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Other gods

2008-05-30T22:26:46Z

Nostratic: I re-worded a few awkward phrases and sections.

'''Other gods''' describes deities apart from [[God]]; the term comes from the [[Ten Commandments]], where God said, "You shall have no other gods before me" ({{Bible ref|Exodus|20|3}}).

While the word "god" refers, in a general sense, to any deity that is or has been [[worship]]ped as part of a theistic belief system, when spelled with an upper-case "G," the term is normally referring to the God of the [[Abrahamic religions]].

Interestingly, there are even godless religions, that is, religions that worship no gods as such. These include [[Buddhism]] and [[Taoism]], which worship no other god at all, at least not in the sense that [[God]] is defined. Rather than emphasizing worship, whether that of [[God]] or other gods, such religions tend focus on the development of truth, knowledge and individual enlightenment.

== Other gods in the Bible ==
The [[Old Testament|Jewish]] and [[New Testament|Christian Bible]]s contain references to more than just the Jewish and Christian God, but these gods are seen as false and having no real power, whether it be the [[golden calf]] or the images of [[Baal]].

=== Genesis ===
God in the Garden of Eden often uses the plural when referring to Himself:
*'And God said, let us make man in our image.', ([[Book of Genesis|Genesis]] 1:26)
*'And the Lord God said, Behold, then man is become as one of us, to know good and evil.' (Genesis 3:22)
*'Let us go down, and there confound their language.'. (Genesis 11:7)
This is explained as use of the 'Royal We' in [[Judaism]] or foreshadowing of [[The Trinity]] in [[Christianity]].

=== Exodus ===
The Bible refers to Egyptian gods several times, but they are never presented as having real form or power. For instance, no god is ever discussed taking an action, having a thought, speaking, etc. There are references to collective worship of other gods, but God always takes out His wrath on the Egyptian people themselves and the consequences of that wrath are seen, since they are real and exist.
*'And against all the gods of Egypt I will execute judgment.' ([[Book of Exodus|Exodus]] 12:12)
*'Who is like unto thee, O LORD, among the gods?' (Exodus 15:11)
*'Now I know that the LORD is greater than all gods.' (Exodus 18:11).
* The Magi of Egypt are able to produce plagues of their own, but it is never stated this is due to the power of a god.

The First Commandment makes it clear that God will not tolerate the worship of these other deities:
*'Thou shalt have no other gods before me. ... Thou shalt not bow down thyself to them, nor serve them.' (Exodus 20:3, 5)

Other laws express the same idea:
*'He that sacrificeth unto any god, save unto the LORD only, he shall be utterly destroyed.' (Exodus 22:20)
*'Make no mention of the name of other gods, neither let it be heard out of thy mouth.' (Exodus 23:13)
*'Thou shalt not bow down to their gods, nor serve them, nor do after their works: but thou shalt utterly overthrow them, and quite break down their images.' (Exodus 23:24)
*'Thou shalt make no covenant with them, nor with their gods.' (Exodus 23:32)
*'For thou shalt worship no other god: for the LORD, whose name is Jealous, is a jealous God.' (Exodus 34:14)

There is also this section on multiple gods: 'Thou shalt not revile the gods.' (Exodus 22:28) This follows from simple logic - how can one revile that which does not exist?

=== Psalms ===
*'God standeth in the congregation of the mighty, he judgeth among the gods.' (Psalm 82:1)
*'Among the gods there is none like unto thee, O Lord.' (Psalm 86:8)
*'For the Lord ... is to be feared above all gods.' (Psalm 96:4)
*'Worship him, all ye gods.' (Psalm 97:7)

The Psalms are considered to be the poetic writings of [[King David|David]]. In the Near East culture of the time, kings and other men of renown could be called "gods." There is no Biblical indication in any of the discussions of David or Israel's kings over almost 500 years where any god was ever considered to be real. For instance, no other god was ever said to have caused a storm or shown any other sign of actually existing.

=== The rest of the Bible ===
None of the 66 Biblical books written over 1500 years of history have any mention of any other gods at all in any form that would grant them living qualities.

==Short Story==
Horror writer [[H.P. Lovecraft]] once wrote a short story called "The Other Gods."

==Historical==
Other gods worshiped historically include [[Molech]], [[Baal]], and [[Ra]].

==References==
<references/>

[[Category:Paganism]]

Muhammad

2008-05-30T22:24:21Z

Nostratic: I created a brief introductory section.

'''Muhammad''' (or '''Mohammed''', A.D. 570-632) was the founder of [[Islam]], one of the world's major religions.

Regarded by devout [[Muslim]]s as [[Allah]]'s final and greatest [[prophet]], Muhammad claimed Allah's [[revelation]]s, via the angel [[Gabriel]], that [[Judaism]] and [[Christianity]] had grown corrupt, and that Muhammad was to restore the religion God intended.

In accordance with the Islamic [[hadith]], it is considered proper to add an honorary phrase of "sallalahu aleyhi wasallam (or SAW)," meaning "Peace Be Upon Him (or PBUH)," after speaking Muhammad's name.

== Life of Muhammad==
He began life as a wealthy tradesmen, one of the elite of his city of [[Mecca]].

When he was about 40 years old, Muhammad's early revelations spoke of a need to return to the [[monotheism]] of [[Abraham]]; in this way, at an early age, Muhammad saw himself as reviving an ancient faith, a perceived correction to [[Christianity]] and [[Judaism]], and restoring his people to what he saw as their rightful position as the true founders and heirs of monotheism. In these revelations, submission to the will of God - [[Allah]] - was critical. Muhammad's fledgling religion continued to develop throughout his life, through periodic revelations often relating directly to events currently facing his new faith.

The faith caught on slowly, winning only a few converts in Mecca (the first being his wife, Khadija). In 622 A.D, under increased pressure and ostracism from elders in Mecca, Muhammad began the [[hijra]], an organized exodus of his followers from Mecca to the city of [[Medina]]. [[Muslims]] date the formation of their religion to the ''hijra'' itself, even beginning their dating system at this point.

At Medina, the new Muslims immediately adopted an aggressive stance, seeking to coexist with the [[Jews]] living in Medina on ''his'' terms. The encounter ended badly, though, with Muhammad dividing and conquering the Jewish groups in Medina, ordering the massacre of the [[Qurayza]] [[Jewish]] tribe, as they refused changing their [[religion]] to his submission, after (possibly) fabricating a cause to break what is called by modern historians the [[Compact of Medina]].<ref>Berkey, ''The Formation of Islam''</ref> It is important to note however that Muhammad offered mercy to the tribe many times, but they fought on to the end. <ref>Karen Armstrong, ''A short history of Islam''</ref>

A controversial point of Muhammad's life was his marriage to [[Aisha bint Abi Bakr|Aisha]], daughter of [[Abu Bakr]], who was six years old at the time of marriage.<ref>''Sahih Bukhari'' 5:58:234</ref><ref>Sahih Muslim 8:3311</ref> The marriage was consumated when Aisha was nine.<ref> D. A. Spellberg, Politics, Gender, and the Islamic Past: the Legacy of A'isha bint Abi Bakr, Columbia University Press, 1994, p. 40</ref> The narratives describing her age at marriage as six are narrated by Aisha herself. Though Aisha was known to use numerical substitution in other hadith, such as in the hadith of Laylat Al-Qadr where she substituted 1 for 21 and 3 for 23, which is a common way of referencing numbers in Arabic when the base number is established. Some scholars argue that she could have been speaking in such numerical substitution when narrating the Hadith regarding her age at marriage, thus rendering 16 as 6 and 19 as 9.<ref>Hakim Niaz Ahmad, '' تحقیق عمرعا،شہ صدیقہ (Research on the age of Ayesha)'', Mashkoor Academy, [[Karachi]].</ref> There is additional disagreement over her age at marriage, and a number of Islamic scholars believe that Aisha was older at the time of marriage. However, it is worth noting that at the time, and for thousands of years before and hundreds of years after, early marriage of a girl to a powerful man was very common. Aisha reached puberty at the age of nine, which is when the marriage was consummated.<ref>Habib ur Rahman Kandhalwi, ''[http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Age_of_Aisha Age of Aisha]'', Al-Rahman Publishing Trust, [[Karachi]]</ref><ref>Maulana Muhammad Ali, ''The Living Thoughts of the Prophet Muhammad'', p. 30, 1992, Ahmadiyya Anjuman Ishaat, ISBN 0-913321-19-2</ref>

== After Muhammad's Death ==

Muhammad's death at an early age caused the splintering of his religion into new sects, over the question of succession. The groups called themselves the [[Sunnis]] and the [[Shiite|Shi'as]]. Many attribute this split to the high degree to which authority was centered in the powerful character of Muhammad himself: without his powerful personality, the movement could not survive intact.<ref>[[Bernard Lewis]], ''What Went Wrong''</ref>

The failure or splintering of movements built around a charismatic leader is a recurring sociological problem, often studied by psychologists, and referred to as the problem of the [[routinization of charisma]]. [[Christianity]] faced the same problem, and many attribute the conquest of this problem to the leadership of the apostle [[Paul]].<ref>Maximillian Weber, ''Theory of Social and Economic Organization,'' in the chapter "The Nature of Charismatic Authority and its Routinization," see also Len Oakes, "Prophetic Charisma: The Psychology of Revolutionary Religious Personalities"</ref>.

==See Also==
*[[Islam]]
*[[Muhammad cartoons controversy]]

== References ==

<references/>

== Notes ==

HIR | Muhammad's massacre of the Jewish tribe Banu Qurayzah [http://www.hirhome.com/islam/art.htm]

[[Category:Islam]]
[[Category:Religious People]]

Islam

2008-05-30T22:15:59Z

Nostratic: I added a paragraph break and made minor wording tweaks for readability.

'''Islam''' is a [[monotheism|monotheistic]] [[Abrahamic religion]] based on the teachings of [[Muhammad]], a seventh century [[Arab]] religious and [[politics|political]] figure. The word "Islam" means "submission [to Allah]" in [[Arabic language|Arabic]].

The followers of Islam are called Muslims or Moslems; the archaic term "Mohammedan" is rarely used today, and Muslims do not use it to describe themselves out of fears of [[idolatry]]<ref>Schimmel, Annemarie. ''Islam: An Introduction''. State University of New York Press, 1992.</ref>. Muslims follow the teaching of Muhammad, whom they believe to be [[God]]'s last and greatest [[prophet]]. The faith teaches that the [[Archangel]] [[Gabriel]] appeared to him.

Muslims believe that God ("Allah", '''الله''' in [[Arabic]]) revealed the [[Qur'an]] to Muhammad and, despite his illiteracy, caused him to transcribe it <ref>Proclaim! (or read!) in the name of thy Lord and Cherisher, Who created- Created man, out of a (mere) clot of congealed blood: Proclaim! And thy Lord is Most Bountiful,- He Who taught (the use of) the pen,- Taught man that which he knew not.(Surah 96:1-5)</ref>. The [[Qur'an]] is considered to be the pure and [[holy]] word of God. Like [[Christianity]] and [[Judaism]], Islam originated in the [[Middle East]]. Islam claims to trace its roots back to [[Abraham]]. Muslims do not believe that Muhammad was the founder of Islam, rather that he restored the original faith of Abraham and the prophets, which had been corrupted and/or misinterpreted over time. Based upon this belief, [[the Bible]], [[Old Testament|Old]] and [[New Testament]], is believed to have become corrupted as well.

