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Wolf-Rayet star

2014-07-15T01:10:12Z

Parky:

'''Wolf-Rayet stars''' are massive stars that are in the stage of their stellar evolution where they undergo heavy mass loss. These stars are most recognized for their unusual spectrum, which is dominated by the emission lines of highly ionized [[element|elements]].

==History==

The first Wolf-Rayet stars were identified in 1867 at the [[Paris]] Observatory when astronomers '''Charles Wolf''' and '''Georges Rayet''' observed three stars in the constellation of [[Cygnus]] that displayed unusually broad emission bands in their [[spectrum]]. The cause of these emission bands remained unknown for several decades. At first, the emission bands were thought to be some unusual state of hydrogen, but were later shown to be helium, an element identified for the first time in 1868.<ref>http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1912MNRAS..73...62F</ref> Later, emission lines of [[carbon]], [[oxygen]], and [[nitrogen]] were identified in the spectra.<ref>http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1933Obs....56..196B</ref>

Later observations showed the usually wide emission bands were due to the [[Doppler effect]] caused by the gas surrounding the [[star]] moving at extremely high speeds of around 300-2400 km/s.<ref>http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1929MNRAS..90..202B</ref> The [[International Astronomical Union]] in 1938 classified Wolf-Rayet stars officially according to their spectra. These classifications are WN, for spectrum dominated by lines of nitrogen, and WC for spectrum dominated by carbon and oxygen.<ref>http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1942ApJ....95..112S</ref> Later in 1990, the WN classification was subdivided into two sub-catagories called WNL and WNE.<ref name="nz">http://www.peripatus.gen.nz/astronomy/wolraysta.html</ref>

==Portrait==

Wolf-rayet stars are massive stars nearing the end of their lives (possibly evolved from massive class O stars). Typically they have a mass of over 20 solar masses, with surface temperature running between 25,000K to 50,000K, making them among the largest and hottest stars in the universe. Their atmospheres are unusually thick in comparison to other stars. One of the most notable features of a Wolf-Rayet star is the incredible mass loss due to intense stellar winds of up to 2000 km/s. All stars lose mass over time, however the rate of mass loss for a Wolf-Rayet star is very high, between 10-4 and 10-5 solar masses a year. In comparison, the [[Sun]] losses only around 10-14 solar masses a year.<ref name="nz">http://www.peripatus.gen.nz/astronomy/wolraysta.html</ref>

The ferocious winds are caused when the various elements, such as carbon, oxygen and nitrogen, are created in the star's core reach the surface over time. As these elements accumulate on the surface, they absorb much of intense light of the star, causing a powerfully strong stellar wind to start blowing from the surface of the star. This wind becomes so thick, it obscures the star itself.<ref>http://imagine.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/ask_astro/answers/980603a.html</ref>

The mass loss caused by the furious stellar winds sloughing off the outer layers of the star's atmosphere considerably shortens the remaining life of the star. Eventually the Wolf-Rayet star will run out of fusible material and will end its life as a [[Supernova#Type_1b_and_Ic|type Ib supernova]].<ref name="nz">http://www.peripatus.gen.nz/astronomy/wolraysta.html</ref>

There are only around 230 Wolf-Rayet stars known in our own [[Milky Way|galaxy]], with a further 100 in the [[Magellanic_Clouds#Large_Magellanic_Cloud|Large Magellanic Cloud]] and a dozen in the [[Magellanic_Clouds#Small_Magellanic_Cloud|Small Magellanic Cloud]]. Of all of these, the best known is '''Gamma 2 Velorum''', a multiple star system of six stars of which at least one is a Wolf-Rayet star. Gamma 2 Velorum is visible to the unaided eye in the skies below 40 degrees south latitude and is nicknamed "Spectral Gem of Southern Skies".

====Wolf-Rayet Sequence Classifications====

:'''WNL''' - Also called late type WN Wolf-Rayet stars. Typically the earliest sequence in the evolution of these stars. They are the most massive of Wolf-Rayet stars and have substantial hydrogen present with a hydrogen burning shell and a helium burning core. Spectra emission lines are dominated by nitrogen.

:'''WNE''' - Also called early WN Wolf-Rayet stars. The spectra emission lines are still nitrogen dominated. Hydrogen is absent from the star with the helium burning core remaining. Hotter and brighter then WNL types.

