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United Kingdom

2008-11-16T03:16:34Z

Papabear1: image had no direct relevance to anything found in the text

{{Country
|name =''The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland''
|map =United kingdom rel87.jpg
|flag =Union_jack.jpg
|arms =UK Royal Coat of Arms.png
|capital =London
|capital-raw =
|government =Constitutional monarchy
|government-raw =
|language =English
|king =
|queen =
|monarch-raw =HM Queen [[Elizabeth II]]
|president =
|president-raw =
|chancellor =
|chancellor-raw =
|pm =Gordon Brown
|pm-raw =
|area =94,526 sq mi
|pop =60,587,300 (2007)
|pop-basis =
|gdp =$2.006 trillion
|gdp-year =2006
|gdp-pc =$35,051 (2006)
|currency =Pound Sterling
|idd =
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}}

The '''United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland''', generally called '''The United Kingdom''' or '''The UK''', is a sovereign [[state]] north-west of mainland [[Europe]]. It comprises [[England]], [[Scotland]] and [[Wales]], which occupy the island of [[Great Britain]], and [[Northern Ireland]] on the island of [[Ireland]]. It attained its current identity in 1922 after most of Ireland was granted independence (although the current name 'United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland was not adopted until 1927), but its origins can be traced back at least to 1603, when England and Scotland came to be ruled by a single monarch (James I of England and VI of Scotland). England and Scotland were formally united under a single parliament, forming the United Kingdom of Great Britain, on 1 May 1707.<ref>Murdoch, Alexander, [http://www.oxforddnb.com/public/themes/96/96282.html England, Scotland, and the Acts of Union (1707)], Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, online edn, Oxford University Press, Jan 2007, accessed 1 May 2007</ref>

The United Kingdom is a constitutional monarchy. Its current [[head of state]] is Elizabeth the Second, by the Grace of God, of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and of Her other Realms and Territories Queen, Head of the Commonwealth, Defender of the Faith <ref>http://www.worldwhoswho.com/public/views/royal_families.html?country=UNITED_KINGDOM</ref> (often shortened to HM Queen [[Elizabeth II]]), and its [[head of government]] is the Prime Minister [[Gordon Brown]], whose official title is First Lord of the Treasury and technically should be referred to as such if applying a title directly to his name or any other previous incumbent of the office<ref>http://www.explore.parliament.uk/Parliament.aspx?id=10216&glossary=true</ref>

(''i.e. When referring to Gordon Brown it is incorrect to address him or refer to him as Prime Minister Gordon Brown, rather he should be referred to either as '''the''' Prime Minister (title of the office) Gordon Brown or First Lord of the Treasury (title of the person who holds the office) Gordon Brown'').

[[nationalism|Nationalist]] movements of significant importance exist in Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland, seeking (in the case of Scottish and Welsh nationalists) to dissolve the United Kingdom and to win independence for their respective territories, and in the case of Northern Ireland nationalists and republicans to achieve a sovereign united Ireland. At the present time, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland have their own legislatures.

The United Kingdom has the fifth largest economy in the world, and is a member of the [[European Union]], [[NATO]] and the [[United Nations]]. The UK's values, culture and institutions were spread throughout many parts of the world during the period of the [[British Empire]], and the UK's contributions to world culture include the English language, the [[parliament|parliamentary]] form of government, the [[Church of England|Anglican]] (or Episcopalian) Church, a tradition of personal liberty, and the common-law legal system.

==Name==
The official name of the country (since 1927) is ''The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland''. The adjective associated with the United Kingdom is "[[British]]". From 1801 to 1927 the official name was ''The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland''.

The full official name is seldom used except in very formal or legal documents.

* The '''United Kingdom''' is one short version of the official name, and is used for current events since 2000, and for geographical discussions. This is the normal term used to refer to the country as a whole.
* '''Great Britain''' and '''Britain''' are short versions of ''The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland'' but care should be taken about the context in which these terms are used because "Great Britain" is the name of the largest island in the United Kingdom which contains [[England]], [[Scotland]] and [[Wales]]. As a result this term can cause offence to citizens of [[Northern Ireland]].
* '''Britain''' is used (without the adjective "Great") as a synonym for the United Kingdom as a whole.<ref>number10.gov.uk - [http://www.number10.gov.uk/output/Page823.asp Countries within a country] - Website of the British Prime Minister.</ref> Historical books and articles normally use "Britain" or "Great Britain" rather than "United Kingdom" or "UK".
* '''England''' is the largest of the four components of the United Kingdom. "England" was often used to stand for the nation in older literature published outside the UK before 1970. However use of "England" to refer to the entire country is considered offensive by many citizens of the other three member nations and is thus discouraged.
* The standard language of the UK is English; [[Welsh]] has parity in Wales, and [[Gaelic]] is widely used on official documents, roadsigns, etc in Gaelic-speaking areas of western Scotland..

==Anthem==
The national anthem of the UK is currently ''[[God Save the Queen]]''. When [[Queen Elizabeth II]] dies or abdicates, her son [[Prince Charles]] will become [[King]], and the anthem will become "God Save the King", with the other words remaining the same (apart from obvious changes in gender pronouns). This same melody is also sung by [[American]] schoolchildren (with different words) as "My Country, 'Tis of Thee".

The constituent nations of the UK have come to have their own unofficial anthems. In the case of Wales, this is ''[[Hen Wlad Fy Nhadau]]'' (''Land of My Fathers''), and for Scotland it is ''[[Flower of Scotland]]''. England does not have its own distinctive anthem in the same way, but at sporting events in which England is competing as a separate nation, [[Edward Elgar]]'s patriotic song ''[[Land of Hope and Glory]]'' is sometimes used (although ''God Save the Queen'' is most commonly used). Additionally the hymn "Jerusalem" has a large number of supporters in England as an alternative to, or replacement for, the national anthem. In Northern Ireland, the Protestant and Catholic communities respectively use ''God Save the Queen'' and ''Amhran na bhFiann'', the Irish national anthem. ''Londonderry Air'' is often used as the anthem for Northern Ireland competitors in sporting events.

It should be noted that ''God Save the Queen/King'' is only the national anthem by long usage, since about 1745. It has never been declared so officially.

==People==
[[Image:Tower Bridge London.jpg|thumb|240px|Tower Bridge, London.]]
The United Kingdom's population in 2004 surpassed 60 million--the third-largest in the European Union. Its overall population density is one of the highest in the world. Almost one-third of the population lives in England's prosperous and fertile southeast and is predominantly urban and suburban--with about 7.2 million in the capital of London, which remains the largest city in Europe. The United Kingdom's high literacy rate (99%) is attributable to universal public education introduced for the primary level in 1870 and secondary level in 1900. Education is mandatory from ages 5 through 16. About one-fifth of British students go on to post-secondary education. The Church of England and the Church of Scotland are the official churches in their respective parts of the country, but most religions found in the world are represented in the United Kingdom.

A group of islands close to continental Europe, the British Isles have been subject to many invasions and migrations, especially from Scandinavia and the continent, including Roman occupation for several centuries. Contemporary Britons are descended mainly from the varied ethnic stocks that settled there before the 11th century. The pre-Celtic, Celtic, Roman, Anglo-Saxon, and Norse influences were blended in Britain under the Normans, Scandinavian Vikings who had lived in Northern France. Although Celtic languages persist in Wales, Scotland, and Northern Ireland, as well as Cornwall in south-west England, the predominant language is English, which is primarily a blend of Anglo-Saxon and Norman French.
*Population (2007 est.): 60.8 million.
*Annual population growth rate (2007 est.): 0.275%.
*Major ethnic groups: British 91%, Irish 2%, West Indian and African 3%, South Asian 3%, others 1%.
*Major religions: Church of England (Anglican), Roman Catholic, Church of Scotland (Presbyterian), Muslim.
*Major languages: English, Welsh, Irish Gaelic, Scottish Gaelic.
*Education: Years compulsory--12. Attendance--nearly 100%. Literacy--99%.
*Health: Infant mortality rate (2007 est.)--5.01/1,000. Life expectancy (2007 est.)--males 76.23 yrs.; females 81.3 yrs.; total 78.7 years
*Work force (2007, 31.1 million): Services--80.4%; industry--18.2%; agriculture--1.4%.

===Religious Beliefs===
According to the 2001 [[Census]] the religious make-up of the UK at that time was:

{| border="1" cellspacing=0 cellpadding=3
|+'''Religions in United Kingdom'''
!Belief
!Thousands
!Proportion
|-
|Christian ||42,079 ||71.6
|-
|No Religion ||9104 ||15.5
|-
|Muslim ||1591 ||2.7
|-
|Hindu ||559 ||1.0
|-
|Sikh ||336 ||0.6
|-
|Jewish ||267 ||0.5
|-
|Other ||179 ||0.3
|-
|Buddhist ||152 ||0.3
|-
|Pagan & Wicca ||40 ||0.1
|-
|Total religious ||45,163 ||76.8
|-
|No answer ||4289 ||7.3
|}
The answers were distorted by an internet campaign just prior to the census, encouraging people to actually question religion that claimed that if at least 50,000 people stated their religion as 'Jedi Knight' it would be officially classified as a religion. This was not true, though the Office of National Statistics does aggregate very small religions into the 'Other' category whereas a religion of 50,000 would be itemised separately. This separate listing does not constitute any form of official recognition.

Two of the four states of the United Kingdom, England and Scotland, have official state religions. The [[Church of England]] is the official religion of England and the (Presbyterian) Church of Scotland is the official religion of Scotland. The (Anglican) Church of Ireland was [[disestablished]] in 1871 and the (Anglican) Church of Wales was disestablished in 1920, whereupon it was renamed the [[Church in Wales]].

===Crown Dependencies===
A number of the smaller [[British Isles]], most importantly [[Jersey]], [[Guernsey]] and the [[Isle of Man]] are 'British Crown Dependencies' and not members of the UK. Their governments are independent of that of the UK other than foreign and defence policy (the UK government retains the legal power to overrule the governments of the Dependencies, but this power has not been exercised since 1967), and they are not members of the [[European Union]].

==Sports and Pastimes==
Many of the most popular [[sport]]s in the world today were developed or codified in the UK. These include [[soccer|football]] (which is called ''soccer'' in North America), [[cricket]], [[Rugby (Sport)|rugby]], [[tennis]], [[hockey]] and [[golf]]. The UK is represented in international competitions by the individual nations (such as in football, the one-day form of cricket and rugby) and by the whole of the UK in other sports (such as [[athletics]], golf and tennis). The Test cricket team is that of 'England & Wales' (colloquially, just 'England') but from time to time has had Scottish and Irish players.

The UK remains a major sporting force both in competition and the administration of sport. It is dominant in several Olympic sports, notably cycling, rowing and sailing and a leading force in cricket, [[Rugby (Sport)|rugby]] union, [[Rugby (Sport)|rugby]] League and golf.

Certain venues have their own distinct and historical recognition and host a number of international competitions. These include Wimbledon for tennis, Silverstone for motor racing, and St Andrews for golf. There are several major venues for football, rugby and cricket.

Domestic sport is dominated by football with one of the strongest and most popular leagues in the world - the Premier League of England. Teams such as Manchester United, Arsenal, Chelsea and Liverpool are well known sports club brands and maintain followings across the world. Cricket and both codes of rugby also have strong and popular domestic leagues. Other popular sports include snooker, rowing, golf, tennis, athletics, cycling, darts, horse racing, and motor racing. These most popular sports are well covered by both the print press and television.

Some sports which are more popular in other countries such as volleyball, handball, American football and basketball have small but dedicated followings.

==Government==
''See also [[British politics]]''

The United Kingdom does not have a written constitution. The equivalent body of law is based on statute, common law, and "traditional rights." Changes may come about formally through new acts of Parliament, informally through the acceptance of new practices and usage, or by judicial precedents. Although Parliament has the theoretical power to make or repeal any law, in actual practice the weight of 700 years of tradition restrains arbitrary actions.

Executive power rests nominally with the monarch but actually is exercised by a committee of ministers (cabinet) selected from among the members of the House of Commons and, less frequently, the House of Lords. The prime minister is normally the leader of the largest party in the Commons. Subject to the term limitations a prime minister can continue to govern while he or she commands the support of parliament

==Parliament==
Founded in the Magna Carta, which was drawn up and sealed in 1215 by King John, and first summoned by King Edward I, Parliament has existed since 1296, giving Parliament a current age of 712 years<ref>http://www.parliament.uk/about/history/keydates_1215_1900.cfm</ref>. Parliament represents the entire country and can legislate for the whole or for any constituent part or combination of parts. The maximum parliamentary term is 5 years, but the prime minister may ask the monarch to dissolve Parliament and call a general election at any time. The focus of legislative power is the 646-member House of Commons, which has sole jurisdiction over finance. The House of Lords, although shorn of most of its powers, can still review, amend, or delay temporarily any bills except those relating to the budget. The House of Lords has more time than the House of Commons to pursue one of its more important functions--debating public issues. In 1999, the government removed the automatic right of hereditary peers to hold seats in the House of Lords. The current house consists of appointed life peers who hold their seats for life and 92 hereditary peers who will hold their seats only until final reforms have been agreed upon and implemented. The judiciary is independent of the legislative and executive branches but cannot review the constitutionality of legislation.

Members of the House of Commons are elected to represent specific geographic constituencies. Members are elected on a [[First past the post]] system.

==Constituent countries==
The separate identities of each of the United Kingdom's constituent parts are also reflected in their respective governmental structures. Up until the recent devolution of power to Scotland and Wales, a cabinet minister (the Secretary of State for Wales) handled Welsh affairs at the national level with the advice of a broadly representative council for Wales. Scotland maintains, as it did before union with England, different systems of law (Roman-French), education, local government, judiciary, and national church (the Church of Scotland instead of the Church of England). In addition, separate departments grouped under a Secretary of State for Scotland, who also is a cabinet member, handled most domestic matters. In late 1997, however, following approval of referenda by Scottish and Welsh voters (though only narrowly in Wales), the British Government introduced legislation to establish a Scottish Parliament and a Welsh Assembly. The first elections for the two bodies were held May 6, 1999. The Welsh Assembly opened on May 26, and the Scottish Parliament opened on July 1, 1999. The devolved legislatures have largely taken over most of the functions previously performed by the Scottish and Welsh offices.

Northern Ireland had its own Parliament and prime minister from 1921 to 1973, when the British Government imposed direct rule in order to deal with the deteriorating political and security situation. From 1973, the Secretary of State for Northern Ireland, based in London, was responsible for the region, including efforts to resolve the issues that lay behind the "the troubles."

By the mid-1990s, gestures toward peace encouraged by successive British governments and by President Clinton began to open the door for restored local government in Northern Ireland. An Irish Republican Army (IRA) cease-fire and nearly 2 years of multiparty negotiations, led by former U.S. Senator George Mitchell, resulted in the Good Friday Agreement of 10 April 1998, which was subsequently approved by majorities in both Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland. Key elements of the agreement include devolved government, a commitment of the parties to work toward "total disarmament of all paramilitary organisations," police reform, and enhanced mechanisms to guarantee human rights and equal opportunity. The Good Friday Agreement also called for formal cooperation between the Northern Ireland institutions and the Government of the Republic of Ireland, and it established the British-Irish Council, which includes representatives of the British and Irish Governments as well as the devolved Governments of Northern Ireland, Scotland, and Wales. Devolved government was reestablished in Northern Ireland in December 1999.

The Agreement (more commonly known as the [[Good Friday Agreement]], and more rarely as the Belfast Agreement<ref>http://www.nio.gov.uk/index/key-issues/the-agreement.htm</ref>) was reached on Friday, April 10 1998 in Belfast and provides for a 108-member elected Assembly, overseen by a 12-minister Executive Committee (cabinet) in which unionists and nationalists share leadership responsibility. Northern Ireland elects 18 representatives to the Westminster Parliament in London. However, the five Sinn Fein Members of Parliament (MPs), who won seats in the 2004 election, have refused to claim their seats.