[[Image:Mecca.jpg|thumb|right|300px|[[Mecca]], the Islamic holy city.]]
Islam is the second largest religion in the world, with over 1.4 billion followers, the number of Muslims is rapidly growing, mainly due to high birth rates in Muslim countries. Both Christian and Muslim sources agree that conversions to Christianity outnumber those to Islam.<ref>[http://www.bible.ca/global-religion-statistics-world-christian-encyclopedia.htm World Christian Encyclopedia]</ref>
<ref>[http://www.orthodoxytoday.org/articles6/AlJazeerahAfrica.php Translation of AL-Jazeerah interview between Maher Abdallah and Shiekh Ahmed Katani]</ref>

==Historical Background==
According to Islamic belief, in 610 A.D., [[Muhammad]], a 40-year-old merchant of the Quraysh tribe in [[Mecca]], in the Arabian desert (now eastern [[Saudi Arabia]]), was commanded by the angel [[Gabriel]] to "recite" the message of [[Allah]] (Arabic for God). Gabriel said mankind had lost sight of Allah's previous messages to earlier prophets, [[Adam]], [[Noah]], [[Abraham]], [[Moses]], [[Solomon]], and [[Jesus]], among others, and that Muhammad was to spread Allah's message to all people so that mankind would know how to live, how to show respect for Allah, and how to prepare for the judgement day. The message to Muhammad was to be God's last; Muhammad was the "seal of the prophets." Muhammad won some converts to Islam in his local area, but his [[monotheist]] preaching threatened to undermine the profitable [[polytheist]] pilgrim traffic supporting many Meccan merchants. In 622 A.D., the merchants drove Muhammad and his followers out of Mecca to the city of Yathrib (later renamed [[Medina]], or city - as in the city of the prophet). This flight (hijra) from Mecca to Medina marks the beginning of the Muslim lunar calendar, and is celebrated each year in the hajj, the pilgrimage to Mecca. Muhammad's forces starting attacking the trade carvans going in and out of Mecca, cutting off its economic lifeline. After a series of battles between the Meccans and Muhammad's forces, Mecca finally accepted Muhammad's ultimatum to succumb and convert to Islam. The city welcomed the prophet back in 630. Muhammad died in 632. Tribal elders elected [[Abu Bakr]] to be Muhammad's successor, or [[Caliph]] (Khalifa). Abu Bakr united the tribes of the Arabian peninsula during his two years as head of the new faith. Upon his death, the elders elected [[Umar ibn al-Khattab]] the next Caliph. During Umar's ten year reign, Islam invaded and spread through the sword into [[Egypt]], [[Syria]], [[Palestine]], [[Iraq]], and parts of [[Iran]]. Umar was assassinated by a Persian (modern day Iran) in 644, and was succeeded by [[Uthman ibn Affan]], who continued the invasions to spread Islam into [[North Africa]], [[Cyprus]], the rest of Iran, [[Afghanistan]], and parts of [[India]] and [[Pakistan]]. Over the next two centuries, Islamic armies continued to expanded Islam's empire into sub-Saharan Africa, [[Spain]], Southeast and Central Asia, and [[Turkey]].

==Divisions Within Islam==
Uthman was assassinated in 656 A.D. by soldiers who then installed Ali ibn Abu Talib, Muhammad's son-in-law, as Caliph. Ali's followers believed Muhammad had chosen Ali to be Muhammad's heir, and had disagreed with the selections of Abu Bakr, Umar, and Uthman as Caliphs. Ali's claim to the position was challenged by Muawiyah, a kinsman of the murdered Uthman. Five years later, Ali was assassinated by Kharjites, religious dissidents who broke away from the main body of Muslims because they rejected Ali's accepting arbitration to resolve his leadership dispute with Muawiyah. Ali's supporters, or the Shiah al-Ali (or Shiat Ali, partisans of Ali) believed that Ali was the true Caliph and was, in part, divinely inspired. Ali's sons, Hassan and Husayn followed as Shia Caliphs, Hassan dying in 669 or 670 A.D., possibly by poisoning, and Husayn slain by soldiers of his rival, the Sunni Caliph Yazid, in 680 A.D.

The Shia Muslim community has divided further as followers coalesced around several of Ali's descendants or successors, called Imams. The "twelvers," predominant in Iran, believe the twelfth Imam is in hiding and will reveal himself just before judgement day. Ismailis rejected the seventh Imam and practice a spirituality that seeks hidden meaning in scripture. Ismailis ruled much of North Africa as the Fatimid dynasty of Egypt in the tenth through the twelfth centuries, and today are found primarily in Pakistan, Afghanistan, and India. The Sunni majority reject the premise that men can be divine, including Muhammad, Ali, or Jesus, and did not accept any of the Imams who followed Ali. Sunnis remain more committed to traditions and less inclined to accept Shia mysticism. Today, about 15% of the world's one billion Muslims are Shia and 85% are orthodox Sunni.

There are other factions within Islam. Sufis, a name apparently taken from the wool garments they wear, developed around mystical practices and trance-induced revelations. Sufis are found today in Turkey, Syria, and parts of Africa. Other movements have taken reform tracks, such as the Unitarians of Saudi Arabia, also called Wahhabis after their 18th century reformist founder Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab. The conservative Wahhabis are found today in Saudi Arabia and Qatar. Some critics would argue that the Taliban of Afghanistan took conservative reform to an extreme. Other sects or break-away groups include, among others, the Alawis found in Syria and Turkey, the Druze in Lebanon, Syria, Jordan, and Israel, the Ibadhis (Kharjites) in Oman and Africa, the Ahmadiya of Pakistan, and the Zaydis of Yemen.

==Religious Guidance==
During his lifetime, Muhammad's companions memorized and later transcribed the verses (surrahs) of the Quran as they had been dictated to Muhammad. The Caliph Uthman collected and codified the various versions of the surrahs into one written Quran that became the standard Arabic text used by the world's Muslims today. Present-day Muslims look first to the Quran as a guide to life, then to the Sunnah, or the way of the Prophet (his life as an example for others) as recorded by his early companions, and then to the Hadith, a collection of the Prophet's sayings, comments, advice, and descriptions. Frequently, Muslims disagreed over how to interpret certain passages in the Quran, the Sunnah, or the Hadith in their search for the ideal life and perfect path to heaven. From these interpretations Sunni Muslims developed four schools of law, or interpretations of law, named after their founders or early leaders: the Hanbali, considered the most strict school and predominant today in Saudi Arabia; Shafi, the school of widest acceptance, found in Egypt, parts of Palestine-Syria, south Arabia, and the Far East; Maliki, prevalent in North Africa, Sudan, and Nigeria; and Hanafi, considered the most moderate school, predominant in Ottoman Turkey and today found primarily on the Levant and Indian subcontinent. Frequently, Muslim countries have two separate legal systems, one for civil, criminal, or commercial law, and a second, and separate, system for religious law. Religious courts and their judges (qadis) might handle issues dealing with marriage, divorce, child custody, inheritance, religious education, charitable or religious property (Waqf), or family matters. Among Middle Eastern countries, Iraq, Israel, Jordan, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Syria, the United Arab Amirates, and Yemen have Shariah courts serving alongside their secular courts or have adopted Shariah (Islamic law) as the basis of their legal systems.

====Clergy====
Sunni Islam does not have a priesthood or clerical hierarchy to conduct religious services or interpret scripture, but it does have prayer leaders, called Imams, and religious scholars, called Ulama, who often are educated men familiar with the Quran and able to offer commentaries on Quranic verses. Sunni Muslims also respect the teachings and interpretations of scholars, judges, and academics who may interpret laws, write treatises on Sharia (religious law) or Hadith, and issue Fatwas, religious declarations intended to enlighten or guide Muslims.

Shia Islam has a hierarchy that resembles a priesthood. Mullahs are prayer leaders, but usually do not interpret religious law. Mujtahids are religious scholars who may interpret law or passages from the Quran or Hadith. The lower order of Mujtahids are called Hojjatolislam. Ayat Allah (literally sign of God, also Ayatollah) is a higher order of Mujtahid who may issue Fatwas, or religious edicts, in addition to leading Islamic schools, interpreting religious law and the Quran, and offering sermons or discourses on proper Islamic behavior.

===Five Pillars of Islam===
*'''Shahadah (Profession of Faith)''' -The Shahadah is the Muslim profession of faith. 'ašhadu 'al-lā ilāha illā-llāhu wa 'ašhadu 'anna muħammadan rasūlu-llāh, a loose English translation reads "''There is none worthy of worship except God, and [[Muhammad]] is the messenger of God''" This testament can be seen as the foundation of all of the other tenets of Islam.

*'''Salat (Ritual Prayer)''' -All Muslims are required to Pray to God five times each day while facing [[Mecca]].

*'''Zakat (Charity)''' Able Muslims must donate to the poor based on the wealth one has accumulated. In current usage it is interpreted as 2.5% of the value of most valuables and savings held for a full [[lunar year]].

*'''Sawm (Fasting)''' All able-bodied Muslims (children, the elderly, and the ill are exempt) must fast during daylight hours during the daylight hours of the entire month of [[Ramadan]]. According to Muslims, this purifies the body and soul. Some Muslim sects allow military, police and emergency services personnel to receive an exemption from fasting from an imam, on the grounds that their work supports the community or national good.

*'''Hajj (Pilgrimage)''' All able-bodied Muslims must make a pilgrimage to Mecca at least once in their lives.

==Other Aspects of Islam==
[[Image:Quran.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Pages from the Qur'an, the holy book of the Islamic religion.]]
====Jihad====
Jihad is the "effort" or "struggle" each Muslim faces in the everyday trials of life, such as the effort to get better grades in school, or the striving to achieve better results from a job, or the struggle to avoid sinful temptations. Jihad also can be applied to warfare; participating in jihad in Allah's cause was the third most important good deed listed in the Hadith, after prayer and honoring one's parents. Jihad often was a rallying cry for the military spread of Islam in the seventh through tenth centuries. Many Westerners are familiar only with the characterization in the popular press of jihad as warfare against Christians and Jews. Most Muslims would not apply jihad to Christians and Jews, believing them to be "people of the book" (see below) rather than infidels.

====Osama bin Laden and Fundamentalists====
Bin Laden has stated that Islam is at war with the United States and its allies. Some observers maintain that the number of Muslims who believe as bin Laden does is growing, and others go further to suggest that all "fundamentalist" Muslims are enemies of the West. But other observers differentiate between the very conservative "fundamentalists" and the "extremists" who follow bin Laden or other terrorists. These observers suggest that the fundamentalists disagree with bin Laden as much as do Westerners.

====People of the Book====
Christians and Jews are called "people of the Book" (the Old and New Testaments) and are accorded protection, respect, and consideration as the predecessors to the Muslims. Many have noted Islam's connections to Judaism and Christianity, how closely many Quranic passages follow similar passages in the Old and New Testaments, and some suggest that Muhammad and the early Muslims borrowed much of the faith from its two monotheistic predecessors. Muslims do not deny the close ties between the Quran and the Old and New Testaments and suggest that the ties further demonstrate that Muhammad extends the line of succession that began with the prophets of Judaism and Christianity.

