Conservapedia - User contributions [en]

The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints

2015-06-03T18:11:36Z

PaulBustion87: It is not Christian, and is the most polytheistic religion in the world.

[[Image:Birmingham temple.jpg|right|Birmingham temple]]
'''The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints''',<ref>[http://www.lds.org/ldsnewsroom/v/index.jsp?vgnextoid=ca07ae4af9c7e010VgnVCM1000004e94610aRCRD Style Guide - The Name of the Church] LDS.org</ref>, known as the '''LDS Church''' or, more colloquially, the '''Mormon Church''', is the largest denomination originating from the Latter-Day Saint movement founded by [[Joseph Smith]]. It is nominally Christian, but in reality is a different religion from Christianity. It is the most polytheistic religion in the world. <ref>[http://www.reformationtheology.com/2007/02/mormonism_v_christianity_a_quo.php]</ref> Its members are colloquially referred to as "Mormons." As of 2015, the Church reports over 15.3 million members worldwide. <ref>[http://www.mormonnewsroom.org/article/2014-statistical-report-for-2015-april-general-conference "2014 Statistical Report for 2015 April General Conference"], ''Mormon Newsroom'', April 4, 2015.</ref><ref>[http://www.adherents.com/largecom/com_lds.html Geographic statistics]</ref> This authentic American-founded religious group has contributed greatly to the United States. As just one example, they have devoted millions of man hours to humanitarian efforts around the globe.

==Overview==
The church was organized in 1830 in the [[Burned-over district|Burned-Over District]] of upstate New York, by [[Joseph Smith]]. As the Church grew, new converts gathered in [[Ohio]] and [[Missouri]]. While the Latter-day Saints in [[Kirtland]], Ohio, experienced persecution, those gathered in Missouri were repeatedly driven from town to town by angry mobs. Having been forced from Missouri in 1839, Church members gathered in Illinois and built a thriving city called [[Nauvoo]] in a swampy bend of the Mississippi River. However, within seven years they were again forced from their homes. Led by [[Brigham Young]], these pioneers trekked 1,300 miles (2,092 kilometers) westward to the Salt Lake Valley, to escape persecution, and founded [[Salt Lake City]], [[Utah]], where the Latter-Day Saint Church continues to be headquartered today. The church has now expanded to more than 13 million members.<ref>[http://www.lds.org/ldsnewsroom/v/index.jsp?vgnextoid=86e6635a56d8f010VgnVCM100000176f620aRCRD&vgnextchannel=3e0511154963d010VgnVCM1000004e94610aRCRD LDS Newsroom - Early Church History]</ref><ref>[http://www.lds.org/ldsnewsroom/v/index.jsp?vgnextoid=d10511154963d010VgnVCM1000004e94610aRCRD Worldwide Church Statistics] LDS.org</ref>

Church members follow a law of health known as the [[Word of Wisdom]] that promotes healthy eating as well as avoiding tobacco, alcohol, coffee, tea, and illegal drugs.<ref>[http://scriptures.lds.org/dc/89 The Word of Wisdom] Scriptures.lds.org</ref>
The U.S religious landscape survey published in February 2008 shows that [[Mormon]]s have the largest families closely followed by Muslims. <ref> [http://www.iht.com/articles/2008/02/25/america/25usreligion.php U.S religious landscape survey]</ref>

==Mormons' relationship to Christianity==
According to the [[Lutheran Missouri Synod]], "The Lutheran Church--Missouri Synod, together with the vast majority of Christian denominations in the United States, does not regard the Mormon church as a Christian church." <ref>http://www.lcms.org/pages/internal.asp?NavID=2239</ref> In addition, the [[Southern Baptist Convention]] states that the Mormon religion is "not consistent with biblical Christianity." <ref>http://www.onenewsnow.com/2007/02/southern_baptist_convention_wa.php</ref> The [[United Methodist Church]] has stated that the the Morman faith has "some radically differing doctrine on such matters of belief as the nature and being of [[God]]; the nature, origin, and purpose of [[Jesus Christ]]; and the nature and way of [[salvation]]." <ref>http://www.apologeticsindex.org/news/an200513.html#21</ref> According to Beliefnet.com there are a number of differences between the Mormon faith and traditional Christianity. <ref>http://www.beliefnet.com/features/mormonism.html</ref> Dr. James White, a Christian pastor, has stated that Mormonism is more different from Christianity than Islam because Mormonism is polytheistic, while Islam is monotheistic, and whether a religion is monotheistic or polytheistic is the basic element to a religion, according to White. He went on to say that part of the reason that Mormonism was, he felt, often mistaken for Christianity was his perception that Mormonism uses the same words Christians use, but it gives them completely different meanings. <ref>http://www.reformationtheology.com/2007/02/mormonism_v_christianity_a_quo.php</ref> The Roman Catholic Church does not accept Mormon baptisms as Christian baptisms. <ref>http://www.christiancentury.org/article/2012-01/are-mormons-christian-its-complicated</ref>

==Beliefs==
Latter-day Saints (Mormons) believe in the deity of [[Christ]]. They affirm the deity of Christ and their Church bears his name. From the organization of the LDS Church in 1830, the Church's doctrine focused on matters concerning theological issues related to Jesus Christ. Joseph Smith, Jr. wrote in 1842 to ''Chicago Democrat'' editor John Wentworth a statement of Church beliefs. The first of these 13 doctrinal declarations, later called the Articles of [[Faith]], stated the following:<blockquote>“We believe in [[God]] the Eternal Father, and in His Son, Jesus Christ, and in the [[Holy Ghost]]."<ref>[http://www.lds.org/portal/site/LDSOrg/menuitem.b12f9d18fae655bb69095bd3e44916a0/?vgnextoid=2354fccf2b7db010VgnVCM1000004d82620aRCRD&locale=0&sourceId=4ebe76e6ffe0c010VgnVCM1000004d82620a____&hideNav=1 The Marvelous Foundation of Our Faith] from the October 2002 General Conference</ref></blockquote> However, the Mormon understanding of Christ's deity is very different from the Christian understanding. Mormons believe Jesus is a god, but not a unique god. They believe Jesus is a created being, is only unique in mission, not in claims to godhood, and that he is the spirit brother of Satan. <ref>What Do Mormons Really Believe
By John Ankerberg, John Weldon[https://books.google.com/books?id=USylAQAAQBAJ&pg=PT48&dq=Mormons+reject+Christ+deity&hl=en&sa=X&ei=g1tRVaLQMMPwoAS42oGACQ&ved=0CB4Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=Mormons%20reject%20Christ%20deity&f=false]</ref>

"The Articles of Faith are thirteen statements written by the Prophet Joseph Smith describing some of the basic teachings and ordinances of the Church". <ref>[http://scriptures.lds.org/en/a_of_f/1]</ref> <ref>[http://library.lds.org/nxt/gateway.dll/Curriculum/home%20and%20family.htm/gospel%20principles.htm?fn=document-frameset.htm$f=templates$3.0 ''Gospel Principles'', The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, Utah. 1997</ref> 

The LDS website states: <blockquote>"We believe in the Jesus of the [[New Testament]], and we believe what the New Testament teaches about Him. We do believe things about Jesus that other Christians do not believe, but that is because we know, through revelation, things about Jesus that others do not know."<ref>[http://www.mormon.org/question/faq/category/answer/0,9777,1601-1-56-16,00.html Is The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints a Christian church?] As answered on the LDS Church's website</ref></blockquote>

Members of the church believe that [[God the Father]] and Jesus Christ are separate and distinct glorified beings, that God, the Father of all spirits (even including Lucifer) and Jesus Christ appeared to Joseph Smith in a vision in the spring of 1820 in response to Joseph's prayer requesting to know which of the many local [[Christian]] denominations he should join himself with, and that They told him that he should join with none of them. The reason behind this direction was as follows, according to LDS beliefs: the organization or "church" put in place by Jesus Christ during His ministry both before and after His resurrection was meant to remain as long as there were faithful followers, although there was clear understanding that a "falling away" (see 2 Thessalonians 2:3) or apostasy would take place, destroying for a time this organization (though not destroying faith in Jesus Christ, which did persist). This church organization provided a structure whereby two key components were maintained: the Priesthood, and continuing and direct revelation from the ascended Jesus Christ to His chosen Apostles.

According to LDS beliefs, the Priesthood is the authority given by Jesus Christ to His [[Apostles]] and others, both to direct the Church, as well as to perform the associated and necessary ordinances, such as baptism by water immersion, and giving the gift of the Holy Ghost by the laying on of hands. Without this authority, it would be impossible to perform them in an authorized manner (see [[Book of Acts|Acts]] 8:18-23). This authority, in actuality a covenant of service, only placed on men and not at all a legitimate source of self-aggrandizement, could only be passed from one authorized holder to another worthy man through the laying on of hands. Thus, while although initially the full quorum of 12 Apostles was maintained (see Acts 1:15-26), the Apostles were killed one by one and the Lord, in His mercy, ceased to give these murderers further opportunity of condemning themselves as more Apostles were not chosen. Thus, without the Priesthood and without the continuing revelation that the Lord provided to His Apostles to lead and guide the church, it fell way, as had been prophesied.

Therefore, LDS doctrine teaches of the necessity of a complete restoration rather than simply a reformation, and for this reason, Joseph Smith was called by God to be the first prophet, in the same sense as [[Moses]], [[Isaiah]], or [[Peter]], since the times of the New Testament. Mormons believe that since Joseph Smith, the leaders of the Church, from Brigham Young to [[Gordon B. Hinckley]] today, were and are prophets, with the complete Priesthood authority (restored through the laying on of hands by first [[John the Baptist]] and then by Apostles Peter, [[James]] and [[John]]). Mormons revere these men just as the Biblical prophets are revered and in particular, honor Joseph Smith for being the man through whom God and Jesus Christ chose to restore Their church to the earth.

===JesusChrist.lds.org===
[[Image:FaithinChrist.jpg|thumb|right|A screen shot of the new JesusChrist.lds.org Web site.]]
The Church has a multimedia website about the life and teachings of Jesus Christ at [http://jesuschrist.lds.org/?cid=wpats1 JesusChrist.lds.org].

Elder [[Russell Nelson|Russell M. Nelson]] speaks about the new website ''JesusChrist.lds.org''. [http://www.lds.org/ldsnewsroom/media/mediaplayer.swf?media=http://broadcast.lds.org/newsroom/video/flv/2-29-08_Nelson.flv&type=FLV video]

===Scriptures===

The four standard works of the Church are:
*The King James Version of the [[Bible]] - both the Old and New Testaments
*[[The Book of Mormon|The Book of Mormon: Another Testament of Jesus Christ]] - Translation of the spiritual record of two ancient civilizations in the western hemisphere, one from the time of the [[Tower of Babel]] to about 600 B.C., and the other from 600 B.C. to 421 A.D.
*[[Doctrine and Covenants]] - Modern-day revelation as received by the Prophet Joseph Smith and other modern-day prophets
*[[Pearl of Great Price]] - Selection of translations, revelations and narrations from the Prophet Joseph Smith

====Book of Mormon====

President [[Gordon B. Hinckley]] said the following about the [[Book of Mormon]] in an October, 2002 [[General Conference]] address entitled "The Marvelous Foundation of Our Faith": <blockquote>"This remarkable book stands as a testimonial to the living reality of the Son of God. The Bible declares that 'in the mouth of two or three witnesses every word may be established' (Matt. 18:16). The Bible, the testament of the Old World, is one witness. The Book of Mormon, the testament of the New World, is another witness.</blockquote><blockquote>I cannot understand why the Christian world does not accept this book. I would think they would be looking for anything and everything that would establish without question the reality and the divinity of the Savior of the world."<ref>[http://www.lds.org/ldsnewsroom/v/index.jsp?vgnextoid=e74c4d4297602110VgnVCM100000176f620aRCRD Mormons Reflect Christianity in Lifestyle] as stated in the April, 2007 newsroom article at lds.org</ref></blockquote>

===Restoration of the Priesthood===
Members of the [[Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]] believe that on May 15, 1829 A.D., the resurrected [[John the Baptist]] appeared to [[Joseph Smith|Joseph Smith, Jr.]] and [[Oliver Cowdery]] and conferred upon them the [[Aaronic priesthood]], which includes the authority to baptize.<ref>[http://scriptures.lds.org/en/dc/13 Doctrine and Covenants 13]</ref> Later, the resurrected Peter, James, and John appeared to them and conferred the [[Melchizedek priesthood]].

==Special Witnesses of Christ==
These prophets and apostles have given their testimonies as special witnesses of Jesus Christ.

*President [[Gordon Hinckley|Gordon B. Hinckley (1910-2008)]] <ref>[http://jesuschrist.lds.org/SonOfGod/eng/special-witnesses/video/president-gordon-b-hinckley-1910-2008-garden-tomb Special Witnesses of Christ], President Gordon B. Hinckley at the Garden Tomb, video at ''JesusChrist.lds.org''.</ref> <ref>[http://jesuschrist.lds.org/SonOfGod/eng/special-witnesses/video/president-gordon-b-hinckley-1910-2008-sacred-grove Special Witnesses of Christ], President Gordon B. Hinckley at the Sacred Grove, video at ''JesusChrist.lds.org''.</ref>
*President [[Thomas Monson|Thomas S. Monson]] <ref>[http://jesuschrist.lds.org/SonOfGod/eng/special-witnesses/video/president-thomas-s-monson Special Witnesses of Christ], President Thomas S. Monson, video at ''JesusChrist.lds.org''.</ref>
*President [[Henry Eyring|Henry B. Eyring]]
*President [[Dieter Uchtdorf|Dieter F. Uchtdorf]] <ref>[http://jesuschrist.lds.org/SonOfGod/eng/special-witnesses/video/president-dieter-f-uchtdorf Special Witnesses of Christ], President Dieter F. Uchtdorf, video at ''JesusChrist.lds.org''.</ref>
*President [[Boyd Packer|Boyd K. Packer]] <ref>[http://jesuschrist.lds.org/SonOfGod/eng/special-witnesses/video/president-boyd-k-packer Special Witnesses of Christ], President Boyd K. Packer, video at ''JesusChrist.lds.org''.</ref>
*Elder [[L. Tom Perry]]
*Elder [[Russell Nelson|Russell M. Nelson]] <ref>[http://jesuschrist.lds.org/SonOfGod/eng/special-witnesses/video/elder-russell-m-nelson Special Witnesses of Christ], Elder Russell M. Nelson, video at ''JesusChrist.lds.org''.</ref>
*Elder [[Dallin Oaks|Dallin H. Oaks]]
*Elder [[M. Russell Ballard]]
*Elder [[Joseph Wirthlin|Joseph B. Wirthlin (1917-2008)]]
*Elder [[Richard Scott|Richard G. Scott]]
*Elder [[Robert Hales|Robert D. Hales]] <ref>[http://jesuschrist.lds.org/SonOfGod/eng/special-witnesses/video/elder-robert-d-hales Special Witnesses of Christ], Elder Robert D. Hales, video at ''JesusChrist.lds.org''.</ref>
*Elder [[Jeffrey Holland|Jeffrey R. Holland]] <ref>[http://jesuschrist.lds.org/SonOfGod/eng/special-witnesses/video/elder-jeffrey-r-holland Special Witnesses of Christ], Elder Jeffrey R. Holland, video at ''JesusChrist.lds.org''.</ref>
*Elder [[David Bednar|David A. Bednar]] <ref>[http://jesuschrist.lds.org/SonOfGod/eng/special-witnesses/video/elder-elder-david-a-bednar Special Witnesses of Christ], Elder David A. Bednar, video at ''JesusChrist.lds.org''.</ref>
*Elder [[Quentin Cook|Quentin L. Cook]]
*Elder [[D. Todd Christofferson]]

==Wards==
[[Image:DCTemple.jpg|right|Washington DC Temple]]
Wards are geographically-defined congregations of the church. The Bishop is the spiritual leader of the ward and he serves with two counselors, all three chosen from among the body of the Ward. Bishops are usually called to serve for a period of five years and do so on a volunteer and unpaid basis, without formal ecclesiastical training, and while maintaining their secular professions.

The entire ward meets every week on Sunday to worship the Lord Jesus Christ and to receive counsel. The meetings are divided into three different hours:
*First hour - '''Sacrament meeting'''. Our main purpose in attending sacrament meeting is to renew our covenants through partaking of the sacrament and to worship our Heavenly Father through hymn singing and prayer. Sacrament meeting provides an opportunity for members to strengthen their faith, find inner peace and spiritual healing, receive inspiration, and be instructed in the gospel. A member of the bishopric begins the meeting welcoming all members and visitors. There is an opening hymn followed by an opening prayer (invocation). This is followed by conducting ward business where members are released and sustained from callings. Then the sacrament of bread and water is prepared, blessed by the priesthood, and passed to the congregation. The sacrament is a renewal of the covenants each member made at baptism to remember the Lord Jesus Christ and to keep his commandments. On the first Sunday of the month, the meeting conductor starts off the bearing of testimonies by offering his own personal testimony. A testimony is a personal witness that the gospel of Jesus Christ is true. As inspired by the Spirit, other members give their testimonies. On the other three Sundays, there are talks from members. The sacrament meeting concludes with a closing hymn and prayer.
*Second hour - '''Sunday School''', '''Primary''' and '''Nursery'''. Its purposes are to teach the gospel of Jesus Christ and strengthen individuals and families by encouraging them to study the scriptures, obey the commandments, receive the essential ordinances, and keep the associated covenants. All the adults and youth meet in Sunday School classes. Children younger than twelve and three or older attend Primary. Children who are at least 18 months old but who are not yet 3 years old on 1 January may attend nursery at the discretion of their parents.
:'''Adult Sunday School''' - The adults meet in several different classes. New members to the Church usually attend a Gospel Essentials class where they learn the basic teachings of the Church. Most of the other adults attend a Gospel Doctrine class where they are instructed in the Gospel of Jesus Christ from the scriptures. The main subjects rotate every four years: Old Testament, New Testament, Book of Mormon, and the last year is Doctrine and Covenants, Pearl of Great Price and Church history. The bible used by Church members is the King James Version.
:'''Youth Sunday School''' - The youth meet in several different classes according to their ages. There are usually separate classes for twelve and thirteen year olds, fourteen and fifteen year olds and sixteen and seventeen year olds. When they turn eighteen, the member starts attending the adult classes.
:'''Primary''' - The purpose of Primary is to teach children the gospel of Jesus Christ and help them learn to live it.
:'''Nursery''' - The purpose of the nursery class is to provide a loving, safe, organized place where young children can increase their understanding of and love for Heavenly Father and Jesus Christ, have positive experiences in a Church setting, and grow in feelings of self-worth.
*Third hour - '''Priesthood''', '''Relief Society''', '''Young Men''', '''Young Women''', '''Primary''' and '''Nursery'''. The men meet in Priesthood, the adult women meet in Relief Society,the male youth meet in Young Men, the female youth meet in Young Women and the children continue to meet in Primary or Nursery.
:'''Priesthood''' - The purpose of the priesthood meetings are to increase priesthood holders’ knowledge of the gospel; strengthen their dedication to becoming better husbands, fathers, sons, and neighbors; and help them become active participants in fulfilling the mission of the Church.
:'''Relief Society ''' - The purpose of Relief Society is to provide relief for the poor and needy and to bring people to Christ.
:'''Young Men''' - The purpose of the Young men group is to prepare the young men of the Aaronic Priesthood to receive the Melchizedek Priesthood, to receive the ordinances of the temple, and to serve a full-time mission.
:'''Young Women''' - The purpose of the Young Women organization is to help each young woman, ages 12 to 18, "come unto Christ".

==General Conference==
The church holds a semi-annual General Conference (in April and October, five two-hour sessions over two days) during which members listen to spoken messages from the Prophet and President of the church, his two counselors, members of the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles and other Church leaders. These messages are received by members of the church as modern-day revelation, just as the words of Peter were received by the followers of Jesus Christ in his day. Many members travel to Salt Lake City for the two-day conference, but the proceedings are broadcast via satellite throughout the world (as well as streamed on the internet) so that the entire church can participate.

The semi-annual conference was held in the Salt Lake Tabernacle for 132 years, but in 2000, the church completed construction of the Conference Center and has held the conference there since April 2000. The Conference Center's primary feature is an auditorium that seats 21,000.