===Principal Government Officials===
*Head of State '''- Elizabeth the Second, by the Grace of God, of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and of Her other Realms and Territories Queen, Head of the Commonwealth, Defender of the Faith''' who, as Head of State for many other countries also holds other titles particular to her role and rule as Head of State for those countries. More commonly referred to as '''HM''' (Her Majesty) '''Queen Elizabeth II'''

The Cabinet
*Prime Minister, First Lord of the Treasury and Minister for the Civil Service '''- Rt Hon Gordon Brown MP'''
*Chancellor of the Exchequer '''- Rt Hon Alistair Darling MP'''
*Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs '''- Rt Hon David Miliband MP'''
*Secretary of State for Justice and Lord Chancellor '''- Rt Hon Jack Straw MP'''
*Secretary of State for the Home Department '''- Rt Hon Jacqui Smith MP'''
*Secretary of State for Health '''- Rt Hon Alan Johnson MP'''
*Secretary of State for Business, Enterprise and Regulatory Reform '''- Rt Hon Peter Mandelson'''
*Secretary of State for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs '''- Rt Hon Hilary Benn MP'''
*Secretary of State for International Development '''- Rt Hon Douglas Alexander MP'''
*Secretary of State for Defence '''- Rt Hon John Hutton MP'''
*Leader of the House of Commons, Lord Privy Seal and Minister for Women and Equalities '''- Rt Hon Harriet Harman QC MP'''
*Secretary of State for Communities and Local Government '''- Rt Hon Hazel Blears MP'''
*Secretary of State for Transport '''- Rt Hon Geoff Hoon MP'''
*Secretary of State for Children, Schools and Families '''- Rt Hon Ed Balls MP'''
*Secretary of State for Energy and Climate Change '''- Rt Hon Edward Miliband MP'''
*Secretary of State for Work and Pensions '''- Rt Hon James Purnell MP'''
*Secretary of State for Northern Ireland '''- Rt Hon Shaun Woodward MP'''
*Leader of the House of Lords and Lord President of the Council '''- Rt Hon Baroness Royall of Blaisdon'''
*Secretary of State for Culture, Media and Sport '''- Rt Hon Andy Burnham MP'''
*Secretary of State for Innovation, Universities and Skills '''- Rt Hon John Denham MP'''
*Chief Secretary to the Treasury '''- Rt Hon Yvette Cooper MP'''
*Secretary of State for Wales '''- Rt Hon Paul Murphy MP'''
*Secretary of State for Scotland '''- Mr Jim Murphy MP'''

Also attend Cabinet meetings:
*Parliamentary Secretary to the Treasury and Chief Whip '''- Rt Hon Nicholas Brown MP'''
*Minister for the Cabinet Office and Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster '''- Mr Liam Byrne MP'''
*Minister of State for Housing '''- Rt Hon Margaret Beckett MP'''
*Minister for Employment and London '''- Rt Hon Tony McNulty MP'''
*Minister for Africa, Asia and the UN '''- Rt Hon Lord Malloch-Brown KCMG'''
*Minister for Science '''- Lord Drayson'''
*Minister for the Olympics and Paymaster General '''- Rt Hon Tessa Jowell MP'''
*Attorney General '''- Rt Hon Baroness Scotland of Asthal QC'''
*Minister of State for Europe '''- Rt Hon Caroline Flint MP'''
*Minister for Children, Young People and Families '''- Rt Hon Beverley Hughes MP'''<ref>http://www.parliament.uk/directories/hciolists/hmg.cfm</ref>

===Political Conditions===
Tony Blair became the first Labour Prime Minister ever to win a third consecutive term when he was re-elected on May 5, 2005. Labour has a 67-seat majority in the House of Commons. The Conservative (Tory) Party and Liberal-Democrats (LibDems) form the major opposition parties. Blair stepped down as Prime Minister in June 2007. Labour Party leader Gordon Brown succeeded him. The main British parties support a strong transatlantic link, but have become increasingly absorbed by European issues as Britain's economic and political ties to the continent grow in the post-Cold War world. The current Prime Minister, Gordon Brown, is expected to continue Blair's policy of having the United Kingdom play a leading role in Europe even as the United Kingdom maintains its strong bilateral relationship with the United States. Britain's relationship with Europe is a subject of considerable political discussion in the United Kingdom.

===Membership in the European Union===
The [[Conservative Party|Conservative]] government of [[Edward Heath|Sir Edward Heath]] took the UK into the [[European Union]] in 1973. The [[Labour Party]] under [[Harold Wilson]] won the 1974 general elections and due to splits within the party, called the only national [[referendum]] asking the people if they wanted to stay in the Union. The "yes" vote won by a margin of approximately two to one. The Labour and Conservative parties have since had deep divisions over Union membership. Labour's 1983 manifesto promised to leave the Union, and whilst the Conservative party have never pledged to leave the Union, a growing band of "Eurosceptics" threatened to tear the party apart in the 1990s. All three major parties wish to stay in the Union although disagree over the level of integration, but smaller parties such as the UK Independence Party and the Referendum Party campaigned on the single issue of sovereignty being lost to the Union.

==Defence and Foreign Relations==
The United Kingdom is a founding member of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) and is one of NATO's major European maritime, air, and land powers; it ranks third among NATO countries in total defence expenditure. The United Kingdom has been a member of the European Community (now European Union) since 1973. In the United Nations, the United Kingdom is a permanent member of the Security Council. The U.K. held the Presidency of the G-8 during 2005; it held the EU Presidency from July to December 2005.

The British Armed Forces are charged with protecting the United Kingdom and its overseas territories, promoting Britain's wider security interests, and supporting international peacekeeping efforts. The 37,000-member Royal Navy, which includes 6,000 Royal Marine commandos, is in charge of the United Kingdom's independent strategic nuclear arm, which consists of four Trident missile submarines. The British Army, consisting of approximately 99,200 personnel, the Royal Air Force, with 42,000 personnel, along with the Royal Navy and Royal Marines, are active and regular participants in NATO and other coalition operations. Approximately 9% of the British Armed Forces is female, and 4% of British forces represent ethnic minorities.

The United Kingdom stood shoulder to shoulder with the United States following the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks in the U.S., and its military forces are part of the coalition force in Afghanistan. The U.K. force in Afghanistan will increase to 7,700 by the end of 2007. U.K. forces are primarily based in the Helmand region, where they are on the front line in the war against continued Taliban operations. In addition, the U.K. has contributed more than £500 million to Afghan reconstruction--the second-largest donor after the U.S. The U.K. was the United States' main coalition partner in Operation Iraqi Freedom and continues to have more than 5,000 troops deployed in Iraq to help stabilise and rebuild the country. Under UN Security Council Resolution 1483, the U.K. also shared with the United States responsibility for civil administration in Iraq and was an active participant in the Coalition Provisional Authority before the handover of Iraqi sovereignty on June 28, 2004. Britain's participation in the Iraq war and its aftermath remains a domestically controversial issue.

===Relations with the United States===
The United Kingdom is one of the United States' closest allies, and British foreign policy emphasises close coordination with the United States. Bilateral cooperation reflects the common language, ideals, and democratic practices of the two nations. Relations were strengthened by the United Kingdom's alliance with the United States during both World Wars, and its role as a founding member of NATO, in the Korean conflict, in the Persian Gulf War, and in Operation Iraqi Freedom. The United Kingdom and the United States continually consult on foreign policy issues and global problems and share major foreign and security policy objectives.

The United Kingdom is the fifth-largest market for U.S. goods exports after Canada, Mexico, Japan, and China, and the sixth-largest supplier of U.S. imports after Canada, China, Mexico, Japan, and Germany. U.S. exports of goods and services to the United Kingdom in 2006 totaled $92 billion, while U.S. imports from the U.K. totaled $93 billion. The United States has had a trade deficit with the United Kingdom since 1998. The United Kingdom is a large source of foreign tourists in the United States. In 2005, 3.4 million U.S. residents visited the United Kingdom, while 4.2 million U.K. residents visited the United States.

The United States and the United Kingdom share the world's largest foreign direct investment partnership. U.S. investment in the United Kingdom reached $324 billion in 2005, while U.K. direct investment in the U.S. totaled $282 billion. This investment sustains more than 1 million American jobs.

==Economy==
The United Kingdom has the fifth-largest economy in the world, is the second-largest economy in the European Union, and is a major international trading power. A highly developed, diversified, market-based economy with extensive social welfare services provides most residents with a high standard of living. Unemployment and inflation levels are amongst the lowest within the European Union.

Since 1979, the British Government has privatised most state-owned companies, including British Steel, British Airways, British Telecom, British Coal, British Aerospace, and British Gas, although in some cases the government retains a "golden share" in these companies. The Labour government has continued the privatisation policy of its Conservative predecessor, particularly by encouraging "public-private partnerships" (partial privatisation) in such areas as the London Underground. The economy of the United Kingdom is now primarily based on private enterprise, accounting for approximately four-fifths of employment and output.

London ranks alongside New York as a leading international financial centre. London's financial exports contribute greatly to the United Kingdom's balance of payments. Ratings agencies rank the United Kingdom's banking sector as one of the strongest in the world and its banks are amongst the most profitable in the G-8. It is a global leader in emissions trading and is home to the Alternative Investment Market (AIM). It is also a government priority to make London the leading center of Islamic finance.

The United Kingdom is the European Union's only significant energy exporter. It is also one of the world's largest energy consumers, and most analysts predict a shift in U.K. status from net exporter to net importer of energy by 2020, possibly sooner. Oil production in the U.K. is levelling off. While North Sea natural gas production continues to rise, gains may be offset by ever-increasing consumption. North Sea oil and gas exploration activities are shifting to smaller fields and to increments of larger, developed fields, presenting opportunities for smaller, independent energy operators to become active in North Sea production.
*GDP (at current market prices, 2007 est.): US$1.93 trillion.
*Annual growth rate (2006 est.): 2.8%.
*Per capita GDP (2006 est.): US$31,800.
*Natural resources: Coal, oil, natural gas, tin, limestone, iron ore, salt, clay, chalk, gypsum, lead, silica.
*Agriculture (1.1% of GDP): Products--cereals, oilseed, potatoes, vegetables, cattle, sheep, poultry, fish.
*Industry: Types--steel, heavy engineering and metal manufacturing, textiles, motor vehicles and aircraft, construction (5.2% of GDP), electronics, chemicals.
*Trade (2006 est.): Exports of goods and services--US$468.8 billion: manufactured goods, fuels, chemicals; food, beverages, tobacco. Major markets--U.S., European Union. Imports of goods and services--US$603 billion: manufactured goods, machinery, fuels, foodstuffs. Major suppliers--U.S., European Union, Japan.

===Currency===
The currency of the United Kingdom is the [[Pound|Pound Sterling]], commonly called Pound and written £ or GBP, divided into 100 New Pence (now commonly just called pence or 'p'). Traditionally the UK had a complicated triple currency structure of 20 [[shilling|shillings]] to the Pound and 12 "old pence" (represented by a "d" from the Roman ''denarius'') to the shilling, making a total of 240 pence to the Pound. This system was abandoned in 1971 due to difficulties with computerised accounting systems, in favour of the current [[decimal]] system. This change was not without its critics.

The UK was one of the three [[European Union]] nations of the time (along with [[Sweden]] and [[Denmark]]) not to join the [[Euro]] at its inception, a position it maintains. Banks in Scotland and Northern Ireland are permitted to print their own banknotes, as long as they keep an equivalent amount of sterling in reserve.

==History==
The Roman invasion of Britain in 55 BC and most of Britain's subsequent incorporation into the Roman Empire stimulated development and brought more active contacts with the rest of Europe. As Rome's strength declined, the country again was exposed to invasion--including the pivotal incursions of the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes in the fifth and sixth centuries AD--up to the Norman conquest in 1066. Norman rule effectively ensured Britain's safety from further intrusions; certain institutions, which remain characteristic of Britain, could develop. Among these are a political, administrative, cultural, and economic centre in London; a separate but established church and distinctive and distinguished university education.

====Union====
Both Wales and Scotland were independent kingdoms that resisted English rule. The English conquest of Wales succeeded in 1282 under Edward I, and the Statute of Rhuddlan established English rule 2 years later. To appease the Welsh, Edward's son (later Edward II), who had been born in Wales, was made Prince of Wales in 1301. The tradition of bestowing this title on the eldest son of the British Monarch continues today. An act of 1536 completed the political and administrative union of England and Wales.

While maintaining separate parliaments, England and Scotland were ruled under one crown beginning in 1603, when James VI of Scotland succeeded his cousin Elizabeth I as James I of England. In the ensuing 100 years, strong religious and political differences divided the kingdoms. Finally, in 1707, England and Scotland were unified as Great Britain, sharing a single Parliament at Westminster.

Ireland's invasion by the Anglo-Normans in 1170 led to centuries of strife. Successive English kings sought to conquer Ireland. In the early 17th century, large-scale settlement of the north from Scotland and England began. After its defeat, Ireland was subjected, with varying degrees of success, to control and regulation by Britain.

The legislative union of Great Britain and Ireland was completed on January 1, 1801, under the name of the United Kingdom. However, armed struggle for independence continued sporadically into the 20th century. The Anglo-Irish Treaty of 1921 established the Irish Free State, which subsequently left the Commonwealth and became a republic after World War II. Six northern, predominantly [[Protestant]], Irish counties have remained part of the United Kingdom.

====British Expansion and Empire====
[[Image:Sir Francis Grant's Portrait of Queen Victoria.jpg|right|200px|thumb|''Queen Victoria'', by Sir Francis Grant.]]
The '''British Empire''' was the [[List of largest empires|largest empire]] in history and, for over a century, was the foremost [[Great power|global power]]. It was a product of the [[Age of Discovery]], which began with the maritime explorations of the 15th century, that sparked the era of the European [[Colonialism|colonial]] empires. By 1921, the British Empire held sway over a population of about 458 million people, approximately one-quarter of the world's population.<ref>Angus Maddison. ''The World Economy: A Millennial Perspective'' (p. 98, 242). [[Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development|OECD]], Paris, 2001.</ref> It covered about 36.7 million km² (14.2 million square miles),<ref>Bruce R. Gordon. [http://www.hostkingdom.net/earthrul.html ''To Rule the Earth...''] (See [http://www.hostkingdom.net/Bibliography.html Bibliography] for sources used.)</ref> about a quarter of Earth's total land area. As a result, its political, linguistic and cultural legacy is widespread. At the peak of its power, it was often said that "[[The empire on which the sun never sets|the sun never sets on the British Empire]]" because its span across the globe ensured that the sun was always shining on at least one of its numerous [[colonies]] or subject nations.<ref>This phrase had already been used a few centuries before by the king [[Charles I of Spain]], referring to the [[Spanish Empire]].</ref>

Begun initially to support William the Conqueror's (c. 1029-1087) holdings in France, Britain's policy of active involvement in continental European affairs endured for several hundred years. By the end of the 14th century, foreign trade, originally based on wool exports to Europe, had emerged as a cornerstone of national policy.

During the five decades following [[World War II]], most of the territories of the Empire became independent. Many went on to join the [[Commonwealth of Nations]], a free association of independent states. <ref>Lloyd, T. O. (1996). The British Empire, 1558-1995. 2nd ed. The short Oxford history of the modern world. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780198731337</ref> Some have retained the [[British monarch]] as their [[head of state]] to become independent [[Commonwealth realm]]s.

The foundations of sea power were gradually laid to protect English trade and open up new routes. Defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588 firmly established England as a major sea power. Thereafter, its interests outside Europe grew steadily. Attracted by the spice trade, English mercantile interests spread first to the Far East. In search of an alternate route to the Spice Islands, John Cabot reached the North American continent in 1498. Sir Walter Raleigh organized the first, short-lived colony in Virginia in 1584, and permanent English settlement began in 1607 at Jamestown, Virginia. During the next two centuries, Britain extended its influence abroad and consolidated its political development at home.

Great Britain's industrial revolution greatly strengthened its ability to oppose Napoleonic France. By the end of the Napoleonic Wars in 1815, the United Kingdom was the foremost European power, and its navy ruled the seas. Peace in Europe allowed the British to focus their interests on more remote parts of the world, and, during this period, the British Empire reached its zenith. British colonial expansion reached its height largely during the reign of Queen Victoria (1837-1901). Queen Victoria's reign witnessed the spread of British technology, commerce, language, and government throughout the British Empire, which, at its greatest extent, encompassed roughly one-fifth to one-quarter of the world's area and population. British colonies contributed to the United Kingdom's extraordinary economic growth and strengthened its voice in world affairs. Even as the United Kingdom extended its imperial reach overseas, it continued to develop and broaden its democratic institutions at home.

====20th Century====
By the time of Queen Victoria's death in 1901, other nations, including the United States and Germany, had developed their own industries; the United Kingdom's comparative economic advantage had lessened, and the ambitions of its rivals had grown. The losses and destruction of World War I, the depression of the 1930s, and decades of relatively slow growth eroded the United Kingdom's preeminent international position of the previous century.

Britain's control over its empire loosened during the interwar period. Ireland, with the exception of six northern counties, gained independence from the United Kingdom in 1921. Nationalism became stronger in other parts of the empire, particularly in India and Egypt.

In 1926, the United Kingdom, completing a process begun a century earlier, granted Australia, Canada, and New Zealand complete autonomy within the empire. They became charter members of the British Commonwealth of Nations (now known as the Commonwealth), an informal but closely-knit association that succeeded the empire. Beginning with the independence of India and Pakistan in 1947, the remainder of the British Empire was almost completely dismantled. Today, most of Britain's former colonies are independent countries, with many belonging to the [[Commonwealth of Nations]]. There are 13 colonies which have elected to continue their political links with London and are known as United Kingdom Overseas Territories. These include Bermuda, Gibraltar, the Falkland Islands.