====Women in Islam====
For the most part, the Quran treats men and women equally, applies the same injunctions and prohibitions to men and women, and grants many of the same privileges and benefits, such as divorce, property ownership, or inheritance. But women are treated separately in certain instances. For example, women are required to "... draw their outer garments around them ... that they may be known (to be Muslims) and not annoyed (by men)." (Quran 33:59) Covering the head and body in public (hijab) is viewed by many Muslim women as a protection of their modesty, a way to discourage men's covetous eyes. The principle of hijab is applied in different ways: a small scarf around the head and regular "street clothes" may be voluntary and acceptable in Cairo or Damascus but a full length opaque "Burqa" was enforced in Taliban Afghanistan. The treatment of women may depend upon rural or urban settings, educational level, society norms, tradition, or other factors. As of 2008, Saudi Arabia and Pakistan are the only two Middle Eastern countries where the government requires women to wear some form of modest garb.

Muslim women's status is controversial. Some critics claim that Muslim men oppress Muslim women by compelling them to remain hidden behind the veil, sequestered in the home, and ignorant of the world by denying them access to education and worldly opportunities. Defenders of some practices suggest that many of them, such as the veil, are cultural traditions that pre-date Islam and are intended to protect, not constrict, women, or that many Muslim women adopt the life style of the veil voluntarily. There are Muslim women who agree and disagree with the critics.

====Mecca, Medina, and Jerusalem====
Muhammad's home city of Mecca was the site of his earliest preaching and conversions, and is the location of the Kaaba, traditionally held to be the foundation stone of the first mosque built by Adam and later restored by Abraham, and now the focus of the annual pilgrimage (hajj). Some historians suggest that the Kaaba, a black stone probably meteoric in origin, was venerated by pre-Islamic polytheistic religions.

At first, Jerusalem was Islam's holy city and the focus of prayers, but Mecca became the center of Islam after Muhammad's return in 630. Medina, because of its early association with Muhammad and as the site of Muhammad's tomb, is second in importance to Mecca. Jerusalem is revered by Muslims as the site of Solomon's temple, Abraham's near sacrifice of his son Ismail, and the scene of Muhammad's miraculous midnight journey, the latter two now enshrined in the Dome of the Rock mosque. According to the Quran (Surrah 17:1, Isra) and Hadith, Muhammad and Gabriel were taken on winged mules from Mecca to Jerusalem, where they ascended through the seven heavens to the presence of Allah. During the visit, Muhammad learned, among other points, that Muslims were to pray five times each day and to honor Abraham, Moses, Jesus, and the other prophets.

====Restrictions====
Observant Muslims are not supposed to eat pork and in general do not have dogs as pets; both swine and canines are considered unclean. Muslims are proscribed from drinking alcoholic beverages. Observant Muslims do not collect or pay interest.

====Non-Muslim Practices====
Some practices have been associated with Islam because they occur in Islamic countries, but actually are not a part of Islam. For example, female circumcision is not mentioned in the Quran, but is mentioned in Hadith as an "honorable" but not obligatory condition. It is a pre-Islamic tradition in parts of sub-Saharan Africa and the Arab world, notably in Eritrea, Yemen, and Egypt. Another example of a practice that has been associated incorrectly with Islam is honor killing, in which a brother, father, or uncle "restores" or "defends" a family's honor by killing the sister, daughter, or niece that dishonored the family through unmarried pregnancy or promiscuous behavior. The "honor killing" is more ancient and possibly tribal in origin.

==Islam and Christianity==
While Muslims do not believe Jesus to be the Son of God or in the resurrection, they consider him to be one of God's most important prophets. However, the Qur'an warns against worshiping Jesus, Muhammad, and other humans for fear of [[idolatry]].<ref>[http://www.ccg.org/_domain/ccg.org/Islam/Islam.htm Christian Churches of God Articles on Islam], March 10, 2007</ref>

The Qur'an states that Christians will be punished, though the nature of the punishment is not specified:

"Surely, disbelievers are those who said:
'Allah is the third of the three (in a Trinity).' But there is no god but One, Allah.
And if they cease not from what they say, verily, a painful torment will befall the disbelievers among them.

Will they not repent to Allah and ask His Forgiveness? For Allah is Oft Forgiving, Most Merciful.

The Messiah , son of Mary, was no more than a Messenger; many were the Messengers that passed away before him. His mother was a Siddiqah (i.e. she believed in the words of God and His Books ).
They both used to eat food (as any other human eat).
Look how We make the signs clear to them, yet look how they are deluded away (from the truth)."

Qur'an 5:73-75

However, Islam does recognize Christians and Jews as "people of the book" since both refer to one God only, and recognize Abraham (Ibrahim in [[Arabic]]) as a founding prophet.

==Islam and Paganism==

Although Muslims profess belief in a single [[God]], some believe Islam has its roots in an earlier polytheistic system. By this thinking God is linked to an earlier moon deity, although it should be brought up that there is no mention of this in the Qur'an, where Allah is cited as the God of [[Abraham]].<ref>The Qur'an, Sura 37 [http://www.amazon.com/Holy-Quran-Allamah-Nooruddin/dp/0963206702]</ref><ref>Abramahov, "Islamic Theology". Edinburgh University Press: Edinburgh, 1988. [http://www.amazon.com/Islamic-Theology-Binyamin-Abrahamov/dp/0748611029/sr=8-4/qid=1172042917/ref=pd_bbs_sr_4/105-1837174-2630046?ie=UTF8&s=books]</ref>

==Sharia==
[[Image:StarCresent.png|thumb|right|220px|The Star and Crescent is a symbol of Islam. It is featured in the national flag of [[Algeria]], [[Azerbaijan]], [[Malaysia]], [[Tunisia]], [[Mauritania]], [[Pakistan]], and [[Turkey]].]]
[[Sharia]] is the body of Islamic law. The term means "way" or "path"; it is the legal framework within which public and some private aspects of life are regulated for those living in a legal system based on Muslim principles of jurisprudence. It is not actually part of the canonical Qur'an; that is to say, it is not believed to be the direct word of God by Muslims, but rather the interpretation of it.

Sharia deals with many aspects of day-to-day life, including politics, economics, banking, business law, contract law, sexuality, and social issues. Some Islamic scholars accept Sharia as the body of precedent and legal theory established before the 19th century, while other scholars view Sharia as a changing body, and include Islamic legal theory from the contemporary period.{{fact}}

:ARTICLE 3:

:(a) In the event of the use of force and in case of armed conflict, it is not permissible to kill non-belligerents such as old men, women and children. The wounded and the sick shall have the right to medical treatment; and prisoners of war shall have the right to be fed, sheltered and clothed. It is prohibited to mutilate or dismember dead bodies. It is required to exchange prisoners of war and to arrange visits or reunions of families separated by circumstances of war.

:(b) It is prohibited to cut down trees, to destroy crops or livestock, to destroy the enemy's civilian buildings and installations by shelling, blasting or any other means. [http://usinfo.state.gov/dd/democracy_dialogues/keydocs/cairo_declaration.html#article22]

==Ex-Muslims==
[[Michelle Malkin]] highlights a group of Ex-Muslims hoping to change the terms of debate about Islam in Europe. Maryam Namazie, the head of the British group said "Too many things in the media and government policies have been geared to pandering to the political Islamic movements and Islamic organizations." <ref> [http://michellemalkin.com/2007/06/20/ex-muslims-stand-up-in-britain/ Ex-Muslims stand up in Britain]</ref>

----
''Some of the text for this article was taken from "Islam: A Primer", Congressional Research Service Report for Congress (2003), a work in the public domain'' [http://www.history.navy.mil/library/online/islam.htm#back]

== See also ==
[[Image:Africa islam 87.jpg|thumb|Islam in Africa]]
*[[Arab American]]
*[[Islamic republic]]
*[[Qur'an]]
*[[Ramadan]]

==External links==
*[http://muslim-canada.org/islam_christianity.html Islam and Christianity] - excellent article comparing and contrasting the two.

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

[[Category:Islam]]
[[Category:Religion]]
[[Category:Worldviews]]

Intern

2008-05-30T22:07:24Z

Nostratic: New page: An '''intern''' is someone who works as a short-term employee, typically to get on-the-job training is a specific field. As such, many interns are college students or recent gradua...

An '''intern''' is someone who works as a short-term [[employee]], typically to get on-the-job training is a specific field. As such, many interns are [[college]] students or recent graduates. Interns may or may not earn a wage.

Dead Sea Scrolls

2008-05-24T04:18:21Z

Nostratic: Added a name to a Quotebox

[[Image:Dead Sea Scrolls.jpg|thumb|Dead Sea Scrolls]]
'''Dead Sea Scrolls''' are documents discovered near the [[Dead Sea]] in [[Israel]]. They were an important source of information about the [[Holy Land]] in the first century after [[Jesus Christ]]'s ministry on earth, and make up some of the oldest sections of [[The Bible]].

The first scrolls were discovered by Bedouin shepherds in 1947 who uncovered seven scrolls in a cave. In the following decade, further searches yielded many thousands of scroll fragments, and there are currently over 900 such documents, discovered in eleven different caves.<ref>http://www.sdnhm.org/scrolls/history.html</ref> A nearby habitation, known as [[Qumran]], was also excavated in this time in an effort to identify the people who left the scrolls in the caves.

''Scholars have pointed to similarities between beliefs and practices outlined in the Qumran literature and those of early Christians.'' <ref> [http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/scrolls/juda.html JUDAISM AND CHRISTIANITY AND THE DEAD SEA SCROLLS] Library of Congress Exhibitions. </ref> The Biblical Scrolls' contents focus the books from the [[Old Testament]]. The Scrolls are written in [[Hebrew]] and in [[Aramaic|Aramaica]] with a few texts in Greek. The use of Hebrew was a surprise to many scholars who felt that Hebrew had become a dead language by that time, and this discovery gave new evidence to a claim that the Gospels of [[Gospel of Matthew|Matthew]] and [[Gospel of Luke|Luke]] were originally written in Hebrew and then quickly translated into Greek.<ref>http://www.ad2000.com.au/articles/2001/may2001p20_453.html</ref>

According to the [[Library of Congress]]:
<blockquote style="background: #F9F9F9; border: 1px solid #AAAAAA; padding: .3em;">
''Within a fairly short time after their discovery, historical, paleographic, and linguistic evidence, as well as carbon-14 dating, established that the scrolls and the Qumran ruin dated from the 250 B.C. to 68 A.D. From the standpoint of biblical archeology, this was unparalleled. Coming from the late Second Temple Period, a time when [[Jesus]] of Nazareth lived, they are older than any other surviving manuscripts of the Hebrew Scriptures by almost one thousand years.'' <ref> [http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/scrolls/intr.html THE WORLD OF THE SCROLLS] Library of Congress Exhibitions. </ref>
</blockquote>

Many of the scrolls are now conserved in [[Jerusalem]], although some are in the hands of the [[Jordanian]] government. Among those looked after by the Jordanian government is the famous [[Copper scroll]]<ref>Dead Sea Scrolls exhibit, San Diego, Sept 30 2007</ref>.