==History of the Church in Utah ==
After the move to what would eventually become Utah, members of the Church founded the Territory of Deseret. While this was soon scaled down to the Utah territory by the United states government, the name Deseret was retained in the form of a newspaper (the Deseret Times) and the symbol on the state's highways (the beehive). Brigham Young, the then president of the Church was appointed governor of the Territory. The territory thrived, with the Saints in all positions of power (a territory consisting almost entirely of Saints unsurprisingly elected a territorial legislature that was entirely Mormon).

When federal officials, placed as patronage positions, arrived in Utah and found they could not profit in the usual way (skimming money off the top of deals, insisting on bribes and kickbacks for contracts), they started a drumbeat of negativity towards the Church in Washington. This led to the United States government marching an army of 2,500 troops towards Utah in 1857. This exercise of a nation taking arms against its own people failed miserably, with the troops poorly supplied and forced to march through the Rocky Mountains in the winter. Armed conflict was averted by Thomas Kaine, who convinced the governor of the territory at the time, Alfred Cummings, to order the army to pass by Salt Lake City and camp miles away. This failed expedition helped the Saints maintain a greater part of their independence from the federal government for a while longer.

==Controversy==

====Position of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, with respect to Christianity====
Members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints consider themselves Christians. They worship Jesus Christ as their Creator (see John 1:3), their Savior and Redeemer, and ultimately their eternal Judge. They believe that the events described in the New Testament in reality occurred, including Jesus Christ's virgin birth, his sinless life and miraculous ministry, and his suffering, death, and literal resurrection, through which forgiveness of sin, salvation (understood in LDS doctrine to indicate resurrection and immortality, a free gift to all; see 1 Corinthians 15:22), and ultimately exaltation (returning to and eternally dwelling in the presence of God and Jesus Christ and becoming "joint-heirs with Christ"; see Romans 8:17), are made possible.

The eleventh of the above-mentioned thirteen articles of faith contains the following statement:
<blockquote>“We claim the privilege of worshiping Almighty God according to the dictates of our own conscience, and allow all men the same privilege, let them worship how, where, or what they may." (see Articles of Faith 1:11)</blockquote>

====African Americans and the Priesthood====
African Americans were banned from the priesthood until, in June 1978, President Spencer W. Kimball is said to have received a revelation extending priesthood ordination to all worthy males of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (Official Declaration 2).
<ref name="Black">Emmanuel Abu Kissi, [http://byustudies.byu.edu/Reviews/Pages/reviewdetail.aspx?reviewID=117 Book review of Black and Mormon] BYU Studies Review, October 2006.</ref><ref> [http://www.pbs.org/mormons/themes/prohibition.html The Prohibition Against Blacks in the Priesthood], Public Broadcasting Service.</ref> <ref>[http://www.lds.org/ldsorg/v/index.jsp?vgnextoid=bbd508f54922d010VgnVCM1000004d82620aRCRD&locale=0&sourceId=36f2ce9566a43110VgnVCM100000176f620a____ LDS.org - Topic Definition - Priesthood Ordination before 1978]</ref>

The Book of Mormon attests that God invites “all to come unto him and partake of his goodness; and he denieth none that come unto him, black and white, bond and free, male and female; . . . and all are alike unto God” (2 Nephi 26:33). In our present day the First Presidency and Quorum of the Twelve Apostles have stated that all human beings are created in the image of God and that each is a beloved spirit son or daughter of Deity. <ref>“The Family: A Proclamation to the World,” 23 Sept. 1995, published in Ensign, Nov. 1995</ref>

<blockquote>In the twentieth century, various Church leaders continued to offer possible reasons why a race of people was prohibited from holding the priesthood. One explanation, carried over from the previous century, stated that blacks were descendants of Cain, the first murderer, and therefore were denied the priesthood because of lineage. Another theory held that blacks were less valiant in the premortal existence and therefore had certain spiritual restrictions placed upon them during mortality. Priesthood denial was perceived to be one of these spiritual restrictions. But by mid-century, President David O. McKay stated, "There is not now, and there never has been, a doctrine in this Church that the negroes are under a divine curse. . . .It is a practice, not a doctrine, and the practice will some day be changed".<ref name="Black" /></blockquote>

===Views on Same-Gender Attraction===
In October 2007, Elder Jeffrey R. Holland, of the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles, wrote an article in the Ensign magazine entitled "Helping Those Who Struggle with Same-Gender Attraction". <ref>[http://www.lds.org/portal/site/LDSOrg/menuitem.b12f9d18fae655bb69095bd3e44916a0/?vgnextoid=2354fccf2b7db010VgnVCM1000004d82620aRCRD&locale=0&sourceId=e5cbba12dc825110VgnVCM100000176f620a____ Helping Those Who Struggle with Same-Gender Attraction]</ref> In 2007, the Church published a pamphlet "God Loveth His Children", for those suffering from same-gender attraction. <ref>http://www.lds.org/topics/pdf/GodLovethHisChildren_04824_000.pdf God Loveth His Children</ref>

On June 7, 2006, ABC’s Nightline ran a story on members and former members of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints who struggle with same-gender attraction. The Church published a response to the inaccuracies in the Nightline story. <ref>[http://www.lds.org/ldsnewsroom/v/index.jsp?vgnextoid=d4ec39628b88f010VgnVCM100000176f620aRCRD&vgnextchannel=f5f411154963d010VgnVCM1000004e94610aRCRD Church Responds to Nightline Story on Mormons and Homosexuality]</ref>

The Church has a section on same-gender attraction on the Newsroom website. <ref>[http://www.lds.org/ldsnewsroom/v/index.jsp?vgnextoid=27f71f1dd189f010VgnVCM100000176f620aRCRD&vgnextchannel=726511154963d010VgnVCM1000004e94610aRCRD&vgnextfmt=tab1 Same-Gender Attraction]</ref>

===Polygamy===

Critics try to associate the Church with polygamy, but in fact the Church has denounced polygamy for most of its existence, and at least since 1905. Other belief systems, such as the [[ACLU]]'s, are more supportive of polygamy than this Church is.

A 1998 statement by current LDS President Gordon B. Hinckley states:
:This Church has nothing whatever to do with those practicing polygamy. They are not members of this Church. . . . If any of our members are found to be practicing plural marriage, they are excommunicated, the most serious penalty the Church can impose. Not only are those so involved in direct violation of the civil law, they are in violation of the law of this Church.<ref>[http://www.mormon.org/question/faq/category/answer/0,9777,1601-1-114-1,00.html What is the Church’s position on polygamy?] LDS website</ref>

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==See Also==
*[[List of LDS temples]]
*[[Christianity]]
*[[Christianity in Conservapedia]]

==External Links==

====Links to websites favorable to the Mormon Church====

*[http://www.lds.org Official Church Website]
*[http://www.mormon.org Official Church Website for Investigators]
*[http://scriptures.lds.org Official Online Version of the LDS Scriptures]
*[http://www.familysearch.org/ Official Church Genealogy Website, "the largest collection of free family history, family tree and genealogy records in the world."]
*[http://www.ldschurchtemples.com "News, schedules, photographs, and interesting facts of the temples of the LDS Church"]
*[http://www.fairlds.org Mormon Apologetics]
*[http://www.maxwellinstitute.com BYU Theologians]
*[http://www.lightplanet.com/mormons/ About Mormons]
*[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Church_of_Jesus_Christ_of_Latter-day_Saints Wikipedia article] on the LDS Church
*[http://www.intellectualconservative.com/article3282.html Are Mormons Conservative?]
*[http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,317272,00.html 21 Questions Answered About Mormon Faith]
*[http://www.newsroom.lds.org/ldsnewsroom/eng/news-releases-stories/what-you-will-find-when-you-step-inside-a-mormon-chapel What You Will Find When You Step Inside a Mormon Chapel], LDS Newsroom, 19 August 2008

====Links to Groups Not in Favor of the Mormon Church====
*[http://jesusnotjoseph.com JesusNotJoseph]
*[http://www.mrm.org Mormonism Research Ministry]
*[http://www.evangelicalbible.com/jw.htm#LDS The Mormon Church & the Nature of God]

[[Category:Churches]]
[[Category:Christian Denominations]]
[[Category:LDS Church]]
[[Category:Featured articles]]
[[Category:Utah]]

Chiang Kai-shek

2015-06-03T17:56:22Z

PaulBustion87: /* Dealing with the Communists */ Stalin did not support Chiang, he supported Mao overthrowing Chiang.

'''Chiang Kai-shek'''<ref>His family name is Chiang. Kai-shek is given name. The English-language spelling is irregular and based Cantonese (i.e. Hong Kong) pronunciation.</ref> (1887-1975) was the leader of China from 1928 until 1949. In 1949, Chiang's Nationalist Party, or [[KMT]], was defeated by the communists and fled to Taiwan. The U.N. and the non-Communist world recognized "Nationalist China" as China's only legitimate government until 1971. Chiang remained head of the KMT regime on Taiwan until his death in 1975.

Chiang served in the Japanese army from 1909 to 1911. He returned to China after receiving news of the 1911 revolution. He joined the KMT, then led by [[Sun Yat-sen]], in 1918. In command of the KMT armies, he unified China (except Manchuria) in 1927-29. Chiang converted to Christianity and married [[Soong Mei-ling]], a [[Methodist]] educated in the U.S. The husband and wife became widely popular in the U.S., and under Chiang's leadership China received very strong American support during World War II in order to fight the Japanese who seized most of China in 1937.
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|t=蔣介石
|s=蒋介石
|p=Jiǎng Jièshí
|w=Chiang Chieh-shih
|j=Zoeng2 Gaai3 Sek6
}}
Although Chiang was nominally in charge of the "China-Burma-India" theater, actual command was held by American and British generals, especially [[Joseph Stilwell]]. Relatively little fighting took place in China. Nevertheless, Chiang gained world stature, and China was given a permanent seat on the United Nations Security Council in 1945. Chiang became an ardent opponent of Communism in the late 1920s, but lost to [[Mao Zedong]] in the Chinese civil war, fleeing with his government and army to Taiwan in 1949. In Taiwan he built a modern Chinese nation--much smaller than the mainland of course--but proved that rapid, modernization, fast economic growth--and democracy--was possible in a Chinese nation. In 1947 he repressed traditional Taiwanese natives who hated to be overrun and ruled by the elites from the mainland, and to this day his reputation is controversial on Taiwan.

American conservatives greatly admired and supported Chiang and his wife. Long derided by liberals, his reputation has been improving among scholars. For eighty years the Chinese history has unfolded in the rivalry of Chiang and Mao. In recent years Mao's reputation has collapsed, as China has discarded socialism, embraced capitalism, and taken off to economic prosperity--following the model of the much smaller Taiwan. Meanwhile the Chinese are embracing the vision that Chiang espoused: the vision of a China achieving modernity in its economy, parity in military prowess, and building political stability on a basis of traditional nationalism. Taylor (2009) argues that, far from being incompetent, Chiang was a farsighted, disciplined and canny strategist who repeatedly predicted major geopolitical events and worked effectively for China, given its poverty. Chiang laid the foundation not only for Taiwan's prosperity, but also for its transformation into the only democracy in the Chinese-speaking world, and one of the few in Asia. Even the mainland, where he was the great enemy for a half century, Chiang is now widely regarded as a national patriot who made valuable contributions to the modernization of China. The Communist leaders in Beijing have looked to Taiwan as a model for what a prosperous and free Chinese society might be like. Some mainstream Chinese scholars are suggesting that the country might have been better off had Chiang triumphed in 1949 instead of Mao.<ref>Jonathan D. Spence, "The Enigma of Chiang Kai-shek," [http://www.nybooks.com/articles/article-preview?article_id=23175 ''New York review of Books,'' Volume 56, Number 16 (Oct. 22, 2009) excerpt online] </ref>

=== Early life ===

Chiang was born in the port city of Ningbo in 1887, and like many educated and patriotically-minded youths in the dying days of the [[Qing]] dynasty chose to follow a military career. He studied at a military academy in Japan between 1908 and 1910, where Chiang joined the Tongmenghui (United League) - which was shortly to merge with other revolutionary groups to become the Kuomintang, usually called the KMT or Nationalist Party. At the time of the 1911 revolution Chiang was based in [[Shanghai]] and at that time became involved with the local secret societies and gangs who were to aid him later in his career. During the 'Second Revolution' of 1913 (against the reactionary rule of [[Yuan Shikai]]) Chiang led an attack on an arsenal in Shanghai but the bungled operation was a disastrous failure and Chiang was forced to flee. He attached himself to the entourage of the KMT leader [[Sun Yat-sen]] and to the ramshackle KMT government which Sun set up in the southern metropolis of Canton. When Sun concluded an alliance with the [[Comintern]] in 1923, brokered by the Soviet agent Adolph Joffe (the 'Sun-Joffe Agreement'), Chiang was appointed commandant of the Whampoa Military Academy at Canton, established with Soviet aid and with Soviet and other foreign communist advisers. The purpose of the Academy was to train a Nationalist army capable of uniting China under KMT rule.

=== Northern Expedition ===

As commandant of the Whampoa Military Academy, Chiang had to work closely with Soviet advisors and [[Chinese Communist Party]] (CCP) officials (the KMT and the CCP had formed a "united front" as a result of the Sun-Joffe Agreement). Communist leader [[Chou En-lai]] was a senior political commissar at the academy. However, Chiang was very suspicious of his Communist allies. Following the death of Sun Yat-sen in 1925, Chiang became the most powerful individual KMT leader, and on March 11 1926 launched a limited purge of communists in Canton (the "Canton Coup"), as a result of which all his Soviet advisors were expelled from China. However, he did not dissolve the [[united front]], and the CCP, under orders from Moscow, also continued to maintain the status quo.

===Northern Expedition, 1926-1927===
On July 1, 1926, Chiang launched the Northern Expedition. His armies marched north from Canton in a bid to free China from the warring warlord factions which had been the sole fluctuating authority in the country since the death of [[Yuan Shikai]] in 1916, and to unify the country under KMT rule. However, Chiang was aided by the 'Guangxi Clique' of nationally-minded warlords; and the northern progress of the expedition was aided by carefully-timed popular uprisings planned by the CCP against local warlords.

By September 1926 his KMT armies had captured [[Wuhan]] on the middle [[Yangtse]], and a KMT government was established there. Instead of continuing to press north, Chiang turned east and in March 1927 occupied [[Nanjing]], which was to become the Nationalist's capital city, and [[Shanghai]]. "Gui clique" (Guangxi warlords) in 1929 depended mainly on his successful military strategy. Before the war broke out he sought to settle the dispute peacefully, insisting on striking only after the enemy had struck first, leaving the impression that he was forced to accept a challenge. This bought him time to prepare for military action and won the support of the people. Just before the outbreak of hostilities he took well-thought-out steps to deploy troops, strengthen discipline, win over friendly forces, and split the enemy forces. After the war broke out he applied flexible strategy and tactics, effectively containing [[Feng Yuxiang]]'s intended attack on [[Wuhan]] and thereby safeguarding the security of the city. These steps created favorable conditions for the armies from [[Hunan]] and Canton to eventually occupy the Gui clique's base in [[Guangxi]].

After destroying the Communists' main base of power in Shanghai in April 1927, Chiang was now the undisputed leader of the Kuomintang and the most powerful man in China. In 1928 two northern warlords, [[Yan Xishan]] and Feng Yuxiang, pledged their loyalty to him, and Yan's troops drove the last major warlord opponent, [[Zhang Zuolin]], out of [[Beijing]]. The Northern Expedition was over, and Chiang was master of China.

=== President of the Republic of China ===

The period of the 'Nanjing Republic' (1928-37) was too short and too troubled to enable a full assessment of what established Kuomintang rule might have brought China. Chiang was faced by a series of serious internal and external problems:

Although President of China, his direct rule only extended to the lower Yangtse provinces; the rest of China continued to be ruled by warlords expressing greater or lesser degrees of loyalty to Chiang. In 1929-30 his erstwhile allies Feng Yuxiang and Yan Xishan rebelled against him and his rule was saved by the intervention of [[Zhang Xueliang]], heir of the assassinated north-eastern warlord Zhang Zuolin.

Chiang married into the wealthy Soong family, his wife, Song Meiling (1897-2003), was the American-educated Methodist sister of Sun Yat-sen's leftist widow, Song Qingling (1892-1981)). One brother in law, T.V. Soong, was to become Chiang's Finance Minister and chief negotiator with the U.S.

===Dealing with the Communists===
On April 12, 1927 Chiang again turned on the communists in the 'Shanghai Coup'. Chiang's troops and police, assisted by police of the foreign concessions in Shanghai and gunmen of the city's notorious 'Green Gang', rounded up and executed hundreds, probably thousands of communists and trade unionists.

Throughout the late 1920s and early 1930s the KMT was engaged in a Civil War with the Communist Party of China and its Red Army. Chiang Kai-shek used as system of repeated encirclement of the communists to try to eliminate them, only for the communists to out-maneuver and escape the snare each time.

The Communists, defeated in Shanghai April 1927 and in a number of ill-planned urban uprisings later that year, regrouped in the countryside and established a number of "base areas" (most notably that of Mao Zedong in southern [[Chiangxi]] province). These bases were expanding, and efforts to eliminate the Chiangxi Soviet in a series of "encirclement campaigns" in the early 1930s had failed. However Chiang's fifth encirclement campaign of 1933-34 succeeded in destroying the Chiangxi base, and the communist Red Army went into retreat on the "Long March"; only a fraction of the Communists survived. Mao Zedong now became the leader of the Communists.

In December 1936, Zhang Xueliang and Yang Hucheng, two KMT generals, kidnapped Chiang Kai-shek in Xi’an. This has since been referred to as the "Xi’an Incident." At the beginning of the incident, the Communist leaders planned to kill Chiang but decided not to and forced themselves to cooperate with him, in hopes a united China would tie down Japanese forces and thus reduce the threat to the Soviet Union.<ref>[http://en.epochtimes.com/news/4-12-13/24830.html ''On the Beginnings of the Chinese Communist Party''], The Epoch Times, Dec 13, 2004.</ref> The Red Army was soon turned into the Eighth Route Army and grew bigger and more powerful than before.

When Japan seized Manchuria in 1931, Chiang gave precedence to defeating the internal threat posed by the Chinese communists over resisting the Japanese invasion. In any case he had no army or base that could challenge Japan, and appealed instead to the [[League of Nations]], which was also powerless. Chiang argued that "communism was a disease of the internal organs, the Japanese a disease of the skin," and that to build a strong China it was necessary to defeat communism first.

In December 1936, Chiang was captured by General Chang Hsüeh-liang in what is now called the [[Xi'an Incident]]. The captors tried to force Chiang to stop fighting the Communists and to unite with them in fighting Japan. After lengthy negotiations, Chiang was released. The [[Second United Front]] between KMT and Communist leaders was formed soon afterward. This tentative truce between to the two parties was always uneasy and actual cooperation on a united military front was rare.

===Rural policies===
Chiang took an instrumentalist view of rural cooperatives. He saw these rural institutions as mechanisms of political control on the one hand, and as social engineering instruments for mitigating [[class conflict]] in rural society on the other. Rooted in these views, the rural cooperative movement promoted by Chiang and the KMT government, from 1927 onward was aimed at countering the influence of the land reform policies implemented by the Chinese Communists in the areas under their control.

===Relations with Japan===
After the [[Mukden Incident]] of September 18, 1931 and Japan's rapid seizure of Manchuria, Chiang realized that the vast disparity in national strength and military power between China and Japan put China at great risk. Therefore he rejected advice to fight back by people who called him an appeaser and did his best to avoid all-out war, using "peace" as a way to postpone war. On the other hand, he gathered allies widely, adjusted policies, maintained domestic order, built "national defense strongholds," organized a southwestern base area, and prepared to fight against Japan. However, the Japanese began negotiating with regional Chinese leaders and promoted a "north China autonomy movement" for the five northern provinces that weakened Nationalist control. <ref>Stephen G. Craft, "Opponents of Appeasement: Western-educated Chinese Diplomats and Intellectuals and Sino-Japanese Relations, 1932-37." ''Modern Asian Studies'' 2001 35(1): 195-216. Issn: 0026-749x [http://www.jstor.org/pss/313092 in Jstor ] </ref>

Full scale war — the [[Second Sino-Japanese War]] began at the Marco Polo bridge near Peking in July 1937.