Although often marked by economic and political nationalism, the Commonwealth offers the United Kingdom a voice in matters concerning many developing countries. In addition, the Commonwealth helps preserve many institutions deriving from British experience and models, such as parliamentary democracy, in those countries.

== See also ==

*[[British politics]]
*[[June 2007 UK terror attacks]]

== Notes ==

<references/>

[[Category:United Kingdom|United Kingdom]]
[[Category:European Countries]]
[[Category:NATO members]]
[[Category:EU Members]]
[[Category:Christian-Majority Countries]]

The Lord of the Rings

2008-11-16T02:31:32Z

Papabear1: corrections, spelling/grammar

[[Image:Mhjfjfr7.jpg|thumb|350px|The covers for the three volumes of ''The Lord of the Rings'', designed by Tolkien.{{fact}}]]

'''''The Lord of the Rings''''' is a fantasy book written by [[J.R.R. Tolkien]]. It was published in three parts in the years 1954 and 1955. ''The Lord of the Rings'' is considered one of the most influential works of the fantasy genre in modern times. It is the best-selling work of fantasy literature in the twentieth century.

The story of ''The Lord of the Rings'' is about the war of the peoples of Middle-earth against a dark lord, the eponymous "Lord of the Rings". At the same time a small group of people are sent to destroy the magic Ring which would return power to their enemy, but the only way to destroy the Ring lies deep in enemy territory.

== Creation ==
=== Writing ===
After the success of his earlier book ''[[The Hobbit]]'', Tolkien's publishers persuaded him to write a sequel. He began writing in December of 1937, but the first drafts were still far away from the finished version. After writing and re-writing the beginning several times, Tolkien realized the role of the [[One Ring (Middle-earth)|One Ring]] and the quest it entailed in the spring of 1938, while writing the discussion between Gildor Inglorion and the later [[Frodo Baggins]]. This was the point upon which the back story and central quest that would be ''The Lord of the Rings'' came together in his mind. It was also the point that he firmly set the book's plot into his already existing [[Middle-earth]] legendarium. Whereas the ''The Hobbit'' had before been separate from his Middle-earth mythology, while still borrowing ideas, names, and persons from it, Tolkien now consciously moved it and its sequel into the Middle-earth setting. This resulted in the changes in tone, and in the meaning of formerly unimportant things as the 'magic ring' and the Necromancer, who both literally gained importance in the sequel. While the ''The Hobbit'' was written as a story intended for his children, ''The Lord of the Rings'' due to the realization of the later plot, soon became an epic tale of much greater proportions, both in plot and in length.

The earlier drafts and versions of ''The Lord of the Rings'' were published posthumously by his son Christopher Tolkien in ''The History of The Lord of the Rings'' (1988-1992), which are volumes VI–IX of ''The History of Middle-earth''.

=== Publication ===
Although often wrongly thought to be a [[trilogy]], ''The Lord of the Rings'' was conceived by the author as a single work. Its internal structure divides it into six 'books', named Book I-VI, according to the plot, with several appendices and an index. Because of the amount of paper needed and to reduce financial risk, it was released by the publisher [[Allen & Unwin]] in three volumes, each containing two Books:
#''[[The Fellowship of the Ring]]'' 
#''[[The Two Towers]]'' 
#''[[The Return of the King]]'' 
This resulted in the common error of calling ''The Lord of the Rings'' a trilogy, a term which Tolkien rejected, just as he disliked the book being published in separate volumes.

''The Lord of the Rings'' was published in hardbound in 1954 and 1955, but was known only to a small audience of aficionados until 1965. At that time, J. R. R. Tolkien himself was known primarily to scholars for his work on [[Beowulf]]. This changed when an American paperback publisher released a "pirated" paperback edition, paying Tolkien nothing, in the belief that Tolkien's copyright in the U. S. was defective because of a technicality. Tolkien reached a legal settlement with this publisher, and another publisher released an authorized edition for which Tolkien was paid royalties. The book was an instant success, particularly among college students.

== Story ==
=== Background story ===
In the [[Second Age (Middle-earth)|Second Age]] the Dark Lord [[Sauron]] created the [[One Ring (Middle-earth)|One Ring]] to help him conquer the peoples of Middle-earth. The [[Quendi|Elves]] and [[Man (Middle-earth)|Men]] of Middle-earth, led by High King Gil-galad of the [[Noldor]] and King Elendil of the [[Arnor|Dúnedain]], formed the ''[[Last Alliance of Elves and Men]]'' to fight him. Sauron was defeated and the Ring cut from his hand, thus the ''[[War of the Last Alliance]]'' ended, beginning the [[Third Age (Middle-earth)|Third Age]].

The story takes place at a time when the Elves, immortal and fairest of all beings in the world, are leaving the war-weary world to sail to the blessed realm of [[Valinor]]. With the departure of the Elves, the Age of Men has come. But the Dark Lord [[Sauron]], not truly killed at the end of the last Age, has been regaining power over the millennia since his defeat. Instrumental in his survival was the [[One Ring (Middle-earth)|One Ring]], which had kept him alive, and for which he now searches. This Ring, which had been lost for centuries, fell by chance into the hands of the [[hobbit]] [[Bilbo Baggins]], the story of which is told in ''[[The Hobbit]]''. At the beginning of ''The Lord of the Rings'', sixty years have passed since Bilbo found the One Ring.

=== The Fellowship of the Ring ===
==== Book I ====
The [[Hobbit]] [[Bilbo Baggins]] celebrates his 111th birthday, after which he leaves [[Shire (Middle-earth)|the Shire]] to travel once more, leaving his home Bag End and his [[One Ring (Middle-earth)|magic ring]] to his heir [[Frodo Baggins|Frodo]].

In [[Middle-earth chronology|T.A.]] 3018, Frodo is visited by his old friend, the Wizard [[Gandalf]], who tells him of the Ring's history and gives him the task of taking the Ring to the [[Quendi|Elven]] refuge [[Rivendell]]. Frodo leaves the Shire joined by his friends [[Samwise Gamgee|Sam Gamgee]], [[Meriadoc Brandybuck|Merry Brandybuck]], and [[Peregrin Took|Pippin Took]], all the while pursued by the mysterious otherworldly [[Nazgûl|Black Riders]], servants of Sauron. After an adventurous time they arrive in [[Breeland|Bree]], where they meet the human Ranger [[Aragorn|Strider]]. With his help they manage the make the last stretch of the way to the Ford of [[Bruinen]] at Rivendell.

==== Book II ====
The group have made it to Rivendell, where the Council of Elrond decides over further action. The Ring shall be destroyed, which can only be done in [[Mount Doom]] in Sauron's land [[Mordor]] where it was forged. A group of companions are chosen to accompany Frodo on his quest, forming the Fellowship of the Ring: the hobbits Frodo, Sam, Merry, and Pippin, the Wizard [[Gandalf|Gandalf the Grey]], [[Gimli son of Glóin|Gimli]] the Dwarf, [[Legolas]] the Elf, and the Men [[Boromir]] of [[Gondor]] and [[Aragorn|Aragorn of the Dúnedain]]. The Fellowship journeys south, and after failing to cross the [[Misty Mountains]], goes under them through the Dwarven [[Khazad-dûm|Mines of Moria]]. There they are attacked by Orcs and lose their leader Gandalf to the [[Balrog]]. The Fellowship rest in the Elven realm [[Lothlórien]], and continue by boat down the river [[Anduin]]. At the Falls of Rauros they rest again, and Boromir tries unsuccessfully to take the Ring from Frodo. While the Fellowship searches for him, Frodo secretly leaves them behind to continue his quest all by himself, but Sam catches up with him and joins him on his way to Mordor.

=== The Two Towers ===
==== Book III ====
Boromir is mortally wounded defending Merry and Pippin from Orcs. Aragorn, Legolas, and Gimli decide to follow the Orcs into [[Rohan (Middle-earth)|Rohan]] to rescue the kidnapped hobbits. Merry and Pippin manage to escape [[Saruman]]'s Orcs at [[Fangorn|Fangorn Forest]], where they meet [[Treebeard]] the Ent. The tree-like Ents hold council, and decide to attack Saruman at [[Isengard]]. In Fangorn Forest Aragorn, Legolas, and Gimli meet the returned Gandalf the White, who takes them to the capital [[Edoras]], where they join [[Théoden|King Théoden of Rohan]] in the fight against Saruman. The forces of Rohan prevail against Saruman's armies in the ''Battle of the [[Helm's Deep|Hornburg]]''. Afterwards they go to Isengard to confront Saruman, whom is cast out of the Order by Gandalf. Pippin picks up the ''[[palantír]]'', and alerts Sauron to their presence. Gandalf and Pippin set of for [[Gondor]].

==== Book IV ====
Back in the Emyn Muil, Frodo and Sam journey east towards Mordor, trailed by [[Gollum]]. They capture him and he promises to lead them on their way. They travel though the Dead Marshes to the [[Morannon|Black Gate]], where Gollum leads them south. In [[Ithilien]] they are captured by [[Faramir]] of Gondor, but he releases them after hearing about their quest. Gollum leads them to and abandons them at the Pass of [[Cirith Ungol]], where they are attacked by the giant spider Shelob. Assuming Frodo dead, Sam takes the Ring to finish the quest on his own. Frodo's body is taken by a patrol of Orcs, who reveal that Frodo is only paralyzed. Sam, who has secretly followed them, tries to rescue Frodo, but is late and locked out of the Tower of Cirith Ungol.

=== The Return of the King ===
==== Book V ====
Gandalf and Pippin arrive in the city of [[Minas Tirith]], where they meet [[Denethor|Steward Denethor II]] of Gondor, and Pippin enters his service. Aragorn and his companions are joined by a group of Rangers from Rivendell. They go through the [[Ered Nimrais|Paths of the Dead]] and Aragorn summons the Dead Men of Dunharrow to his aid, and then rides east. King Théoden is summoned to Gondor, and the Rohirrim and Merry ride to Minas Tirith. Minas Tirith is besieged by the Sauron's armies. The following ''Battle of the [[Pelennor Fields]]'' is won with the help of the Rohirrim and the arrival of Aragorn with reinforcements from the southern regions of Gondor. Théoden is killed, but Éowyn and Merry slay the [[Witch-king of Angmar]]. Aragorn leads the combined forces of the West against Sauron in a move to distract him from Frodo, resulting in the ''Battle of the [[Morannon|Black Gate]]''.

==== Book VI ====
Sam rescues Frodo and returns the Ring to him. They continue the trek across Mordor. At Mount Doom they are attacked by Gollum. Frodo succumbs to the power of the Ring, claims it as his own and puts it on. Gollum fights him, biting off his finger and taking the Ring, but slips and falls into the [[Sammath Naur|Cracks of Doom]], destroying the Ring. Sauron is defeated and his power crumbles. The ''Battle of the Black Gate'' is won, and Gandalf sends the Eagles to rescue Frodo and Sam. Aragorn becomes King of Arnor and Gondor. Everyone returns homeward, and the hobbits return to [[Shire (Middle-earth)|the Shire]]. The land has been taken over by Saruman and his men, but after the ''Scouring of the Shire'' led by the returned hobbits, Saruman is killed and the hobbits can begin reordering their land. After a few years Frodo, who has been greatly hurt and burdenend though his quest and the Ring, traveled to the [[Mithlond|Grey Havens]]. There he bids his hobbit-friends good-bye, and leaves together with Bilbo, Gandalf, Elrond and Galadriel for the Undying Lands in the West, ending the [[Third Age (Middle-earth)|Third Age]] of Middle-earth. Sam, Merry and Pippin return to the Shire and their homes.

=== Appendices ===
''The Lord of the Rings'' is followed by six appendices, which give more background and detail on the history, peoples, languages, and various other topics of Middle-earth.
* '''Appendix A Annals of the Kings and Rulers''': contains further information on the history of [[Númenor]], [[Arnor]] and [[Gondor]], and of the [[Lôgrad|Rohirrim]] and [[Durin's Folk]].
* '''Appendix B The Tale of Years (Chronology of the Westlands)''': contains the timeline and chronicles of the [[Middle-earth chronology|Ages]].
* '''Appendix D Calendars''': the different [[Middle-earth chronology|calendar systems]].
* '''Appendix E Writing and Spelling''': on the pronounciation and the scripts.
* '''Appendix F''': overview of the languages, and notes on the fictional "translation" of the book from the [[Westron]] language.

== Reception ==
J. R. R. Tolkien was a [[Roman Catholic]], and many readers see [[Christian]] undertones in ''The Lord of the Rings.'' <ref>"Much as it is possible to identify allegories of the Second World war into ''The Lord of the Rings'', it is possible to identify any number of Christian allegories as well" in Smith, J. and Matthews, J.C. ''The Lord of the Rings:the Films, the books, the radio series'' (Virgin Books 2004), p.116.</ref> Tolkien himself discounts the belief that he wrote the book as a direct Christian allegory--or any other sort of allegory, which he went on record as "cordially disliking", and preferring "applicability"--in contrast with the overt and acknowledged allegories in the works of Tolkien's friend, [[C. S. Lewis]].<ref>''The Letters of J. R. R. Tolkien'', #129</ref>

== Adaptions ==
''The Lord of the Rings'' has been adapted full or in part in a variety of media. Among these are films, stage plays and a musical.

=== The Lord of the Rings film trilogy ===
'''''The Lord of the Rings'' film trilogy''' were three films based on the book, all directed by [[Peter Jackson]], produced by New Line Cinema and filmed in New Zealand. The film titles were derived from the three volumes: ''The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring'' (2001), ''The Lord of the Rings: The Two Towers'' (2002) and ''The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King'' (2003).

The films were released annually in cinemas from December 2001 to 2003. DVD releases of the cinema version and Special Extended Editions have also been released for each film. Each extended edition includes four discs, two of bonus material.

== References ==
{{reflist|1}}

== See also ==
*''[[The Hobbit]]''

{{DEFAULTSORT:Lord of the Rings, The}}
[[Category:Middle-earth]]
[[Category:Lord of the Rings| ]]
[[Category:Novels]]

Down syndrome

2008-11-15T21:45:31Z

Papabear1: deleted claim concerning abortion since no citation is provided with any supporting evidence

'''Down syndrome''' (also written as '''Down's syndrome''', technical name '''Trisomy 21'''<ref>http://www.ds-health.com/trisomy.htm</ref>) is a genetic disorder caused by an extra copy of [[chromosome]] 21. The greatest risk factor for having a child with Down syndrome is increased maternal (and, to a lesser extent, paternal) age.

The name comes from [[British]] [[physician]] [[John Langdom Down]], who described the syndrome in [[1862]]. Down named the condition '''mongolism''' because the external appearance of its sufferers resembled that of the [[Mongolian]] race (one of the five racial classifications commonly used at the time). Currently, the terms "mongolism" and "mongoloid" are considered offensive.

The most important medical aspect of Down syndrome is [[mental retardation]]. Individuals with Down syndrome have mild to severe mental retardation. It is impossible to reliably predict what the eventual level of function of a child with Down syndrome will be.

Other characteristics of Down syndrome (not all of which affect every individual who has Down's) are :
* Single [[transverse palmar crease]]
* Epicanthic folds and oblique eye opening
* Smaller limbs
* Weak muscle tone
* Enlarged, protruding [[tongue]]
* [[Congenital heart defect]]
* [[Gastroesophageal reflux disease]]
* [[Otitis]] and hearing deficits
* [[Sleep apnea]]
* [[Thyroid]] hormone problems
* [[Leukemia]]
* Early onset [[Alzheimer's disease]]

There is evidence that people with Down syndrome have higher resistance to [[cancer]]{{fact}}.

The greatest risk factor in is increased maternal age, the majority of children with Down syndrome are born to mothers under the age of 35, because the vast majority of children as a whole are born to younger mothers.

[[Category:Genetics]]
[[Category:Syndromes]]

Down syndrome

2008-11-15T21:44:24Z

Papabear1: deleted sentence that could easily be misinterpreted

Galileo Galilei

2008-11-15T21:28:39Z

Papabear1: /* Advocacy of the Copernican system and conflict with Church authorities */ corrected ambiguity of apparently conflicting statements

[[Image:Galileo.jpg|right|thumb|200px|'''Galileo Galilei''' Subterman's portrait, circa 1640]]

'''Galileo Galilei''' (1564-1642), often referred to simply as '''Galileo''', was an [[Italy|Italian]] [[physicist]] and [[astronomer]] who improved the [[telescope]], contributed to the field of [[mechanical]] [[physics]], proposed the [[heliocentrism|heliocentric]] model of [[Copernicus]] as the accurate universal model, and later in life had a famous dispute with the [[Catholic Church]] in which they labeled him a [[heretic]].

Galileo first came to prominence when, in 1604, he demonstrated that a [[supernova]] was further away from the earth than the [[moon]]. At the time that was shocking as it was not expected within the earth-centered framework that existed at that time. It was also around this time that he invented a geometric and military compass. Galileo sought a patron, and made overtures to the Cosimo family, but had to supplement his income by selling his compass to students along with a handbook on how to use it. He also invented a primitive [[thermometer]] and a [[barometer]].