Most part of ''the biblical books that have survived two millennia in the caves are extremely fragmented; many are no larger than the size of a postcard, and some fragments are as small as a postage stamp. Even the smallest fragment, however, can add to our knowledge of the Bible.''... ''With the exception of the [[book of Esther]], every book of the Old Testament has been found in the Qumran caves.'' <ref> [http://byubroadcasting.org/deadsea/book/chapter2/sec1.html Old Testament Texts at Qumran] </ref> All told, 230 Biblical manuscripts have been found (of course many are copies of the same books).<ref>http://www.sdnhm.org/scrolls/history.html</ref>

Among the many copies of the Bible found were:<ref>exhibit</ref>

* 35 copies of the [[Psalms]]
* 22 copies of [[Deuteronomy]]
* 21 copies of [[Isaiah (Biblical book)|Isaiah]] (The copies of Isaiah were written over a period of 180 years).

Much of the writing was on [[parchment]] made from the Ibex, a goat native to that area.
Other scrolls were on [[papyrus]] and one scroll was on [[copper]] (the Copper Scroll).<ref>exhibit</ref>

==See also==

*[[Codex Sinaiticus]]
*[[Codex Vaticanus]]
*[[John Rylands Fragment]]

== External links ==

*[http://www.ibiblio.org/expo/deadsea.scrolls.exhibit/Library/library.html The Qumran Library]
*[http://www.centuryone.com/25dssfacts.html 25 Facts]
*[http://home.flash.net/~hoselton/deadsea/deadsea.htm Dead Sea Scrolls & Qumran]

== References ==
<references/>

==Sources==

* Burrows, M., The Dead Sea Scrolls (Secker & Warburg, 1956).
* Vermes, G., The Dead Sea Scrolls (Penguin, 1968).

[[Category:Bible]]
[[Category:Archaeology]]
[[Category:Old Testament]]

Kangaroo

2008-05-24T04:16:25Z

Nostratic: /* Origins */ Added a name to writer of Quotebox

[[Image:Kangaroo-bree.png|right|Eastern Grey Kangaroo (''Macropus giganteus'')]]

'''Kangaroos''' are the largest [[marsupial]]s alive today. Excluding specimens sent overseas, they are only found on the continent of [[Australia]] apart from some species in some areas of [[Papua New Guinea]]<ref>[http://www.dfat.gov.au/facts/kangaroos.html Australia's kangaroos], Australian Government Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade.</ref>. There are at least sixty-nine [[species]] of kangaroo <ref name="kangbio">[http://www.environment.gov.au/biodiversity/trade-use/wild-harvest/kangaroo/biology.html "Kangaroo Biology"], Australian Government</ref>, which include [[wallabies]] and tree-kangaroos.

==Description==

Kangaroos have large ears on top of their small heads, a long snout, and short arms with clawed fingers. Their legs are strong, powerful, and are made for leaping. Their feet have four toes at the end of elongated metatarsi that they rest on when standing. They also have a powerful, thick tail that is used as support when standing, a third-leg when walking slowly, and for counterbalance while leaping. Like all Marsupials, female kangaroos have a pouch on their stomachs in which they carry their young.

===Diet===

Kangaroos are [[herbivore]]s, eating grass, roots, and shrubs. They have a chambered stomach similar to [[sheep]] and [[cattle]]. They are able to regurgitate their food, chew it again as [[cud]], and then swallow it for digestion.

===Social Order===

Kangaroos travel in [[mob | mobs]] of about ten or more males and females. The leader of the mob, called a "boomer", is a male determined by age and size. The boomer has access to females in his mob for mating and will wander around the mob intimidating any other males who try to mate with his harem.

===Reproduction===

Female kangaroos usually only have one baby kangaroo (called a "joey") at a time. The newborn joey weighs as little as .03 ounces when first born, after which it crawls into its mothers pouch where it will nurse, grow, and develop. Red Kangaroo joeys will stay in their mothers pouch for about eight months and Grey Kangaroo joeys stay in there for about one year.

===Development of the Young in the Pouch===

Kangaroos have adapted to the varied conditions across Australia in many ways. One of the most unusual, is the way females of some species can delay the progress of pregnancy. In this way the female is ready to give birth to a replacement for the young in her pouch if it dies early, or within a week of when it permanently leaves the pouch. This ability to delay births means that there can be up to 12 months between a mating and the birth of the young one resulting from that mating (when the normal gestation period is less than 35 days). It also means that the species can best respond to periods of drought and plenty.

Species which have this unusual ability normally mate again soon after the female gives birth. The tiny newly born kangaroo (less than 25 mm long) moves unaided into its mother's pouch and attaches itself to one of four teats. During the early stages of pouch life the young is permanently attached to the teat, but as it matures and begins to grow hair it also develops the ability to release and reattach itself to the teat.

In the late stages of pouch life, once it has a thin covering of fur, the young one begins to explore the outside world for increasing lengths of time until eventually it is old enough to be excluded permanently from the pouch. Complete weaning may take a number of months more after the young has permanently left the pouch. If the mother gives birth during this time, the newborn young will attach itself to a different teat to that being used by the older young. It is remarkable that when this happens the mother produces two different kinds of milk for the two different-aged young<ref name="kangbio"/>.

==Origins==

Consistent with their view that the fossil record as a whole does not support the evolutionary position<ref>[http://www.answersingenesis.org/home/area/faq/fossils.asp "Fossils Questions and Answers"], Answers In Genesis</ref><ref>[http://members.iinet.net.au/~sejones/fsslrcrd.html Creation/Evolution Quotes: Fossil Record]</ref>, creationists state that there is a lack of transitional fossils showing an evolutionary origin of kangaroos. Rebecca Drvier writes:

{{QuoteBox|The Macropod family is alleged to have evolved from either the Phalangeridae (possums) or Burramyidae (pygmy-possums)... However, there are no fossils of animals which appear to be intermediate between possums and kangaroos. ''Wabularoo naughtoni'', supposed ancestor of all the macropods, was clearly a kangaroo (it greatly resembles the potoroos which dwell in Victoria’s forests). If modern kangaroos really did come from it, all this shows is the same as we see happening today, namely that kangaroos come from kangaroos, "after their kind." <ref>Driver, Rebecca, [http://www.creationontheweb.com/content/view/755/ Kangaroos: God's amazing craftsmanship], ''Creation'' 20(3):28–31, June 1998.</ref>}}

According to the [[origins theory]] model used by young earth [[creation science | creation scientists]], modern kangaroos are the descendants of the two founding members of the modern kangaroo baramin that were taken aboard [[Noah's Ark]] prior to the [[Great Flood]]. It has not yet been determined by [[baraminology | baraminologists]] whether kangaroos form a [[holobaramin]] with the [[wallaby]], [[tree-kangaroo]], [[wallaroo]], [[pademelon]] and [[quokka]], or if all these species are in fact [[Baraminology|apobaramin]]ic or [[Baraminology|polybaramin]]ic.

After the Flood, these kangaroos bred from the Ark passengers migrated to Australia. There is debate whether this migration happened over land<ref name="cab17">[http://www.creationontheweb.com/images/pdfs/cabook/chapter17.pdf "How did animals get from the Ark to places such as Australia"], Chapter 17 of ''The Creation Answers Book'', by Don Batten (Ed.)</ref> with lower sea levels during the post-flood [[ice age]], or before the supercontinent of [[Pangea]] broke apart<ref>[http://www.apologeticspress.org/articles/2808 "Pangea and the Flood"], Apologetics Press</ref>
The idea that God simply generated kangaroos into existence there is considered by most creation researchers to be contra-Biblical.

Other views on kangaroo origins include the belief of some [[Australian Aborigines]] that kangaroos were sung into existence by their ancestors during the "[[Dreamtime]]" <ref>[http://www.painsley.org.uk/RE/signposts/y8/1-1creationandenvironment/c-abor.htm "An Aborigine Creation Story"]</ref> and the evolutionary view that kangaroos and the other marsupials evolved from a common marsupial ancestor which lived hundreds of millions of years ago.<ref>[http://www.accessexcellence.org/AE/AEPC/WWC/1995/australia.html "Australian Mammals: Evolutionary Development as a Result of Geographic Isolation"]</ref>

In accordance with their worldviews, a majority of biologists regard [[Theory of evolution|evolution]] as the most likely explanation for the origin of species including the kangaroo.

== External Links ==
*[http://www.exzooberance.com/virtual%20zoo/they%20walk/kangaroo/kangaroo.htm Kangaroo facts]
*[http://www.christiananswers.net/kids/kangaroos.html Answers About Kangaroos]
*[http://www.answersingenesis.org/home/area/faq/migration.asp How did animals get from the Ark to places such as Australia?]

== References ==
{{reflist|2}}

[[Category:Marsupials]]
[[Category:Australia]]

Monica Lewinsky

2008-05-24T04:13:49Z

Nostratic: Re-worded some passages for clarity and readability.

[[Image:963.jpg|right|thumb|Monica Lewinsky on the cover of ''Time'' magazine.]]
'''Monica Lewinsky''' was an [[intern]] in the [[White House]] during the Presidency of [[Bill Clinton]]. She had an affair with Clinton, which he subsequently lied about while under oath in a deposition during a civil lawsuit brought by [[Paula Jones]], who charged Clinton with [[sexual harrasment]]. Disclosure of Clinton's lies about Lewinsky led to his [[impeachment]].

Clinton sought to keep Lewinsky from publicizing their affair by finding her a job, and on October 31, 1997, Ambassador [[Bill Richardson]], along with two assistants, traveled to Washington to interview Lewinsky at the [[Watergate]] hotel for a job at the [[United Nations]].<ref>Clinton scandal Time Line, [http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/politics/special/clinton/timeline.htm ''Washington Post''], September 13, 1998, Page A32.</ref> Democratic Presidential Adviser [[Vernon Jordan]] found her employment with [[Revlon]] -- a company at which Jordan was a board member -- <ref>[http://www.cnn.com/ALLPOLITICS/1998/01/22/lewinsky/ Lewinsky's Leap From 'Nobody' To News Headlines], [[CNN]] AllPolitics, Janusry 22, 1998.</ref> starting at $80,000 per year.<ref>[http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/politics/special/clinton/stories/job013198.htm N.Y. Job Offer Coincides With Lewinsky Affidavit], By Amy Goldstein, ''Washington Post'', January 31, 1998; Page A13.</ref>

==References==
<references/>

{{DEFAULTSORT:Lewinsky, Monica}}
[[Category:Women]]
[[Category:biographies]]

Allen Ginsberg

2008-02-26T02:28:31Z

Nostratic: added reference to support NAMBLA membership

[[Image:UploaddammitGinsberg.jpg|thumb|right|Allen Ginsberg]]
'''Allen Ginsberg''', one of America's celebrated poets <ref>[http://www.nytimes.com/books/01/04/08/specials/ginsberg-obit.html]</ref>, was born 3rd June 1926 in Newark, [[New Jersey]]. Along with others such as [[Jack Kerouac]] and [[William S. Burroughs]], he became part of what was dubbed the "Beat Generation" of writers. He died of liver cancer on 6th April 1997. <ref>[http://www.english.uiuc.edu/maps/poets/g_l/ginsberg/life.htm]</ref> Ginsberg was also a fervent supporter of the notorious North American Man-Boy Love Association, or [[NAMBLA]].<ref>http://www.ijn.com/archive/2002%20arch/062102.htm#story8</ref>