==1937-1948==
Chiang was in full charge of the KMT after 1927, with the title of "generalissimo"; he thus ruled that part of China controlled by the KMT. With the Japanese gaining more Chinese territory, the policy of "trading space for time" (Chinese: 以空間換取時間) was adopted. Chiang moved, not only his government, but much of China's industrial production, several hundred miles west to the interior city of Chunking, in the remote mountains of [[Sichuan]] province.

In September 1943, Chiang Kai-shek formally became president of the central executive committee of the KMT, and was recognized as the head of state and head of government of free China. In November 1943 Chiang attended the [[Cairo Conference]], where he, President [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]], and Prime Minister [[Winston Churchill]] drafted the Cairo declaration proclaiming Allied war objectives for the Far East. China was assured a permanent seat on the United Nations Security Council when it formed in 1945.<Ref> Chiang and his son controlled the seat until 1970, when the UN voted to give it to the Communist regime.</ref>

Chiang was elected tsung-tsai (director-general) of the Kuomintang on May 17, 1945. After 1927 he never had a serious contender who might threaten his control of the party.
===Support from U.S.===
The U.S. was eager to use China to defeat Japan. The idea was that millions of Chinese soldiers, equipped and trained by the U.S. Army and heavily funded by the U.S. Treasury, would eventually overrun the Japanese invaders. The strategy never came close to working. Chiang was far too weak to fight the much stronger Japanese army, and he lacked even basic supplies. Chiang expected the Americans would defeat the Japanese without his help (as in fact they did), while Chiang saved up his resources for the coming showdown with the Communists.

President [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] and his top advisers, such as Treasury Secretary [[Henry Morgenthau]] and [[Lend-Lease]] administrator [[Harry Hopkins]], were strongly committed to support China against Japan. Public opinion was strongly hostile to Japan; isolationism (opposition to war in Europe) played little role. [[Lend Lease]] aid in began in 1940 with the goal of building a large powerful Chinese army that would hold down most of the Japanese army, and after the war play a role as a major world power in the United Nations. That goal was highly unrealistic, as Japan controlled the financial, economic and transportation centers in China, and most of the people, leaving the Nationalists in control in poor, remote mountainous regions, with their capital in Chungking. In addition, the Communists controlled their own remote sphere in the northwest. China was unable to feed or clothe its soldiers, who lacked equipment, discipline, and skilled sergeants, junior officers, and senior officers. Nevertheless, cost was no object and dollars poured in. After Pearl Harbor, the U.S. and Britain agreed to set up a [[CBI|China-Burma-India theater]], with Chiang as supreme commander, and an American as chief of staff, and in command of American forces in China and Lend Lease supplies. The U.S. sent in General [[Joseph Stilwell]], an energetic fighter who spoke Chinese but lacked diplomatic skills. Stilwell feuded incessantly with Chiang, and with his air commander Air Force Major General [[Claire Chennault]], head of the Flying Tigers operation. Chiang supported Chennault.

[[Image:58742big.jpg|thumb|350px|Japanese expansion into China, 1931-45]]

The American strategy was to build up air power in China, but not send significant numbers of American combat troops because they could not be easily supplied. Japan had long since cut off the coastline, and in March 1942 it cut the only overland road into China, the [[Burma Road]]. Supplies had to be flown in "over the Hump" (over the Himalayan mountains) from India at fantastic cost until the [[Ledo Road]] cutoff could be built and the Burma Road reopened. The British, meanwhile, had a low opinion of China's capabilities and gave minimal cooperation to Chiang and Stilwell. They considered Burma important not because it was a link to China, but because Japanese conquest threatened India. The British therefore conducted numerous large-scale campaigns in Burma, as did Stilwell. Coordination was weak. All were failures before the summer of 1944.

Chiang in 1942 gave Stilwell command of two Chinese divisions, while often overuling Stilwell. The recovery of Burma became an obsession for Stilwell, and he began to think of himself as the one man who could save China. With few American ground troops available Stilwell decided to rebuild the Chinese army and use it to attack the Japanese in Burma. He demanded, with scant success, that airlifted supplies go to these operations, and not to Chennault's Air Force. The Chinese government desperately needed American aid just to survive, and realized that only the Americans could defeat Japan. Indeed, Chiang and his KMT saw that after the Japanese were defeated then the Communists would be their main foe, and they sought to hoard their military resources. In Burma Stilwell was badly defeated by Japanese and barely managed to escape to India. Chiang sent to India new Chinese divisions which were be supplied with American equipment. Stilwell set out to systematically retrain them along American lines, with the long-term goal of eventually recruiting, training, and equipping sixty divisions in China, but they never were an effective army.

Time and again Stilwell was frustrated and vehemently angry with Chiang (whom he ridiculed--calling Chiang "peanut" in messages to Washington) and with the Chinese government. Chiang refused to provide Stilwell any more Chinese soldiers and instead supported Chennault's plans. Chennault indeed obtained long-range [[B-29]] bombers, and they started making raids on Japanese cities. The Japanese response, as Stilwell had long predicted, was an overland campaign (code-named "ICHI-GO") inside China to overrun Chennault's air bases in late summer 1944. Chiang finally forced the U.S. to recall Stilwell, who left in disgust in October, 1944, and was replaced by General Albert Wedemeyer (1897-1989), who got along much better with Chennault and Chiang.

=== Conclusion of the Chinese Civil War ===

General [[George C. Marshall]] was sent in late 1945 by President Truman to resolve the Chinese civil war, hopefully by creating a new shared power arrangement between the Communists and Chiang's Nationalists. His specific instructions from Secretary of State [[James Byrnes]] were to insist on a coalition government as a condition for continued aid to the Nationalists. <ref>Forrest C. Pogue, ''George C. Marshall, Statesman, 1945-1959'', (1987), p. 61.</ref> Communist leader Mao Zedong had already said publicly in April 1945 that a coalition government with the Chinese Nationalists would result in the defeat of "reactionary American imperialism." <ref>"On Coalition Government," address to the April 1945 Seventh National Convention of the Chinese Communist Party, quoted in Anthony Kubek, ''How the Far East Was Lost'', (1963), p. 238.</ref> In the summer of 1946, Truman told Chiang to be more willing to compromise. Chiang replied that first the Communists must abandon "their policy to seize political power through the use of armed force, to overthrow the government and to install a [[totalitarian]] regime such as those with which [[Eastern Europe]] is now being engulfed." <ref>Tang Tsou, ''America's Failure in China, 1941-1945'', (1964), p. 429.</ref>

American policy in China was largely being shaped by the so-called "China Hands" in the U.S. State Department: [[John Stewart Service]], [[John Paton Davies]], [[John Carter Vincent]], and others. Because they knew the Chinese language and had been in China for years, their recommendations carried much weight, and they played a major part in the fall of China.

The [[U.S. War Department]] however, had more realistic and clearer view of the situation. In July 1945, a memorandum entitled, ''The Chinese Communist Movement'', gave a depiction of the true nature of the Communist movement. The report stated the Maoists were more rigidly controlled than the KMT, allowed no opposition groups to exist in their areas (in contrast to the KMT), and were part of the [[Comintern|international Communist]] movement. <ref>Anne W. Carroll, [http://www.ewtn.com/library/HOMELIBR/FR89102.TXT ''Who Lost China''], 1996. Retrieved from www.ewtn com/library/ August 16, 2007.</ref>

Without committing U.S. combat troops and without supporting a coalition government, the [[Truman Doctrine]] saved Greece from Communism. Greece received weapons and financial support and, most importantly, operational advisers at the battalion level, who ensured that American aid was used effectively. Marshall himself testified that similar aid might have worked in China, but General David Barr's military mission to China was specifically instructed not to supply this kind of assistance. <ref>Military Situation in the Far East, Hearings before the Committee on Armed Services and the Committee on Foreign Relations, U.S. Senate, 82nd Congress (Washington, 1951), p. 558.</ref> General [[Albert C. Wedemeyer]] recommended this approach in his report on his 1947 fact-finding mission, but Marshall personally suppressed the report. <ref>Tang Tsou, ''America's Failure in China, 1941-1945'', Chicago 1964, pg. 457.</ref> Chiang believed that the Truman Doctrine to [[Containment|contain]] the spread of International Communism directed from Moscow would be extended to China, and ordered an offensive as soon as word of the new policy reached him. <ref>Richard C. Thornton, ''China: A Political History, 1917-1980'', (1982), pg. 208.</ref> Truman however, made no effort to save China from Communism.

Chiang was forced from the Chinese mainland to the island of [[Taiwan]] in 1949, where he resumed his position as president, albeit of a massively reduced territory.

== Poetry ==

Chiang was also known for his poetry. He wrote a poem expressing exultation after his victory over the Communist Party, in 1928:

The yellow crane has long since gone away, 
All that here remains is Yellow Crane Tower. 
The yellow crane once gone does not return, 
White clouds drift slowly for a thousand years.

==see also==
* [[Kuomintang]]
==Bibliography==
===Biography===
* Boorman, Howard L. "Chiang Kai-shek" in Howard L. Boorman, ed. ''Biographical Dictionary of Republican China'' (1967) 1: 319-38; excellent starting place.
* Fenby, Jonathan. ''Chiang Kai-shek: China's Generalissimo and the Nation He Lost'' (2004), 592pp [http://www.amazon.com/Chiang-Kai-Shek-Chinas-Generalissimo/dp/B000T9VO2U/ref=sr_1_5?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1214082451&sr=8-5 excerpt and text search]
* Huang, Grace C. "Chiang Kai-shek's Uses of Shame: An Interpretive Study of Agency in Chinese Leadership." PhD dissertation U. of Chicago 2005. 282 pp. DAI 2005 66(6): 2370-A. DA3181356 Fulltext: [[ProQuest Dissertations & Theses ] ]
* Li, Laura Tyson. ''Madame Chiang Kai-shek: China's Eternal First Lady'' (2007) [http://www.amazon.com/Madame-Chiang-Kai-shek-Chinas-Eternal/dp/0802143229/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1214082451&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Taylor, Jay. ''The Generalissimo: Chiang Kai-Shek and the Struggle for Modern China'' (2009), 722 pp. highly favorable scholarly biography
* Taylor, Jay. ''The Generalissimo's Son: Chiang Ching-kuo and the Revolutions in China and Taiwan. '' (2000). 496 pp.
* Weinberg, Gerhard L. ''Visions of Victory: The Hopes of Eight World War II Leaders. '' (2005), chapter on Chiang.

===National studies===
* Bergere, Marie-Claire. ''Sun Yat-Sen'' (1998), 480pp, the standard biography
* Boorman, Howard L., ed. ''Biographical Dictionary of Republican China.'' (Vol. I-IV and Index. 1967-1979). 600 short scholarly biographies [http://books.google.com/books?id=r3AJFusMHJwC&dq=+Biographical+Dictionary+of+Republican+China&pg=PP1&ots=2vo5nw0qS0&sig=fxzwBb475KIbQBr8KGRDrkVSvl8&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=4&ct=result#PPA1,M1 excerpt and text search]
* Botjer, George. ''A Short History of Nationalist China, 1919–1949'' (1979). 312pp
* Chu, Shao-Kang. "On Chiang Kai-shek's Position on Resisting Japan: An Analysis of `Domestic Stability Takes Precedence over Resisting Foreign Invasion' Policy, 1928-1936." PhD dissertation U. of British Columbia (2000). 234 pp. DAI 2000 61(5): 1989-A. DANQ48621 Fulltext: [[ProQuest Dissertations & Theses]]
* Coble, Parks. ''Facing Japan: Chinese Politics and Japanese Imperialism, 1931-1937.'' (1992) 475pp
* Dorn Frank. ''The Sino-Japanese War, 1937-41 '' (1971). 477pp
* Dreyer, Edward L. ''China at War, 1901-1949.'' (1995). 422 pp.
* Eastman, Lloyd. ''The Abortive Revolution: China under Nationalist Rule, 1927-1937'' (1974); and ''Seeds of Destruction: Nationalist China in War and Revolution, 1937- 1945.'' (1984)
* Eastman Lloyd et al. ''The Nationalist Era in China, 1927-1949'' (1991) [http://www.amazon.com/Nationalist-Era-China-1927-1949/dp/0521385911/ref=sr_1_2?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1204422788&sr=8-2 excerpt and text search]
* Fairbank, John K., ed. ''The Cambridge History of China, Vol. 12, Republican China 1912-1949. Part 1.'' (1983). 1001 pp. ; Fairbank, John K. and Feuerwerker, Albert, eds. ''The Cambridge History of China. Vol. 13: Republican China, 1912-1949, Part 2.'' (1986). 1092 pp.
* Ch'i, Hsi-sheng. ''Nationalist China at War: Military Defeats and Political Collapse, 1937–1945'' (1982), 309pp
* Hsiung, James C. and Steven I. Levine, eds. ''China's Bitter Victory: The War with Japan, 1937-1945'' (1992), essays by scholars; [http://www.questia.com/library/book/chinas-bitter-victory-the-war-with-japan-1937-1945-by-james-c-hsiung-steven-i-levine.jsp online from [[Questia]]]; also [http://www.amazon.com/Chinas-Bitter-Victory-Japan-1937-1945/dp/156324246X/ref=sr_1_2?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1195984482&sr=1-2 excerpt and text search]
* Hsü, Immanuel Chung-yueh. ''The Rise of Modern China,'' 6th ed. (1999), detailed coverage [http://www.amazon.com/Rise-Modern-China-Immanuel-Hsu/dp/0195125045/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1197238178&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Jordan Donald A. ''The Northern Expedition: China's National Revolution of 1926-1928.'' (1976).
* Liu F. F. ''A Military History of Modern China, 1924-1949.'' (1956).
* Morley, James William, ed. ''The China Quagmire: Japan's Expansion on the Asian Continent, 1933-1941.'' (1983).
* Rubinstein, Murray A., ed. ''Taiwan: A New History'' (2006), 560pp
* Shiroyama, Tomoko. ''China during the Great Depression: Market, State, and the World Economy, 1929-1937'' (2008)
* Spence, Jonathan D. ''The Search for Modern China'' (1991), 876pp; well written survey from 1644 to 1980s [http://www.amazon.com/Search-Modern-China-Jonathan-Spence/dp/0393307808/ref=pd_sim_b_title_2 excerpt and text search]; [http://www.questia.com/read/98946348 complete edition online at [[Questia]]]
* Sun, Youli. ''China and the Origins of the Pacific War, 1931-1941.'' (1993).
* Ven, Hans van de. ''War and Nationalism in China: 1925-1945'' (2003), negative on Stilwell [http://www.questia.com/read/107990148?title=War%20and%20Nationalism%20in%20China%201925-1945 online edition]
* Westad, Odd Arne. ''Decisive Encounters: The Chinese Civil War, 1946-1950. '' (2003). 413 pp. the standard history
===Relations with U.S.===
* Byrd Martha. ''Chennault: Giving Wings to the Tiger.'' (1987).
* Ch'i, Hsi-sheng. "Chiang Kai-shek and Franklin D Roosevelt," in C. A. van Minnen and J. F. Sears, eds. ''FDR and his contemporaries'' (1992)
*Levine, Steven I. "A New Look at American Mediation in the Chinese Civil War: the Marshall Mission and Manchuria." ''Diplomatic History'' 1979 3(4): 349-375. Issn: 0145-2096
* Liang, Chin-Tun. ''Gen. Stilwell in China, 1942-1944'' (1972), a pro-Chiang view
*May, Ernest R. "1947-48: When Marshall Kept the U.S. out of War in China." ''Journal of Military History'' 2002 66(4): 1001-1010. Issn: 0899-3718 [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0899-3718%28200210%2966%3A4%3C1001%3A1WMKTU%3E2.0.CO%3B2-T in Jstor]
* Romanus, Charles F. and Riley Sunderland. ''Stilwell's Mission to China'' (1953), official U.S. Army history [http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/USA/USA-CBI-Mission/index.html online edition]
* Romanus, Charles F. and Riley Sunderland. ''Stilwell's Command Problems'' (1956) [http://www.ibiblio.net/hyperwar////USA/USA-CBI-Command/index.html online edition]
* Schaller Michael. ''The U.S. Crusade in China, 1938-1945.'' (1979). [http://www.questia.com/library/book/the-us-crusade-in-china-1938-1945-by-michael-schaller.jsp online edition]
* Tsou, Tang ''America's Failure in China, 1941-50'' (1963).
* Tuchman, Barbara. ''Stilwell and the American Experience in China, 1911-45,'' (1972), 624pp; Pulitzer prize (The British edition is titled ''Against the Wind: Stilwell and the American Experience in China 1911-45,'') [http://www.amazon.com/Stilwell-American-Experience-China-1911-45/dp/0802138527/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1214005449&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search], very hostile to Chiang
* Young, Arthur N. ''China and the Helping Hand, 1937-1945.'' (1963).
* Young, Arthur N. ''China's Wartime Finance and Inflation, 1937-1945.'' (1965).

===Memory and historiography===
* Gordon, David M. ''The China-Japan War, 1931–1945.'' ''The Journal of Military History'' v70#1 (2006) 137-182; major historiographical overview of all important books and interpretations; in [[Project Muse]]
* Jespersen, T. Christopher. ''American Images of China, 1931-1949.'' (1996).
* Lee, Lloyd, ed. ''World War II in Asia and the Pacific and the War's aftermath, with General Themes: A Handbook of Literature and Research.'' (1998) [http://www.questia.com/library/book/world-war-ii-in-asia-and-the-pacific-and-the-wars-aftermath-with-general-themes-a-handbook-of-literature-and-research-by-loyd-e-lee.jsp online edition]
* Li, Laura Tyson. ''Madame Chiang Kai-shek: China's Eternal First Lady'' (2007) [http://www.amazon.com/Madame-Chiang-Kai-shek-Chinas-Eternal/dp/0802143229/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1214082451&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Taylor, Jeremy E. "The Production of the Chiang Kai-shek Personality Cult, 1929-1975." ''China Quarterly'' 2006 (185): 96-110. Issn: 0305-7410
* Ven, Hans Van De. "Stilwell in the Stocks: the Chinese Nationalists and the Allied Powers in the Second World War." ''Asian Affairs'' 2003 34(3): 243-259. Issn: 0306-8374 Fulltext: [[Ebsco]], revisionist argument that Stilwell was incompetent, had no command training or experience, and did not appreciate air power. Ven suggests that Roosevelt's needs in the presidential election of 1944, the strategic decision to defeat the Nazi menace in Europe before giving full attention to Japan, and the unwise yielding to the needs of the Soviet Union during World War II all led to the defeat of the Chinese Nationalists.
===Primary Sources===
* Chiang Kai-shek. ''The Collected Wartime Messages of Generalissimo Chiang Kai-Shek, 1937-1945,'' (1946) [http://www.questia.com/read/79830145?title=The%20Collected%20Wartime%20Messages%20of%20Generalissimo%20Chiang%20Kai-Shek%2c%201937-1945 online edition]
* Chiang Kai-shek. ''All We Are and All We Have: Speeches and Messages since Pearl Harbor'' (1948) [http://www.questia.com/read/9750466?title=All%20We%20Are%20and%20All%20We%20Have%3a%20Speeches%20and%20Messages%20since%20Pearl%20Harbor online edition]
* Marshall, George Catlett. ''The Papers of George Catlett Marshall. Vol. 5: "The Finest Soldier," January 1, 1945-January 7, 1947.'' ed. by Larry I. Bland and Sharon Ritenour Stevens, (2003). 822 pp. [http://76.7.58.34/gsdl274/cgi-bin/library?e=d-00000-00---off-0themarsh--00-1--0-10-0---0---0prompt-10---4-------0-1l--11-en-50---20-about---01-3-1-00-0-0-11-1-0utfZz-8-00&a=d&c=themarsh&cl=CL2.5 online]
* Stilwell, Joseph Warren. ''The Stilwell papers'' edited by Theodore H. White, (1958).
* United States Department of State. ''United States Relations with China: With Special Reference to the Period 1944-1949'' (1949) [http://www.questia.com/library/book/united-states-relations-with-china-with-special-reference-to-the-period-1944-1949-by-united-states-department-of-state.jsp online edition]

==Online resources==
* [http://www.fas.harvard.edu/~asiactr/sino-japanese/sinojapaperbib2.pdf Steven Phillips, "English-Language Sources on China at War, 1937-1945: Bibliography"]
* [http://hua.umf.maine.edu/China/republic.html "The Republican Era: 1911-1949"], comprehensive bibliography
====notes====
<references/>

{{DEFAULTSORT:Chiang, Kai-shek}}

[[Category:Heads of State]]
[[Category:Chinese History]]
[[Category:World War II Commanders]]

Henry Ford

2015-06-03T17:38:07Z

PaulBustion87: /* Dearborn Independent and Anti-Semitism */ again, indeed is a word with zero added value, if you make any statement, then you are claiming it is indeed true regardless of the word being included.