== His telescope and astronomical discoveries ==

In June or July of 1609, five years after his initial discovery, Galileo heard about the telescope, which had been invented in [[Netherlands|Holland]]. Without knowing the technical details of the construction of the device, he was able to create one for himself. Over time he continued to upgrade it. He found mountains on the Moon, viewed the phases of [[Venus]], and discovered four satellites around [[Jupiter]] as well as locating [[sunspots]]. He published his finding in a paper titled "The stary messenger" which he dedicated to Grand Duke Cosimo II. His discoveries and publication led him to be appointed as Grand Duke court mathematician, a position he had coveted.

== The city fathers of Florence and the new bell ==

As Galileo became more well known, he was commissioned by the city father's of [[Florence]] to find a way to cast a new bell for the town. The local artisans had been unsuccessful, as the wooden mold for the bell's inner surface kept rising when molten metal was poured between it and the mold for the outer surface. Using [[Archimedes]] as his guide, Galileo explained that bodies must be heavier than the volume of liquid they displace or they will float to the surface. This view went against [[Aristotle]] who had claimed that objects floated when they "pierced" the skin of a liquid and escaped from it. Based on what Galileo told them, the Florence bell-casters succeeded in their task by increasing the pressure on the inner mold. Since Galileo had also recently shown that Aristotle was wrong about falling objects, he was walking on sensitive ground.<ref>''Christian History'', Issue 76, "Galileo and the Powers Above"</ref>

== Advocacy of the Copernican system and conflict with Church authorities ==

Until the sixteenth century, the prevailing view was that the [[Sun]], Moon, [[star]]s and [[planet]]s circled the [[Earth]] (the [[geocentrism|geocentric]] system, based on the second century work of [[Ptolemy]]). Puzzled astronomers noticed that [[Mars]], [[Jupiter]] and [[Saturn]] sometimes seemed to move backwards, but their motions were well within the predictions of Ptolemy's theory. The moon was considered to have more freedom of movement.

A Polish astronomer, Nicolaus [[Copernicus]] (1473-1543), published a model of the solar system ''De Revolutionibus'' in 1543, in which the earth and other planets circled the sun. The Catholic Church endorsed the book. The book’s preface (which was not written by Copernicus) argued that astronomical models have merit if they correctly predict observations, even if the underlying hypotheses cannot be proved.<ref>[http://webexhibits.org/calendars/year-text-Copernicus.html ''On the Revolutions'' - English translation.]</ref> The scientific evidence was inconclusive.

However, ancient [[Greek]] thought was idolized since it was re-discovered several hundred years before, being viewed almost on par with the [[Bible]] itself. The Ptolemaic system was the prevailing view at the time. Initially it was not the theologians who balked at Galileo's ideas, but rather mathematicians at the University of [[Pisa]] who were so outraged that he challenged Aristotle that they refused to even look through his telescope at the stars. Galileo wrote a privately-circulated pamphlet which argued that the Bible should be interpreted in the light of increasing knowledge, and warning that scientific opinion should not be treated as an article of faith. In this way he matched the great church father [[Saint Augustine]]. Quoting another of the early church fathers Galileo wrote <blockquote>''The intention of the Holy Ghost is to teach us how one goes to heaven, not how heaven goes.''</blockquote>

In 1613 a [[Dominican]] friar, [[Tommaso Caccini]], got a hold of Galileo's writing and preached a sermon against him. A mangled version of Galileo's writing was sent to [[Rome]]. Galileo heard of this and sent the full version. He was not terribly alarmed, knowing that many of the best minds in [[Italy]], including the [[Vatican]]'s mathematicians, were convinced on the heliocentric universe that his works had help to substantiate. Caccini's Dominican superior was so embarrassed that he sent a letter of apology to Galileo.

Caccini wasn't through, however, and gave an unsolicited deposition to the Inquisition about Galileo's views, which largely demonstrated his own ignorance on the subject. Nevertheless, the theologians who were given the case ruled in a manner that was not pleasing to Galileo when it was handed down. Galileo was told by the Inquisition that he must only use Copernican concepts as a hypothesis for the sake of calculation, without claiming that they had been literally proven true. Because Galileo had overstated the scientific case for the heliocentric theory and given some dubious theological arguments, the Inquisition ruling decided that: 1) the immobility of the Sun at the center of the universe was absurd in philosophy and formally heretical, and that 2) the mobility of Earth was absurd in [[philosophy]] and at least erroneous in theology. <ref> [http://www.hps.cam.ac.uk/starry/galileo.html ''[[University of Cambridge]], Department of History and Philosophy of Science'' - Galileo Galilei]</ref> The following month the Church’s [[Index of Forbidden Books]] required that nine sentences in Copernicus's book be corrected.

Looking back, it is hard to understand the decision, but in defense of the arbiters of that time, the view through Galileo's telescope was nothing like the quality of telescopes today. To untrained laymen, it would be difficult to know what was being viewed. Also, the concept of stellar parallax, a condition that had to exist if Galileo was right, could not be properly detected at the time. (Parallax is real, but due to the incredibly far distances of the stars in relationship to the earth's movement around the sun, it could not be detected until 1838, over 200 years later.)

== Using the principle of falsifiability to improve the scientific method ==
[[Image:Galileo....jpg|left|120px]]
Galileo tested [[Aristotle]]'s theory that heavy objects fall faster than light ones and found it was a consequence of air resistance, not [[gravity]]. By making careful measurements he found he could use mathematics to measure the acceleration of gravity and predict the movements of [[pendulum]]s and tides.

Galileo got approval from Rome to write his book ''Dialogue on the Tides'', which discussed both the Ptolemaic and Copernican hypotheses, as long as it discussed both systems and did not draw a conclusion that would make the heliocentric world view be viewed as fact instead of theory. Rome changed the title to ''Dialogue on the Two Chief World Systems'' and it was published in Florence in 1632. Unfortunately for Galileo, the work was not made to be evenhanded. Indeed, the Ptolemaic character, called 'Simplicius' often stumbled over his own errors and seemed quite foolish. Galileo had moved out of bounds. The Church felt they had made themselves clear. At a different time, the reaction might have been different, but it was in the middle of the [[30 years war]], the most deadly war in Europe ever fought between Catholics and Protestants. The Catholic Church had to show it had authority and strength.

The Church officials, who felt Galileo had embarrassed them, found that Galileo had erred by advocating heliocentrism as scientifically proven, which was not compatible with the Inquisition’s 1616 ruling or what Galileo had recently been told. In 1633 Galileo was ordered to stand trial in Rome. Galileo voluntarily submitted to Church authority and, according to the terms of his sentence, renounced his [[thesis]] of his [[book]]. At first he was sentenced to life imprisonment, but this was immediately commuted to luxurious house arrest. His book was burned, and the sentence against him was read aloud in public in every university. <ref>[http://encarta.msn.com/encnet/refpages/RefArticle.aspx?refid=761557587&pn=3 ''MSN Encarta'' - Galileo (p3)]</ref> Galileo went back to studying motion and mechanics in his private villa.

His theory of tides turned out to be mistaken.

==''Dialogues Concerning Two New Sciences''==

Galileo’s last book, the 1638 work ''Dialogues Concerning Two New Sciences'', dealt with motion and mechanics. This work helped inspire [[Isaac Newton]] to create his theory of [[gravity]], which linked Galileo’s mathematics and physics to [[Johannes Kepler|Kepler’s]] laws of planetary movement.

[[Image:Galileobones.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Galileo's drawing of how the dimensions of different-sized bones need to vary to make them equally strong in relation to their function]]
In ''Two New Sciences,'' Galileo revealed a sophisticated understanding of engineering and what now would be called [[dimensional analysis]], the way in which the proportions of an engineering structure need to change as the size of the structure is scaled up. He applied this to [[biology]], explaining why the bones of a large animal need to be thicker in proportion to their size than those of smaller animals.

In an age before stopwatches, Galileo was able to make quantitative observations of uniformly-accelerated motion, using his pulse as a time reference and watching the slow acceleration of objects moving down inclined planes.

This book contains his famous discussion and thought experiment, in which he shows both by logic and by appeal to experiment that light and heavy objects fall at the same speed (contradicting Aristotle). One of his discussants says "But I, Simplicio, who have made the test can assure you that a cannon ball weighing one or two hundred pounds, or even more, will not reach the ground by as much as a span ahead of a musket ball weighing only half a pound, provided both are dropped from a height of 200 cubits."<ref>Crew, Henry and Alfonso de Salvio (1914), ''Dialogues Concerning Two New Sciences by Galileo Galilei,'' Northwestern University, 1939 reprint of 1914 Macmillan edition, p. 62</ref>.

Another discussant points out that this result is logical, by positing a large stone that moves at a speed of eight and a smaller one which moves at a speed of four, and showing that this leads to a contradiction if the stones are tied together. Since the smaller stone tends to fall more slowly, it ought to retard the motion of the larger one, so the combination should fall more slowly than the large stone by itself. However, "the two stones when tied together make a stone larger than before," and hence ought to fall more quickly than the large stone by itself.

It is interesting to see how Galileo was able to obtain quantitative results in physics before algebra and calculus were invented. The book uses the methods of geometry, and lays out "proofs" of physical relationships using a style and terminology similar to [[Euclid]]'s Elements.

In 1741, a century after Galileo's death in January 1642, the dispute with the Catholic Church was finally settled officially when the Church under [[Pope Benedict XIV]] bid the [[Holy Office]] grant an imprimatur to the first edition of the Complete Works of Galileo.<ref> [http://www.catholiceducation.org/articles/history/world/wh0005.html The Galileo Affair]</ref>

Stillman Drake of the [[University of Toronto]] [http://www.utpjournals.com/product/utq/701/galileo46.html] was for the last decades of his life the most original and important scholar to study this seventeenth-century physicist.<ref>[http://www.chass.utoronto.ca/imago/drake.html|The Stillman Drake Collection]</ref>

==External Links==
*[http://www.relativitycalculator.com/Galileo.shtml   Galileo Galilei - father of modern science according to Einstein]

== References ==

<references />

{{DEFAULTSORT: Galileo Galilei}}
[[category:Physicists]]
[[Category:Astronomers]]
[[Category:Italian People]]

Blasphemy

2008-11-15T21:16:51Z

Papabear1:

'''Blasphemy''' is the defaming or disrespectful use of the name of [[God]], or any act which is defamatory or disrespectful to God's person.

[[Judaism]] in the [[Old Testament]] states the following about blasphemy:

<blockquote>Those who speak blasphemy "shall surely be put to death". ([[Leviticus]] 24:16)</blockquote>

[[Christianity]] also mentions blasphemy in the [[New Testament]]

<blockquote>But whoever blasphemes against the [[Holy Spirit]] never has forgiveness, but is guilty of an eternal sin. ([[Gospel of Mark|Mark]] 3:29)</blockquote> In context, this is considered to be attributing the works of God to [[Satan]]. The teachers of the law acknowledged that [[Jesus]] was curing people of evil spirits, but then accused [[Jesus]] of having the power to drive evil spirits out of people because He Himself was possessed by an evil spirit. (Mark 3:22)

A false accusation of blasphemy was the charge for which Jesus was ultimately [[crucifixion|crucified]]. Jesus spoke of Himself as the Son of God, which the [[Jew]]ish authorities, goaded by the [[Pharisee]]s, considered to be blasphemous and deserving of [[death]].

== Blasphemy Laws ==
Due to the Judeo-Christian heritage of America, many states had laws against blasphemy, some of which are still on the books today.<ref>[The General Laws of Massachusetts, http://www.mass.gov/legis/laws/mgl/272-36.htm Chapter 272, Section 36].</ref><ref>Mich. Comp. Laws [http://law.onecle.com/michigan/750-michigan-penal-code/mcl-750-102.html Section 750.102]</ref> <ref>Mich. Comp. Laws [http://law.onecle.com/michigan/750-michigan-penal-code/mcl-750-103.html Section 750.103]</ref>

In the [[United Kingdom]], blasphemy laws were abolished as part of the Criminal Justice and Immigration Act 2008 <ref>http://www.opsi.gov.uk/acts/acts2008/ukpga_20080004_en_1</ref>

In Many [[Islamic]] countries, blasphemy was and still is punishable by death.

==Bible==
[[Gospel of Matthew|Matthew]] 12:22-32
{{Cquote|"Then there was brought to Him a demon-possessed man who was blind and dumb, and He healed him, so that the dumb man spoke and saw. 23And all the multitudes were amazed, and began to say, "This man cannot be the Son of David, can he?" 24But when the Pharisees heard it, they said, "This man casts out demons only by Beelzebub the ruler of the demons." 25And knowing their thoughts He said to them, "Any kingdom divided against itself is laid waste; and any city or house divided against itself shall not stand. 26"And if Satan casts out Satan, he is divided against himself; how then shall his kingdom stand? 27"And if I by Beelzebub cast out demons, by whom do your sons cast them out? Consequently they shall be your judges. 28"But if I cast out demons by the Spirit of God, then the kingdom of God has come upon you. 29"Or how can anyone enter the strong man’s house and carry off his property, unless he first binds the strong man? And then he will plunder his house. 30"He who is not with Me is against Me; and he who does not gather with Me scatters. 31"Therefore I say to you, any sin and blasphemy shall be forgiven men, but blasphemy against the Spirit shall not be forgiven. 32"And whoever shall speak a word against the Son of Man, it shall be forgiven him; but whoever shall speak against the Holy Spirit, it shall not be forgiven him, either in this age, or in the age to come,"}}

==References==
<references/>

{{DivineComedy}}
[[Category:Sin]]

British Broadcasting Corporation

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Papabear1: minor alterations to program list

[[Image:BBC Logo 1997-Present.png|right|thumb]]
The '''British Broadcasting Corporation''' (BBC) is the major national public service broadcaster of the [[United Kingdom]]. It is the leading broadcaster in the UK and is the largest broadcaster in the world by audience figures.

BBC was given a royal charter in 1927 as a public body; it replaced a private, commercially run British Broadcasting Company, which began in 1922. The royal charter and license, constitute the BBC as a public corporation with a mandate to provide broadcasting as a public service. BBC is funded by an annual license fee levied on all UK owning a television set. The BBC's monopoly on lasted from 1922 until 1973 and the introduction of commercial radio. It monopolized television from 1936 to 1954, when the Television Act allowed for the establishment of commercial stations financed by spot advertising.

The BBC is often criticized for political bias, particularly [[liberal]], and for being overly [[politically correct]].

== Broadcasting ==
The BBC operates eight national television channels (nine including the High-Definition service- BBC HD)[http://www.bbc.co.uk/tv/] in the UK and ten national radio stations[http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio/]. Alongside these are its regional television services, which are variations of the national services, and separate regional radio stations.

The BBC produces many well-known television programmes, including ''The Ten O'Clock News'', ''Newsnight'', ''Question Time'', ''Eastenders'', ''Holby City'', ''Casualty'', ''Top Gear'', ''Match of the Day'', ''Have I Got News For You'' and ''Doctor Who''.

Its best known TV channels in the UK are BBC 1 and BBC 2. The other channels are broadcast as digital-only services and are available to owners of terrestrial digital receiving equipment. BBC 1 typically shows more mainstream programmes while BBC 2 has a reputation for more diversity and special interest content.

Outside the UK the best known service is the BBC World Service radio network which transmits in 33 languages to an estimated 163 million listeners a week[http://www.bbc.co.uk/pressoffice/pressreleases/stories/2007/05_may/21/global.shtml]. The BBC operates a number of commercially-funded international television channels including BBC World, the international news channel.

== Funding ==
The BBC is a Crown corporation supported by a licensing fee applied to television owners<ref>http://www.bbc.co.uk/info/licencefee/</ref> of £135.50 (about $250 ) per year. All owners of TV receiving equipment are obliged to pay the fee whether they watch BBC content or not. As such the license fee is often criticised as being a tax.

BBC programming is free of commercial advertising. However, it has some obligations to transmit statements by political parties and it advertises its own programmes. BBC channels transmitted in the UK are nevertheless free of commercial advertising - with the exception of sporting events, during which it is still permitted to display commercial advertising. Cricket matches were a previous source of contention as adverts projected onto the field of play are only visible to television viewers. This results in much greater non-advertising broadcasting time and uninterrupted broadcast of feature films. However, since the funding is determined by the government, the BBC can be slow to criticise those in power. This arrangement means the government has to do very little to apply pressure on the BBC and often the BBC will self regulate in favour of the government without any formal instruction being given.<ref>http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/ld200506/ldselect/ldbbc/50/5006.htm</ref> This in turn leads to the government and the BBC being able to declare independence and neutrality officially, while in reality this is far from the case.

While there is a vocal campaign to have the BBC changed into a commercial company, this appears highly unlikely to happen.