His most famous works include:

* [http://www.poets.org/viewmedia.php/prmMID/15308 Howl]

* [http://www.writing.upenn.edu/~afilreis/88/america.html America]

* [http://www.poets.org/viewmedia.php/prmMID/15307 Kaddish]

He studied at Columbia University in the 1940s and moved to San Fransisco in 1954. <ref>[http://www.poets.org/poet.php/prmPID/8]</ref> ''Howl and Other Poems'' was published in 1956 and in May that year, police seized copies from a bookshop and charged the owners with publishing and selling an obscene and indecent book. This charge was rejected in October 1957 when Judge Clayton Horn ruled that the book had redeeming social value. <ref>[http://www.english.uiuc.edu/maps/poets/g_l/ginsberg/life.htm]</ref> During the trial, Ginsberg relocated to [[Paris]] with his partner Peter Orlovsky. They remained together for forty years, until Ginsberg's death. <ref>[http://www.english.uiuc.edu/maps/poets/g_l/ginsberg/life.htm]</ref>
== References ==
<references/>
1. http://www.nytimes.com/books/01/04/08/specials/ginsberg-obit.html

2. http://www.english.uiuc.edu/maps/poets/g_l/ginsberg/life.htm

3. http://www.poets.org/poet.php/prmPID/8

4. http://www.english.uiuc.edu/maps/poets/g_l/ginsberg/life.htm

5. http://www.english.uiuc.edu/maps/poets/g_l/ginsberg/life.htm

[[Category:Poets|Ginsberg, Allen]]

Dead Sea Scrolls

2008-02-26T02:23:21Z

Nostratic: created an introductory sentence

[[Image:Dead Sea Scrolls.jpg|thumb|Dead Sea Scrolls]]
'''Dead Sea Scrolls''' are documents discovered near the [[Dead Sea]] in [[Israel]]. They were an important source of information about the [[Holy Land]] in the first century after [[Jesus Christ]]'s ministry on earth, and make up some of the oldest sections of [[The Bible]].

The first scrolls were discovered by Bedouin shepherds in 1947 who uncovered seven scrolls in a cave. In the following decade, further searches yielded many thousands of scroll fragments, and there are currently over 900 such documents, discovered in eleven different caves.<ref>http://www.sdnhm.org/scrolls/history.html</ref> A nearby habitation, known as [[Qumran]], was also excavated in this time in an effort to identify the people who left the scrolls in the caves.

''Scholars have pointed to similarities between beliefs and practices outlined in the Qumran literature and those of early Christians.'' <ref> [http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/scrolls/juda.html JUDAISM AND CHRISTIANITY AND THE DEAD SEA SCROLLS] Library of Congress Exhibitions. </ref> The Biblical Scrolls' contents focus the books from the [[Old Testament]]. The Scrolls are written in [[Hebrew]] and in [[Aramaic|Aramaica]] with a few texts in Greek. The use of Hebrew was a surprise to many scholars who felt that Hebrew had become a dead language by that time, and this discovery gave new evidence to a claim that the Gospels of [[Gospel of Matthew|Matthew]] and [[Gospel of Luke|Luke]] were originally written in Hebrew and then quickly translated into Greek.<ref>http://www.ad2000.com.au/articles/2001/may2001p20_453.html</ref>

<blockquote style="background: #F9F9F9; border: 1px solid #AAAAAA; padding: .3em;">
''Within a fairly short time after their discovery, historical, paleographic, and linguistic evidence, as well as carbon-14 dating, established that the scrolls and the Qumran ruin dated from the 250 B.C. to 68 A.D. From the standpoint of biblical archeology, this was unparalleled. Coming from the late Second Temple Period, a time when [[Jesus]] of Nazareth lived, they are older than any other surviving manuscripts of the Hebrew Scriptures by almost one thousand years.'' <ref> [http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/scrolls/intr.html THE WORLD OF THE SCROLLS] Library of Congress Exhibitions. </ref>
</blockquote>

Many of the scrolls are now conserved in [[Jerusalem]], although some are in the hands of the [[Jordanian]] government. Among those looked after by the Jordanian government is the famous [[Copper scroll]]<ref>Dead Sea Scrolls exhibit, San Diego, Sept 30 2007</ref>.

Most part of ''the biblical books that have survived two millennia in the caves are extremely fragmented; many are no larger than the size of a postcard, and some fragments are as small as a postage stamp. Even the smallest fragment, however, can add to our knowledge of the Bible.''... ''With the exception of the [[book of Esther]], every book of the Old Testament has been found in the Qumran caves.'' <ref> [http://byubroadcasting.org/deadsea/book/chapter2/sec1.html Old Testament Texts at Qumran] </ref> All told, 230 Biblical manuscripts have been found (of course many are copies of the same books).<ref>http://www.sdnhm.org/scrolls/history.html</ref>

Among the many copies of the Bible found were:<ref>exhibit</ref>

* 35 copies of the [[Psalms]]
* 22 copies of [[Deuteronomy]]
* 21 copies of [[Isaiah (Biblical book)|Isaiah]] (The copies of Isaiah were written over a period of 180 years).

Much of the writing was on [[parchment]] made from the Ibex, a goat native to that area.
Other scrolls were on [[papyrus]] and one scroll was on [[copper]] (the Copper Scroll).<ref>exhibit</ref>

==See also==

*[[Yahweh]]
*[[Bible]]
*[[Messiah]]

== External links ==

*[http://www.ibiblio.org/expo/deadsea.scrolls.exhibit/Library/library.html The Qumran Library]
*[http://www.centuryone.com/25dssfacts.html 25 Facts]
*[http://home.flash.net/~hoselton/deadsea/deadsea.htm Dead Sea Scrolls & Qumran]

== References ==
<references/>

==Sources==

* Burrows, M., The Dead Sea Scrolls (Secker & Warburg, 1956).
* Vermes, G., The Dead Sea Scrolls (Penguin, 1968).

[[Category:Bible]]
[[Category:Archaeology]]
[[Category:Old Testament]]

Larry Craig

2008-02-26T02:15:17Z

Nostratic: /* Airport incident */ created "responses from other politicians" section & added cited reference to "letter of admonition"

'''Larry Craig''' (b. July 20, 1945) has been a [[Republican]] [[United States Senate|United States Senator]] from the state of [[Idaho]] since 1991. From 1981 to 1991 he represented Idaho in the [[United States House of Representatives]]. He is generally considered to be a social conservative and is also a strong advocate of the proposed Balanced Budget Amendment to the Constitution.

==Early years==
Senator Craig was born on the family ranch near Midvale, Idaho, which was homesteaded in 1899 by his grandfather. He later served as the Idaho State President and National Vice-President of the Future Farmers of America. Craig earned his B.A. at the University of Idaho in 1969 and did graduate work at George Washington University 1970. Craig has worked as a farmer and rancher and served in the Idaho senate from 1974-1980.

==U.S. Senate==
In 1974, the people of Payette and Washington counties sent Craig to the Idaho State Senate, where he served three terms before winning the 1980 race for Idaho's First District Congressional Seat. He was re-elected four times before winning the U.S. Senate election in 1990 and was re-elected to the Senate in 1996 and 2002. Senator Craig served as chairman of the Steering Committee, a legislative "think tank" and action group for Senate conservatives. He was the youngest senator ever elected to that position.

Craig quickly rose in the Senate leadership in his first term, when his colleagues elected him Chairman of the Republican Policy Committee. He was re-elected to that position in the 106th and 107th Congresses. The Committee is responsible for developing policy positions for Senate Republicans.

Craig has emerged as a leader for a Balanced Budget Amendment to the Constitution, limited taxation, private property rights, and greater accountability in government. He has been recognized by national groups including Citizens for a Sound Economy, Citizens Against Government Waste, Watchdogs of the Treasury, and the National Taxpayers Union Foundation,

With his appointment to the Senate Appropriations Committee, Craig oversees funding on the following subcommittees: Agriculture, Rural Development, and Related Agencies; Energy and Water Development; Homeland Security; Labor, HHS, and Education; Military Construction and Veterans Affairs; and Interior and Related Agencies, where he serves as the Ranking Member. He is also a member of the Special Committee on Aging, which he chaired during the 107th and 108th Congresses, and the Committee on Environment and Public Works, where he serves on the Public Sector Solutions to Global Warming, Oversight, and Children's Health Protection Subcommittee and the Superfund and Environmental Health Subcommittee.

In addition to his committee memberships, Craig sits on a number of caucuses including: Air Force; Diabetes; Congressional Sportsmen's; Senate Sweetener; WTO for Farmers and Ranchers; Congressional Potato; National Congressional Award Board of Directors; Idaho Safe Kids Coalition (Honorary Co-Chair); the Western States Senate Coalition; Education Advisory Committee to the National Youth Leadership Conference. He serves as Co-Chairman of the Congressional Coalition on Adoption and helped to found and lead the CCAI, an institute working on adoption issues.

Craig is also on the Board of Directors of the [[National Rifle Association]], the Alliance to Save Energy, and he co-founded and co-chairs the Congressional Property Rights Coalition.

Craig chaired the Senate Republican Policy Committee (1996-2003), the Special Committee on Aging (One Hundred Eighth Congress), and the Committee on Veterans� Affairs (One Hundred Ninth Congress).

Craig was dedicated spokesman on behalf of the people and economic base of Idaho who depend upon the [[timber]] and power industries. Many [[environmentalist]]s believe his departure could be benificial for [[ecological]] causes, such as [[salmon]] recovery, which may cause economic disruption and unemployment in a conservative "flyover" state.<ref>[http://news.yahoo.com/s/ap/20070929/ap_on_go_co/salmon_democrats Sen. Craig's fall may benefit salmon]</ref>

==Airport incident==
On June 11, 2007, Craig was arrested in a men's room at the Minneapolis-St. Paul International Airport, by Sgt. Dave Karsnia, and charged with lewd conduct. Karsnia had been staging a sting operation in the men's room, based on complaints of frequent [[homosexual]] trysts, and reported that Craig propositioned him by peering into Karsnia's toilet stall, and tapping his foot against Karsnia's.<ref>[http://media.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/politics/ssi/craig_police_report_082807.pdf Lewd conduct: Report of Sgt. Dave Karsnia #4211, Minneapolis-St. Paul International Airport Police Department. (June 12, 2007)] URL accessed February 21, 2007</ref>

When questioned after his arrest, Craig characterized Karsnia's behavior as [[entrapment]].<ref>[http://msnbcmedia.msn.com/i/msnbc/sections/news/Craigtranscript.pdf Transcript of arrest interview] [http://www.break.com/index/senator-craig-police-audio-tape.html Audio]</ref> Later, however, Craig indicated he planned to plead guilty to the charges, and continued on his trip. He had hoped to keep the arrest quiet, didn't consult a lawyer, and he never told family, friends, staff or colleagues about the incident. Craig returned to Minneapolis on August 8th, 2007 and plead guilty to a reduced charge disorderly conduct.<ref>John, McArdle,[http://www.rollcall.com/cgi-bin/texis/scripts/rollcall-search/search.html?subscriber_search=true&query=%22Craig+Arrested%2C+Pleads+Guilty+Following+Incident+in+Airport+Restroom+but+Says+He+Did+Nothing+Wrong&x=8&y=7 Craig Arrested, Pleads Guilty Following Incident in Airport Restroom but Says He Did Nothing Wrong], ''Roll Call'', August 27, 2007.</ref>

