice, 1884-1936'' (2000)
* Jensen, Richard. "The Last Party System, 1932-1980," in Paul Kleppner, ed. ''Evolution of American Electoral Systems'' (1981)
* Jensen, Richard. ''The Structure of the Democratic Coalition, 1936-1948'' (1998) [http://members.aol.com/dann01/newdeal.html online edition]
* Ladd, Everett Carll and Charles D. Hadley. ''Transformations of the American Party System: Political Coalitions from the New Deal to the 1970s'' (1975), voting behavior [http://www.questia.com/library/book/transformations-of-the-american-party-system-political-coalitions-from-the-new-deal-to-the-1970s-by-charles-d-hadley-everett-carll-ladd.jsp online edition]
* Leff, Mark H. "The Politics Of Sacrifice On The American Home Front In World War II." ''Journal of American History'' 1991 77(4): 1296-1318. [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0021-8723(199103)77%3A4%3C1296%3ATPOSOT%3E2.0.CO%3B2-H in JSTOR]
* Leuchtenburg, William E. ''In the Shadow of FDR: From Harry Truman to George W. Bush'' (2001)
* Lewis-Beck, Michael S., and Peverill Squire. "The Transformation of the American State: The New Era-New Deal Test," ''The Journal of Politics'' Vol. 53, No. 1 (Feb., 1991), pp. 106-121 [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0022-3816%28199102%2953%3A1%3C106%3ATTOTAS%3E2.0.CO%3B2-9 in JSTOR]
* Manza, Jeff and Clem Brooks; ''Social Cleavages and Political Change: Voter Alignments and U.S. Party Coalitions,'' Oxford University Press, 1999
* Manza; Jeff. "Political Sociological Models of the U.S. New Deal" ''Annual Review of Sociology: 2000'', 26 (2000): 297-322. [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0360-0572%282000%2926%3C297%3APSMOTU%3E2.0.CO%3B2-I in JSTOR]
* Milkis, Sidney M. and Jerome M. Mileur, eds. ''The New Deal and the Triumph of Liberalism'' (2002)
* Milkis, Sidney M. ''The President and the Parties: The Transformation of the American Party System Since the New Deal'' (1993)
* Mott, James C. "The Fate of an Alliance: The Roosevelt Coalition, 1932-1952," (PhD, U of Illinois-Chicago, 1988).
* Paddock, Joel. "Beyond the New Deal: Ideological Differences between Eleven State Democratic Parties, 1956-1980," ''The Western Political Quarterly'' Vol. 43, No. 1 (Mar., 1990), pp. 181-190 [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0043-4078%28199003%2943%3A1%3C181%3ABTNDID%3E2.0.CO%3B2-3 in JSTOR]
* Patterson, James. ''Congressional Conservatism and the New Deal: The Growth of the Conservative Coalition in Congress, 1933-39'' (1967)
* Robinson, Edgar Eugene. ''They Voted for Roosevelt: The Presidential Vote, 1932-1944'' (1947) tables of votes by county
* Rubin, Richard L. ''Party Dynamics, the Democratic Coalition and the Politics of Change'' (1976)
* Stanley, Harold W., and Richard G. Niemi. ''Partisanship, Party Coalitions and Group Support, 1952-2004,'' ''Presidential Studies Quarterly'', Vol. 36, 2006. pp 172+ [http://www.questia.com/read/5015817967 online edition]
* Stanley, Harold W., and Richard G. Niemi. "Partisanship and group support, 1952-1988." ''American Politics Quarterly'' (1991) 19: 189- 210.
* Stanley, Harold W., and Richard G. Niemi. "The demise of the New Deal coalition: Partisanship and group support, 1952-1992." In ''Democracy's feast'', edited by Herbert F. Weisberg. (1995)
* Sundquist, James L. ''Dynamics of the Party System: Alignment and Realignment of Political Parties in the United States'' (1983) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=29223022 online edition]
* Ware, Susan. ''Beyond Suffrage: Women and the New Deal'' (1981) [http://www.amazon.com/Beyond-Suffrage-Women-New-Deal/dp/0674069226/ref=sr_1_1/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1194310762&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Webber, Michael J. "Business, the Democratic Party, and the New Deal: An Empirical Critique of Thomas Ferguson's 'Investment Theory of Politics'" ''Sociological Perspectives'' Vol. 34, No. 4 (Winter, 1991), pp. 473-492 [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0731-1214%28199124%2934%3A4%3C473%3ABTDPAT%3E2.0.CO%3B2-F in JSTOR]
---
====notes====
<references/>

[[Category:New Deal]]
[[Category:Liberals]]
[[Category:United States Political Terms]]
[[Category:1950s]]
[[Category:1960s]]
[[Category:Democratic Party]]

New Black Panthers

2009-07-29T15:08:08Z

Miacek:

[[Image:NewBlackPantherPty.jpg|right|thumb]]
'''New Black Panthers''' is a far-left black-supremacist organization founded in Dallas, Texas in 1989. Its current chairman is Malik Zulu Shabazz. New Black Panthers is widely considered anti-Semitic, racist, support violence and ethnic nationalism<ref>http://www.adl.org/Anti_semitism/shabazz.asp</ref>.

Recently, Malik Zulu Shabazz appeared on the [[O'Reilly Factor]] and accused [[Michelle Malkin]] of being a "political prostitute"; and on may 15, 2007; Malik Zulu Shabazz blamed the "Jewish lobby" after he was denied entry into [[Canada]]. Khallid Abdul Muhammad who served as the organization's chairman from 1993 until his death in 2001 voiced notoriously antisemitic and racist comments. He called [[Jew]]s "bloodsuckers," called for [[genocide]] against whites. He later recalled: <blockquote>I called them [Jews] bloodsuckers. I'm not going to change that. Our lessons talk about the bloodsuckers of the poor in the supreme wisdom of the Nation of Islam. It's that old no-good Jew, that old imposter Jew, that old hooked-nose, bagel-eating, lox-eating, Johnny-come-lately perpetrating a fraud, just crawled out of the caves and hills of Europe, so-called damn Jew. . . and I feel everything I'm saying up here is kosher.</blockquote><ref>http://www.adl.org/learn/ext_us/Black_Panther.asp?LEARN_Cat=Extremism&LEARN_SubCat=Extremism_in_America&xpicked=3&item=Black_Panther</ref>

==Also see==
*[[Black Panther Party]]
==External links==
*[http://www.newblackpanther.com Official Site of the New Black Panther Party]

==References==
<references/>

[[category:United States Political Parties]]

New Black Panthers

2009-07-29T15:02:04Z

Miacek:

New Black Panther Party

2009-07-29T15:00:03Z

Miacek: Redirected page to New Black Panthers

#REDIRECT [[New Black Panthers]]