[[Image:HenryFord.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Henry Ford and his Model T ]]
'''Henry Ford''' (1863 – 1947) was the founder of the [[Ford Motor Company]] and of modern mass production and assembly line techniques. His introduction in 1908 of the [[Model T]] Ford automobile revolutionized transportation and, indeed, American industry. As sole owner of the Ford Company he became one of the three or four richest and best-known people in the world. He is credited with "[[Fordism]]," that is, the mass production of large numbers of inexpensive automobiles, coupled with high wages for his workers—notably the $5.00 a day pay scale adopted in 1914. Fordism promoted the consumer culture based on high income workers who could afford to buy cars at a time when only the rich in Europe owned an automobile.

Ford, though poorly educated, had a global vision, with consumerism as the key to peace. His intense commitment to lowering costs resulted in many technical and business innovations, including a franchise system that put a dealership in every city in North America, and in major cities on six continents. Ford left most of his vast wealth to the [[Ford Foundation]], but arranged for his family to permanently control the company after his death.

He was a hero to conservatives for his entrepreneurship and positive impact on society; he opposed the [[New Deal]] but was tarnished by his writing criticisms of Jews in the 1920s.

==Early years==

Ford was born on a farm near Detroit, Michigan. His father William Ford (1826-1905) was a Protestant born in County Cork, Ireland. His mother Mary Litogot Ford (1839-1876) was born in Michigan, she was the youngest child of Belgian immigrants, her parents died when Mary was a child and she was adopted by neighbors. Henry was a poor student and never learned to read or write well; he early on showed a passion for mechanisms. At fifteen, he had a reputation as a watch repairman, having dismantled and reassembled timepieces of friends and neighbors dozens of times.<ref>Ford, ''My Life and Work'', 22-24; Nevins and Hill, ''Ford TMC'', 58.</ref>

When Henry was 13, his mother died, a harsh psychological blow. His father expected Henry to eventually take over the family farm, but Henry despised farm work. With his mother gone, little remained to keep him on the farm. In 1879, he went to nearby Detroit to work as an apprentice machinist. In 1882, he returned to Dearborn to work on the family farm and became adept at operating the Westinghouse portable steam engine; Westinghouse hired him to service their steam engines.

Upon his marriage to Clara Ala Bryant in 1888, Ford supported himself by farming and running a sawmill. They had a single child: [[Edsel Ford]] (1893-1943).

In 1891, Ford became an engineer with the Edison Illuminating Company, and after his promotion to Chief Engineer in 1893, he had enough time and money to devote attention to his personal experiments on gasoline engines. In 1896 he built a self-propelled vehicle named the Quadricycle, and continuously worked to improve it.<ref> See [http://www.hfmgv.org/exhibits/showroom/1896/quad.html] </ref> At this time Ford gained national fame as a racing car driver, leading to connections with investors who wanted to set him up in business.

== Ford Motor Company ==
In 1903 Ford, with 11 other investors and $28,000 in capital, incorporated the [[Ford Motor Company]]. In a newly-designed car, Ford drove an exhibition in which the racer covered the distance of a mile on the ice of Lake St. Clair in 39.4 seconds (91.3 MPH), which was a new land speed record. Race driver Barney Oldfield exhibited the car around the country, publicizing the the Ford brand.
===$5 dollar wage===
Ford astonished the world in 1914 by offering a $5 a day wage that more than doubled the rate of most of his workers. The move proved extremely profitable. Instead of constant turnover of employees, the best mechanics in Detroit flocked to Ford, bringing in their human capital and expertise, raising productivity, and lowering training costs. Ford called it "wage motive." The company's use of [[vertical integration]] also proved successful, as Ford built a gigantic factory that shipped in raw materials and shipped out finished automobiles.

=== The Model T ===
The [[Model T]] was introduced on October 1, 1908. It had many important innovations—such as the steering wheel on the left, which every other company soon copied. The entire engine and transmission were enclosed; the 4 cylinders were cast in a solid block; the suspension used two semi-elliptic springs. It had 20 horsepower and high wheels, so it could handle the muddy unpaved roads that typified the countryside. It could cruise at 45 miles per hour, getting about 10 miles per gallon of gasoline. There were two forward gears and one reverse gear. A hand crank was used to start it. The car was very simple to drive, and—more important—easy and cheap to repair. It was so cheap at $825 in 1908 (the price fell every year) that by the 1920s a majority of American drivers learned to drive on the Model T, leaving fond memories for millions. Ford created a massive publicity machine in Detroit to ensure every newspaper carried stories and ads about the new product. Ford's network of local dealers made the car ubiquitous in virtually every city in North America. As independent dealers the franchises grew rich and publicized not just the Ford but the very concept of automobiling; local motor clubs sprang up to help new drivers and to explore the countryside. Ford was always eager to sell to farmers, who looked on the vehicle as a commercial device to help their business. Sales skyrocketed—several years posted 100 gains on the previous year. Always on the hunt for more efficiency and lower costs, in 1913 Ford introduced the moving assembly belts into his plants, which enabled an enormous increase in production. Sales passed 250,000 in 1914. By 1916, as the price dropped to $360 for the basic touring car, sales reached 472,000.<ref>Lewis 1976, pp 41-59</ref>

By 1918, half of all cars in America were Model T's. As Ford wrote in his autobiography, "Any customer can have a car painted any color that he wants so long as it is black".<ref> See [http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/etext05/hnfrd10.txt Ford, ''My Life and Work''], Chapter IV</ref> Model T's rolled off the assembly line until 1927; the total production run was 15,007,034 cars.

In 1918 President [[Woodrow Wilson]] personally asked Ford to run for the Senate from Michigan as a Democrat. Although the nation was at war Ford ran as a peace candidate and a strong supporter of the proposed [[League of Nations]].<ref> Watts, pp 243-48</ref> In December 1918 Ford turned the presidency of Ford Motor Company over to his son [[Edsel Ford]]. Henry, however, retained final decision authority and sometimes reversed Edsel. The two purchased all remaining stock from other investors, thus giving the family sole ownership of the company.

By the mid-1920s, sales of the Model T began to decline due to rising competition. Other auto makers, especially General Motors, offered payment plans through which consumers could buy their cars; they offered a full range of vehicles from the cheapest to the most elaborate, instead of the one-size-fits-all Model T. Consumers eagerly paid more for more modern mechanical features and styling. Despite urgings from Edsel, Henry steadfastly refused to incorporate new features into the Model T or to form a customer credit plan.

=== The "Model A" and Ford's Later Career===
By 1926, flagging sales of the Model T and the roaring success of General Motors finally convinced Ford he needed to introduce a new model car. Edsel insisted on the inclusion of a sliding-shift transmission. The result was the successful [[Ford Model A]], introduced in December, 1927 and produced through 1931, with a total output of over four million cars. The company then adopted an annual model change system similar to that in use by automakers today. Not until the 1930s did Ford overcome his objection to finance companies, and allowed the Ford-owned [[Universal Credit Company]] became a major car financing operation.

===Death of Edsel Ford===
In May 1943, Edsel Ford died, leaving the presidency vacant. Ford put his long-time associate [[Harry Bennett]] in charge. Edsel's widow Eleanor, who had inherited Edsel's voting stock, wanted her son [[Henry Ford II]] to take over the position. The issue was settled for a period when Henry himself, at age 79, took over the presidency personally. Henry Ford II was released from the Navy and became an executive vice president, while Bennett had a seat on the board and was responsible for personnel, labor relations, and public relations.

=== Ford's labor philosophy ===

Henry Ford was a pioneer of "[[welfare capitalism]]" designed to improve the lot of his workers and especially to reduce the heavy turnover that had many departments hiring 300 men a year to fill 100 slots. Efficiency meant hiring and keeping the best workers. On [[January 5]], [[1914]], Ford announced his five-dollar a day program. The revolutionary program called for a reduction in length of the workday from 9 to 8 hours, a 5 day work week, and a raise in minimum daily pay from $2.34 to $5 for qualifying workers.<ref>Samuel Crowther [http://www.worklessparty.org/timework/ford.htm HENRY FORD: Why I Favor Five Days' Work With Six Days' Pay] World's Work, October 1926 pp. 613-616</ref>

Ford had been criticized by Wall Street for starting the 40 hour work week and a minimum wage. He proved, however, that paying people more would enable Ford workers to afford the cars they were producing, and therefore be good for the economy. Ford labeled the increased compensation as profit-sharing rather than wages. The wage was offered to men over age 22, who had worked at the company for 6 months or more, and, importantly, conducted their lives in a manner of which Ford's "Sociological Department" approved. They frowned on heavy drinking and gambling. The Sociological Department used 150 investigators and support staff to maintain employee standards; a large percentage of workers were able to qualify for the profit-sharing.

Ford was adamantly against labor unions in his plants. To forestall union activity, he promoted Harry Bennett, a former Navy boxer, to be the head of the Service Department. Bennett employed various intimidation tactics to squash union organizing. The most famous incident, in 1937, was a bloody brawl between company security men and organizers that became known as "The Battle of the Overpass."

Ford was the last Detroit automaker to recognize the [[United Auto Workers]] union (UAW). A sit-down strike by the UAW union in April 1941 closed the [[River Rouge Plant]]. Under pressure from Edsel, Henry Ford finally agreed to collective bargaining at Ford plants, and the first contract with the UAW was signed in June 1941.

==Ford Airplane Company==
Ford, like other automobile companies, entered the aviation business during [[World War I]], building Liberty engines. After the war, it returned to auto manufacturing until 1925, when Henry Ford acquired the Stout Metal Airplane Company.

Ford's most successful aircraft was the Ford 4AT Trimotor—called the “Tin Goose” because of its corrugated metal construction. It used a new alloy called Alclad that combined the corrosion resistance of aluminum with the strength of duralumin. The Trimotor first flew on June 11, 1926, and was the first successful U.S. passenger airliner, accommodating about 12 passengers in a rather uncomfortable fashion. Several variants were also used by the U.S. Army. About 200 Trimotors were built before it was discontinued in 1933, when the Ford Airplane Division shut down because of poor sales due to the Depression.

==Peace Ship==
In 1915, Jewish pacifist [[Rosika Schwimmer]] worked with Ford, who funded a peace ship to Europe, where World War I was raging, for himself and about 170 other prominent peace leaders. He talked to President [[Woodrow Wilson]] about the trip but had no government support. His group went to neutral Sweden and the Netherlands to meet with peace activists there. Ford, the target of much ridicule, left the ship as soon as it reached Sweden.

==Dearborn Independent and Anti-Semitism==

In 1918, Ford's closest aide and private secretary, Ernest G. Liebold, purchased an obscure weekly newspaper, ''The Dearborn Independent''. In 1920, from May 22 to October 2, it ran numerous antisemitic articles under Ford's name. Ford never wrote any of them, but he knew the contents.<ref>https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_International_Jew</ref> The ''Independent'' ran for eight years, from 1920 until 1927, during which Liebold was editor. The newspaper published "Protocols of the Learned Elders of Zion" which was discredited as a forgery during the ''Independent'''s publishing run by ''The Times'' of London.<ref> Baldwin (2000)</ref>

Denounced by the [[Anti-Defamation League]] (ADL), the articles nevertheless explicitly condemned pogroms and violence against Jews (Volume 4, Chapter 80), preferring to blame incidents of mass violence on the Jews themselves. None of this work was actually written by Ford, who apparently could barely read beyond the fifth grade level.<ref> Asked at the trial to read an editorial Ford refused; he said he only read headlines. He demanded that all business reports be made to him orally at briefings; he never read the accompanying studies.</ref> Friends and business associates said they warned Ford about the contents of the ''Independent'', and that Ford probably never read them. <ref> Watts pp x, 376-387; Lewis (1976) pp 135-59.</ref> However, court testimony in a libel suit, brought by one of the targets of the newspaper, stated that Ford knew about the contents of the ''Independent'' in advance of publication. <ref> Baldwin (2000)</ref>

A libel lawsuit brought by Jewish farm cooperative organizer Aaron Sapiro in response to anti-Semitic remarks led to a highly publicized trial; Ford closed the ''Independent'' in December 1927 and apologized for attacking the Jewish people. At the trial, William Cameron, the editor of Ford's "Own Page", a regular feature of the magazine, testified that Ford never wrote or dictated the editorials, even though they were under his byline. Cameron testified that he never discussed the content of the pages or sent them to Ford for his approval.<ref>Lewis, (1976) pp. 140-156; Baldwin p 220-221.</ref> Everyone agreed, however, that Ford had a general knowledge of the anti-semitic thrust and funded their publication.

The ADL mobilized prominent Jews and non-Jews to publicly oppose Ford's message. They formed a coalition of Jewish groups for the same purpose, and raised constant objections in the Detroit press. Before leaving his presidency early in 1921, [[Woodrow Wilson]] joined other leading Americans in a statement that rebuked Ford. A boycott against Ford products by Jews had an impact, and Ford shut down the magazine in 1927, recanting his views in a public letter to the ADL. <ref> Baldwin (2000)</ref>

Distribution of ''International Jew'' was halted by Ford.

Ford's reputation was seriously damaged by his episode of anti-Semitism, even though he recanted in 1927 and never repeated it. He was responsible for the publication, in the U.S. of the ''Protocols of the Elders of Zion'' and several other pamphlets aimed against Jewish influence. He paid for the publication of an anti-Semitic book ''The International Jew''.

== Ford's international business==
Ford's philosophy was one of economic independence for the United States. His River Rouge Plant was the world's largest industrial complex, even able to produce its own steel. Ford's goal was to produce a vehicle from scratch without reliance on foreign trade, or New York bankers. He believed in the global expansion of his company. He believed that international trade and cooperation led to international peace, and used the assembly line process and production of the Model T to demonstrate it<ref>Watts 236-40</ref> He opened Ford assembly plants in Britain and Canada in 1911, and soon became the biggest automotive producer in those countries. In 1912, Ford cooperated with Agnelli of [[Fiat]] to launch the first Italian automotive assembly plants. The first plants in Germany were built in the 1920s with the encouragement of [[Herbert Hoover]] and the Commerce department, which agreed with Ford's theory that international trade was essential to world peace.<ref>Wilkins and Hill (1964)</ref> In the 1920s Ford also opened plants in Australia, India, and France, and by 1929, he had successful dealerships on six continents.

Ford experimented with a commercial rubber plantation in the Amazon jungle called "Fordlândia"; it was one of the few failures. In 1929, Ford accepted [[Stalin]]'s invitation to build a model plant (NNAZ, today GAZ) at Gorky, a city later renamed [[Nizhny Novgorod]], and he sent American engineers and technicians to help set it up, including [[Walter Reuther]], who later headed the auto workers union, the [[UAW]]. The Ford Motor Company was eager to conduct business in any nation where the United States had peaceful diplomatic relations:
* Ford of Australia
* Ford of Britain
* Ford of Argentina
* Ford of Brazil
* Ford of Canada
* Ford of Europe
* [http://www.india.ford.com/ Ford India]
* [http://www.ford.co.za/ Ford South Africa]
* [http://www.ford.com.mx/ Ford Mexico]

By 1932, Ford was manufacturing one third of all the world’s automobiles.
===Ford's image in Europe===
Ford's image transfixed Europeans, especially the Germans, arousing the "fear of some, the infatuation of others, and the fascination among all".<ref>Nolan p 31</ref> Germans who discussed "[[Fordism]]" often believed that it represented something quintessentially American. They saw the size, tempo, standardization, and philosophy of production demonstrated at the Ford factory as a national service - an "American thing" that represented the culture of United States. Both supporters and critics insisted that Fordism epitomized American capitalist development, and that the auto industry was the key to understanding economic and social relations in the United States. As one German explained, "Automobiles have so completely changed the American's mode of life that today one can hardly imagine being without a car. It is difficult to remember what life was like before Mr. Ford began preaching his doctrine of salvation"<ref>Nolan, p 31</ref> For many Germans, Henry Ford himself embodied the essence of successful Americanism.

== Death ==
Ford suffered an initial heart attack in 1938, after which he turned over the running of his company to Edsel. Edsel's 1943 death brought Henry Ford out of retirement. In ill health and failing memory, he ceded the presidency to his grandson [[Henry Ford II]] in September 1945. He died in 1947 at the age of 83 and is buried in the Ford Cemetery in Detroit.

==Achievements==

Henry Ford did not invent the [[automobile]]--that was done by German Karl Benz. Ford did not invent the assembly line; that was done by Ransom E. Olds, but Ford perfected it. Ford's team did invent the [[Model T]] automobile. This invention revolutionized the American economy. He mass produced his Model T using the [[assembly line]], making cars affordable to the common person for the first time ever. He also paid his workers very well, which, in the long run, paid off as he was creating his own [[consumers]]. That too was a new idea. Ford claimed 161 U.S. [[patent]]s to his credit.

==Sayings==
Ford hired a team of ghostwriters who wrote endless stories, anecdotes and jokes that were distributed in magazines and pamphlets given away by Ford dealers. Ford himself could barely read or write at the fourth grade level.

<blockquote>
“Coming together is a beginning. Keeping together is progress. Working together is success,” said Ford. “If everyone is moving forward together, then success takes care of itself.”
</blockquote>
:"Whether you think you can or whether you think you can't, you're right."