A few weeks after Craig's guilty plea, the arrest story earned major press attention, and on September 1, 2007, Craig announced he intended to resign from the Senate (effective September 30, 2007). However, Craig announced plans to withdraw his guilty plea, and repeatedly denied unsubstantiated claims that he was homosexual.<ref>http://www.idahostatesman.com/eyepiece/story/143801.html</ref> Craig hired two Washington criminal defense lawyers, Stan Brand, who has defended lawmakers before, and Billy Martin, whose most recent client was NFL quarterback [[Michael Vick]]. Craig also retained one of the capital's top public-relations experts, Judy Smith, who handled press for [[Monica Lewinsky]] and more recently for U.S. Rep. [[William Jefferson]].<ref>[http://www.idahostatesman.com/newsupdates/story/149810.html Craig may not quit after all if he's cleared of charges, spokesman says], By GREGORY HAHN AND ERIKA BOLSTAD - ''Idaho Statesman'', 09/04/07.</ref>

Craig's attempt to withdraw the guilty plea was rejected by a Hennepin County District Court judge on October 4th 2007. Senator Craig has indicated that his intention is to serve out his Senate term. <ref>[http://www.cnn.com/2007/POLITICS/10/04/craig.arrest/].</ref>

Should Craig choose not to resign, his third Senate term will expire in January 2009.<ref> [http://www.idahostatesman.com/eyepiece/story/143801.html (Idaho Statesman)] </ref> Craig earlier resigned as an adviser to [[Republican]] [[Mitt Romney]]'s presidential campaign.<ref>http://minnesota.publicradio.org/display/web/2007/08/28/craig/?rsssource=1</ref>

===Responses from other politicians===
Former President [[Bill Clinton]] said on [[CNN]]'s ''Larry King Live'',

:"Well, first of all, I think we ought to recognize that this is a very traumatic time for him and his family.... we should be hoping that he and his family can work through this ...I think that that is more important than the politics of this. The politics of this will have to be resolved by him and the Republicans in the Senate."

Craig has also received support from Senator [[Arlen Specter]], and Sidney Smith, a spokesman for Craig, has stated that the decision to resign may not be final.<ref>http://www.breitbart.com/article.php?id=D8RF0EGO0&show_article=1</ref>

In February 2008, the Senate Ethics Committee<ref>http://www.cnn.com/2008/POLITICS/02/13/larry.craig/index.html</ref> issued a public "letter of admonition" to Craig, charging him with "improper conduct," and unethical use of over $200,000 of his campaigning money for legal and other costs related to the airport incident.

==References==

<references/>

{{DEFAULTSORT:Craig, Larry}}

[[Category:United States Senators|Craig, Larry]]
[[Category:Republican Party|Craig, Larry]]

Bill Clinton

2008-02-26T02:14:25Z

Nostratic: /* Impeachment */ linked to monica lewinsky and added reference to her affair with clinton

{{President
|image=billclinton.jpg
|seq=42
|term_start=January 20, 1993
|term_end=January 20, 2001
|party=Democratic
|vp=Al Gore
|previous=George H. W. Bush
|next=George W. Bush
|birth_date=August 19, 1946
|birth_place=Hope, Arkansas
|death_date=
|death_place=
|spouse=[[Hillary Rodham Clinton]]
|spouse2=
|religion=[[Baptist]]
}}
'''William Jefferson''' "Bill" '''Clinton''' '''(August 19, 1946 - present)''' served two terms as the 42nd [[President of the United States of America]] from 1993-2000, following [[George H. W. Bush]] and preceding [[George W. Bush]].

== Early Life ==

Clinton was born William Jefferson Blythe III on August 19, 1946 in Hope, [[Arkansas]]. His father, William Jefferson Blythe Jr. died in a car accident while his mother was pregnant with him. Clinton's mother later married Roger Clinton, and the four year-old William was given his stepfather's name.<ref>http://www.whitehouse.gov/history/presidents/bc42.html</ref>

Clinton was active in high school, participating in various student government organizations as well as playing the saxophone. Roger Clinton, however, made Bill's family life unpleasant by repeatedly abusing Clinton's mother and her children. Bill Clinton would eventually stand up to his stepfather in high school, forcing his stepfather to stop beating his mother and kicking him out of the house.<ref>http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=50652</ref> After Roger Clinton underwent alcohol rehabilitation, he would eventually rejoin the family.

Clinton attended [[Georgetown University]], then [[Oxford University]] after receiving a prestigious [[Rhodes Scholarship]]. He also then earned a Juris Doctorate from [[Yale University]] in 1973. At Yale he met [[Hillary Clinton|Hillary Rodham]], whom he would later marry.<ref>http://www.whitehouse.gov/history/presidents/bc42.html</ref>

== Early Political Career ==

After returning to live in Arkansas, Clinton was elected [[Attorney General]] of Arkansas in 1976. Two years later, he was elected Governor of Arkansas, becoming the youngest governor in the country at 32 years-old. Though defeated in 1980, Clinton won back the governorship in 1982 and held it until becoming President in 1992.

In December 1989 a three-judge district federal court held Bill Clinton's state-wide legislative reapportionment plan violated Section 2 of the [[Voting Rights Act|Voting Rights Act of 1965]], 42 U.S.C. 1973. 1990 the [[Supreme Court]] of the United States found in the case of ''[[Clinton vs Jeffers]]'' <ref>Findings of the Supreme Court of the United States in [http://www.usdoj.gov/osg/briefs/1990/sg900402.txt Clinton vs Jeffers] No. 90-394 (1990) on appeal 730 F. Supp. 196, 198-201 (ED Ark. 1989) (three-judge court), aff'd, No. 89-2008 (Jan. 7, 1991).</ref> the former Arkansas Governor and [[Democratic]] president had violated the Voting Rights Act. The Justices findings were,

{{Cquote|Bill Clinton does not dispute here -- that "violations of the [[Fourteenth amendment|fourteenth]] or [[fifteenth amendment]] justifying equitable relief have occurred in Arkansas."

In May 1990, the district court turned to those claims, holding that "the State of Arkansas has committed a number of constitutional violations of the voting rights of black citizens." J.S. App. A5. In particular, the court determined that the "State has systematically and deliberately enacted new majority-vote requirements for municipal offices, in an effort to frustrate black political success in elections traditionally requiring only a plurality to win." In 1990...Devotion to majority rule for local offices lay dormant as long as the plurality system produced white office-holders. But whenever black candidates used this system successfully -- and victory by a plurality has been virtually their only chance of success in at-large elections in majority-white cities – the response was swift and certain. Laws were passed in an attempt to close off this avenue of black political victory.}}

The court therefore concluded that

{{Cquote|This series of laws represents a systematic and deliberate attempt to reduce black political opportunity. Such an attempt is plainly unconstitutional. It replaces a system in which blacks could and did succeed, with one in which they almost certainly cannot. The inference of [[bigotry|racial motivation]] is inescapable.}}

===Early Scandals===
Clinton was known to have been involved in several scandals while Governor of Arkansas. He used Arkansas state policemen to arrange for him to meet women outside of marriage.

His close personal business partnerships with James and Susan McDougall in a failed Savings and Loan business venture lead to investigation of the [[Whitewater]] affair. Several of the people involved with the sale of land prior to the Clinton presidency were indicted, but prosecutors were never able to charge the Clintons with a crime because Susan McDougall would not cooperate with investigators. Clinton later pardoned Susan McDougall for her role in the Whitewater affair.{{fact}}

== Presidency==
[[Image:Somalia.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Poster to end the "[[racist]] occupation of Somalia"; eighteen US soldiers were killed and some of their bodies were dragged through the streets.<ref>[http://www.netnomad.com/fineman.html The Oil Factor in Somalia]: Four American [[Big Oil|Petroleum Giants]] had Agreements with the Arfican Nation before its Civil War began. They could reap big rewards if peace is restored. By Mark Fineman, ''Times Mirror Company'', January 18, 1993.</ref>]]
Clinton won in the [[United States presidential election of 1992]] with 43% of the popular vote versus President [[George H. W. Bush]]'s 37%, capitalizing on public discontent with a weak economy and public displeasure with Bush's proposed tax increases, and Ross Perot, a third candidate managed 19%.

In his first two years in office, 1993 through 1994, popular outcry against Clinton's [[radical]] health-care "reform" scheme led to failure of the plan. The collapse of Soviet Bloc only a few years earlier made [[socialism]] unpopular and was accreditted with the widespread disillussionment with the proposal. The approach consisted of appointing an [[economic planning|planning committee]] with secret members to reshape this important sector of the economy.{{fact}} The [[Association of American Physicians and Surgeons]] successfully sued to force disclosure of the committee financing, expenses and membership. The program ultimately became so unpopular after two years the Democratically controlled Congress shielded its members records by never bringing it to floor for a vote.

In 1994, voters expressed their high disapproval of several decades of Democratic control of Congress by giving a victory to Republicans. This event was tagged the "Republican Revolution," and began a series of showdowns with the Republican-led Congress.{{fact}} These showdowns were epitomized by the budget conflict with then-Speaker of the House [[Newt Gingrich]] in 1995. Gingrich refused to pass Clinton's budget proposal, and the latter threatened to shut down the government as Reagan had done in the 1980s. Clinton did not back down, however, and eventually had his budget passed.<ref>http://www.nationalreview.com/comment/commentprint082800d.html</ref> This showdown backfired for the Republicans, as it reinvigorated Clinton's flagging approval ratings.<ref>http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/92/Clinton_approval_rating.JPG</ref>

In 1994 a [[Pentagon]] researcher in the Clinton Administration requested funding to develop a non-lethal "love bomb" that would chemically alter the state of mind of [[enemy combatant]]s and make them want to have sex with each other rather than fight.<ref>[http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,281217,00.html Air Force Considered Gay 'Love Bomb' Against Enemies], ''Fox'', June 12, 2007.</ref>

In late 1995, President Clinton dispatched some 20,000 U.S. troops to [[Bosnia]].