== Ownership ==
The BBC is an independent body which is held in trust for the British people. The BBC was most recently given a ten-year royal charter in 2006 that defines its purposes and allows it to act somewhat autonomously, free from commercial and government influence.

Control rests with the 12-person BBC Trust, which replaced the Board of Governors in 2007. Trust members are paid and are appointed by the British prime minister and are supposed to represent the interests of a broad cross-section of the British listening and viewing public. Day-to-day management is handled by the board of management, headed by the director general; its members are appointed by the board of governors.

==BBC News==
BBC News and Current Affairs is the largest news organisation in the world. It has at least 2,000 journalists and 44 news-gathering bureaus, three in the UK and 41 overseas. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/newswatch/] It produces some 120 hours of news broadcasts daily.

News programmes are produced for both TV and radio stations. Much of the TV news programming is delivered in a few major news bulletins throughout the day, the most recognised of which is the flagship Ten O'Clock News in the evening on BBC1. On BBC radio, news is delivered in mostly smaller segments on the hour or half hour. However, the Today programme on Radio 4 is broadcast from 7am to 9am and is often considered the most influential news broadcast in the UK.

News produced by the BBC is made available and archived on the BBC news website.

==Internet==
The BBC has a news and archive website, one of the top twenty most popular English language websites. Like its TV and radio broadcasting it is not allowed to show advertising if the site is viewed from within the UK. This has prompted some criticism from within the BBC as it means funds from the licensing fee used for the website are not available for TV and radio programming. However, some costs of the site are now, since late 2007, offset by advertising to non-UK based visitors to the site.

Competitors have also criticised the BBC website due to its ability to fund itself non-commercially without advertising to the detriment of its commercial competitors such as on-line versions of national newspapers and other news broadcasters such as Sky and ITN.
==History==
From its inception in 1922, J. C. W. Reith, the first director-general of the BBC, envisioned the organization as an integral advocate of patriotism and the empire at home.

===Second World War===
From June 1940 to March 1941, the writer J. B. Priestley (1894-1984), broadcast a widely popular series of Sunday-night radio talks, 'Postscripts to the News.' He became the best known, most gifted, and probably most popular BBC commentator, for he had caught the mood of the British people during the Battle of Britain and the Blitz. His forced departure was controversial and harmful to the BBC. Priestley blamed Prime Minister Churchill's negative reaction to his left-wing views on postwar reconstruction. Actually his firing was mainly due to Ministry of Information and BBC reluctance to allow an extended forum to a 'demagogic' personality who might attract a personal following, as [[Father Coughlin]] had done in the United States in the 1930s. The upshot was employment of a wider range of speakers and careful avoidance of controversy.

The BBC played a major role in promoting the British Empire worldwide during [[World War II|The Second World War, 1939-45]]. The BBC became the voice of Britain, reflecting as well as constructing the nation's history, culture, and tradition. At first the BBC worked aggressively to deflect criticism and insure that the Empire appeared as a source of strength. It presented British imperialism as a benefit to both Britain and the colonized areas. However, as the war progressed and postwar objectives became a concern, the focus of the BBC expanded to include the importance of maintaining Britain as an imperial power.<ref> Thomas Hajkowski, "The BBC, the Empire, and the Second World War, 1939-1945," ''Historical Journal of Film, Radio and Television'' 2002 22(2): 135-155 </ref>

Special programs were directed to peoples controlled by the Nazis; listening to the short-wave broadcasts was illegal but widespread. The German-language Austrian Service was directed by Patrick Smith, who emphasized the 'separateness' of Austria from Germany and on 'freedom and independence' as the Austrian goal. As victory approached the BBC stressed the need for Austrians themselves to take part in their own liberation. There were interviews with Austrian prisoners of war held in Britain.

Until 1944, broadcasts by the BBC's Hungarian service avoided describing the plight of the Jews in Hungary for fear that it would create an anti-Semitic backlash against one of the few Jewish populations in Europe which, though persecuted, was still allowed to live. Shortly after the Nazi occupation of Hungary in March 1944 the rounding up and deporting of Jews to death camps began. For the next four months, until Hungarian regent Horthy suspended the deportations, the Hungarian service repeatedly broadcast news of the deportation of Jews and urged Hungarians to obstruct, delay, and hinder the deportations in the name of humanity and Hungarian patriotism. Altering BBC Hungarian service policies regarding the Final Solution would perhaps have done little to slow the [[Holocaust]] in Hungary.<ref> Gabriel Milland, "The BBC Hungarian Service and the Final Solution in Hungary," ''Historical Journal of Film, Radio and Television'' 1998 18(3): 353-373 online in [[EBSCO]]</ref> The BBC Home Service rarely mentioned the massacre of Jews for many reasons, including the restraints formally imposed by a government at war, the notions that such reports simply would not be believed (or, being incomprehensible, written off as propaganda) or might spur a latent anti-Semitism, and the fact that people were not interested in gloomy stories but wanted to hear about the war effort.<ref>Jeremy D. Harris, "Broadcasting the Massacres: an Analysis of the BBC's Contemporary Coverage of the Holocaust." ''Yad Vashem Studies'' 1996 25: 65-98 </ref>

===Cultural Impact===
====Monopoly years====
As the only TV broadcaster until the mid 1950s and only radio broadcaster until the mid 1970s, the BBC had a monopoly hold on British electronic media. As such its content was highly influential.

'Children's Hour', begun in the late 1920s, was intended as a medium for democracy and the production of exemplary citizens through the dissemination of idealized middle-class values. In time, this approach proved to be out of touch with the listening habits and working class context of many 'Children's Hour' listeners.

Music broadcasts for schools were begun in 1924, and did much to disseminate new ideas, especially through 'music and movement' programs and the enormously popular 'Singing Together' during the Second World War. However, the more formal programs, designed to teach the rudiments of music and notation, were less successful, and Sir Walford Davies's idea of tune building by children was abandoned in 1934. Radio's ability to teach music formally appeared severely limited, and serious doubts as to its precise function in relationship to music teachers were constantly voiced and never answered.<ref>Gordon Cox, "School Music Broadcasts and the BBC 1924-47," ''History of Education'' 1996 25(4): 363-371 online in [[EBSCO]]</ref>

Scottish broadcasters forged a unique and specifically Scottish tradition of radio programming in the 1920s, led by the Aberdeen studies of the BBC. However its role was weakened by a policy of centralization in London after 1932. Radio drama based on collaboration with local theater companies was especially strong, included much original work, and made a major contribution to the development of professional theater in Scotland. The centralization of radio broadcasting in London reflected the shift in the organization of the British state toward greater involvement in the everyday lives of its citizens during the interwar years.<ref> Adrienne Scullion, "BBC Radio in Scotland, 1923-1939: Devolution, Regionalism and Centralisation." ''Northern Scotland'' 1995 15: 63-93 </ref>
====Competitive years====
Since the late 1970s the BBC, while exposed to high volumes and variable quality of competition, has remained popular with the British public and its cultural influence is still a major force. The BBC is considered the default choice by many when viewing major events such as breaking news or state occasions, even though competitors may be broadcasting the same content.

The BBC has had enormous influence over British attitudes to not just politics but also comedy, [[multiculturalism]], travel, natural history, international culture, popular trends, fashion and even the way the British speak. Through its foreign broadcasts on the BBC World Service, it has also had significant cultural influence outside the UK.

==Accusations of Bias==

The BBC has a long history of being criticised for bias. As well as persistent criticisms of [[liberal bias]], it also receives accusations of cultural [[bias]], regional bias, [[political correctness]], bias towards multiculturalism and minority interests, as well as both pro- and anti-government bias.

The BBC is often accused of right-wing bias by those on the left and of left-wing bias by those on the right. This is sometimes attributed to UK governments of either persuasion simply objecting to negative reporting of its policies. However, it is also common for opposition to the government to be critical of the BBC. In some cases, the BBC can be subject to criticism from both sides citing bias in favour of their opposition, as in its reporting of the war in Iraq.

While the BBC had been accused of bias many times in its history, a liberal bias became prevalent during the reign of Prime Minster [[Margaret Thatcher]], likely as a direct result of her government's efforts to streamline the corporation and make it more efficient. Before her reign, the BBC's overall ideology had fluctuated quite often between being pro-Conservative and pro-Liberal, mostly depending on which party was in power. Since Thatcher's reign though, it has been guilty of a quite pro-Liberal stance.

===Bias against the US and Israel===
Although its charter requires it to be impartial, critics often accuse it of bias against [[United States]] and [[Israel]],<ref>http://www.bbcwatch.co.uk/index.html</ref> and because of these complaints of bias, an internal investigation was conducted on the BBC's coverage of the [[Arab-Israeli conflict]]. However, after the investigation was completed, BBC officials decided to withhold the 20,000-word report of the investigation, compiled in 2004 by senior editorial adviser Malcolm Balen. Steven Sugar, a Jewish critic of the BBC, attempted to get access to the report under the 2000 Freedom of Information Act, but was denied by the [[United Kingdom]]'s High Court. The information commissioner, Richard Thomas, backed the BBC's decision to block access to the report, but the information tribunal ruled on appeal in August, 2006, in favour of Steven Sugar. Still, the BBC argued at the High Court in London that the tribunal did not have jurisdiction over the case, and the High Court ruled in favour of the BBC on April 28, 2007. The BBC maintains that the internal investigation found no deliberate or systematic bias. Conservative MP David Davies commented: "An organisation which is funded partly to scrutinize governments and other institutions in Britain appears to be using tax-payers' money to prevent its customers from finding out how it is operating. That is absolutely indefensible" and called the BBC's actions a "shameful hypocrisy". It has been estimated that the BBC has spent around £200,000 - £300,000 on the case so far.<ref>http://www.guardian.co.uk/israel/Story/0,,2044130,00.html</ref>
<ref>http://www.guardian.co.uk/israel/Story/0,,2067542,00.html</ref>

In 2003, Media Tenor, an independent, Bonn-based research group, conducted a study and found that the BBC’s Middle East coverage was 85 percent negative, 15 percent neutral, and 0 percent positive toward Israel.<ref>“Beeb Outdoes Itself”, Tzvi Fleischer, The Review, September 2003, p. 8.</ref>

During a 2006 internal "impartiality summit", BBC executives said they would happily broadcast an image of a [[Bible]] being thrown away, but would not do the same with a [[Koran]]. At the summit, the BBC's Washington correspondent Justin Webb also accused the executives of being anti-American, saying they treated the nation with scorn and derision and no moral weight.

On June 15, 2007, BBC drew criticism due to their apology over calling Jerusalem the capital of Israel.<ref>http://www.jpost.com/servlet/Satellite?cid=1181813036973&pagename=JPost%2FJPArticle%2FShowFull</ref> The incident is one of many examples of repeated and systematic anti-Israeli bias from the BBC over a number of years.

===Liberal bias===
Details of the BBC's alleged bias were further tabled in an official report<ref>'''Revoir, Paul''', ''BBC comes under fire for institutional Left-wing bias'' [http://www.dailymail.co.uk/pages/live/articles/news/news.html?in_article_id=462679&in_page_id=1770&ct=5 Daily Mail] June 18, 2007</ref><ref>[http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=/news/2007/06/17/nbbc217.xml BBC report finds bias within corporation], Gary Cleland,''Telegraph'', June 18, 2007.</ref><ref>[http://newsbusters.org/node/13530 BBC Report: Network’s Bias Due to 'The Inherent Liberal Culture of its Staff’], Noel Sheppard, [[NewsBusters]], June 17, 2007</ref> - in preparation since 2005 - which found that the BBC:
*has an "institutional Left-wing bias" (its 'Play for Today' series in the 1960s/70s was known as the '[[Trotskyist|Trot]] Slot')
*has "a tendency to 'group think' with too many staff inhabiting a shared space and comfort zone."
*promotes anti-Christian sentiment
*promotes anti-American sentiment
*allows schedules to be "hijacked by special interest groups promoting trendy issues"
*over-represents homosexuals
*over-represents ethnic minorities
*fails to reflect the views of the [[British]] public on issues such as [[capital punishment]]
*fails to reflect the broader views of British people
*fails to reflect concerns about pornography and family-unfriendly broadcasting (1960s Director General Hugh Carleton-Greene notoriously refused ever to meet broadcasting standards campaigner [[Mary Whitehouse]] and would commonly refer to her in opprobrious terms)
*allows itself to be used by "sinister" campaign groups
*finds it difficult to understand there may be alternative views of the world

[[Antony Jay]], a former producer on Tonight, a nightly BBC current affairs television programme, said the BBC News and Current Affairs are part of the "liberal media consensus". Jay also said his ex-colleagues "were anti-industry, anti-capitalism, anti-advertising, anti-selling, anti-profit, anti-patriotism, anti-monarchy, anti-Empire, anti-police, anti-armed forces, anti-bomb, anti-authority. Almost anything that made the world a freer, safer and more prosperous place, you name it, we were anti it." <ref>[http://newsbusters.org/node/14114 Former BBC Producer Explains Why Media Are Liberally Biased], Noel Sheppard, [[NewsBusters]], July 15, 2007</ref> <ref>[http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=/news/2007/07/14/nbeeb314.xml&page=1 Here is the news (as we want to report it)], [[Telegraph]], July 15, 2007</ref>Paul Dacre, the editor of the British newspaper, the [[Daily Mail]], in his January 2007 Hugh Cudlipp Memorial Lecture, said that "the BBC is, in every corpuscle of its corporate body, against the values of conservatism, with a small 'c', which just happen to be the values held by millions of Britons." He also accused the BBC of being hostile to the "traditional Right, Britain's past and British values, America, Ulster Unionism, Euro-scepticism, capitalism and big business, the countryside, Christianity and family values."

A survey of BBC employees with profiles on the [[Facebook]] site showed that 11 times more of them class themselves as "[[liberal]]" than "[[conservative]]". <ref>[http://newsbusters.org/blogs/matthew-sheffield/2007/10/27/facebook-provides-fascinating-glimpse-society-media-demographics Facebook Provides Fascinating Glimpse Into Society, Media Demographics], Matthew Sheffield, [[NewsBusters]], October 27, 2007</ref> <ref>[http://www.dailymail.co.uk/pages/live/articles/news/news.html?in_article_id=490047&in_page_id=1770&ito=1490 Facebook reveals the BBC as a liberal hotbed], Jane Merrick and Kirsty Walker, [[Daily Mail]], October 27, 2007</ref>

===Regional bias===
The BBC is based in [[London]], in the South East of England. It often faces accusations of being London-centric, with events in the North of England, Scotland, Wales or Northern Ireland having a reduced profile. A perceived disproportionately private school education is often claimed to be illustrated in the output, with a disproportionate emphasis on private school events and sports.

It is also argued that the BBC also systematically discriminates against [[Scots]] speakers. Although over 1.5 million<ref>[http://www1.ku-eichstaett.de/SLF/EngluVglSW/schule25.pdf Language Policy in Scotland and Northern Ireland]</ref> people speak it there is no service in the language of those licence fee payers<ref>[http://www.scotslanguage.com/article/Trust_the_BBC%3F.html/translate/english Trust the BBC?]</ref><ref>[http://www.artscouncil-ni.org/departs/all/report/research/art_of_ulster_scots.rtf BBC NI less than generous]</ref>. Supporters of the BBC and some linguists argue that the large number of regional dialects of Scots makes it no more viable to programme for the language than it would be with English<ref>[http://www.eng.umu.se/city/Fredrik/city/scottish.htm Scottish Dialects and Accents]</ref>.