==Bibliography==
[[Image:fmclogo.png|thumb|200px|right]]
===Biographies===
* Bak, Richard. ''Henry and Edsel: The Creation of the Ford Empire'' (2003) [http://www.amazon.com/Henry-Edsel-Creation-Ford-Empire/dp/0471234877/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1198975402&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Brinkley, Douglas G. ''Wheels for the World: Henry Ford, His Company, and a Century of Progress'' (2003) [http://www.amazon.com/Wheels-World-Company-Century-Progress/dp/B000BZ99PQ/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1198975451&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Halberstam, David. "Citizen Ford" ''American Heritage'' 1986 37(6): 49-64. interpretive essay
* Jardim, Anne. ''The First Henry Ford: A Study in Personality and Business Leadership'' (1970).
* Lacey, Robert. ''Ford: The Men and the Machine'' (1986). popular biography
* Lewis, David I. ''The Public Image of Henry Ford: An American Folk Hero and His Company'' (1976), much broader than title suggests
* Nevins, Allan and Frank Ernest Hill. ''Ford: The Times, The Man, The Company'' (vol 1, 1954); ''Ford: Expansion and Challenge, 1915-1933'' (1957); ''Ford: Decline and Rebirth, 1933-1962'' (1962), the standard history of the company and biography of Ford; [http://hdl.handle.net/2027/heb.94045 ACLS E-book vol 1]; [http://hdl.handle.net/2027/heb.94045 ACLS E-book vol 2]; [http://hdl.handle.net/2027/heb.94045 ACLS E-book for vol 3] the major scholarly history
* Nye, David E. ''Henry Ford: "Ignorant Idealist."'' 1979.
* Watts, Steven. ''The People's Tycoon: Henry Ford and the American Century'' (2005), major biography

===Specialized studies===
* Batchelor, Ray. ''Henry Ford: Mass Production, Modernism and Design'' (1994).
* Bonin, Huber et al. ''Ford, 1902-2003: The European History'' 2 vol Paris 2003. ISBN 2-914369-06-9 scholarly essays in English; reviewed in Len Holden, "Fording the Atlantic: Ford and Fordism in Europe" in ''Business History '' Volume 47, #1 Jan 2005 pp 122-127
* Brinkley, Douglas. "Prime Mover". ''American Heritage'' 2003 54(3): 44-53. on Model T
* Bryan, Ford R. ''Henry's Lieutenants'', 1993; ISBN 0-8143-2428-2
* Bryan, Ford R. ''Beyond the Model T: The Other Ventures of Henry Ford'' (1990).
* Dempsey, Mary A. "Fordlandia," ''Michigan History'' 1994 78(4): 24-33. Ford's rubber plantation in Brazil
* Jacobson, D. S. "The Political Economy of Industrial Location: the Ford Motor Company at Cork 1912-26." ''Irish Economic and Social History'' 1977 4: 36-55. Ford and Irish politics
* Kraft, Barbara S. ''The Peace Ship: Henry Ford's Pacifist Adventure in the First World War'' (1978)
* Lewis, David L. "Ford and Kahn" ''Michigan History'' 1980 64(5): 17-28. Ford commissioned architect Albert Kahn to design factories
* Lewis, David L. "Henry Ford and His Magic Beanstalk" . ''Michigan History'' 1995 79(3): 10-17. Ford's interest in soybeans and plastics
* Lewis, David L. "Working Side by Side" ''Michigan History'' 1993 77(1): 24-30. Why Ford hired large numbers of black workers
* McIntyre, Stephen L. "The Failure of Fordism: Reform of the Automobile Repair Industry, 1913-1940: ''Technology and Culture'' 2000 41(2): 269-299. repair shops rejected flat rates
* Meyer, Stephen. ''The Five Dollar Day: Labor Management and Social Control in the Ford Motor Company, 1908-1921'' (1981) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=102499921 online edition from [[Questia]]]
* Nolan, Mary. ''Visions of Modernity: American Business and the Modernization of Germany'' (1994); [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=58971942 online from [[Questia]]]' also [http://www.amazon.com/Visions-Modernity-American-Business-Modernization/dp/0195070216/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1198975895&sr=1-1 excerpt and text search]
* Raff, Daniel M. G. and Lawrence H. Summers. "Did Henry Ford Pay Efficiency Wages?" ''Journal of Labor Economics'' (October 1987) 5#4 pp S57-S86 [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0734-306X(198710)5%3A4%3CS57%3ADHFPEW%3E2.0.CO%3B2-F in JSTOR]
* Pietrykowski, Bruce. "Fordism at Ford: Spatial Decentralization and Labor Segmentation at the Ford Motor Company, 1920-1950" ''Economic Geography'' 1995 71(4): 383-401.
* Roediger, David, ed "Americanism and Fordism - American Style: Kate Richards O'hare's 'Has Henry Ford Made Good?'" ''Labor History'' 1988 29(2): 241-252. Socialist praise for Ford in 1916
* Segal, Howard P. "'Little Plants in the Country': Henry Ford's Village Industries and the Beginning of Decentralized Technology in Modern America" ''Prospects'' 1988 13: 181-223. Ford created 19 rural workplaces as pastoral retreats
* Tedlow, Richard S. "The Struggle for Dominance in the Automobile Market: the Early Years of Ford and General Motors" ''Business and Economic History'' 1988 17: 49-62. Ford stressed low price based on efficient factories but GM did better in oligopolistic competition by including investment in manufacturing, marketing, and management.
* Thomas, Robert Paul. "The Automobile Industry and its Tycoon" ''Explorations in Entrepreneurial History'' 1969 6(2): 139-157. argues Ford did NOT have much influence on US industry,
* Valdés, Dennis Nodin. "Perspiring Capitalists: Latinos and the Henry Ford Service School, 1918-1928" ''Aztlán'' 1981 12(2): 227-239. Ford brought hundreds of Mexicans in for training as managers
* Wilkins, Mira and Frank Ernest Hill, ''American Business Abroad: Ford on Six Continents'' (1964)
* Williams, Karel, Colin Haslam and John Williams, "Ford versus `Fordism': The Beginning of Mass Production?" ''Work, Employment & Society'', Vol. 6, No. 4, 517-555 (1992), stress on Ford's flexibility and commitment to continuous improvements

===Anti-Semitism ===
* Baldwin, Neil; ''Henry Ford and the Jews: The Mass Production of Hate''(2000) [http://www.questia.com/read/100722934?title=Henry%20Ford%20and%20the%20Jews%3a%20The%20Mass%20Production%20of%20Hate online edition]
* Foust, James C. "Mass-produced Reform: Henry Ford's Dearborn Independent" ''American Journalism'' 1997 14(3-4): 411-424.
* Kandel, Alan D. "Ford and Israel" ''Michigan Jewish History'' 1999 39: 13-17. covers business and philanthropy
* Lee, Albert; ''Henry Ford and the Jews'' (1980)
* Lewis, David L. "Henry Ford's Anti-semitism and its Repercussions" ''Michigan Jewish History'' 1984 24(1): 3-10.
* Ribuffo, Leo P. "Henry Ford and the International Jew" ''American Jewish History'' 1980 69(4): 437-477. by conservative historian [http://www.enotes.com/twentieth-century-criticism/henry-ford/leo-p-ribuffo-essay-date-1980 full text online]
* Sapiro, Aaron L. "A Retrospective View of the Aaron Sapiro-Henry Ford Case" ''Western States Jewish Historical Quarterly'' 1982 15(1): 79-84.
* Woeste, Victoria Saker. "Insecure Equality: Louis Marshall, Henry Ford, and the Problem of Defamatory Antisemitism, 1920-1929" ''Journal of American History'' 2004 91(3): 877-905. [http://www.historycooperative.org/journals/jah/91.3/woeste.html in History Cooperative]

===Primary sources===
* Ford, Henry and Samuel Crowther. ''[http://www.gutenberg.net/etext/7213 My Life and Work]'', 1922
* Ford, Henry and Crowther, Samuel; ''Today and Tomorrow'', 1926
* Ford, Henry and Crowther, Samuel; ''Moving Forward'', 1930
* Bennett, Harry, as told to Paul Marcus. ''Ford: We Never Called Him Henry'', 1951
* Sorensen, Charles E., with Samuel T. Williamson. ''My Forty Years with Ford'', 1956; ISBN 0-915299-36-4

==External links==
* [http://automotivehistoryonline.com/ford.htm Automobile History Online - Henry Ford History & Photos]
* [http://www.quotationsbook.com/authors/2560/Henry_Ford Notable quotations and speech excerpts]
* [http://www.myviplife.com/lifestories/vipbusiness/Henry_Ford_wa.php?c=3 Timeline][http://www.myviplife.com/lifestories/vipbusiness/Henry_Ford_ch.php?c=3 and Quotes by Henry Ford]
* [http://www.americanheritage.com/articles/magazine/ah/1958/2/1958_2_65.shtml Nevins and Hill tell story of Peace Ship in ''American Heritage'']
* [http://www.hfha.org/ The Henry Ford Heritage Association]
* [http://thoughtaudio.com/titlelist/ford/index.html Listen to “The Terror of the Machine” by Henry Ford] Free mp3 audio download from [http://thoughtaudio.com/ ThoughtAudio.com]
* [https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Author:Henry_Ford]
====notes====
<references/>

{{DEFAULTSORT:Ford, Henry}}
[[Category:Business People]]
[[Category:Economic history]]
[[Category:Business]]
[[Category:Philanthropy]]
[[category:Anti-Semitism]]
[[category:Progressive Era]]
[[category:1920s]]
[[Category : People]]
[[Category : Celebrities]]
[[Category : Billionaires]]

Henry Ford

2015-06-03T17:36:56Z

PaulBustion87: /* Dearborn Independent and Anti-Semitism */ Indeed adds zero value to the statement.

[[Image:HenryFord.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Henry Ford and his Model T ]]
'''Henry Ford''' (1863 – 1947) was the founder of the [[Ford Motor Company]] and of modern mass production and assembly line techniques. His introduction in 1908 of the [[Model T]] Ford automobile revolutionized transportation and, indeed, American industry. As sole owner of the Ford Company he became one of the three or four richest and best-known people in the world. He is credited with "[[Fordism]]," that is, the mass production of large numbers of inexpensive automobiles, coupled with high wages for his workers—notably the $5.00 a day pay scale adopted in 1914. Fordism promoted the consumer culture based on high income workers who could afford to buy cars at a time when only the rich in Europe owned an automobile.

Ford, though poorly educated, had a global vision, with consumerism as the key to peace. His intense commitment to lowering costs resulted in many technical and business innovations, including a franchise system that put a dealership in every city in North America, and in major cities on six continents. Ford left most of his vast wealth to the [[Ford Foundation]], but arranged for his family to permanently control the company after his death.

He was a hero to conservatives for his entrepreneurship and positive impact on society; he opposed the [[New Deal]] but was tarnished by his writing criticisms of Jews in the 1920s.

==Early years==

Ford was born on a farm near Detroit, Michigan. His father William Ford (1826-1905) was a Protestant born in County Cork, Ireland. His mother Mary Litogot Ford (1839-1876) was born in Michigan, she was the youngest child of Belgian immigrants, her parents died when Mary was a child and she was adopted by neighbors. Henry was a poor student and never learned to read or write well; he early on showed a passion for mechanisms. At fifteen, he had a reputation as a watch repairman, having dismantled and reassembled timepieces of friends and neighbors dozens of times.<ref>Ford, ''My Life and Work'', 22-24; Nevins and Hill, ''Ford TMC'', 58.</ref>

When Henry was 13, his mother died, a harsh psychological blow. His father expected Henry to eventually take over the family farm, but Henry despised farm work. With his mother gone, little remained to keep him on the farm. In 1879, he went to nearby Detroit to work as an apprentice machinist. In 1882, he returned to Dearborn to work on the family farm and became adept at operating the Westinghouse portable steam engine; Westinghouse hired him to service their steam engines.

Upon his marriage to Clara Ala Bryant in 1888, Ford supported himself by farming and running a sawmill. They had a single child: [[Edsel Ford]] (1893-1943).

In 1891, Ford became an engineer with the Edison Illuminating Company, and after his promotion to Chief Engineer in 1893, he had enough time and money to devote attention to his personal experiments on gasoline engines. In 1896 he built a self-propelled vehicle named the Quadricycle, and continuously worked to improve it.<ref> See [http://www.hfmgv.org/exhibits/showroom/1896/quad.html] </ref> At this time Ford gained national fame as a racing car driver, leading to connections with investors who wanted to set him up in business.

== Ford Motor Company ==
In 1903 Ford, with 11 other investors and $28,000 in capital, incorporated the [[Ford Motor Company]]. In a newly-designed car, Ford drove an exhibition in which the racer covered the distance of a mile on the ice of Lake St. Clair in 39.4 seconds (91.3 MPH), which was a new land speed record. Race driver Barney Oldfield exhibited the car around the country, publicizing the the Ford brand.
===$5 dollar wage===
Ford astonished the world in 1914 by offering a $5 a day wage that more than doubled the rate of most of his workers. The move proved extremely profitable. Instead of constant turnover of employees, the best mechanics in Detroit flocked to Ford, bringing in their human capital and expertise, raising productivity, and lowering training costs. Ford called it "wage motive." The company's use of [[vertical integration]] also proved successful, as Ford built a gigantic factory that shipped in raw materials and shipped out finished automobiles.

=== The Model T ===
The [[Model T]] was introduced on October 1, 1908. It had many important innovations—such as the steering wheel on the left, which every other company soon copied. The entire engine and transmission were enclosed; the 4 cylinders were cast in a solid block; the suspension used two semi-elliptic springs. It had 20 horsepower and high wheels, so it could handle the muddy unpaved roads that typified the countryside. It could cruise at 45 miles per hour, getting about 10 miles per gallon of gasoline. There were two forward gears and one reverse gear. A hand crank was used to start it. The car was very simple to drive, and—more important—easy and cheap to repair. It was so cheap at $825 in 1908 (the price fell every year) that by the 1920s a majority of American drivers learned to drive on the Model T, leaving fond memories for millions. Ford created a massive publicity machine in Detroit to ensure every newspaper carried stories and ads about the new product. Ford's network of local dealers made the car ubiquitous in virtually every city in North America. As independent dealers the franchises grew rich and publicized not just the Ford but the very concept of automobiling; local motor clubs sprang up to help new drivers and to explore the countryside. Ford was always eager to sell to farmers, who looked on the vehicle as a commercial device to help their business. Sales skyrocketed—several years posted 100 gains on the previous year. Always on the hunt for more efficiency and lower costs, in 1913 Ford introduced the moving assembly belts into his plants, which enabled an enormous increase in production. Sales passed 250,000 in 1914. By 1916, as the price dropped to $360 for the basic touring car, sales reached 472,000.<ref>Lewis 1976, pp 41-59</ref>

By 1918, half of all cars in America were Model T's. As Ford wrote in his autobiography, "Any customer can have a car painted any color that he wants so long as it is black".<ref> See [http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/etext05/hnfrd10.txt Ford, ''My Life and Work''], Chapter IV</ref> Model T's rolled off the assembly line until 1927; the total production run was 15,007,034 cars.

In 1918 President [[Woodrow Wilson]] personally asked Ford to run for the Senate from Michigan as a Democrat. Although the nation was at war Ford ran as a peace candidate and a strong supporter of the proposed [[League of Nations]].<ref> Watts, pp 243-48</ref> In December 1918 Ford turned the presidency of Ford Motor Company over to his son [[Edsel Ford]]. Henry, however, retained final decision authority and sometimes reversed Edsel. The two purchased all remaining stock from other investors, thus giving the family sole ownership of the company.

By the mid-1920s, sales of the Model T began to decline due to rising competition. Other auto makers, especially General Motors, offered payment plans through which consumers could buy their cars; they offered a full range of vehicles from the cheapest to the most elaborate, instead of the one-size-fits-all Model T. Consumers eagerly paid more for more modern mechanical features and styling. Despite urgings from Edsel, Henry steadfastly refused to incorporate new features into the Model T or to form a customer credit plan.

=== The "Model A" and Ford's Later Career===
By 1926, flagging sales of the Model T and the roaring success of General Motors finally convinced Ford he needed to introduce a new model car. Edsel insisted on the inclusion of a sliding-shift transmission. The result was the successful [[Ford Model A]], introduced in December, 1927 and produced through 1931, with a total output of over four million cars. The company then adopted an annual model change system similar to that in use by automakers today. Not until the 1930s did Ford overcome his objection to finance companies, and allowed the Ford-owned [[Universal Credit Company]] became a major car financing operation.

===Death of Edsel Ford===
In May 1943, Edsel Ford died, leaving the presidency vacant. Ford put his long-time associate [[Harry Bennett]] in charge. Edsel's widow Eleanor, who had inherited Edsel's voting stock, wanted her son [[Henry Ford II]] to take over the position. The issue was settled for a period when Henry himself, at age 79, took over the presidency personally. Henry Ford II was released from the Navy and became an executive vice president, while Bennett had a seat on the board and was responsible for personnel, labor relations, and public relations.

=== Ford's labor philosophy ===

Henry Ford was a pioneer of "[[welfare capitalism]]" designed to improve the lot of his workers and especially to reduce the heavy turnover that had many departments hiring 300 men a year to fill 100 slots. Efficiency meant hiring and keeping the best workers. On [[January 5]], [[1914]], Ford announced his five-dollar a day program. The revolutionary program called for a reduction in length of the workday from 9 to 8 hours, a 5 day work week, and a raise in minimum daily pay from $2.34 to $5 for qualifying workers.<ref>Samuel Crowther [http://www.worklessparty.org/timework/ford.htm HENRY FORD: Why I Favor Five Days' Work With Six Days' Pay] World's Work, October 1926 pp. 613-616</ref>

Ford had been criticized by Wall Street for starting the 40 hour work week and a minimum wage. He proved, however, that paying people more would enable Ford workers to afford the cars they were producing, and therefore be good for the economy. Ford labeled the increased compensation as profit-sharing rather than wages. The wage was offered to men over age 22, who had worked at the company for 6 months or more, and, importantly, conducted their lives in a manner of which Ford's "Sociological Department" approved. They frowned on heavy drinking and gambling. The Sociological Department used 150 investigators and support staff to maintain employee standards; a large percentage of workers were able to qualify for the profit-sharing.

Ford was adamantly against labor unions in his plants. To forestall union activity, he promoted Harry Bennett, a former Navy boxer, to be the head of the Service Department. Bennett employed various intimidation tactics to squash union organizing. The most famous incident, in 1937, was a bloody brawl between company security men and organizers that became known as "The Battle of the Overpass."

Ford was the last Detroit automaker to recognize the [[United Auto Workers]] union (UAW). A sit-down strike by the UAW union in April 1941 closed the [[River Rouge Plant]]. Under pressure from Edsel, Henry Ford finally agreed to collective bargaining at Ford plants, and the first contract with the UAW was signed in June 1941.

==Ford Airplane Company==
Ford, like other automobile companies, entered the aviation business during [[World War I]], building Liberty engines. After the war, it returned to auto manufacturing until 1925, when Henry Ford acquired the Stout Metal Airplane Company.

Ford's most successful aircraft was the Ford 4AT Trimotor—called the “Tin Goose” because of its corrugated metal construction. It used a new alloy called Alclad that combined the corrosion resistance of aluminum with the strength of duralumin. The Trimotor first flew on June 11, 1926, and was the first successful U.S. passenger airliner, accommodating about 12 passengers in a rather uncomfortable fashion. Several variants were also used by the U.S. Army. About 200 Trimotors were built before it was discontinued in 1933, when the Ford Airplane Division shut down because of poor sales due to the Depression.

==Peace Ship==
In 1915, Jewish pacifist [[Rosika Schwimmer]] worked with Ford, who funded a peace ship to Europe, where World War I was raging, for himself and about 170 other prominent peace leaders. He talked to President [[Woodrow Wilson]] about the trip but had no government support. His group went to neutral Sweden and the Netherlands to meet with peace activists there. Ford, the target of much ridicule, left the ship as soon as it reached Sweden.

==Dearborn Independent and Anti-Semitism==

In 1918, Ford's closest aide and private secretary, Ernest G. Liebold, purchased an obscure weekly newspaper, ''The Dearborn Independent''. In 1920, from May 22 to October 2, it ran numerous antisemitic articles under Ford's name. Ford never wrote any of them, but he knew the contents.<ref>https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_International_Jew</ref> The ''Independent'' ran for eight years, from 1920 until 1927, during which Liebold was editor. The newspaper published "Protocols of the Learned Elders of Zion" which was discredited as a forgery during the ''Independent'''s publishing run by ''The Times'' of London.<ref> Baldwin (2000)</ref>

Denounced by the [[Anti-Defamation League]] (ADL), the articles nevertheless explicitly condemned pogroms and violence against Jews (Volume 4, Chapter 80), preferring to blame incidents of mass violence on the Jews themselves. None of this work was actually written by Ford, who apparently could barely read beyond the fifth grade level.<ref> Asked at the trial to read an editorial Ford refused; he said he only read headlines. He demanded that all business reports be made to him orally at briefings; he never read the accompanying studies.</ref> Friends and business associates said they warned Ford about the contents of the ''Independent'', and that Ford probably never read them. <ref> Watts pp x, 376-387; Lewis (1976) pp 135-59.</ref> However, court testimony in a libel suit, brought by one of the targets of the newspaper, stated that Ford did indeed know about the contents of the ''Independent'' in advance of publication. <ref> Baldwin (2000)</ref>

A libel lawsuit brought by Jewish farm cooperative organizer Aaron Sapiro in response to anti-Semitic remarks led to a highly publicized trial; Ford closed the ''Independent'' in December 1927 and apologized for attacking the Jewish people. At the trial, William Cameron, the editor of Ford's "Own Page", a regular feature of the magazine, testified that Ford never wrote or dictated the editorials, even though they were under his byline. Cameron testified that he never discussed the content of the pages or sent them to Ford for his approval.<ref>Lewis, (1976) pp. 140-156; Baldwin p 220-221.</ref> Everyone agreed, however, that Ford had a general knowledge of the anti-semitic thrust and funded their publication.

The ADL mobilized prominent Jews and non-Jews to publicly oppose Ford's message. They formed a coalition of Jewish groups for the same purpose, and raised constant objections in the Detroit press. Before leaving his presidency early in 1921, [[Woodrow Wilson]] joined other leading Americans in a statement that rebuked Ford. A boycott against Ford products by Jews had an impact, and Ford shut down the magazine in 1927, recanting his views in a public letter to the ADL. <ref> Baldwin (2000)</ref>

Distribution of ''International Jew'' was halted by Ford.