Clinton aggressively advocated [[homosexuality]]. <ref>[http://www.behindthebadge.net/articles/a105.html]</ref>

==1996==

Clinton was reelected in the [[United States presidential election of 1996]] and carried 49.2% of the popular vote against Republican candidate ([[Robert Dole | Bob Dole]]), who won 41%, and "populist" candidate, [[H. Ross Perot]], who won 8%. During Clinton's second term, together with the Republican-controlled Congress, he produced record federal budget surpluses reaching $236 billion by the year 2000, and representing a net federal budget gain of $526 billion.<ref>[http://www.uuforum.org/deficit.htm Congressional Budget Office figures]</ref>

He spent much of the remainder of his presidency combating scandals. A special prosecutor's report was not released until well into Clinton's second term, and brought documented evidence of Clinton giving false testimony in the Paula Jones civil lawsuit while President which resulted in his impeachment and disbarment from the legal profession.{{fact}} The main charge was that he had committed perjury in a civil suit. The perjured testimony directly related to an attempt to defraud the plaintiff of damages. The Senate failed to make clear what constitutes high crimes and misdemeanors.<ref>[http://www.australianpolitics.com/usa/clinton/trial/statements/lieberman.shtml Statement by Senator Joseph Lieberman (D-Connecticut)], Congressional Record for Friday, February 12, 1999.</ref>

In 1998 the [[Good Friday Agreement]] was signed between Northern Ireland's Nationalist and Unionist parties and the British and Irish governments. Clinton took part in brokering the deal, phoning the participants in negotiations, at Senator Mitchel's behest, and hosted Unionist and Nationalist leaders at the White House.<ref>[http://www.cnn.com/ALLPOLITICS/1998/04/10/nclinton.ireland.api/]</ref>

===al-Qaeda bombing===

During Clinton's presidency the [[terrorist]] group [[al-Qaeda]] conducted the first World Trade Center bombing in 1993, simultaneous bombings of the US embassies in [[Kenya]] and [[Tanzania]] in 1998, and the attack on the [[USS Cole]] in 2000. Terrorist leader [[Osama bin Laden]]<ref>[http://www.bannerofliberty.com/OS8-98MQC/8-24-1998.1.html Did Bill Clinton Smooth the Way for Bin Laden to Become the World's Most Successful Terrorist?], Mary Mostert, Original Sources, August 24, 1998.</ref> issued two public [[fatwa]]s declaring War on America.<ref>[http://www.kimsoft.com/2001/binladenwar.htm Bin Laden's Declaration of War], 1998.</ref> In the 1998 fatwa <ref>Bernard Lewis, [http://www.msu.edu/course/iss/325/stein/read-325-3.htm#Lewis License to Kill], Foreign Affairs, November/December 1998.</ref> bin Laden told ''[[Jihad|jihadist]]s'' worldwide,
{{Cquote|Clinton appeared in front of the whole world threatening and promising revenge, but these threats were merely a preparation for withdrawal. You have been disgraced by [[Allah]] and you withdrew; the extent of your impotence and weaknesses became very clear. It was a pleasure for the "heart" of every Muslim and a remedy to the "chests" of believing nations to see you defeated in the three Islamic cities of Beirut, [[Aden]] and [[Mogadishu]].<ref>[http://www.cooperativeresearch.org/context.jsp?item=a1097mohamedinterview&scale=0#a1097mohamedinterview October 1997: [[Ali Mohamed]] Tells FBI He Helped Al-Qaeda Kill US Soldiers, But FBI Takes No Action]</ref>}}

Bin Laden told ''ABC News'' at the time, "We do not have to differentiate between military or civilian. As far as we are concerned, they are all targets." <ref>The 9-11 Commission Report, [http://www.gpoaccess.gov/911/pdf/sec2.pdf2. The Foundation of the New Terrorism], Official Government Edition, GPO, 2004.</ref>
===Cruise missiles to manipulate opinion polls===
Suspicions often arose during Clinton's tenure about the timing of [[cruise missile]] attacks to manipulate public sympathy at crucial points when his approval ratings sagged. On several occasions <ref>[http://article.nationalreview.com/print/?q=NzhjODk1ODg4M2NiODU4Yzc3YWE1OTA1MDNmYWQ5M2Y= The Facts About Clinton and Terrorism], Byron York, ''National Review Online'', September 11, 2006. </ref> generally when the approval ratings dipped to 47%, surprise cruise missile attacks<ref>[http://www.fas.org/news/iraq/1998/12/21/wwwh8d21.html Airstrikes Against Iraq: 'What Happens Now?'], U.S. Information Agency ''Daily Digest'', December 21, 1998.</ref> were launched which resulted in a 10 point gain in the public opinion polls. Nick Gillespie of ''Reason'' remarked,
{{Cquote|Consider, for instance, the relative lack of scrutiny accorded the August 20 cruise missile attacks on Afghanistan and [[Sudan]] … immediately after the bombing, polls showed that close to half of all Americans thought the missile strikes were meant to divert attention from the president's sex life… the Sudanese bombing suggests something else as well: If and when the public's and the media's attention shifts from the president's sex life to wider-ranging inquiries about how he makes deadly serious policy decisions…"<ref>[http://www.reason.com/news/show/30827.html Bombs Away - Troubling questions about the U.S. attack on Sudan], ''Reason'', December 1998.</ref>}}

Clinton also signed into law the [[Violence Against Women Act]], which opened the federal courts to claims of domestic disputes between men and women, which had always been handled under state rather than federal law. Portions regarding civil rights remedies were later found unconstitutional by the Supreme Court.

Bill Clinton's Chief of Staff was John Podesta between 1998-2001.

Clinton left office with an approval rating of 65%, the highest of any modern president, and remains the only modern president to leave office with a higher approval rating than he had when he took office.<ref>[http://uspolitics.about.com/od/polls/l/bl_historical_approval.htm Presidential Approval Ratings]</ref>

===Impeachment===
On Aug. 17, 1998, after relentless media attention, leaks, and news of White House intern [[Monica Lewinsky]]'s upcoming testimony regarding her extramarital affair with the President, Clinton made history by becoming the first U.S. president to testify in front of a grand jury in an investigation of his own possibly criminal conduct. In an address to the nation, he admitted to having misled the public and a Federal Court over keys elements of testimony. [[Kenneth Starr]], a special prosecutor appointed to investigate the case, was instructed to pursue the matter.

In the second term Clinton was accused of perjury in connection to the Paula Jones sexual harassment lawsuit. Clinton adviser and close confidant [[George Stephanopoulos]] said publicly that there would be a "scorched-earth policy" if Clinton were impeached.<ref>[http://www.alamo-girl.com/02742.htm Insight Magazine], J Michael Waller, 6/19/00.</ref> Clinton previously had decried the "politics of personal destruction."<ref>[http://www.jewishworldreview.com/weekly/standard072299.asp Bill Clinton, Historian], Peter Wehner, Jewish World Review July 22, 1999.</ref>

During the impeachment trial, pornographer [[Larry Flynt]], an old friend of Clinton advisers [[James Carville]] and [[Strobe Talbott]], publicly offered a $1 million reward for any information about the personal lives of members of Congress that could be used for the purposes of blackmail. Although a majority of 55 Senators voted to convict, a minority of 45 Senators gained his acquittal, a two thirds majority being necessary to remove him from office.

[[David Gergen]], former White House Communications Director for both Presidents Reagan and Clinton, summarized the sentiments of many regarding the President's conduct:
{{Cquote|The deep and searing violation took place when he not only lied to the country, but co-opted his friends and lied to them....when you have gone over the line, you won't bring others into it...You don't foul the nest."<ref>[http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/politics/special/clinton/stories/quinn110298.htm In Washington, That Letdown Feeling], By Sally Quinn, ''The Washington Post'', November 2, 1998, Page E01</ref>}}

Clinton lost his law license in Arkansas because he had committed perjury before a Federal judge.

It was during this scandal that Clinton famously stated: "It depends on what the meaning of the word 'is' is".<ref>http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/september/21/newsid_2525000/2525339.stm</ref>

===Terrorist pardons===

On August 11, 1999, President Clinton offered clemency to members of the [[Armed Forces of National Liberation]] (FALN) [[terrorist]] group. <ref>[http://rpc.senate.gov/_files/92199CoddlingTerrorists.pdf U.S. Senate Judiciary Committee] testimony available at http://www.senate.gov/~judiciary/wl91599.htm, ''The Tampa Tribune'', S.J.Res. 33 (passed 95-2).</ref> On January 24, 1975 the FALN bombed Fraunces Tavern in Manhattan killing four people. Over a six-year period, the group claimed responsibility for more than 100 bombings that took six lives and injured some 130 people.<ref>[http://www.latinamericanstudies.org/puertorico/sep4.htm Clinton Pardons Terror], ''New York Post'', August 13, 1999. rtetrieve from http://www.latinamericanstudies.org September 14, 2007.</ref>

== Legacy ==

Clinton has spent much of time since leaving office working for charitable causes such as support and fund-raising for the victims of AIDS and the Asian tsunami. In the case of the Indian Ocean tsunami, he teamed with former president [[George H.W. Bush]] to raise money for relief efforts.

Bill Clinton's wife, [[Hillary_Rodham_Clinton|Hillary Clinton]], was elected Senator to New York in 2000. She was reelected in 2006. While his wife is now seeking financial donations for the [[2008_Presidential_Election#Declared_Democratic_Party_Candidates|Democratic presidential nomination in 2008]] may face a felony conviction that carries with it a five year sentence, according to WorldNetDaily, for receiving $1.9 million to her Senate Campaign in illegal donations,<ref>[http://worldnetdaily.com/news/article.asp?ARTICLE_ID=55320 'Smoking gun' tape indicts Hillary] Art Moore, WorldNetDaily.com, April 21, 2007.</ref> Bill Clinton has refused to make known the identities of financial donors to his Presidential library.<ref>[http://blogs.abcnews.com/politicalradar/2007/09/clinton-libary-.html Clinton Library Donors Remain Secret], [[ABC News]], September 27, 2007.</ref>

==Involvement in Hillary Clinton's presidential campaign==

Clinton has been criticized by both liberals and conservatives for his actions in his wife's presidential campaign. [[Time Magazine]], hardly a conservative source, referred to him as "his wife's attack dog". <ref>http://media.www.tuftsdaily.com/media/storage/paper856/news/2008/01/28/OpEd/Editorial.On.The.Campaign.Trail.Bill.Clinton.Should.Keep.His.Mouth.Shut-3171498.shtml</ref> Some accused him of racism for comparing [[Barack Obama]] to [[Jesse Jackson]] when Bill Clinton commented on the campaign trail in [[South Carolina]] in 2008: "Jesse Jackson won South Carolina in '84 and '88. Jackson ran a good campaign. And Obama ran a good campaign here." <ref>http://www.rightwingnews.com/mt331/2008/01/jesse_jackson_barack_obama_wha.php</ref> Time Magazine further editorialized that he had broken his strong bond with the African-American community in the process of campaigning. <ref>Time Magazine, February 4, 2008</ref>

==See also==
*[[Institute for Policy Studies]]
*[[Gay Bomb]]

== References ==
{{reflist|2}}

==External link==

*[http://www.globalresearch.ca/index.php?context=va&aid=625 No evidence of genocide or ethnic cleansing in Kosovo], by Rollie Keith, Global Research, July 2, 2005.
*[http://www.zmag.org/crisescurevts/germandocs.htm Internal Documents from Germany's Foreign Office Regarding Pre-Bombardment Genocide in Kosovo].

{{USPresidents}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Clinton, Bill}}
[[Category:Presidents of the United States]]

Religion in India

2008-02-26T02:01:36Z

Nostratic: typo repair & created sections & other

Four major world religions ([[Hinduism]], [[Buddhism]], [[Jainism]] and [[Sikhism]]) were founded in Indian subcontinent. in addition, [[Islam]] has been an important force on the subcontinent since the seventh century.

==Judiasm in India==
The Bnei Menashe of northeastern India claim descent from the lost tribe of [[Manasseh]], but the accuracy of this claim is debated.