===Other===
BBC employees have changed [[Wikipedia]] entries, including a derogatory word in the entry for [[George W. Bush]] and changing the word “[[Terrorism|terrorists]]” to "[[freedom fighter]]s". <ref>[http://littlegreenfootballs.com/weblog/?entry=26669&only&rss Wikipedia EditGate: BBC Edits], [[LittleGreenFootballs]], August 15, 2007</ref>

The BBC canceled the commission for a 90-minute drama about Britain's youngest surviving Victoria Cross hero because it feared it would alienate members of the audience opposed to the war in Iraq.
<ref>[http://newsbusters.org/node/11982 BBC Cancels TV Movie On Iraq War Hero As 'Too Positive,' Would 'Alienate' War Opponents], Lynn Davidson, [[NewsBusters]], April 11, 2007</ref> <ref>[http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=/news/2007/04/08/wiraq308.xml Hero's tale is 'too positive' for the BBC], Chris Hastings, [[Telegraph]], July 4, 2007</ref>

The BBC funded a [[Paintball|paintballing]] trip for men later accused of [[Islamic terrorism]] and didn't pass on information about the 21/7 [[Terrorism|bombers]] to [[police]]. <ref>[http://newsbusters.org/blogs/matthew-sheffield/2007/12/06/paintball-terrorists-bbc-paid-islamic-radical Paintball for Terrorists? BBC Paid for Islamic Radicals' Amusement], Matthew Sheffield, [[NewsBusters]], December 6, 2007</ref> <ref>[http://www.dailymail.co.uk/pages/live/articles/news/news.html?in_article_id=499795&in_page_id=1770 BBC 'funded paintballing trip for Islamic terrorists and didn't pass on information about 21/7 bombers'], Daniel Bates, [[Daily Mail]], December 5, 2007</ref>

[[Pauline Neville Jones]], who is a member of [[United Kingdom|Britain's]] [[British_politics#Conservatives|Conservative party]], a former [[Espionage|spy]] chief and former BBC governor, accused the BBC of "parroting" [[Al Qaeda]] [[propaganda]] to [[children]]. <ref>[http://newsbusters.org/blogs/matthew-sheffield/2007/09/29/bbc-still-blaming-u-s-9-11 BBC Still Blaming U.S. for 9/11], Matthew Sheffield, [[NewsBusters]], September 29, 2007</ref> <ref>[http://www.dailymail.co.uk/pages/live/articles/news/news.html?in_article_id=484577&in_page_id=1770 BBC's Newsround fed youngsters Al Qaeda propaganda, claims ex-spy chief], James Chapman , [[Daily Mail]], September 29, 2007</ref>

==External Links==
*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/ BBC official site]
*[http://www.tvlicensing.biz/ BBCresistance - Campaigns against the television licence]
*[http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/comment/leading_article/article1942930.ece Bias at the Beeb - official], June 17, 2007, ''UK Times Online''.
*[http://biased-bbc.blogspot.com/ Biased BBC]
==Bibliography==
* Briggs, Asa, and Peter Burke. '' A Social History of the Media: From Gutenberg to the Internet'' (2001) [http://www.amazon.com/Social-History-Media-Gutenberg-Internet/dp/0745623751/ref=sr_1_10?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1197415587&sr=1-10 excerpt and text search]
* Briggs Asa. ''The History of Broadcasting in the United Kingdom'' (Oxford University Press, 1961).
** Briggs Asa. '' History of Broadcasting in the United Kingdom: Volume I: The Birth of Broadcasting'' (1995) [http://www.amazon.com/History-Broadcasting-United-Kingdom-Birth/dp/0192129260/ref=sr_1_5?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1197415587&sr=1-5 excerpt and text search]
** Briggs Asa. '' History of Broadcasting in the United Kingdom: Volume II: The Golden Age of Wireless,'' (1995)
** Briggs Asa. ''History of Broadcasting in the United Kingdom: Volume III: The War of Words'' (1995) [http://www.amazon.com/History-Broadcasting-United-Kingdom-Words/dp/0192129562/ref=sr_1_8?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1197415587&sr=1-8 excerpt and text search]
** Briggs Asa. ''The History of Broadcasting in the United Kingdom, Volume IV: Sound & Vision'' (1979)
** Briggs Asa. ''History of Broadcasting in the United Kingdom: Volume V: Competition'' (1995)
* Crisell, Andrew ''An Introductory History of British Broadcasting.'' 2nd ed. London: Routledge. (2002)
* Nicholas, Siân. ''The Echo of War: Home Front Propaganda and the Wartime BBC, 1939-45.'' (1996) 307p.
* Hickman, Tom. ''What Did You Do in the War, Auntie? The BBC at War, 1939-45.'' (1995) 224p.
* Scannell, Paddy, and Cardiff, David. ''A Social History of British Broadcasting, Volume One, 1922-1939'' (Basil Blackwell, 1991).
* Smith, Anthony, and Richard Paterson. ''Television: An International History'' (1998) [http://www.amazon.com/Television-International-History-Anthony-Smith/dp/0198159285/ref=sr_1_6?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1197416369&sr=1-6 excerpt and text search]
==References==
{{reflist|2}}

[[Category:Broadcasters]][[Category:Television]][[Category:Radio]]

Stephen Colbert

2008-11-15T20:52:03Z

Papabear1:

[[Image:Stephencolbert2.jpg|thumb]]

'''Stephen Colbert''' is a writer, comedian and actor. Colbert is a [[Catholic]], a Sunday school teacher<ref>http://www.tvsquad.com/2006/07/13/ask-tv-squad-stephen-colbert-teaches-sundayschool/</ref>, and a self-proclaimed [[Democrat]], however one of his political heroes is Richard Nixon<ref>http://www.rollingstone.com/news/coverstory/jon_stewart_stephen_colbert_americas_anchors/page/4 Rolling Stone Interview, Oct 31, 2006</ref>, as he claims he was the last 'liberal president'.

Colbert began his career at Comedy Central in the year 2000 with the show [[Strangers with Candy]], he later left to become a correspondent on [[The Daily Show|The Daily Show with Jon Stewart]], where he began to build what would later be the character he would play on [[Colbert Report|The Colbert Report]]. He was well-regarded on the show, occasionally guest-hosting when Stewart had to be elsewhere.

For his work on The Daily Show, he won three [[Emmy Awards]] and two [[Peabody Awards]] along with the other writers.<ref>http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0170306/awards IMDB List of Stephen Colbert Awards </ref> <ref>http://128.192.29.189/news/pressrelease.asp?ID=151 List of 2007 Peabody Award Winners</ref>

==The Colbert Report==
''Main article: [[Colbert Report|The Colbert Report]]''

In 2005, Colbert left "The Daily Show" to become the host of a spinoff, "The Colbert Report".

In the show, Colbert plays a satirical right-wing political talk show host, largely based on [[Bill O'Reilly]], who has a friendly rivalry with the show.

"The Colbert Report" has a very loyal following which the Colbert character often uses for his various pranks, for example, in every public vote for naming something, Colbert urges his fans to vote for him.

In his recurring segment "The Word," a parody of O'Reilly's "Talking Points," Colbert coined the word "truthiness" to refer to the quality possessed by statements which, though factually false, are repeated by supporters who feel in their hearts that they ''ought'' to be true, and regard it as quibbling to object to their falsehood.

Colbert has poked fun at [[Wikipedia]] and its apparent democratization of truth. He has coined the word "Wikiality" (as opposed to "reality,") and caused trouble for Wikipedia by suggesting that his listeners alter articles. In August of 2006, he encouraged users to state that the population of African [[elephants]] had tripled in the last decade. Colbert's point was that if enough people believe something, it becomes "the truth." Wikipedia responded by reverting and locking down the pages to prevent further vandalism.

== See also ==

*[[The Daily Show]]
*[[Colbert Report|The Colbert Report]]

==References==
<references/>

{{DEFAULTSORT: Colbert, Stephen}} 
[[Category:Actors]]

[[Category:Comedians]]

South Africa

2008-11-15T20:45:26Z

Papabear1: updated information concerning the capital

{{Country
|name =''Republic of South Africa''
|map =South africa rel 2005.jpg
|flag =Sf-lgflag.gif
|arms =
|capital =Pretoria, Cape Town, Bloemfontein
|capital-raw =
|government =Republic
|government-raw =
|language =Zulu, Xhosa, Afrikaans, Sepedi, English, Setswana, Sesotho, Xitsonga
|king =
|queen =
|monarch-raw =
|president =Kgalema Motlanthe
|president-raw =
|chancellor =
|chancellor-raw =
|pm =
|pm-raw =
|area =1,219,912 sq mi
|pop =43,997,828 (2007)
|pop-basis =
|gdp =$576.4 billion(2007)
|gdp-year =
|gdp-pc =$13,000 (2007)
|currency =
}}
'''South Africa''' is located on the southern tip of Africa and is the wealthiest, and one of the largest countries on the continent.

It has a very advantageous location for trade routes by sea from Western Europe to India and the Far East. As a result, there was far more immigration by Europeans to South Africa than any other region of Africa, and whites of European ancestry (English and Dutch) ruled South Africa until the late twentieth century. Since then, democracy has brought representative government to the African ethnic groups.

==People==
Until 1991, South African law divided the population into four major racial categories: Africans (black), whites, coloreds, and Asians. Although this law has been abolished, many South Africans still view themselves and each other according to these categories. Black Africans comprise about 79% of the population and are divided into a number of different ethnic groups. Whites comprise about 10% of the population. They are primarily descendants of Dutch, French, English, and German settlers who began arriving at the Cape of Good Hope in the late 17th century. Coloreds are mixed-race people primarily descending from the earliest settlers and the indigenous peoples. They comprise about 9% of the total population. Asians descend from Indian workers brought to South Africa in the mid-19th century to work on the sugar estates in Natal. They constitute about 2.5% of the population and are concentrated in the KwaZulu-Natal Province.

Education is in transition. Under the apartheid system schools were segregated, and the quantity and quality of education varied significantly across racial groups. The laws governing this segregation have been abolished. The long and arduous process of restructuring the country's educational system has begun and is ongoing. The challenge is to create a single, nondiscriminatory, nonracial system that offers the same standards of education to all people.
*Annual growth rate (2004 World Bank Group): 0.8%.
*Population (2004, 46.6 million): Composition--black 79%; white 9.6%; colored 8.9%; Asian (Indian) 2.5%. Official figures from 2000 South African Census at http://www.statssa.gov.za/.
*Languages: Afrikaans, English, isiNdebele, isiXhosa, isiZulu, Sepedi, Sesotho, Setswana, siSwati, Tshivenda, and Xitsonga (all official languages).
*Religions: Predominantly Christian; traditional African, Hindu, Muslim, Jewish.
*Education: Years compulsory--7-15 years of age for all children. The South African Schools Act, Act 84 of 1996, passed by Parliament in 1996, aims to achieve greater educational opportunities for black children, mandating a single syllabus and more equitable funding for schools.
*Health: Infant mortality rate (2000)--59 per live births. Life expectancy--52 yrs. women; 50 yrs. men. Health data from 2000 U.S. Census Report: HIV/AIDS Country Profiles: [http://www.census.gov/ipc/hiv/safrica.pdf]].

==Government and Political Conditions==
South Africa is a multiparty parliamentary democracy in which constitutional power is shared between the president and the Parliament. The country is unusual in that it technically has three capital cities, since the three branches of the federal government are divided between them. As such, Pretoria houses the executive branch, Cape Town houses the legislative branch, and Bloemfontein houses the judicial branch. Therefore, these cities are known respectively as the executive capital, the legislative capital and the judicial capital.

The Parliament consists of two houses, the National Assembly and the National Council of Provinces, which are responsible for drafting the laws of the republic. The National Assembly also has specific control over bills relating to monetary matters. The current 400-member National Assembly was retained under the 1997 constitution, although the constitution allows for a range of between 350 and 400 members. The Assembly is elected by a system of "list proportional representation." Each of the parties appearing on the ballot submits a rank-ordered list of candidates. The voters then cast their ballots for a party.

Seats in the Assembly are allocated based on the percentage of votes each party receives. In the 2004 elections, the ANC won 279 seats in the Assembly, more than a two-thirds majority and an increase of 13 seats from 1999; the Democratic Alliance (DA) won 50, the IFP 28, the New National Party (NNP) 7, the United Democratic Movement (UDM) 9, and other groups won the remaining 27. In the 2004 electoral campaign, the ANC aligned with the NNP, and the DA aligned with the IFP. On August 6, the NNP announced that it would merge with the ANC. Elected representatives of the party would, however, continue to hold their seats in the national and provincial legislatures as NNP members until the next floor-crossing period in September 2005.

The National Council of Provinces (NCOP) consists of 90 members, 10 from each of the nine provinces. The NCOP replaced the former Senate as the second chamber of Parliament and was created to give a greater voice to provincial interests. It must approve legislation that involves shared national and provincial competencies as defined by an annex to the constitution. Each provincial delegation consists of six permanent and four rotating delegates.

The president is the head of state. Following the April 14, 2004 elections, the National Assembly re-elected Thabo Mbeki as President. The president's constitutional responsibilities include assigning cabinet portfolios, signing bills into law, and serving as commander in chief of the military. The president works closely with the deputy president and the cabinet. There are currently 28 posts in the cabinet. Of the 28 ministers, Mbeki appointed two from outside the ANC--one from the former NNP and one from the Azanian Peoples Organization (Azapo). On June 14, 2005, President Mbeki informed the South African Parliament that then-Deputy President Jacob Zuma was being "released" from his duties following the conviction of a close associate on corruption charges relating to monetary payments to Zuma. On June 22, Mbeki named former Minister for Minerals and Energy Phumzile Mlambo-Ngcuka to the position of Deputy President, the first woman to hold this office.

Following prior allegations, and a finding by Judge Chris Nicholson, that Presient Mbeki may have exerted improper political influence regarding the prosecution of Jacob Zuma, the National Executive Committee of the ANC recalled Mbeki on Sunday, 21 September 2008. He formally tendered his resignation from office on Monday, 22 September, which became effective at midnight on 24 September 2008. Dr Ivy Matsepe-Casaburri served as acting State President from then until the election of the new State President.

The ANC's deputy president, Kgalema Motlanthe was elected and sworn in as South Africa's third democratic State President, during a full sitting of Parliament on 25 September 2008.

The third arm of the central government is an independent judiciary. The Constitutional Court is the highest court for interpreting and deciding constitutional issues, while the Supreme Court of Appeal is the highest court for non-constitutional matters. Most cases are heard in the extensive system of High Courts and Magistrates Courts. The constitution's bill of rights provides for due process including the right to a fair, public trial within a reasonable time of being charged and the right to appeal to a higher court. The bill of rights also guarantees fundamental political and social rights of South Africa's citizens.

===Principal Government Officials===
*State President--Kgalema Motlanthe
*Executive Deputy President--Ms. Baleka Mbete

===Challenges Ahead===
South Africa’s post-apartheid governments have made remarkable progress in consolidating the nation's peaceful transition to democracy. Programs to improve the delivery of essential social services to the majority of the population are underway. Access to better opportunities in education and business is becoming more widespread. Nevertheless, transforming South Africa's society to remove the legacy of apartheid will be a long-term process requiring the sustained commitment of the leaders and people of the nation's disparate groups.

The Truth and Reconciliation Commission (TRC), chaired by 1984 Nobel Peace Prize winner Archbishop Desmond Tutu, helped to advance the reconciliation process. Constituted in 1996 and having completed its work by 2001, the TRC was empowered to investigate apartheid-era human rights abuses committed between 1960 and May 10, 1994; to grant amnesty to those who committed politically motivated crimes; and to recommend compensation to victims of abuses. In November 2003, the Government began allocation of $4,600 (R30,000) reparations to individual apartheid victims. The TRC's mandate was part of the larger process of reconciling the often conflicting political, economic, and cultural interests held by the many peoples that make up South Africa's diverse population. The ability of the government and people to agree on many basic questions of how to order the country's new society will remain a critical challenge.

One important issue continues to be the relationship of provincial and local administrative structures to the national government. Prior to April 27, 1994, South Africa was divided into four provinces and 10 black "homelands," four of which were considered independent by the South African Government. Both the interim constitution and the 1997 constitution abolished this system and substituted nine provinces. Each province has an elected legislature and chief executive--the provincial premier. Although in form a federal system, in practice the nature of the relationship between the central and provincial governments continues to be the subject of considerable debate, particularly among groups desiring a greater measure of autonomy from the central government. A key step in defining the relationship came in 1997 when provincial governments were given more than half of central government funding and permitted to develop and manage their own budgets. However, the national government exerts a measure of control over provinces by appointing provincial premiers.

Although South Africa's economy is in many areas highly developed, the exclusionary nature of apartheid and distortions caused in part by the country's international isolation until the 1990s have left major weaknesses. The economy is now in a process of transition as the government seeks to address the inequities of apartheid, stimulate growth, and create jobs. Business, meanwhile, is becoming more integrated into the international system, and foreign investment has increased dramatically over the past several years. Still, the economic disparities between population groups are expected to persist for many years, remaining an area of priority attention for the government.

===Human Rights===
The 1997 constitution's bill of rights provides extensive guarantees, including equality before the law and prohibitions against discrimination; the right to life, privacy, property, and freedom and security of the person; prohibition against slavery and forced labor; and freedom of speech, religion, assembly, and association. The legal rights of criminal suspects also are enumerated, as are citizens' entitlements to a safe environment, housing, education, and health care. The constitution provides for an independent and impartial judiciary, and, in practice, these provisions are respected.

Since the abolition of apartheid, levels of political violence in South Africa have dropped dramatically. Violent crime and organized criminal activity are at high levels and are a grave concern. Partly as a result, vigilante action and mob justice sometimes occur.

Some members of the police commit abuses, and deaths in police custody as a result of excessive force remain a problem. The government has taken action to investigate and punish some of those who commit such abuses. In April 1997, the government established an Independent Complaints Directorate to investigate deaths in police custody and deaths resulting from police action.

Although South Africa's society is undergoing a rapid transformation, some discrimination against women continues, and discrimination against those living with HIV/AIDS remains. Violence against women and children also is a serious problem.