Ford's reputation was seriously damaged by his episode of anti-Semitism, even though he recanted in 1927 and never repeated it. He was responsible for the publication, in the U.S. of the ''Protocols of the Elders of Zion'' and several other pamphlets aimed against Jewish influence. He paid for the publication of an anti-Semitic book ''The International Jew''.

== Ford's international business==
Ford's philosophy was one of economic independence for the United States. His River Rouge Plant was the world's largest industrial complex, even able to produce its own steel. Ford's goal was to produce a vehicle from scratch without reliance on foreign trade, or New York bankers. He believed in the global expansion of his company. He believed that international trade and cooperation led to international peace, and used the assembly line process and production of the Model T to demonstrate it<ref>Watts 236-40</ref> He opened Ford assembly plants in Britain and Canada in 1911, and soon became the biggest automotive producer in those countries. In 1912, Ford cooperated with Agnelli of [[Fiat]] to launch the first Italian automotive assembly plants. The first plants in Germany were built in the 1920s with the encouragement of [[Herbert Hoover]] and the Commerce department, which agreed with Ford's theory that international trade was essential to world peace.<ref>Wilkins and Hill (1964)</ref> In the 1920s Ford also opened plants in Australia, India, and France, and by 1929, he had successful dealerships on six continents.

Ford experimented with a commercial rubber plantation in the Amazon jungle called "Fordlândia"; it was one of the few failures. In 1929, Ford accepted [[Stalin]]'s invitation to build a model plant (NNAZ, today GAZ) at Gorky, a city later renamed [[Nizhny Novgorod]], and he sent American engineers and technicians to help set it up, including [[Walter Reuther]], who later headed the auto workers union, the [[UAW]]. The Ford Motor Company was eager to conduct business in any nation where the United States had peaceful diplomatic relations:
* Ford of Australia
* Ford of Britain
* Ford of Argentina
* Ford of Brazil
* Ford of Canada
* Ford of Europe
* [http://www.india.ford.com/ Ford India]
* [http://www.ford.co.za/ Ford South Africa]
* [http://www.ford.com.mx/ Ford Mexico]

By 1932, Ford was manufacturing one third of all the world’s automobiles.
===Ford's image in Europe===
Ford's image transfixed Europeans, especially the Germans, arousing the "fear of some, the infatuation of others, and the fascination among all".<ref>Nolan p 31</ref> Germans who discussed "[[Fordism]]" often believed that it represented something quintessentially American. They saw the size, tempo, standardization, and philosophy of production demonstrated at the Ford factory as a national service - an "American thing" that represented the culture of United States. Both supporters and critics insisted that Fordism epitomized American capitalist development, and that the auto industry was the key to understanding economic and social relations in the United States. As one German explained, "Automobiles have so completely changed the American's mode of life that today one can hardly imagine being without a car. It is difficult to remember what life was like before Mr. Ford began preaching his doctrine of salvation"<ref>Nolan, p 31</ref> For many Germans, Henry Ford himself embodied the essence of successful Americanism.

== Death ==
Ford suffered an initial heart attack in 1938, after which he turned over the running of his company to Edsel. Edsel's 1943 death brought Henry Ford out of retirement. In ill health and failing memory, he ceded the presidency to his grandson [[Henry Ford II]] in September 1945. He died in 1947 at the age of 83 and is buried in the Ford Cemetery in Detroit.

==Achievements==

Henry Ford did not invent the [[automobile]]--that was done by German Karl Benz. Ford did not invent the assembly line; that was done by Ransom E. Olds, but Ford perfected it. Ford's team did invent the [[Model T]] automobile. This invention revolutionized the American economy. He mass produced his Model T using the [[assembly line]], making cars affordable to the common person for the first time ever. He also paid his workers very well, which, in the long run, paid off as he was creating his own [[consumers]]. That too was a new idea. Ford claimed 161 U.S. [[patent]]s to his credit.

==Sayings==
Ford hired a team of ghostwriters who wrote endless stories, anecdotes and jokes that were distributed in magazines and pamphlets given away by Ford dealers. Ford himself could barely read or write at the fourth grade level.

<blockquote>
“Coming together is a beginning. Keeping together is progress. Working together is success,” said Ford. “If everyone is moving forward together, then success takes care of itself.”
</blockquote>
:"Whether you think you can or whether you think you can't, you're right."

==Bibliography==
[[Image:fmclogo.png|thumb|200px|right]]
===Biographies===
* Bak, Richard. ''Henry and Edsel: The Creation of the Ford Empire'' (2003) [http://www.amazon.com/Henry-Edsel-Creation-Ford-Empire/dp/0471234877/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1198975402&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Brinkley, Douglas G. ''Wheels for the World: Henry Ford, His Company, and a Century of Progress'' (2003) [http://www.amazon.com/Wheels-World-Company-Century-Progress/dp/B000BZ99PQ/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1198975451&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Halberstam, David. "Citizen Ford" ''American Heritage'' 1986 37(6): 49-64. interpretive essay
* Jardim, Anne. ''The First Henry Ford: A Study in Personality and Business Leadership'' (1970).
* Lacey, Robert. ''Ford: The Men and the Machine'' (1986). popular biography
* Lewis, David I. ''The Public Image of Henry Ford: An American Folk Hero and His Company'' (1976), much broader than title suggests
* Nevins, Allan and Frank Ernest Hill. ''Ford: The Times, The Man, The Company'' (vol 1, 1954); ''Ford: Expansion and Challenge, 1915-1933'' (1957); ''Ford: Decline and Rebirth, 1933-1962'' (1962), the standard history of the company and biography of Ford; [http://hdl.handle.net/2027/heb.94045 ACLS E-book vol 1]; [http://hdl.handle.net/2027/heb.94045 ACLS E-book vol 2]; [http://hdl.handle.net/2027/heb.94045 ACLS E-book for vol 3] the major scholarly history
* Nye, David E. ''Henry Ford: "Ignorant Idealist."'' 1979.
* Watts, Steven. ''The People's Tycoon: Henry Ford and the American Century'' (2005), major biography

===Specialized studies===
* Batchelor, Ray. ''Henry Ford: Mass Production, Modernism and Design'' (1994).
* Bonin, Huber et al. ''Ford, 1902-2003: The European History'' 2 vol Paris 2003. ISBN 2-914369-06-9 scholarly essays in English; reviewed in Len Holden, "Fording the Atlantic: Ford and Fordism in Europe" in ''Business History '' Volume 47, #1 Jan 2005 pp 122-127
* Brinkley, Douglas. "Prime Mover". ''American Heritage'' 2003 54(3): 44-53. on Model T
* Bryan, Ford R. ''Henry's Lieutenants'', 1993; ISBN 0-8143-2428-2
* Bryan, Ford R. ''Beyond the Model T: The Other Ventures of Henry Ford'' (1990).
* Dempsey, Mary A. "Fordlandia," ''Michigan History'' 1994 78(4): 24-33. Ford's rubber plantation in Brazil
* Jacobson, D. S. "The Political Economy of Industrial Location: the Ford Motor Company at Cork 1912-26." ''Irish Economic and Social History'' 1977 4: 36-55. Ford and Irish politics
* Kraft, Barbara S. ''The Peace Ship: Henry Ford's Pacifist Adventure in the First World War'' (1978)
* Lewis, David L. "Ford and Kahn" ''Michigan History'' 1980 64(5): 17-28. Ford commissioned architect Albert Kahn to design factories
* Lewis, David L. "Henry Ford and His Magic Beanstalk" . ''Michigan History'' 1995 79(3): 10-17. Ford's interest in soybeans and plastics
* Lewis, David L. "Working Side by Side" ''Michigan History'' 1993 77(1): 24-30. Why Ford hired large numbers of black workers
* McIntyre, Stephen L. "The Failure of Fordism: Reform of the Automobile Repair Industry, 1913-1940: ''Technology and Culture'' 2000 41(2): 269-299. repair shops rejected flat rates
* Meyer, Stephen. ''The Five Dollar Day: Labor Management and Social Control in the Ford Motor Company, 1908-1921'' (1981) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=102499921 online edition from [[Questia]]]
* Nolan, Mary. ''Visions of Modernity: American Business and the Modernization of Germany'' (1994); [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=58971942 online from [[Questia]]]' also [http://www.amazon.com/Visions-Modernity-American-Business-Modernization/dp/0195070216/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1198975895&sr=1-1 excerpt and text search]
* Raff, Daniel M. G. and Lawrence H. Summers. "Did Henry Ford Pay Efficiency Wages?" ''Journal of Labor Economics'' (October 1987) 5#4 pp S57-S86 [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0734-306X(198710)5%3A4%3CS57%3ADHFPEW%3E2.0.CO%3B2-F in JSTOR]
* Pietrykowski, Bruce. "Fordism at Ford: Spatial Decentralization and Labor Segmentation at the Ford Motor Company, 1920-1950" ''Economic Geography'' 1995 71(4): 383-401.
* Roediger, David, ed "Americanism and Fordism - American Style: Kate Richards O'hare's 'Has Henry Ford Made Good?'" ''Labor History'' 1988 29(2): 241-252. Socialist praise for Ford in 1916
* Segal, Howard P. "'Little Plants in the Country': Henry Ford's Village Industries and the Beginning of Decentralized Technology in Modern America" ''Prospects'' 1988 13: 181-223. Ford created 19 rural workplaces as pastoral retreats
* Tedlow, Richard S. "The Struggle for Dominance in the Automobile Market: the Early Years of Ford and General Motors" ''Business and Economic History'' 1988 17: 49-62. Ford stressed low price based on efficient factories but GM did better in oligopolistic competition by including investment in manufacturing, marketing, and management.
* Thomas, Robert Paul. "The Automobile Industry and its Tycoon" ''Explorations in Entrepreneurial History'' 1969 6(2): 139-157. argues Ford did NOT have much influence on US industry,
* Valdés, Dennis Nodin. "Perspiring Capitalists: Latinos and the Henry Ford Service School, 1918-1928" ''Aztlán'' 1981 12(2): 227-239. Ford brought hundreds of Mexicans in for training as managers
* Wilkins, Mira and Frank Ernest Hill, ''American Business Abroad: Ford on Six Continents'' (1964)
* Williams, Karel, Colin Haslam and John Williams, "Ford versus `Fordism': The Beginning of Mass Production?" ''Work, Employment & Society'', Vol. 6, No. 4, 517-555 (1992), stress on Ford's flexibility and commitment to continuous improvements

===Anti-Semitism ===
* Baldwin, Neil; ''Henry Ford and the Jews: The Mass Production of Hate''(2000) [http://www.questia.com/read/100722934?title=Henry%20Ford%20and%20the%20Jews%3a%20The%20Mass%20Production%20of%20Hate online edition]
* Foust, James C. "Mass-produced Reform: Henry Ford's Dearborn Independent" ''American Journalism'' 1997 14(3-4): 411-424.
* Kandel, Alan D. "Ford and Israel" ''Michigan Jewish History'' 1999 39: 13-17. covers business and philanthropy
* Lee, Albert; ''Henry Ford and the Jews'' (1980)
* Lewis, David L. "Henry Ford's Anti-semitism and its Repercussions" ''Michigan Jewish History'' 1984 24(1): 3-10.
* Ribuffo, Leo P. "Henry Ford and the International Jew" ''American Jewish History'' 1980 69(4): 437-477. by conservative historian [http://www.enotes.com/twentieth-century-criticism/henry-ford/leo-p-ribuffo-essay-date-1980 full text online]
* Sapiro, Aaron L. "A Retrospective View of the Aaron Sapiro-Henry Ford Case" ''Western States Jewish Historical Quarterly'' 1982 15(1): 79-84.
* Woeste, Victoria Saker. "Insecure Equality: Louis Marshall, Henry Ford, and the Problem of Defamatory Antisemitism, 1920-1929" ''Journal of American History'' 2004 91(3): 877-905. [http://www.historycooperative.org/journals/jah/91.3/woeste.html in History Cooperative]

===Primary sources===
* Ford, Henry and Samuel Crowther. ''[http://www.gutenberg.net/etext/7213 My Life and Work]'', 1922
* Ford, Henry and Crowther, Samuel; ''Today and Tomorrow'', 1926
* Ford, Henry and Crowther, Samuel; ''Moving Forward'', 1930
* Bennett, Harry, as told to Paul Marcus. ''Ford: We Never Called Him Henry'', 1951
* Sorensen, Charles E., with Samuel T. Williamson. ''My Forty Years with Ford'', 1956; ISBN 0-915299-36-4

==External links==
* [http://automotivehistoryonline.com/ford.htm Automobile History Online - Henry Ford History & Photos]
* [http://www.quotationsbook.com/authors/2560/Henry_Ford Notable quotations and speech excerpts]
* [http://www.myviplife.com/lifestories/vipbusiness/Henry_Ford_wa.php?c=3 Timeline][http://www.myviplife.com/lifestories/vipbusiness/Henry_Ford_ch.php?c=3 and Quotes by Henry Ford]
* [http://www.americanheritage.com/articles/magazine/ah/1958/2/1958_2_65.shtml Nevins and Hill tell story of Peace Ship in ''American Heritage'']
* [http://www.hfha.org/ The Henry Ford Heritage Association]
* [http://thoughtaudio.com/titlelist/ford/index.html Listen to “The Terror of the Machine” by Henry Ford] Free mp3 audio download from [http://thoughtaudio.com/ ThoughtAudio.com]
* [https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Author:Henry_Ford]
====notes====
<references/>

{{DEFAULTSORT:Ford, Henry}}
[[Category:Business People]]
[[Category:Economic history]]
[[Category:Business]]
[[Category:Philanthropy]]
[[category:Anti-Semitism]]
[[category:Progressive Era]]
[[category:1920s]]
[[Category : People]]
[[Category : Celebrities]]
[[Category : Billionaires]]

Henry Ford

2015-06-03T17:35:48Z

PaulBustion87: /* Dearborn Independent and Anti-Semitism */ Removed unsourced guilt by association fallacy statements. This article reads like an advertisement against Henry Ford. It needs to be more neutral.

[[Image:HenryFord.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Henry Ford and his Model T ]]
'''Henry Ford''' (1863 – 1947) was the founder of the [[Ford Motor Company]] and of modern mass production and assembly line techniques. His introduction in 1908 of the [[Model T]] Ford automobile revolutionized transportation and, indeed, American industry. As sole owner of the Ford Company he became one of the three or four richest and best-known people in the world. He is credited with "[[Fordism]]," that is, the mass production of large numbers of inexpensive automobiles, coupled with high wages for his workers—notably the $5.00 a day pay scale adopted in 1914. Fordism promoted the consumer culture based on high income workers who could afford to buy cars at a time when only the rich in Europe owned an automobile.

Ford, though poorly educated, had a global vision, with consumerism as the key to peace. His intense commitment to lowering costs resulted in many technical and business innovations, including a franchise system that put a dealership in every city in North America, and in major cities on six continents. Ford left most of his vast wealth to the [[Ford Foundation]], but arranged for his family to permanently control the company after his death.

He was a hero to conservatives for his entrepreneurship and positive impact on society; he opposed the [[New Deal]] but was tarnished by his writing criticisms of Jews in the 1920s.

==Early years==

Ford was born on a farm near Detroit, Michigan. His father William Ford (1826-1905) was a Protestant born in County Cork, Ireland. His mother Mary Litogot Ford (1839-1876) was born in Michigan, she was the youngest child of Belgian immigrants, her parents died when Mary was a child and she was adopted by neighbors. Henry was a poor student and never learned to read or write well; he early on showed a passion for mechanisms. At fifteen, he had a reputation as a watch repairman, having dismantled and reassembled timepieces of friends and neighbors dozens of times.<ref>Ford, ''My Life and Work'', 22-24; Nevins and Hill, ''Ford TMC'', 58.</ref>

When Henry was 13, his mother died, a harsh psychological blow. His father expected Henry to eventually take over the family farm, but Henry despised farm work. With his mother gone, little remained to keep him on the farm. In 1879, he went to nearby Detroit to work as an apprentice machinist. In 1882, he returned to Dearborn to work on the family farm and became adept at operating the Westinghouse portable steam engine; Westinghouse hired him to service their steam engines.

Upon his marriage to Clara Ala Bryant in 1888, Ford supported himself by farming and running a sawmill. They had a single child: [[Edsel Ford]] (1893-1943).

In 1891, Ford became an engineer with the Edison Illuminating Company, and after his promotion to Chief Engineer in 1893, he had enough time and money to devote attention to his personal experiments on gasoline engines. In 1896 he built a self-propelled vehicle named the Quadricycle, and continuously worked to improve it.<ref> See [http://www.hfmgv.org/exhibits/showroom/1896/quad.html] </ref> At this time Ford gained national fame as a racing car driver, leading to connections with investors who wanted to set him up in business.

== Ford Motor Company ==
In 1903 Ford, with 11 other investors and $28,000 in capital, incorporated the [[Ford Motor Company]]. In a newly-designed car, Ford drove an exhibition in which the racer covered the distance of a mile on the ice of Lake St. Clair in 39.4 seconds (91.3 MPH), which was a new land speed record. Race driver Barney Oldfield exhibited the car around the country, publicizing the the Ford brand.
===$5 dollar wage===
Ford astonished the world in 1914 by offering a $5 a day wage that more than doubled the rate of most of his workers. The move proved extremely profitable. Instead of constant turnover of employees, the best mechanics in Detroit flocked to Ford, bringing in their human capital and expertise, raising productivity, and lowering training costs. Ford called it "wage motive." The company's use of [[vertical integration]] also proved successful, as Ford built a gigantic factory that shipped in raw materials and shipped out finished automobiles.

=== The Model T ===
The [[Model T]] was introduced on October 1, 1908. It had many important innovations—such as the steering wheel on the left, which every other company soon copied. The entire engine and transmission were enclosed; the 4 cylinders were cast in a solid block; the suspension used two semi-elliptic springs. It had 20 horsepower and high wheels, so it could handle the muddy unpaved roads that typified the countryside. It could cruise at 45 miles per hour, getting about 10 miles per gallon of gasoline. There were two forward gears and one reverse gear. A hand crank was used to start it. The car was very simple to drive, and—more important—easy and cheap to repair. It was so cheap at $825 in 1908 (the price fell every year) that by the 1920s a majority of American drivers learned to drive on the Model T, leaving fond memories for millions. Ford created a massive publicity machine in Detroit to ensure every newspaper carried stories and ads about the new product. Ford's network of local dealers made the car ubiquitous in virtually every city in North America. As independent dealers the franchises grew rich and publicized not just the Ford but the very concept of automobiling; local motor clubs sprang up to help new drivers and to explore the countryside. Ford was always eager to sell to farmers, who looked on the vehicle as a commercial device to help their business. Sales skyrocketed—several years posted 100 gains on the previous year. Always on the hunt for more efficiency and lower costs, in 1913 Ford introduced the moving assembly belts into his plants, which enabled an enormous increase in production. Sales passed 250,000 in 1914. By 1916, as the price dropped to $360 for the basic touring car, sales reached 472,000.<ref>Lewis 1976, pp 41-59</ref>

By 1918, half of all cars in America were Model T's. As Ford wrote in his autobiography, "Any customer can have a car painted any color that he wants so long as it is black".<ref> See [http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/etext05/hnfrd10.txt Ford, ''My Life and Work''], Chapter IV</ref> Model T's rolled off the assembly line until 1927; the total production run was 15,007,034 cars.

In 1918 President [[Woodrow Wilson]] personally asked Ford to run for the Senate from Michigan as a Democrat. Although the nation was at war Ford ran as a peace candidate and a strong supporter of the proposed [[League of Nations]].<ref> Watts, pp 243-48</ref> In December 1918 Ford turned the presidency of Ford Motor Company over to his son [[Edsel Ford]]. Henry, however, retained final decision authority and sometimes reversed Edsel. The two purchased all remaining stock from other investors, thus giving the family sole ownership of the company.

By the mid-1920s, sales of the Model T began to decline due to rising competition. Other auto makers, especially General Motors, offered payment plans through which consumers could buy their cars; they offered a full range of vehicles from the cheapest to the most elaborate, instead of the one-size-fits-all Model T. Consumers eagerly paid more for more modern mechanical features and styling. Despite urgings from Edsel, Henry steadfastly refused to incorporate new features into the Model T or to form a customer credit plan.