:'''WN+WC''' - Transitional classification that is short lived. Usually associated with [[binary star|binary systems]] but also found with single Wolf-rayet stars.

:'''WC''' - Hottest but least luminous of the classes of Wolf-Rayet stars. Nitrogen is absent from the spectra. Hydrogen is absent from the star and the surface is increasingly represented by carbon. This is the most evolved of the Wolf-Rayet sequences. Particularly oxygen-rich examples are classified as WO.

[[Category:Astronomy]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

Commonwealth Realms

2014-07-15T01:03:30Z

Parky: Created page with "A Commonwealth Realm is a sovereign state that is a member of the Commonwealth of Nations, has Queen Elizabeth II as its reigning constitutional monarch, and has a royal line of ..."

A Commonwealth Realm is a sovereign state that is a member of the Commonwealth of Nations, has Queen Elizabeth II as its reigning constitutional monarch, and has a royal line of succession in common with the other realms. There are sixteen Commonwealth Realms.
These are: United Kingdom, Australia, New Zealand, Canada, Jamaica, Antigua and Barbuda, Belize, Papua New Guinea, St Christopher and Nevis, St Vincent and the Grenadines, Tuvalu, Barbados, Grenada, Solomon Islands, St Lucia and The Bahamas.

British

2014-07-15T00:58:34Z

Parky:

'''British''' is the adjective that refers to Britain—historically to [[Great Britain]] and today to the [[United Kingdom]].

The "British people" (or informally, '''Brits''') are the subjects<ref> The term "citizen" is increasingly used for the more technically correct "subject."</ref> of the [[United Kingdom]]. They usually call themselves ''[[English]]'', ''[[Scottish]]'', ''[[Welsh]]'' or ''Northern Irish''/''[[Irish]]'' referring to which constituent country of the UK they self-identify with. In [[Northern Ireland]] "British" is usually associated with the [[Unionist]] community, with [[nationalists]] and republicans generally regarding themselves as exclusively ''Irish''.

Until the 1960s the the word "English" was commonly used instead of "British." This annoyed the Scots and Irish so much that "English" is today more narrowly confined to the language and to the country of England (which comprises most of the British population).
==British Empire==
Historically, the [[British Empire]] from 1600 to 1997 was the largest empire the world has ever seen, administered from London. British settlements and dependencies --usually called "colonies"--were established all over the world. There was never any doubt that the British were the rulers and the locals were mere subjects.

In terms of size it peaked in the 1920s, covering a quarter of the world's land surface area. Most of the growth came after 1783 when Britain lost America after losing the [[American Revolutionary War]]. The large empire was possible because Britain "ruled the seas" through the strong domination of the [[Royal Navy]], and used this to ensure free trading for British interests. With up to a quarter of the world as British subjects, the Empire was also the world's foremost military power. For many centuries, populations lived under a period of relative peace and prosperity that was the ''Pax Brittannica'', though from a modern perspective, the methods used to control and ensure this superiority on occasion were on occasion particularly vicious.

The empire as such no longer exists, though its legacy can still be appreciated today, be it through the popularity of traditional British sports such as football, cricket, rugby and golf; or from the status of [[English]] as the current global [[lingua franca]]; or from the use of the [[Westminster system]] of government and English common law around the world.

The Empire's successor is the [[Commonwealth of Nations]], which still features the British monarch [[Queen Elizabeth II]] as the [[Head of the Commonwealth]]. The commonwealth consists of the UK, [[Commonwealth Realms]] which still have the British monarch as Head of State, and republics.

In 1999, [[Australia]]ns voted in a referendum to retain the British monarch as their [[Head of State]], rather than declare Australia a republic.<ref>Leduc, L. [http://books.google.com/books?id=bawKFKxDFZoC&lpg=PA73&dq=Australian%20republic%20referendum&pg=PA73#v=onepage&q=%22The%20Australian%20republic%20referendum%22&f=false ''The Politics of Direct Democracy: Referendums in Global Perspective'']; Broadview Press; Ontario. Page 73, (2003)</ref>

==References==
<references/>

==See also==

[[Category: United Kingdom]]
[[Category: British History]]
[[Category: British Empire]]