===Foreign Relations===
South African forces fought on the Allied side in World Wars I and II and participated in the postwar UN force in Korea. South Africa was a founding member of the League of Nations and in 1927 established a Department of External Affairs with diplomatic missions in the main west European countries and in the United States. At the founding of the League of Nations, South Africa was given the mandate to govern Southwest Africa, now Namibia, which had been a German colony before World War I. In 1990, Namibia attained independence, with the exception of the enclave of Walvis Bay, which was reintegrated into Namibia in March 1994. After South Africa held its first nonracial election in April 1994, most sanctions imposed by the international community in opposition to the system of apartheid were lifted. On June 1, 1994, South Africa rejoined the Commonwealth, and on June 23, 1994, the UN General Assembly accepted its credentials. South Africa served as the African Union's (AU) first president from July 2003 to July 2004.

Having emerged from the international isolation of the apartheid era, South Africa has become a leading international actor. Its principal foreign policy objective is to promote the economic, political, and cultural regeneration of Africa, through the New Partnership for African Development (NEPAD); to promote the peaceful resolution of conflict in Africa; and to use multilateral bodies to insure that developing countries’ voices are heard on international issues. South Africa has played a key role in seeking an end to various conflicts and political crises on the African continent, including in Burundi, the Democratic Republic of Congo, and the Comoros. South Africa has pursued "quiet diplomacy" in its approach to the crisis in Zimbabwe.

==Economy==
South Africa has a two-tiered economy; one rivaling other developed countries and the other with only the most basic infrastructure. It therefore is a productive and industrialized economy that exhibits many characteristics associated with developing countries, including a division of labor between formal and informal sectors, and uneven distribution of wealth and income. The formal sector, based on mining, manufacturing, services, and agriculture, is well developed.

The transition to a democratic, nonracial government, begun in early 1990, stimulated a debate on the direction of economic policies to achieve sustained economic growth while at the same time redressing the socioeconomic disparities created by apartheid. The Government of National Unity's initial blueprint to address this problem was the Reconstruction and Development Program (RDP). The RDP was designed to create programs to improve the standard of living for the majority of the population by providing housing--a planned 1 million new homes in 5 years--basic services, education, and health care. While a specific "ministry" for the RDP no longer exists, a number of government ministries and offices are charged with supporting RDP programs and goals.
*GDP (2004): $213 billion. 2004 GDP at market prices (baseline year 2000)--1.374 billion rand (R).
*Real GDP growth rate (2004): 3.7%.
*GDP per capita (2004): $3,480.
*Unemployment (September 2004): 27.8%.
*Natural resources: Almost all essential commodities, except petroleum products and bauxite. Only country in the world that manufactures fuel from coal.
*Industry: Types--minerals, mining, motor vehicles and parts, machinery, textiles, chemicals, fertilizer, information technology, electronics, other manufacturing, and agroprocessing.
*Trade (2004): Exports--$36.3 billion (2003 merchandise exports R256 billion; 2003 gold exports R35 billion): gold, other minerals and metals, agricultural products, motor vehicles and parts. Major markets--U.K., U.S., Germany, Italy, Japan, East Asia, Sub-Saharan Africa. Imports--$34 billion (2003 merchandise imports R263 billion): machinery, transport equipment, chemicals, petroleum products, textiles, and scientific instruments. Major suppliers--Germany, U.S., Japan, U.K., Italy.
GDP composition (2003): Agriculture and mining (primary sector)--11%; industry (secondary sector)--24%; services (tertiary sector)--65%. World's largest producer of platinum, gold, and chromium; also significant coal production.

The Government of South Africa demonstrated its commitment to open markets, privatization, and a favorable investment climate with its release of the crucial Growth, Employment and Redistribution (GEAR) strategy--the neoliberal economic strategy to cover 1996-2000. The strategy had mixed success. It brought greater financial discipline and macroeconomic stability but has failed to deliver in key areas. Formal employment continued to decline, and despite the ongoing efforts of black empowerment and signs of a fledgling black middle class and social mobility, the country's wealth remains very unequally distributed along racial lines. However, South Africa's budgetary reforms such as the Medium-Term Expenditure Framework and the Public Finance Management Act--which aims at better reporting, auditing, and increased accountability--and the structural changes to its monetary policy framework--including inflation targeting--have created transparency and predictability and are widely acclaimed. Trade liberalization also has progressed substantially since the early 1990s. South Africa has reduced its import-weighted average tariff rate from more than 20% in 1994 to 7% in 2002. These efforts, together with South Africa's implementation of its World Trade Organization (WTO) obligations and its constructive role in launching the Doha Development Round, show South Africa's acceptance of free market principles.

====Financial Policy====
South Africa has a sophisticated financial structure with a large and active stock exchange that ranks 17th in the world in terms of total market capitalization. The South African Reserve Bank (SARB) performs all central banking functions. The SARB is independent and operates in much the same way as Western central banks, influencing interest rates and controlling liquidity through its interest rates on funds provided to private sector banks. Quantitative credit controls and administrative control of deposit and lending rates have largely disappeared. South African banks adhere to the Bank of International Standards core standards.

The South African Government has taken steps to gradually reduce remaining foreign exchange controls, which apply only to South African residents. Private citizens are now allowed a one-time investment of up to 750,000 rand (R) in offshore accounts. Since 2001, South African companies may invest up to R750 million in Africa and R500 million elsewhere.

====Trade and Investment====
South Africa has rich mineral resources. It is the world's largest producer and exporter of gold and platinum and also exports a significant amount of coal. During 2000, platinum overtook gold as South Africa's largest foreign exchange earner. The value-added processing of minerals to produce ferroalloys, stainless steels, and similar products is a major industry and an important growth area. The country's diverse manufacturing industry is a world leader in several specialized sectors, including railway rolling stock, synthetic fuels, and mining equipment and machinery.

Primary agriculture accounts for about 4% of the gross domestic product. Major crops include citrus and deciduous fruits, corn, wheat, dairy products, sugarcane, tobacco, wine, and wool. South Africa has many developed irrigation schemes and is a net exporter of food.

South Africa's transportation infrastructure is well-developed, supporting both domestic and regional needs. The Johannesburg International Airport serves as a hub for flights to other southern African countries. The domestic telecommunications infrastructure provides modern and efficient service to urban areas, including cellular and Internet services. In 1997, Telkom, the South African telecommunications parastatal, was partly privatized and entered into a strategic equity partnership with a consortium of two companies, including SBC, a U.S. telecommunications company. In exchange for exclusivity to provide certain services for 5 years, Telkom assumed an obligation to facilitate network modernization and expansion into unserved areas. The government is evaluating a proposal to establish a second network operator to compete with Telkom across its spectrum of services. Three cellular companies provide service to over 9 million subscribers.

South Africa's GDP is expected to increase gradually during the next few years, and in 2005 the government revised upward its 2005 estimated growth to 4.3%. Annual GDP growth between 1994 and 2004 averaged 3.0%. In 2003, real GDP growth slowed to a rate of 2.8%, but increased to 3.7% in 2004. The government estimates that the economy must achieve growth at a minimum of 6% to offset unemployment, which is estimated at 28%, although unofficial sources put it as high as 41%. In an effort to boost economic growth and spur job creation, the government has launched special investment corridors to promote development in specific regions and also is working to encourage small, medium, and microenterprise development. One of the great successes of the ANC government has been to get consumer inflation, which had been running in the double digits for over 20 years, under control. By 1998, inflation had fallen to 6.9%, and in 1999 and 2000 inflation was running at less than 6.0%. The rand's rapid depreciation in late 2001, however, led to greater inflationary pressure, causing 2002 inflation of 9.2%. The South African government cut the inflation rate to 4% in 2004, and the rand appreciated 39% from 2002 to 2004. The South African Reserve Bank increased interest rates and along with the 28% rand appreciation in 2003 led a reduced consumer inflation of 5.8%. The government also has made inroads into reducing the fiscal deficit and increasing foreign currency reserves. The government deficit was 1.1% of GDP in 2002 and 2.6% in 2003. The government's 2005 budget called for a moderate increase in spending to promote faster growth and poverty alleviation, while curbing budget deficits.

Exports reached 28.2% of GDP in 2003, up from 11.5% a decade ago. South Africa's major trading partners include the United Kingdom, the United States, Germany, Italy, Belgium, and Japan. South Africa's trade with other Sub-Saharan African countries, particularly those in the southern Africa region, has increased substantially. South Africa is a member of the Southern African Customs Union (SACU) and the Southern African Development Community (SADC). In August 1996, South Africa signed a regional trade protocol agreement with its SADC partners. The agreement was ratified in December 1999, and implementation began in September 2000. It intends to provide duty-free treatment for 85% of trade by 2008 and 100% by 2012.

South Africa has made great progress in dismantling its old economic system, which was based on import substitution, high tariffs and subsidies, anticompetitive behavior, and extensive government intervention in the economy. The new leadership has moved to reduce the government's role in the economy and to promote private sector investment and competition. It has significantly reduced tariffs and export subsidies, loosened exchange controls, cut the secondary tax on corporate dividends, and improved enforcement of intellectual property laws. A new competition law was passed and became effective on September 1, 1999. A U.S.-South Africa bilateral tax treaty went into effect on January 1, 1998, and a bilateral trade and investment framework agreement was signed in February 1999.

South Africa is a member of the World Trade Organization (WTO). U.S. products qualify for South Africa's most-favored-nation tariff rates. South Africa also is an eligible country for the benefits under the African Growth and Opportunity Act (AGOA), and most of its products can enter the United States market duty free. South Africa has done away with most import permits except on used products and products regulated by international treaties. It also remains committed to the simplification and continued reduction of tariffs within the WTO framework and maintains active discussions with that body and its major trading partners.

As a result of a November 1993 bilateral agreement, the Overseas Private Investment Corporation (OPIC) can assist U.S. investors in the South African market with services such as political risk insurance and loans and loan guarantees. In July 1996, the United States and South Africa signed an investment fund protocol for a $120 million OPIC fund to make equity investments in South Africa and southern Africa. OPIC is establishing an additional fund--the Sub-Saharan Africa Infrastructure Fund, capitalized at $350 million--for investment in infrastructure projects. The Trade and Development Agency also has been actively involved in funding feasibility studies and identifying investment opportunities in South Africa for U.S. businesses.

====HIV/AIDS====
South Africa is one of the countries most affected by HIV, with 5 million HIV infected individuals. Twenty percent of the 15-49 year old population is infected, and in parts of the country more than 35% of women of childbearing age are infected. Overall, 11-12% of the population is infected. About 1,700 new infections occur each day, and approximately 40% of deaths are believed to be AIDS-related. There are approximately 660,000 children who have lost one or both parents, and by 2008 1.6 million children will have been orphaned by AIDS. Without effective prevention and treatment 5-7 million cumulative AIDS deaths are anticipated by 2010 (with 1.5 million deaths in 2010 alone), and there will be over 1 million sick with AIDS. The epidemic could cost South Africa as much as 17% in GDP growth by 2010. The extraction industries, education, and health are among the sectors that will be severely affected. A 2003 national operational plan provides the structure for a comprehensive response to HIV and AIDS, including a national rollout of antiretroviral therapy.

====Environment====
South Africa's Government is committed to managing the country's rich and varied natural resources in a responsible and sustainable manner. In addition, numerous South African non-governmental organizations have emerged as a potent force in the public policy debate on the environment. In international environmental organizations, South Africa is seen as a key leader among developing countries on issues such as climate change, conservation, and biodiversity. This leading role was underscored by South Africa's selection to host the World Summit on Sustainable Development in 2002.

==History==
People have inhabited southern Africa for thousands of years. Members of the Khoisan language groups are the oldest surviving inhabitants of the land, but only a few are left in South Africa today--and they are located in the western sections. Most of today's black South Africans belong to the Bantu language group, which migrated south from central Africa, settling in the Transvaal region sometime before AD 100. The Nguni, ancestors of the Zulu and Xhosa, occupied most of the eastern coast by 1500.

The Portuguese were the first Europeans to reach the Cape of Good Hope, arriving in 1488. However, permanent white settlement did not begin until 1652 when the Dutch East India Company established a provisioning station on the Cape. In subsequent decades, French Huguenot refugees, the Dutch, and Germans began to settle in the Cape. Collectively, they form the Afrikaner segment of today's population. The establishment of these settlements had far-reaching social and political effects on the groups already settled in the area, leading to upheaval in these societies and the subjugation of their people.

By 1779, European settlements extended throughout the southern part of the Cape and east toward the Great Fish River. It was here that Dutch authorities and the Xhosa fought the first frontier war. The British gained control of the Cape of Good Hope at the end of the 18th century. Subsequent British settlement and rule marked the beginning of a long conflict between the Afrikaners and the English.

Beginning in 1836, partly to escape British rule and cultural hegemony and partly out of resentment at the recent abolition of slavery, many Afrikaner farmers (Boers) undertook a northern migration that became known as the "Great Trek." This movement brought them into contact and conflict with African groups in the area, the most formidable of which were the Zulus. Under their powerful leader, Shaka (1787-1828), the Zulus conquered most of the territory between the Drakensberg Mountains and the sea (now KwaZulu-Natal).

In 1828, Shaka was assassinated and replaced by his half-brother Dingane. In 1838, Dingane was defeated and deported by the Voortrekkers (people of the Great Trek) at the battle of Blood River. The Zulus, nonetheless, remained a potent force, defeating the British in the historic battle of Isandhlwana before themselves being finally conquered in 1879.

In 1852 and 1854, the independent Boer Republics of the Transvaal and Orange Free State were created. Relations between the republics and the British Government were strained. The discovery of diamonds at Kimberley in 1870 and the discovery of large gold deposits in the Witwatersrand region of the Transvaal in 1886 caused an influx of European (mainly British) immigration and investment. In addition to resident black Africans, many blacks from neighboring countries also moved into the area to work in the mines. The construction by mine owners of hostels to house and control their workers set patterns that later extended throughout the region.

Boer reactions to this influx and British political intrigues led to the Anglo-Boer Wars of 1880-81 and 1899-1902. British forces prevailed in the conflict, and the republics were incorporated into the British Empire. In May 1910, the two republics and the British colonies of the Cape and Natal formed the Union of South Africa, a self-governing dominion of the British Empire. The Union's constitution kept all political power in the hands of whites.

In 1912, the South Africa Native National Congress was founded in Bloemfontein and eventually became known as the African National Congress (ANC). Its goals were the elimination of restrictions based on color and the enfranchisement of and parliamentary representation for blacks. Despite these efforts the government continued to pass laws limiting the rights and freedoms of blacks.

In 1948, the National Party (NP) won the all-white elections and began passing legislation codifying and enforcing an even stricter policy of white domination and racial separation known as "apartheid" (separateness). In the early 1960s, following a protest in Sharpeville in which 69 protesters were killed by police and 180 injured, the ANC and Pan-African Congress (PAC) were banned. Nelson Mandela and many other anti-apartheid leaders were convicted and imprisoned on charges of treason.

The ANC and PAC were forced underground and fought apartheid through guerrilla warfare and sabotage. In May 1961, South Africa relinquished its dominion status and declared itself a republic. It withdrew from the Commonwealth in part because of international protests against apartheid. In 1984, a new constitution came into effect in which whites allowed coloreds and Asians a limited role in the national government and control over their own affairs in certain areas. Ultimately, however, all power remained in white hands. Blacks remained effectively disenfranchised.

Popular uprisings in black and colored townships in 1976 and 1985 helped to convince some NP members of the need for change. Secret discussions between those members and Nelson Mandela began in 1986. In February 1990, State President F.W. de Klerk, who had come to power in September 1989, announced the unbanning of the ANC, the PAC, and all other anti-apartheid groups. Two weeks later, Nelson Mandela was released from prison.

In 1991, the Group Areas Act, Land Acts, and the Population Registration Act--the last of the so-called "pillars of apartheid"--were abolished. A long series of negotiations ensued, resulting in a new constitution promulgated into law in December 1993. The country's first nonracial elections were held on April 26-28, 1994, resulting in the installation of Nelson Mandela as President on May 10, 1994.

Following the 1994 elections, South Africa was governed under an interim constitution establishing a Government of National Unity (GNU). This constitution required the Constitutional Assembly (CA) to draft and approve a permanent constitution by May 9, 1996. After review by the Constitutional Court and intensive negotiations within the CA, the Constitutional Court certified a revised draft on December 2, 1996. President Mandela signed the new constitution into law on December 10, and it entered into force on February 3, 1997. The GNU ostensibly remained in effect until the 1999 national elections. The parties originally comprising the GNU--the ANC, the NP, and the Inkatha Freedom Party (IFP)--shared executive power. On June 30, 1996, the NP withdrew from the GNU to become part of the opposition.