The Cochin Jews (or Malabar Jews) claim to have occupied India since the time of [[Solomon]], but historical evidence can place them in India only in about 700 B.C.<ref>Koder S. "History of the Jews of Kerala". ''The St.Thomas Christian Encyclopaedia of India''. Edited by. G. Menachery. 1973</ref>

Bene Israel group claim to have arrived in India between about 100 A.D. and 300 A.D., and can be traced by other evidence to as early as about 1000 A.D.<ref>http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=710&letter=B</ref>

==Christianity==
[[Christianity]] arrived in India in the first century A.D., possibly through the travels of the [[Apostle Thomas]], whose tomb in the Indian city of Chennai is a major pilgrimage site for Christians in India.

==Islam==
[[Islam]] arrived partly through the implementation of holy war or "[[Jihad]]" by Arab militants led by [[Muhammad bin-Qasim]] in the latter half of the 8th century A.D., and partly through the efforts of Arab traders in South India. It continued to spread with invasions, wars and forced conversions by Afghans and Turkic Mongols. Eventually, peace settled and they slowly integrated into the society and formed India's Islamic tradition. The [[Taj Mahal]], India's national monument, was built by a Muslim emperor named Shah Jahan.

==Conflicts and violence==
Hindu nationalism and Islamic fundamentalism are prevalent in India since independence. In the anti-Sikh riots of 1984, more than 4,000 Sikhs were killed by Hindu mobsters. From December 1992 to January 1993, 900 people died in the riots between Hindus and Muslims in Mumbai (then Bombay). The 2002 Gujarat violence killed 790 Muslims and 254 Hindus.

==Violence towards Christians==
{{main|Violence towards Christians in India}}

Hindu nationalist groups like '''Bajrang Dal''', '''Vishva Hindu Parishad''' ('''VHP''') have anti-Christian sentiment. VHP has engaged in several programs to convert Christians to Hinduism. In a well-publicised case, Bajrang Dal member Dara Singh and 12 others killed Graham Staines, a Christian missionary and his two sons Philip and Timothy (aged 10 and 8 respectively). Graham Staines was working with leprosy sufferers for 34 years. '''Shiv Sena''', a political party in India, remain opposed to Valentine's Day celebrations and members of Shiv Sena carried out violent attacks on shops and restaurants organising Valentine's Day.

==Demographics==
*'''Hinduism''' is India's largest religion; 80.4% of the population are Hindu.
*'''Islam''' is the largest minority religion in India; 13.4% of the population are Muslim.
*'''Christianity''' is the third largest religion of India; 2.3% of the population are Christians.
*India is home to 12 million '''Buddhists'''; 0.773% of the population are Buddhists. 4.2 million
*'''Jains''' live in India; 0.4% of the population are Jains.
*According to census of 2001, there are 19.2 million '''Sikhs''' in India.
*0.006% of the population are '''Parsis''' ('''Zoroastrians''').
*2.2 million people in India follow the '''Bahá'í Faith''', which is the largest national contingent of Bahá'ís in the world. *'''Jews''' are a religious minority of India, and are concentrated in the states of Kerala and Maharashtra.
*2% of the population are '''atheists'''.

[[Category:Religion]]
[[Category:India]]

Alarmist

2008-02-26T01:34:02Z

Nostratic: itallicized 1984

An '''Alarmist''', according to the dictionary is "A person who needlessly alarms or attempts to alarm others, as by inventing or spreading false or exaggerated rumors of impending danger or catastrophe."

In modern usage, such people usually fall under the following categories:

*Bloggers
*[[Global Warming]] enthusaists
*Certain Left-Wing websites
*Nationalist governments which seek to gain the blind trust of the populist by way of inventing threats to national security. See [[Nazi]] and ''[[1984]]''.
*Democratic Party

[[Category:Politics]]

Larry Craig

2008-02-26T01:28:01Z

Nostratic: added more cited information to the "airport incident" section

'''Larry Craig''' (b. July 20, 1945) has been a [[Republican]] [[United States Senate|United States Senator]] from the state of [[Idaho]] since 1991. From 1981 to 1991 he represented Idaho in the [[United States House of Representatives]]. He is generally considered to be a social conservative and is also a strong advocate of the proposed Balanced Budget Amendment to the Constitution.

==Early years==
Senator Craig was born on the family ranch near Midvale, Idaho, which was homesteaded in 1899 by his grandfather. He later served as the Idaho State President and National Vice-President of the Future Farmers of America. Craig earned his B.A. at the University of Idaho in 1969 and did graduate work at George Washington University 1970. Craig has worked as a farmer and rancher and served in the Idaho senate from 1974-1980.

==U.S. Senate==
In 1974, the people of Payette and Washington counties sent Craig to the Idaho State Senate, where he served three terms before winning the 1980 race for Idaho's First District Congressional Seat. He was re-elected four times before winning the U.S. Senate election in 1990 and was re-elected to the Senate in 1996 and 2002. Senator Craig served as chairman of the Steering Committee, a legislative "think tank" and action group for Senate conservatives. He was the youngest senator ever elected to that position.

Craig quickly rose in the Senate leadership in his first term, when his colleagues elected him Chairman of the Republican Policy Committee. He was re-elected to that position in the 106th and 107th Congresses. The Committee is responsible for developing policy positions for Senate Republicans.

Craig has emerged as a leader for a Balanced Budget Amendment to the Constitution, limited taxation, private property rights, and greater accountability in government. He has been recognized by national groups including Citizens for a Sound Economy, Citizens Against Government Waste, Watchdogs of the Treasury, and the National Taxpayers Union Foundation,

With his appointment to the Senate Appropriations Committee, Craig oversees funding on the following subcommittees: Agriculture, Rural Development, and Related Agencies; Energy and Water Development; Homeland Security; Labor, HHS, and Education; Military Construction and Veterans Affairs; and Interior and Related Agencies, where he serves as the Ranking Member. He is also a member of the Special Committee on Aging, which he chaired during the 107th and 108th Congresses, and the Committee on Environment and Public Works, where he serves on the Public Sector Solutions to Global Warming, Oversight, and Children's Health Protection Subcommittee and the Superfund and Environmental Health Subcommittee.

In addition to his committee memberships, Craig sits on a number of caucuses including: Air Force; Diabetes; Congressional Sportsmen's; Senate Sweetener; WTO for Farmers and Ranchers; Congressional Potato; National Congressional Award Board of Directors; Idaho Safe Kids Coalition (Honorary Co-Chair); the Western States Senate Coalition; Education Advisory Committee to the National Youth Leadership Conference. He serves as Co-Chairman of the Congressional Coalition on Adoption and helped to found and lead the CCAI, an institute working on adoption issues.

Craig is also on the Board of Directors of the [[National Rifle Association]], the Alliance to Save Energy, and he co-founded and co-chairs the Congressional Property Rights Coalition.

Craig chaired the Senate Republican Policy Committee (1996-2003), the Special Committee on Aging (One Hundred Eighth Congress), and the Committee on Veterans� Affairs (One Hundred Ninth Congress).

Craig was dedicated spokesman on behalf of the people and economic base of Idaho who depend upon the [[timber]] and power industries. Many [[environmentalist]]s believe his departure could be benificial for [[ecological]] causes, such as [[salmon]] recovery, which may cause economic disruption and unemployment in a conservative "flyover" state.<ref>[http://news.yahoo.com/s/ap/20070929/ap_on_go_co/salmon_democrats Sen. Craig's fall may benefit salmon]</ref>

==Airport incident==
On June 11, 2007, Craig was arrested in a men's room at the Minneapolis-St. Paul International Airport, by Sgt. Dave Karsnia, and charged with lewd conduct. Karsnia had been staging a sting operation in the men's room, based on complaints of frequent [[homosexual]] trysts, and reported that Craig propositioned him by peering into Karsnia's toilet stall, and tapping his foot against Karsnia's.<ref>[http://media.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/politics/ssi/craig_police_report_082807.pdf Lewd conduct: Report of Sgt. Dave Karsnia #4211, Minneapolis-St. Paul International Airport Police Department. (June 12, 2007)] URL accessed February 21, 2007</ref>

When questioned after his arrest, Craig characterized Karsnia's behavior as [[entrapment]].<ref>[http://msnbcmedia.msn.com/i/msnbc/sections/news/Craigtranscript.pdf Transcript of arrest interview] [http://www.break.com/index/senator-craig-police-audio-tape.html Audio]</ref> Later, however, Craig indicated he planned to plead guilty to the charges, and continued on his trip. He had hoped to keep the arrest quiet, didn�t consult a lawyer, and he never told family, friends, staff or colleagues about the incident. Craig returned to Minneapolis on August 8th, 2007 and plead guilty to a reduced charge disorderly conduct.<ref>John, McArdle,[http://www.rollcall.com/cgi-bin/texis/scripts/rollcall-search/search.html?subscriber_search=true&query=%22Craig+Arrested%2C+Pleads+Guilty+Following+Incident+in+Airport+Restroom+but+Says+He+Did+Nothing+Wrong&x=8&y=7 Craig Arrested, Pleads Guilty Following Incident in Airport Restroom but Says He Did Nothing Wrong], ''Roll Call'', August 27, 2007.</ref>

A few weeks after Craig's guilty plea, the arrest story earned major press attention, and on September 1, 2007, Craig announced he intended to resign from the Senate (effective September 30, 2007). However, Craig announced plans to withdraw his guilty plea, and repeatedly denied unsubstantiated claims that he was homosexual. Craig hired two Washington criminal defense lawyers, Stan Brand, who has defended lawmakers before, and Billy Martin, whose most recent client was NFL quarterback [[Michael Vick]]. Craig also retained one of the capital�s top public-relations experts, Judy Smith, who handled press for [[Monica Lewinsky]] and more recently for U.S. Rep. [[William Jefferson]].<ref>[http://www.idahostatesman.com/newsupdates/story/149810.html Craig may not quit after all if he's cleared of charges, spokesman says], By GREGORY HAHN AND ERIKA BOLSTAD - ''Idaho Statesman'', 09/04/07.</ref>

Former President [[Bill Clinton]] said on [[CNN]]'s ''Larry King Live'',

:"Well, first of all, I think we ought to recognize that this is a very traumatic time for him and his family.... we should be hoping that he and his family can work through this ...I think that that is more important than the politics of this. The politics of this will have to be resolved by him and the Republicans in the Senate."

Craig has also received support from Senator [[Arlen Specter]], and Sidney Smith, a spokesman for Larry Craig, has stated that the decision to resign may not be final.<ref>http://www.breitbart.com/article.php?id=D8RF0EGO0&show_article=1</ref>

Larry Craig's attempt to withdraw the guilty plea was rejected by a Hennepin County District Court judge on October 4th 2007. Senator Craig has indicated that his intention is to serve out his Senate term. <ref>[http://www.cnn.com/2007/POLITICS/10/04/craig.arrest/].</ref>

Should Craig choose not to resign, his third Senate term will expire in January 2009.<ref> [http://www.idahostatesman.com/eyepiece/story/143801.html (Idaho Statesman)] </ref> Craig earlier resigned as an adviser to [[Republican]] [[Mitt Romney]]'s presidential campaign.<ref>http://minnesota.publicradio.org/display/web/2007/08/28/craig/?rsssource=1</ref>

==References==

<references/>

{{DEFAULTSORT:Craig, Larry}}

[[Category:United States Senators|Craig, Larry]]
[[Category:Republican Party|Craig, Larry]]