=== The "Model A" and Ford's Later Career===
By 1926, flagging sales of the Model T and the roaring success of General Motors finally convinced Ford he needed to introduce a new model car. Edsel insisted on the inclusion of a sliding-shift transmission. The result was the successful [[Ford Model A]], introduced in December, 1927 and produced through 1931, with a total output of over four million cars. The company then adopted an annual model change system similar to that in use by automakers today. Not until the 1930s did Ford overcome his objection to finance companies, and allowed the Ford-owned [[Universal Credit Company]] became a major car financing operation.

===Death of Edsel Ford===
In May 1943, Edsel Ford died, leaving the presidency vacant. Ford put his long-time associate [[Harry Bennett]] in charge. Edsel's widow Eleanor, who had inherited Edsel's voting stock, wanted her son [[Henry Ford II]] to take over the position. The issue was settled for a period when Henry himself, at age 79, took over the presidency personally. Henry Ford II was released from the Navy and became an executive vice president, while Bennett had a seat on the board and was responsible for personnel, labor relations, and public relations.

=== Ford's labor philosophy ===

Henry Ford was a pioneer of "[[welfare capitalism]]" designed to improve the lot of his workers and especially to reduce the heavy turnover that had many departments hiring 300 men a year to fill 100 slots. Efficiency meant hiring and keeping the best workers. On [[January 5]], [[1914]], Ford announced his five-dollar a day program. The revolutionary program called for a reduction in length of the workday from 9 to 8 hours, a 5 day work week, and a raise in minimum daily pay from $2.34 to $5 for qualifying workers.<ref>Samuel Crowther [http://www.worklessparty.org/timework/ford.htm HENRY FORD: Why I Favor Five Days' Work With Six Days' Pay] World's Work, October 1926 pp. 613-616</ref>

Ford had been criticized by Wall Street for starting the 40 hour work week and a minimum wage. He proved, however, that paying people more would enable Ford workers to afford the cars they were producing, and therefore be good for the economy. Ford labeled the increased compensation as profit-sharing rather than wages. The wage was offered to men over age 22, who had worked at the company for 6 months or more, and, importantly, conducted their lives in a manner of which Ford's "Sociological Department" approved. They frowned on heavy drinking and gambling. The Sociological Department used 150 investigators and support staff to maintain employee standards; a large percentage of workers were able to qualify for the profit-sharing.

Ford was adamantly against labor unions in his plants. To forestall union activity, he promoted Harry Bennett, a former Navy boxer, to be the head of the Service Department. Bennett employed various intimidation tactics to squash union organizing. The most famous incident, in 1937, was a bloody brawl between company security men and organizers that became known as "The Battle of the Overpass."

Ford was the last Detroit automaker to recognize the [[United Auto Workers]] union (UAW). A sit-down strike by the UAW union in April 1941 closed the [[River Rouge Plant]]. Under pressure from Edsel, Henry Ford finally agreed to collective bargaining at Ford plants, and the first contract with the UAW was signed in June 1941.

==Ford Airplane Company==
Ford, like other automobile companies, entered the aviation business during [[World War I]], building Liberty engines. After the war, it returned to auto manufacturing until 1925, when Henry Ford acquired the Stout Metal Airplane Company.

Ford's most successful aircraft was the Ford 4AT Trimotor—called the “Tin Goose” because of its corrugated metal construction. It used a new alloy called Alclad that combined the corrosion resistance of aluminum with the strength of duralumin. The Trimotor first flew on June 11, 1926, and was the first successful U.S. passenger airliner, accommodating about 12 passengers in a rather uncomfortable fashion. Several variants were also used by the U.S. Army. About 200 Trimotors were built before it was discontinued in 1933, when the Ford Airplane Division shut down because of poor sales due to the Depression.

==Peace Ship==
In 1915, Jewish pacifist [[Rosika Schwimmer]] worked with Ford, who funded a peace ship to Europe, where World War I was raging, for himself and about 170 other prominent peace leaders. He talked to President [[Woodrow Wilson]] about the trip but had no government support. His group went to neutral Sweden and the Netherlands to meet with peace activists there. Ford, the target of much ridicule, left the ship as soon as it reached Sweden.

==Dearborn Independent and Anti-Semitism==

In 1918, Ford's closest aide and private secretary, Ernest G. Liebold, purchased an obscure weekly newspaper, ''The Dearborn Independent''. In 1920, from May 22 to October 2, it ran numerous antisemitic articles under Ford's name. Ford never wrote any of them, but he knew the contents.<ref>https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_International_Jew</ref> The ''Independent'' ran for eight years, from 1920 until 1927, during which Liebold was editor. The newspaper published "Protocols of the Learned Elders of Zion" which was discredited as a forgery during the ''Independent'''s publishing run by ''The Times'' of London.<ref> Baldwin (2000)</ref>

Denounced by the [[Anti-Defamation League]] (ADL), the articles nevertheless explicitly condemned pogroms and violence against Jews (Volume 4, Chapter 80), preferring to blame incidents of mass violence on the Jews themselves. None of this work was actually written by Ford, who apparently could barely read beyond the fifth grade level.<ref> Asked at the trial to read an editorial Ford refused; he said he only read headlines. He demanded that all business reports be made to him orally at briefings; he never read the accompanying studies.</ref> Friends and business associates said they warned Ford about the contents of the ''Independent'', and that Ford probably never read them. <ref> Watts pp x, 376-387; Lewis (1976) pp 135-59.</ref> However, court testimony in a libel suit, brought by one of the targets of the newspaper, stated that Ford did indeed know about the contents of the ''Independent'' in advance of publication. <ref> Baldwin (2000)</ref>

A libel lawsuit brought by Jewish farm cooperative organizer Aaron Sapiro in response to anti-Semitic remarks led to a highly publicized trial; Ford closed the ''Independent'' in December 1927 and apologized for attacking the Jewish people. At the trial, William Cameron, the editor of Ford's "Own Page", a regular feature of the magazine, testified that Ford never wrote or dictated the editorials, even though they were under his byline. Cameron testified that he never discussed the content of the pages or sent them to Ford for his approval.<ref>Lewis, (1976) pp. 140-156; Baldwin p 220-221.</ref> Everyone agreed, however, that Ford had a general knowledge of the anti-semitic thrust and funded their publication.

The ADL mobilized prominent Jews and non-Jews to publicly oppose Ford's message. They formed a coalition of Jewish groups for the same purpose, and raised constant objections in the Detroit press. Before leaving his presidency early in 1921, [[Woodrow Wilson]] joined other leading Americans in a statement that rebuked Ford. A boycott against Ford products by Jews had an impact, and Ford shut down the magazine in 1927, recanting his views in a public letter to the ADL. <ref> Baldwin (2000)</ref>

Distribution of ''International Jew'' was halted by Ford.

Ford's reputation was seriously damaged by his episode of anti-Semitism, even though he recanted in 1927 and never repeated it. He was indeed responsible for the publication, in the U.S. of the ''Protocols of the Elders of Zion'' and several other pamphlets aimed against Jewish influence. He paid for the publication of an anti-Semitic book ''The International Jew''.

== Ford's international business==
Ford's philosophy was one of economic independence for the United States. His River Rouge Plant was the world's largest industrial complex, even able to produce its own steel. Ford's goal was to produce a vehicle from scratch without reliance on foreign trade, or New York bankers. He believed in the global expansion of his company. He believed that international trade and cooperation led to international peace, and used the assembly line process and production of the Model T to demonstrate it<ref>Watts 236-40</ref> He opened Ford assembly plants in Britain and Canada in 1911, and soon became the biggest automotive producer in those countries. In 1912, Ford cooperated with Agnelli of [[Fiat]] to launch the first Italian automotive assembly plants. The first plants in Germany were built in the 1920s with the encouragement of [[Herbert Hoover]] and the Commerce department, which agreed with Ford's theory that international trade was essential to world peace.<ref>Wilkins and Hill (1964)</ref> In the 1920s Ford also opened plants in Australia, India, and France, and by 1929, he had successful dealerships on six continents.

Ford experimented with a commercial rubber plantation in the Amazon jungle called "Fordlândia"; it was one of the few failures. In 1929, Ford accepted [[Stalin]]'s invitation to build a model plant (NNAZ, today GAZ) at Gorky, a city later renamed [[Nizhny Novgorod]], and he sent American engineers and technicians to help set it up, including [[Walter Reuther]], who later headed the auto workers union, the [[UAW]]. The Ford Motor Company was eager to conduct business in any nation where the United States had peaceful diplomatic relations:
* Ford of Australia
* Ford of Britain
* Ford of Argentina
* Ford of Brazil
* Ford of Canada
* Ford of Europe
* [http://www.india.ford.com/ Ford India]
* [http://www.ford.co.za/ Ford South Africa]
* [http://www.ford.com.mx/ Ford Mexico]

By 1932, Ford was manufacturing one third of all the world’s automobiles.
===Ford's image in Europe===
Ford's image transfixed Europeans, especially the Germans, arousing the "fear of some, the infatuation of others, and the fascination among all".<ref>Nolan p 31</ref> Germans who discussed "[[Fordism]]" often believed that it represented something quintessentially American. They saw the size, tempo, standardization, and philosophy of production demonstrated at the Ford factory as a national service - an "American thing" that represented the culture of United States. Both supporters and critics insisted that Fordism epitomized American capitalist development, and that the auto industry was the key to understanding economic and social relations in the United States. As one German explained, "Automobiles have so completely changed the American's mode of life that today one can hardly imagine being without a car. It is difficult to remember what life was like before Mr. Ford began preaching his doctrine of salvation"<ref>Nolan, p 31</ref> For many Germans, Henry Ford himself embodied the essence of successful Americanism.

== Death ==
Ford suffered an initial heart attack in 1938, after which he turned over the running of his company to Edsel. Edsel's 1943 death brought Henry Ford out of retirement. In ill health and failing memory, he ceded the presidency to his grandson [[Henry Ford II]] in September 1945. He died in 1947 at the age of 83 and is buried in the Ford Cemetery in Detroit.

==Achievements==

Henry Ford did not invent the [[automobile]]--that was done by German Karl Benz. Ford did not invent the assembly line; that was done by Ransom E. Olds, but Ford perfected it. Ford's team did invent the [[Model T]] automobile. This invention revolutionized the American economy. He mass produced his Model T using the [[assembly line]], making cars affordable to the common person for the first time ever. He also paid his workers very well, which, in the long run, paid off as he was creating his own [[consumers]]. That too was a new idea. Ford claimed 161 U.S. [[patent]]s to his credit.

==Sayings==
Ford hired a team of ghostwriters who wrote endless stories, anecdotes and jokes that were distributed in magazines and pamphlets given away by Ford dealers. Ford himself could barely read or write at the fourth grade level.

<blockquote>
“Coming together is a beginning. Keeping together is progress. Working together is success,” said Ford. “If everyone is moving forward together, then success takes care of itself.”
</blockquote>
:"Whether you think you can or whether you think you can't, you're right."

==Bibliography==
[[Image:fmclogo.png|thumb|200px|right]]
===Biographies===
* Bak, Richard. ''Henry and Edsel: The Creation of the Ford Empire'' (2003) [http://www.amazon.com/Henry-Edsel-Creation-Ford-Empire/dp/0471234877/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1198975402&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Brinkley, Douglas G. ''Wheels for the World: Henry Ford, His Company, and a Century of Progress'' (2003) [http://www.amazon.com/Wheels-World-Company-Century-Progress/dp/B000BZ99PQ/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1198975451&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Halberstam, David. "Citizen Ford" ''American Heritage'' 1986 37(6): 49-64. interpretive essay
* Jardim, Anne. ''The First Henry Ford: A Study in Personality and Business Leadership'' (1970).
* Lacey, Robert. ''Ford: The Men and the Machine'' (1986). popular biography
* Lewis, David I. ''The Public Image of Henry Ford: An American Folk Hero and His Company'' (1976), much broader than title suggests
* Nevins, Allan and Frank Ernest Hill. ''Ford: The Times, The Man, The Company'' (vol 1, 1954); ''Ford: Expansion and Challenge, 1915-1933'' (1957); ''Ford: Decline and Rebirth, 1933-1962'' (1962), the standard history of the company and biography of Ford; [http://hdl.handle.net/2027/heb.94045 ACLS E-book vol 1]; [http://hdl.handle.net/2027/heb.94045 ACLS E-book vol 2]; [http://hdl.handle.net/2027/heb.94045 ACLS E-book for vol 3] the major scholarly history
* Nye, David E. ''Henry Ford: "Ignorant Idealist."'' 1979.
* Watts, Steven. ''The People's Tycoon: Henry Ford and the American Century'' (2005), major biography

===Specialized studies===
* Batchelor, Ray. ''Henry Ford: Mass Production, Modernism and Design'' (1994).
* Bonin, Huber et al. ''Ford, 1902-2003: The European History'' 2 vol Paris 2003. ISBN 2-914369-06-9 scholarly essays in English; reviewed in Len Holden, "Fording the Atlantic: Ford and Fordism in Europe" in ''Business History '' Volume 47, #1 Jan 2005 pp 122-127
* Brinkley, Douglas. "Prime Mover". ''American Heritage'' 2003 54(3): 44-53. on Model T
* Bryan, Ford R. ''Henry's Lieutenants'', 1993; ISBN 0-8143-2428-2
* Bryan, Ford R. ''Beyond the Model T: The Other Ventures of Henry Ford'' (1990).
* Dempsey, Mary A. "Fordlandia," ''Michigan History'' 1994 78(4): 24-33. Ford's rubber plantation in Brazil
* Jacobson, D. S. "The Political Economy of Industrial Location: the Ford Motor Company at Cork 1912-26." ''Irish Economic and Social History'' 1977 4: 36-55. Ford and Irish politics
* Kraft, Barbara S. ''The Peace Ship: Henry Ford's Pacifist Adventure in the First World War'' (1978)
* Lewis, David L. "Ford and Kahn" ''Michigan History'' 1980 64(5): 17-28. Ford commissioned architect Albert Kahn to design factories
* Lewis, David L. "Henry Ford and His Magic Beanstalk" . ''Michigan History'' 1995 79(3): 10-17. Ford's interest in soybeans and plastics
* Lewis, David L. "Working Side by Side" ''Michigan History'' 1993 77(1): 24-30. Why Ford hired large numbers of black workers
* McIntyre, Stephen L. "The Failure of Fordism: Reform of the Automobile Repair Industry, 1913-1940: ''Technology and Culture'' 2000 41(2): 269-299. repair shops rejected flat rates
* Meyer, Stephen. ''The Five Dollar Day: Labor Management and Social Control in the Ford Motor Company, 1908-1921'' (1981) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=102499921 online edition from [[Questia]]]
* Nolan, Mary. ''Visions of Modernity: American Business and the Modernization of Germany'' (1994); [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=58971942 online from [[Questia]]]' also [http://www.amazon.com/Visions-Modernity-American-Business-Modernization/dp/0195070216/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1198975895&sr=1-1 excerpt and text search]
* Raff, Daniel M. G. and Lawrence H. Summers. "Did Henry Ford Pay Efficiency Wages?" ''Journal of Labor Economics'' (October 1987) 5#4 pp S57-S86 [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0734-306X(198710)5%3A4%3CS57%3ADHFPEW%3E2.0.CO%3B2-F in JSTOR]
* Pietrykowski, Bruce. "Fordism at Ford: Spatial Decentralization and Labor Segmentation at the Ford Motor Company, 1920-1950" ''Economic Geography'' 1995 71(4): 383-401.
* Roediger, David, ed "Americanism and Fordism - American Style: Kate Richards O'hare's 'Has Henry Ford Made Good?'" ''Labor History'' 1988 29(2): 241-252. Socialist praise for Ford in 1916
* Segal, Howard P. "'Little Plants in the Country': Henry Ford's Village Industries and the Beginning of Decentralized Technology in Modern America" ''Prospects'' 1988 13: 181-223. Ford created 19 rural workplaces as pastoral retreats
* Tedlow, Richard S. "The Struggle for Dominance in the Automobile Market: the Early Years of Ford and General Motors" ''Business and Economic History'' 1988 17: 49-62. Ford stressed low price based on efficient factories but GM did better in oligopolistic competition by including investment in manufacturing, marketing, and management.
* Thomas, Robert Paul. "The Automobile Industry and its Tycoon" ''Explorations in Entrepreneurial History'' 1969 6(2): 139-157. argues Ford did NOT have much influence on US industry,
* Valdés, Dennis Nodin. "Perspiring Capitalists: Latinos and the Henry Ford Service School, 1918-1928" ''Aztlán'' 1981 12(2): 227-239. Ford brought hundreds of Mexicans in for training as managers
* Wilkins, Mira and Frank Ernest Hill, ''American Business Abroad: Ford on Six Continents'' (1964)
* Williams, Karel, Colin Haslam and John Williams, "Ford versus `Fordism': The Beginning of Mass Production?" ''Work, Employment & Society'', Vol. 6, No. 4, 517-555 (1992), stress on Ford's flexibility and commitment to continuous improvements

===Anti-Semitism ===
* Baldwin, Neil; ''Henry Ford and the Jews: The Mass Production of Hate''(2000) [http://www.questia.com/read/100722934?title=Henry%20Ford%20and%20the%20Jews%3a%20The%20Mass%20Production%20of%20Hate online edition]
* Foust, James C. "Mass-produced Reform: Henry Ford's Dearborn Independent" ''American Journalism'' 1997 14(3-4): 411-424.
* Kandel, Alan D. "Ford and Israel" ''Michigan Jewish History'' 1999 39: 13-17. covers business and philanthropy
* Lee, Albert; ''Henry Ford and the Jews'' (1980)
* Lewis, David L. "Henry Ford's Anti-semitism and its Repercussions" ''Michigan Jewish History'' 1984 24(1): 3-10.
* Ribuffo, Leo P. "Henry Ford and the International Jew" ''American Jewish History'' 1980 69(4): 437-477. by conservative historian [http://www.enotes.com/twentieth-century-criticism/henry-ford/leo-p-ribuffo-essay-date-1980 full text online]
* Sapiro, Aaron L. "A Retrospective View of the Aaron Sapiro-Henry Ford Case" ''Western States Jewish Historical Quarterly'' 1982 15(1): 79-84.
* Woeste, Victoria Saker. "Insecure Equality: Louis Marshall, Henry Ford, and the Problem of Defamatory Antisemitism, 1920-1929" ''Journal of American History'' 2004 91(3): 877-905. [http://www.historycooperative.org/journals/jah/91.3/woeste.html in History Cooperative]

===Primary sources===
* Ford, Henry and Samuel Crowther. ''[http://www.gutenberg.net/etext/7213 My Life and Work]'', 1922
* Ford, Henry and Crowther, Samuel; ''Today and Tomorrow'', 1926
* Ford, Henry and Crowther, Samuel; ''Moving Forward'', 1930
* Bennett, Harry, as told to Paul Marcus. ''Ford: We Never Called Him Henry'', 1951
* Sorensen, Charles E., with Samuel T. Williamson. ''My Forty Years with Ford'', 1956; ISBN 0-915299-36-4

==External links==
* [http://automotivehistoryonline.com/ford.htm Automobile History Online - Henry Ford History & Photos]
* [http://www.quotationsbook.com/authors/2560/Henry_Ford Notable quotations and speech excerpts]
* [http://www.myviplife.com/lifestories/vipbusiness/Henry_Ford_wa.php?c=3 Timeline][http://www.myviplife.com/lifestories/vipbusiness/Henry_Ford_ch.php?c=3 and Quotes by Henry Ford]
* [http://www.americanheritage.com/articles/magazine/ah/1958/2/1958_2_65.shtml Nevins and Hill tell story of Peace Ship in ''American Heritage'']
* [http://www.hfha.org/ The Henry Ford Heritage Association]
* [http://thoughtaudio.com/titlelist/ford/index.html Listen to “The Terror of the Machine” by Henry Ford] Free mp3 audio download from [http://thoughtaudio.com/ ThoughtAudio.com]
* [https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Author:Henry_Ford]
====notes====
<references/>

{{DEFAULTSORT:Ford, Henry}}
[[Category:Business People]]
[[Category:Economic history]]
[[Category:Business]]
[[Category:Philanthropy]]
[[category:Anti-Semitism]]
[[category:Progressive Era]]
[[category:1920s]]
[[Category : People]]
[[Category : Celebrities]]
[[Category : Billionaires]]

The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints

2015-06-03T17:31:18Z

PaulBustion87: It is true that Mormonism is polytheistic, there's no question about that. Mormons believe in an infinite number of Gods.