During Nelson Mandela's 5-year term as President of South Africa, the government committed itself to reforming the country. The ANC-led government focused on social issues that were neglected during the apartheid era such as unemployment, housing shortages, and crime. Mandela's administration began to reintroduce South Africa into the global economy by implementing a market-driven economic plan known as Growth, Employment and Redistribution (GEAR). In order to heal the wounds created by apartheid, the government created the Truth and Reconciliation Commission (TRC) under the leadership of Archbishop Desmond Tutu. During the first term of the ANC's post-apartheid rule, President Mandela concentrated on national reconciliation, seeking to forge a single South African identity and sense of purpose among a diverse and splintered populace, riven by years of conflict. The diminution of political violence after 1994 and its virtual disappearance by 1996 were testament to the abilities of Mandela to achieve this difficult goal.

Nelson Mandela stepped down as President of the ANC at the party's national congress in December 1997, when Thabo Mbeki assumed the mantle of leadership. Mbeki won the presidency of South Africa after national elections in 1999, when the ANC won just shy of a two-thirds majority in Parliament. President Mbeki shifted the focus of government from reconciliation to transformation, particularly on the economic front. With political transformation and the foundation of a strong democratic system in place after two free and fair national elections, the ANC recognized the need to focus on bringing economic power to the black majority in South Africa. In April 2004, the ANC won nearly 70% of the national vote, and Mbeki was reelected for his second 5-year term. In his 2004 State of the Nation address, Mbeki promised his government would reduce poverty, stimulate economic growth, and fight crime. Mbeki said that the government would play a more prominent role in economic development.

South Africa will host the World Cup (soccer) in 2010, the first time it has ever been held in Africa. [http://www.fifa.com/en/worldcup/index/0,3360,WF2010,00.html?comp=WF&year=2010]

==Crime==
One of the largest challenges which South Africa faces is Crime. [[Crime in South Africa]] is a major political and social issue. Rape is endemic in South Africa. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/1909220.stm][http://travel.state.gov/travel/cis_pa_tw/cis/cis_1008.html] According to a report entitled ''Murder in South Africa'' by Robert McCafferty and the Christian Action Network, a serious underreporting of violent crimes has occurred. Victims' surveys have consistently uncovered between 60% and 70% more crime than reported by official sources. Upwards of 50% of crime in many serious categories goes unreported. The number of homicides being reported to international agenicies such as [[Interpol]] is below the actual figure, and the South African government's claim that the homicide rate has declined since 1994, rather than risen to be among the highest in the world, is questioned. <ref>[http://www.christianaction.org.za/articles_ca/2003-3-MURDER_IN.htm Murder in South Africa], Report by Robert McCafferty, Christian Action Network. Retrieved 11 July 2007.</ref>

[[South African Farm Murders]] is a highly political issue with some claiming genocide or ethnic cleansing.. According to the Government the murders are "just the result of ordinary crime", but the Agricultural Unions believe it forms part of [[genocide]] committed against the Boers of South Africa.
[http://www.tlu.co.za/International%20Bulletins/2007/IB070315%20%20Forced%20Sales,%20Expropriations%20and%20Farm%20Attacks%20-%20Two%20Sides%20of%20the%20same%20Coin.htm] Genocide Watch of New Haven, Connecticut claims 2.2% of Boer farmers have been victims of violent homicide by 2002. Other reports show robbery is not the motive in these homicides. An article in ''WorldNetDaily'' cites the homicide rate among South African Boer farmers at 264 per 100,000, while Genocide Watch cites a figure of 311 per 100,000 as of 2002.

A Boer blog site points out that the Dutch Boer's of South Africa who were integrated into the South African state forcibly by British Afrikaners after the Boer War, were not promulgators of the policy of Apartheid implemented by the dominant Afrikaners. The author states the Dutch Boers first faced the loss of their ethnic identity by British Afrikaners during the Apartheid era, and that the policy of the current South African government is now to remove completely the ethnic communities identity. <ref>[http://www.stopboergenocide.com/29301/index.html Boer, Afrikaner, or White, Which Are You?] by Adriana Stuijt. Retrieved from Stop Boer Genocide.com 11 July 2007.</ref>

===Genocide allegations===
The African National Congress has been accused of promoting genocide against the Boer in South Africa. <ref>[http://www.worldnetdaily.com/news/article.asp?ARTICLE_ID=28421 'Kill the Boer, kill the farmer'], By Anthony C. LoBaido, ''WorldNetDaily.com'', July 28, 2002. Retrieved July 12, 2007.</ref><ref>Genocide Watch:[http://www.genocidewatch.org/BoersSlain01.htm Over 1000 Boer Farmers In South Africa Have Been Murdered Since 1991]. Retrieved from Genocide Watch July 12, 2007.</ref><ref>http://www.stopboergenocide.com/index2.html</ref> 1860 Farmers were killed in South Africa since 1994. 400,000 Afrikaners are destitute and starving in South Africa, as well as millions of black Africans.<ref>[http://www.africafocus.org/docs04/big0411.php South Africa: Poverty Debate]</ref>

There is also a belief that there is a conspiracy to kill white people on a massive scale after the death of Nelson Mandela. One of the operations planned entails 70,000 armed black men "being transported to the Johannesburg city center within an hour" in taxicabs to attack whites. The plans are variously dubbed "Operation Vula," "Night of the Long Knives," "Operation White Clean-up," "Operation Iron Eagle" and "Red October campaign." [http://www.worldnetdaily.com/news/article.asp?ARTICLE_ID=37010]

The victims of this ongoing onslaught are usually elderly white citizens with the assailants generally being black Africans.
[http://www.ilanamercer.com/TheGenocideInDemocraticSA.htm]

===Current Issues===
Currently in South Africa there has been much [[violence]], mainly in the poor townships, against foreigners. In particular against [[Zimbabwe]] natives who have fled the regime of [[Rober Mugabe]]. This is due to a perception that the immigrants are taking jobs and land from native born South Africans.

==References==
<references/>

[[Category:African Countries]]
[[Category:Christian-Majority Countries]]

Geography

2008-11-15T20:39:42Z

Papabear1: Undo revision 558825 by WesleyS (Talk) 'affects' and 'affected' is correct for the context i think

'''Geography''' is "the study of the physical features of the earth and its atmosphere, and of human activity as it affects and is affected by these." <ref>Soanes and Stevenson (2005) The Oxford Dictionary of English, Oxford University Press, Oxford, U.K.</ref>

As a subject it can generally be divided into two major components; physical geography, concerning earth system processes, and human geography, concerning human activities across the earth. There is a large degree of overlap between these two, and geography is regarded as the subject that bridges the arts and the sciences.
[[Category:Science]]

==References==
<references/>

Geography

2008-11-15T20:35:19Z

Papabear1: more thorough definition

'''Geography''' is "the study of the physical features of the earth and its atmosphere, and of human activity as it affects and is affected by these" <ref>Soanes and Stevenson (2005) The Oxford Dictionary of English, Oxford University Press, Oxford, U.K.</ref>

As a subject it can generally be divided into two major components; physical geography, concerning earth system processes, and human geography, concerning human activities across the earth. There is a large degree of overlap between these two, and geography is regarded as the subject that bridges the arts and the sciences.
[[Category:Science]]

Birmingham

2008-11-15T20:21:54Z

Papabear1: some extra details, spelling/grammar corrections

'''Birmingham''' is a large city in central [[England]], with about one million inhabitants of the city itself and about 3 million in the metropolitan area. It is the second largest city in the [[United Kingdom]] after [[London]]. Birmingham has more miles of canal than Venice, and more trees per head of population that any other city in [[Europe]]. It was the birthplace of the industrial revolution and the home of the [[Lunar Society]]. It grew rapidly in the late 19th century, particularly with the urban development supported by its most famous resident, [[Joseph Chamberlain]]. The city has a distinctive local dialect known as 'Brummie' which is thought by linguists to be similar to how [[William Shakespeare]] would have spoken, since Stratford-upon-Avon is relatively close to Birmingham. The people of Birmingham, like the local dialect, are also known as 'Brummies'. It also has its own local cuisine, a curry dish known as a 'balti'.

Neighbouring towns to Birmingham, which all form part of its conurbation, include [[Solihull]], [[Wolverhampton]], [[Dudley]], [[West Bromwich]], and [[Sandwell]].

==History==
Birmingham was a small village at the time of the [[Doomsday Book]]. Then Birmingham was in the area that is now the Bull Ring in the City Centre. Birmingham grew over the centuries, most dramatically from the mid-18th century onwards during the industrial revolution. [[Matthew Boulton]] was important as an industrialist who helped develop Birmingham.

==Other towns==
Many other cities and towns around the world have been named after Birmingham (not to mention a crater on the moon). The largest of these namesakes is situated in [[Alabama]], [[USA]].

==Famous Brummies==

*[[John Cadbury]] (Quaker, philanthropist and founder of Cadbury's chocolate company)
*[[Neville Chamberlain]] ([[prime minister]])
*[[Francis Galton]] (founder of [[eugenics]])
*[[Nigel Mansell]] (Former [[Formula 1]] driver)
*[[Bill Oddie]] (naturalist)
*[[Ozzy Osbourne]] ([[rock]] musician)
*[[J.R.R. Tolkien]] (writer) - although he was born in South Africa

[[Category:United Kingdom Cities and Towns]]

Oxford University

2008-11-14T20:05:14Z

Papabear1: updates and corrections

[[Image:University Oxford Arms.jpg|right|thumb|200px|The crest and arms of the University of Oxford. The motto ''Dominus Illuminatio Mea'' translates as "The Lord is my Light"]]
One of the most influential universities in history, the '''University of Oxford''' was founded in 1167. Located in the city of [[Oxford]], [[England]], it is the oldest university in the English-speaking world. It is organised into 38 colleges and 6 permanent private halls (PPHs), each of which has its own buildings, staff and students; the college is the primary focus of social life at [[undergraduate]] level, although lectures and degree programmes are organised by the University faculty boards. The oldest of the colleges, University College founded in 1249 is generally considered the oldest of these, although other institutions of learning existed prior to this.

As it is, Oxford University is one of the most respected universities in the world <ref>[http://www.topuniversities.com/worlduniversityrankings/results/2007/overall_rankings/top_100_universities/ Times Higher Education survey]</ref> <ref>[http://newshub.nus.edu.sg/headlines/0610/ranking_07oct06.htm National University of Singapore's University rankings]</ref>. It is consistently ranked as the top university in the UK and amongst the top 5 in the world. Oxford's chief rival is [[Cambridge University]], which has a similar reputation.

==Student Representation==
All members of Oxford University are also members of the Oxford University Student Union (OUSU), a statutory body under the 1994 education act. However, due to the collegiate nature of the University, all students are also members of a student body organization within their college, known as a Common Room: Junior Common Rooms (JCRs) are comprised of undergraduates, and Middle Common Rooms (MCRs) for postgraduate students.
OUSU fulfills its statutory role as a provider of welfare and representation for its members. On representation, its executive members (including some of its seven salaried sabbatical officers) sit on several University committees, and lobby colleges, the University, and national and local government bodies, in addition to providing support for Common Room officers. On welfare, OUSU vigorously supports members with a listening service and support for common room officers in mental health, sexual health and family planning issues. It also supports Oxford's Diversity Week.

==List of colleges and Permanent Private Halls==
The following is a list of Oxford colleges and permanet private halls as of 2008.<ref>[http://www.ox.ac.uk/colleges/colleges_and_halls_az/index.html]</ref>

*All Souls College (graduates only)
*Balliol College
*Blackfriars
*Brasenose College
*Campion Hall
*Christ Church
*Corpus Christi College
*Exeter College
*Green Templeton College (graduates only)
*Harris Manchester College (mature students only)
*Hertford College
*Jesus College
*Keble College
*Kellogg College
*Lady Margaret Hall
*Linacre College
*Lincoln College
*Magdalen College
*Mansfield College
*Merton College
*New College
*Nuffield College
*Oriel College
*Pembroke College
*Regent's Park College
*Somerville College
*St Anne's College
*St Antony's College
*St Benet's Hall
*St Catherine's College
*St Cross College
*St Edmund Hall
*St Hilda's College
*St Hugh's College
*St John's College
*St Peter's College
*St Stephen's House
*The Queen's College
*Trinity College
*University College
*Wadham College
*Wolfson College
*Worcester College
*Wycliffe Hall

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*[http://www.ox.ac.uk University of Oxford website]

[[Category:British Universities]]
[[Category:University of Oxford]]

Oxford

2008-11-14T19:57:43Z

Papabear1: /* University */

[[Image:Bridge of Sighs.jpg|right|thumb|300px|The Bridge of Sighs, Oxford ''(Photograph by Tom Murphy VII)'']]
'''Oxford''' is the county town of Oxfordshire in [[England]]. Despite a population of a little over 150,000 it includes two Universities and is renowned in the arts and sciences today and historically.

==Geography==

The town is built where the river Cherwell runs into the [[River Thames]] (known as the Isis in Oxford, short for the original Thamesis). The historical centre of the city is orientated around the University of Oxford and its constituent colleges. The city then spreads eastwards across the River Cherwell where more modern residential buildings dominate.

Suburbs of Oxford include Headington (location of [[Oxford Brookes University]]), Cowley (location of the BMW motor works), Iffley, Kennington, Osney, Hinksey, Jericho and Kidlington.

==University==
The University was organised there soon after 1167, perhaps as a result of a migration of students from [[Paris]]. The first colleges were founded in the thirteenth century (University, 1249; Balliol, 1263 and Merton, 1264) and Oxford rose to equal status with the great medieval universities.

Numbering among its scholars the philosopher and scientist [[Roger Bacon]], and [[Sir Thomas More]]. The esteemed writer [[J.R.R. Tolkien]] was an Oxford professor.

A centre of [[Royalism]] in the seventeenth century, Oxford declined during the eighteen century but was revived in the 1800's, particularly as a result of a renaissance in scientific thought. The University includes the [[Bodleian Library]], the largest university library in the country and second in size overall nationally to the British Library.

==Sport==
In common with most of the [[United Kingdom]], [[soccer]] is the dominant sport in Oxford, most notably the professional club [[Oxford United]].

Other notable clubs include the [[rugby league]] club, [[Oxford Cavaliers]] and the speedway team.

Perhaps the most famous sporting event associated with Oxford, however, is the University Boat race, which has taken place every year for over 100 years, normally in March, between the [[University of Oxford]] (the "light blues") and the [[University of Cambridge]] (the "Dark Blues"). It is a rowing race for "eights" and takes place on the [[River Thames]] in [[London]]. The boat race is an occasion for students and alumni of each of the two famous universities to cheer on their team, and there have been many incidents during the race including several occasions when one of the boats has sunk.

==History==
Oxford was a base for Royalist forces ([[Cavaliers]] in the [[English Civil War]]), with King Charles I setting up his court in Christ Church.

[[Category:United Kingdom Cities and Towns]]

Oxford

2008-11-14T19:56:17Z

Papabear1: updated information, spelling/grammar corrections

[[Image:Bridge of Sighs.jpg|right|thumb|300px|The Bridge of Sighs, Oxford ''(Photograph by Tom Murphy VII)'']]
'''Oxford''' is the county town of Oxfordshire in [[England]]. Despite a population of a little over 150,000 it includes two Universities and is renowned in the arts and sciences today and historically.

==Geography==

The town is built where the river Cherwell runs into the [[River Thames]] (known as the Isis in Oxford, short for the original Thamesis). The historical centre of the city is orientated around the University of Oxford and its constituent colleges. The city then spreads eastwards across the River Cherwell where more modern residential buildings dominate.

Suburbs of Oxford include Headington (location of [[Oxford Brookes University]]), Cowley (location of the BMW motor works), Iffley, Kennington, Osney, Hinksey, Jericho and Kidlington.

==University==
The University was organised there soon after 1167, perhaps as a result of a migration of students from [[Paris]]. The first colleges were founded in the thirteenth century (University, 1249; Balliol, 1263 and Merton, 1264) and Oxford rose to equal status with the great medieval universities.

Numbering among its scholars the philosopher and scientist [[Roger Bacon]], and [[Sir Thomas More]]. The esteemed writer [[J.R.R. Tolkien]] was an Oxford professor.

A centre of [[Royalism]] in the seventeenth century, Oxford declined during the eighteen century but was revived in the 1800's, particularly as a result of a renaissance in religious thought. The University includes the [[Bodleian Library]].

==Sport==
In common with most of the [[United Kingdom]], [[soccer]] is the dominant sport in Oxford, most notably the professional club [[Oxford United]].

Other notable clubs include the [[rugby league]] club, [[Oxford Cavaliers]] and the speedway team.

Perhaps the most famous sporting event associated with Oxford, however, is the University Boat race, which has taken place every year for over 100 years, normally in March, between the [[University of Oxford]] (the "light blues") and the [[University of Cambridge]] (the "Dark Blues"). It is a rowing race for "eights" and takes place on the [[River Thames]] in [[London]]. The boat race is an occasion for students and alumni of each of the two famous universities to cheer on their team, and there have been many incidents during the race including several occasions when one of the boats has sunk.

==History==
Oxford was a base for Royalist forces ([[Cavaliers]] in the [[English Civil War]]), with King Charles I setting up his court in Christ Church.

[[Category:United Kingdom Cities and Towns]]