[[Image:Birmingham temple.jpg|right|Birmingham temple]]
'''The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints''',<ref>[http://www.lds.org/ldsnewsroom/v/index.jsp?vgnextoid=ca07ae4af9c7e010VgnVCM1000004e94610aRCRD Style Guide - The Name of the Church] LDS.org</ref>, known as the '''LDS Church''' or, more colloquially, the '''Mormon Church''', is the largest denomination originating from the Latter-Day Saint movement founded by [[Joseph Smith]]. Its members are colloquially referred to as "Mormons." As of 2015, the Church reports over 15.3 million members worldwide. <ref>[http://www.mormonnewsroom.org/article/2014-statistical-report-for-2015-april-general-conference "2014 Statistical Report for 2015 April General Conference"], ''Mormon Newsroom'', April 4, 2015.</ref><ref>[http://www.adherents.com/largecom/com_lds.html Geographic statistics]</ref> This authentic American-founded religious group has contributed greatly to the United States. As just one example, they have devoted millions of man hours to humanitarian efforts around the globe.

==Overview==
The church was organized in 1830 in the [[Burned-over district|Burned-Over District]] of upstate New York, by [[Joseph Smith]]. As the Church grew, new converts gathered in [[Ohio]] and [[Missouri]]. While the Latter-day Saints in [[Kirtland]], Ohio, experienced persecution, those gathered in Missouri were repeatedly driven from town to town by angry mobs. Having been forced from Missouri in 1839, Church members gathered in Illinois and built a thriving city called [[Nauvoo]] in a swampy bend of the Mississippi River. However, within seven years they were again forced from their homes. Led by [[Brigham Young]], these pioneers trekked 1,300 miles (2,092 kilometers) westward to the Salt Lake Valley, to escape persecution, and founded [[Salt Lake City]], [[Utah]], where the Latter-Day Saint Church continues to be headquartered today. The church has now expanded to more than 13 million members.<ref>[http://www.lds.org/ldsnewsroom/v/index.jsp?vgnextoid=86e6635a56d8f010VgnVCM100000176f620aRCRD&vgnextchannel=3e0511154963d010VgnVCM1000004e94610aRCRD LDS Newsroom - Early Church History]</ref><ref>[http://www.lds.org/ldsnewsroom/v/index.jsp?vgnextoid=d10511154963d010VgnVCM1000004e94610aRCRD Worldwide Church Statistics] LDS.org</ref>

Church members follow a law of health known as the [[Word of Wisdom]] that promotes healthy eating as well as avoiding tobacco, alcohol, coffee, tea, and illegal drugs.<ref>[http://scriptures.lds.org/dc/89 The Word of Wisdom] Scriptures.lds.org</ref>
The U.S religious landscape survey published in February 2008 shows that [[Mormon]]s have the largest families closely followed by Muslims. <ref> [http://www.iht.com/articles/2008/02/25/america/25usreligion.php U.S religious landscape survey]</ref>

==Mormons' relationship to Christianity==
According to the [[Lutheran Missouri Synod]], "The Lutheran Church--Missouri Synod, together with the vast majority of Christian denominations in the United States, does not regard the Mormon church as a Christian church." <ref>http://www.lcms.org/pages/internal.asp?NavID=2239</ref> In addition, the [[Southern Baptist Convention]] states that the Mormon religion is "not consistent with biblical Christianity." <ref>http://www.onenewsnow.com/2007/02/southern_baptist_convention_wa.php</ref> The [[United Methodist Church]] has stated that the the Morman faith has "some radically differing doctrine on such matters of belief as the nature and being of [[God]]; the nature, origin, and purpose of [[Jesus Christ]]; and the nature and way of [[salvation]]." <ref>http://www.apologeticsindex.org/news/an200513.html#21</ref> According to Beliefnet.com there are a number of differences between the Mormon faith and traditional Christianity. <ref>http://www.beliefnet.com/features/mormonism.html</ref> Dr. James White, a Christian pastor, has stated that Mormonism is more different from Christianity than Islam because Mormonism is polytheistic, while Islam is monotheistic, and whether a religion is monotheistic or polytheistic is the basic element to a religion, according to White. He went on to say that part of the reason that Mormonism was, he felt, often mistaken for Christianity was his perception that Mormonism uses the same words Christians use, but it gives them completely different meanings. <ref>http://www.reformationtheology.com/2007/02/mormonism_v_christianity_a_quo.php</ref> The Roman Catholic Church does not accept Mormon baptisms as Christian baptisms. <ref>http://www.christiancentury.org/article/2012-01/are-mormons-christian-its-complicated</ref>

==Beliefs==
Latter-day Saints (Mormons) believe in the deity of [[Christ]]. They affirm the deity of Christ and their Church bears his name. From the organization of the LDS Church in 1830, the Church's doctrine focused on matters concerning theological issues related to Jesus Christ. Joseph Smith, Jr. wrote in 1842 to ''Chicago Democrat'' editor John Wentworth a statement of Church beliefs. The first of these 13 doctrinal declarations, later called the Articles of [[Faith]], stated the following:<blockquote>“We believe in [[God]] the Eternal Father, and in His Son, Jesus Christ, and in the [[Holy Ghost]]."<ref>[http://www.lds.org/portal/site/LDSOrg/menuitem.b12f9d18fae655bb69095bd3e44916a0/?vgnextoid=2354fccf2b7db010VgnVCM1000004d82620aRCRD&locale=0&sourceId=4ebe76e6ffe0c010VgnVCM1000004d82620a____&hideNav=1 The Marvelous Foundation of Our Faith] from the October 2002 General Conference</ref></blockquote> However, the Mormon understanding of Christ's deity is very different from the Christian understanding. Mormons believe Jesus is a god, but not a unique god. They believe Jesus is a created being, is only unique in mission, not in claims to godhood, and that he is the spirit brother of Satan. <ref>What Do Mormons Really Believe
By John Ankerberg, John Weldon[https://books.google.com/books?id=USylAQAAQBAJ&pg=PT48&dq=Mormons+reject+Christ+deity&hl=en&sa=X&ei=g1tRVaLQMMPwoAS42oGACQ&ved=0CB4Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=Mormons%20reject%20Christ%20deity&f=false]</ref>

"The Articles of Faith are thirteen statements written by the Prophet Joseph Smith describing some of the basic teachings and ordinances of the Church". <ref>[http://scriptures.lds.org/en/a_of_f/1]</ref> <ref>[http://library.lds.org/nxt/gateway.dll/Curriculum/home%20and%20family.htm/gospel%20principles.htm?fn=document-frameset.htm$f=templates$3.0 ''Gospel Principles'', The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, Utah. 1997</ref> 

The LDS website states: <blockquote>"We believe in the Jesus of the [[New Testament]], and we believe what the New Testament teaches about Him. We do believe things about Jesus that other Christians do not believe, but that is because we know, through revelation, things about Jesus that others do not know."<ref>[http://www.mormon.org/question/faq/category/answer/0,9777,1601-1-56-16,00.html Is The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints a Christian church?] As answered on the LDS Church's website</ref></blockquote>

Members of the church believe that [[God the Father]] and Jesus Christ are separate and distinct glorified beings, that God, the Father of all spirits (even including Lucifer) and Jesus Christ appeared to Joseph Smith in a vision in the spring of 1820 in response to Joseph's prayer requesting to know which of the many local [[Christian]] denominations he should join himself with, and that They told him that he should join with none of them. The reason behind this direction was as follows, according to LDS beliefs: the organization or "church" put in place by Jesus Christ during His ministry both before and after His resurrection was meant to remain as long as there were faithful followers, although there was clear understanding that a "falling away" (see 2 Thessalonians 2:3) or apostasy would take place, destroying for a time this organization (though not destroying faith in Jesus Christ, which did persist). This church organization provided a structure whereby two key components were maintained: the Priesthood, and continuing and direct revelation from the ascended Jesus Christ to His chosen Apostles.

According to LDS beliefs, the Priesthood is the authority given by Jesus Christ to His [[Apostles]] and others, both to direct the Church, as well as to perform the associated and necessary ordinances, such as baptism by water immersion, and giving the gift of the Holy Ghost by the laying on of hands. Without this authority, it would be impossible to perform them in an authorized manner (see [[Book of Acts|Acts]] 8:18-23). This authority, in actuality a covenant of service, only placed on men and not at all a legitimate source of self-aggrandizement, could only be passed from one authorized holder to another worthy man through the laying on of hands. Thus, while although initially the full quorum of 12 Apostles was maintained (see Acts 1:15-26), the Apostles were killed one by one and the Lord, in His mercy, ceased to give these murderers further opportunity of condemning themselves as more Apostles were not chosen. Thus, without the Priesthood and without the continuing revelation that the Lord provided to His Apostles to lead and guide the church, it fell way, as had been prophesied.

Therefore, LDS doctrine teaches of the necessity of a complete restoration rather than simply a reformation, and for this reason, Joseph Smith was called by God to be the first prophet, in the same sense as [[Moses]], [[Isaiah]], or [[Peter]], since the times of the New Testament. Mormons believe that since Joseph Smith, the leaders of the Church, from Brigham Young to [[Gordon B. Hinckley]] today, were and are prophets, with the complete Priesthood authority (restored through the laying on of hands by first [[John the Baptist]] and then by Apostles Peter, [[James]] and [[John]]). Mormons revere these men just as the Biblical prophets are revered and in particular, honor Joseph Smith for being the man through whom God and Jesus Christ chose to restore Their church to the earth.

===JesusChrist.lds.org===
[[Image:FaithinChrist.jpg|thumb|right|A screen shot of the new JesusChrist.lds.org Web site.]]
The Church has a multimedia website about the life and teachings of Jesus Christ at [http://jesuschrist.lds.org/?cid=wpats1 JesusChrist.lds.org].

Elder [[Russell Nelson|Russell M. Nelson]] speaks about the new website ''JesusChrist.lds.org''. [http://www.lds.org/ldsnewsroom/media/mediaplayer.swf?media=http://broadcast.lds.org/newsroom/video/flv/2-29-08_Nelson.flv&type=FLV video]

===Scriptures===

The four standard works of the Church are:
*The King James Version of the [[Bible]] - both the Old and New Testaments
*[[The Book of Mormon|The Book of Mormon: Another Testament of Jesus Christ]] - Translation of the spiritual record of two ancient civilizations in the western hemisphere, one from the time of the [[Tower of Babel]] to about 600 B.C., and the other from 600 B.C. to 421 A.D.
*[[Doctrine and Covenants]] - Modern-day revelation as received by the Prophet Joseph Smith and other modern-day prophets
*[[Pearl of Great Price]] - Selection of translations, revelations and narrations from the Prophet Joseph Smith

====Book of Mormon====

President [[Gordon B. Hinckley]] said the following about the [[Book of Mormon]] in an October, 2002 [[General Conference]] address entitled "The Marvelous Foundation of Our Faith": <blockquote>"This remarkable book stands as a testimonial to the living reality of the Son of God. The Bible declares that 'in the mouth of two or three witnesses every word may be established' (Matt. 18:16). The Bible, the testament of the Old World, is one witness. The Book of Mormon, the testament of the New World, is another witness.</blockquote><blockquote>I cannot understand why the Christian world does not accept this book. I would think they would be looking for anything and everything that would establish without question the reality and the divinity of the Savior of the world."<ref>[http://www.lds.org/ldsnewsroom/v/index.jsp?vgnextoid=e74c4d4297602110VgnVCM100000176f620aRCRD Mormons Reflect Christianity in Lifestyle] as stated in the April, 2007 newsroom article at lds.org</ref></blockquote>

===Restoration of the Priesthood===
Members of the [[Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]] believe that on May 15, 1829 A.D., the resurrected [[John the Baptist]] appeared to [[Joseph Smith|Joseph Smith, Jr.]] and [[Oliver Cowdery]] and conferred upon them the [[Aaronic priesthood]], which includes the authority to baptize.<ref>[http://scriptures.lds.org/en/dc/13 Doctrine and Covenants 13]</ref> Later, the resurrected Peter, James, and John appeared to them and conferred the [[Melchizedek priesthood]].

==Special Witnesses of Christ==
These prophets and apostles have given their testimonies as special witnesses of Jesus Christ.

*President [[Gordon Hinckley|Gordon B. Hinckley (1910-2008)]] <ref>[http://jesuschrist.lds.org/SonOfGod/eng/special-witnesses/video/president-gordon-b-hinckley-1910-2008-garden-tomb Special Witnesses of Christ], President Gordon B. Hinckley at the Garden Tomb, video at ''JesusChrist.lds.org''.</ref> <ref>[http://jesuschrist.lds.org/SonOfGod/eng/special-witnesses/video/president-gordon-b-hinckley-1910-2008-sacred-grove Special Witnesses of Christ], President Gordon B. Hinckley at the Sacred Grove, video at ''JesusChrist.lds.org''.</ref>
*President [[Thomas Monson|Thomas S. Monson]] <ref>[http://jesuschrist.lds.org/SonOfGod/eng/special-witnesses/video/president-thomas-s-monson Special Witnesses of Christ], President Thomas S. Monson, video at ''JesusChrist.lds.org''.</ref>
*President [[Henry Eyring|Henry B. Eyring]]
*President [[Dieter Uchtdorf|Dieter F. Uchtdorf]] <ref>[http://jesuschrist.lds.org/SonOfGod/eng/special-witnesses/video/president-dieter-f-uchtdorf Special Witnesses of Christ], President Dieter F. Uchtdorf, video at ''JesusChrist.lds.org''.</ref>
*President [[Boyd Packer|Boyd K. Packer]] <ref>[http://jesuschrist.lds.org/SonOfGod/eng/special-witnesses/video/president-boyd-k-packer Special Witnesses of Christ], President Boyd K. Packer, video at ''JesusChrist.lds.org''.</ref>
*Elder [[L. Tom Perry]]
*Elder [[Russell Nelson|Russell M. Nelson]] <ref>[http://jesuschrist.lds.org/SonOfGod/eng/special-witnesses/video/elder-russell-m-nelson Special Witnesses of Christ], Elder Russell M. Nelson, video at ''JesusChrist.lds.org''.</ref>
*Elder [[Dallin Oaks|Dallin H. Oaks]]
*Elder [[M. Russell Ballard]]
*Elder [[Joseph Wirthlin|Joseph B. Wirthlin (1917-2008)]]
*Elder [[Richard Scott|Richard G. Scott]]
*Elder [[Robert Hales|Robert D. Hales]] <ref>[http://jesuschrist.lds.org/SonOfGod/eng/special-witnesses/video/elder-robert-d-hales Special Witnesses of Christ], Elder Robert D. Hales, video at ''JesusChrist.lds.org''.</ref>
*Elder [[Jeffrey Holland|Jeffrey R. Holland]] <ref>[http://jesuschrist.lds.org/SonOfGod/eng/special-witnesses/video/elder-jeffrey-r-holland Special Witnesses of Christ], Elder Jeffrey R. Holland, video at ''JesusChrist.lds.org''.</ref>
*Elder [[David Bednar|David A. Bednar]] <ref>[http://jesuschrist.lds.org/SonOfGod/eng/special-witnesses/video/elder-elder-david-a-bednar Special Witnesses of Christ], Elder David A. Bednar, video at ''JesusChrist.lds.org''.</ref>
*Elder [[Quentin Cook|Quentin L. Cook]]
*Elder [[D. Todd Christofferson]]

==Wards==
[[Image:DCTemple.jpg|right|Washington DC Temple]]
Wards are geographically-defined congregations of the church. The Bishop is the spiritual leader of the ward and he serves with two counselors, all three chosen from among the body of the Ward. Bishops are usually called to serve for a period of five years and do so on a volunteer and unpaid basis, without formal ecclesiastical training, and while maintaining their secular professions.

The entire ward meets every week on Sunday to worship the Lord Jesus Christ and to receive counsel. The meetings are divided into three different hours:
*First hour - '''Sacrament meeting'''. Our main purpose in attending sacrament meeting is to renew our covenants through partaking of the sacrament and to worship our Heavenly Father through hymn singing and prayer. Sacrament meeting provides an opportunity for members to strengthen their faith, find inner peace and spiritual healing, receive inspiration, and be instructed in the gospel. A member of the bishopric begins the meeting welcoming all members and visitors. There is an opening hymn followed by an opening prayer (invocation). This is followed by conducting ward business where members are released and sustained from callings. Then the sacrament of bread and water is prepared, blessed by the priesthood, and passed to the congregation. The sacrament is a renewal of the covenants each member made at baptism to remember the Lord Jesus Christ and to keep his commandments. On the first Sunday of the month, the meeting conductor starts off the bearing of testimonies by offering his own personal testimony. A testimony is a personal witness that the gospel of Jesus Christ is true. As inspired by the Spirit, other members give their testimonies. On the other three Sundays, there are talks from members. The sacrament meeting concludes with a closing hymn and prayer.
*Second hour - '''Sunday School''', '''Primary''' and '''Nursery'''. Its purposes are to teach the gospel of Jesus Christ and strengthen individuals and families by encouraging them to study the scriptures, obey the commandments, receive the essential ordinances, and keep the associated covenants. All the adults and youth meet in Sunday School classes. Children younger than twelve and three or older attend Primary. Children who are at least 18 months old but who are not yet 3 years old on 1 January may attend nursery at the discretion of their parents.
:'''Adult Sunday School''' - The adults meet in several different classes. New members to the Church usually attend a Gospel Essentials class where they learn the basic teachings of the Church. Most of the other adults attend a Gospel Doctrine class where they are instructed in the Gospel of Jesus Christ from the scriptures. The main subjects rotate every four years: Old Testament, New Testament, Book of Mormon, and the last year is Doctrine and Covenants, Pearl of Great Price and Church history. The bible used by Church members is the King James Version.
:'''Youth Sunday School''' - The youth meet in several different classes according to their ages. There are usually separate classes for twelve and thirteen year olds, fourteen and fifteen year olds and sixteen and seventeen year olds. When they turn eighteen, the member starts attending the adult classes.
:'''Primary''' - The purpose of Primary is to teach children the gospel of Jesus Christ and help them learn to live it.
:'''Nursery''' - The purpose of the nursery class is to provide a loving, safe, organized place where young children can increase their understanding of and love for Heavenly Father and Jesus Christ, have positive experiences in a Church setting, and grow in feelings of self-worth.
*Third hour - '''Priesthood''', '''Relief Society''', '''Young Men''', '''Young Women''', '''Primary''' and '''Nursery'''. The men meet in Priesthood, the adult women meet in Relief Society,the male youth meet in Young Men, the female youth meet in Young Women and the children continue to meet in Primary or Nursery.
:'''Priesthood''' - The purpose of the priesthood meetings are to increase priesthood holders’ knowledge of the gospel; strengthen their dedication to becoming better husbands, fathers, sons, and neighbors; and help them become active participants in fulfilling the mission of the Church.
:'''Relief Society ''' - The purpose of Relief Society is to provide relief for the poor and needy and to bring people to Christ.
:'''Young Men''' - The purpose of the Young men group is to prepare the young men of the Aaronic Priesthood to receive the Melchizedek Priesthood, to receive the ordinances of the temple, and to serve a full-time mission.
:'''Young Women''' - The purpose of the Young Women organization is to help each young woman, ages 12 to 18, "come unto Christ".

==General Conference==
The church holds a semi-annual General Conference (in April and October, five two-hour sessions over two days) during which members listen to spoken messages from the Prophet and President of the church, his two counselors, members of the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles and other Church leaders. These messages are received by members of the church as modern-day revelation, just as the words of Peter were received by the followers of Jesus Christ in his day. Many members travel to Salt Lake City for the two-day conference, but the proceedings are broadcast via satellite throughout the world (as well as streamed on the internet) so that the entire church can participate.

The semi-annual conference was held in the Salt Lake Tabernacle for 132 years, but in 2000, the church completed construction of the Conference Center and has held the conference there since April 2000. The Conference Center's primary feature is an auditorium that seats 21,000.

==History of the Church in Utah ==
After the move to what would eventually become Utah, members of the Church founded the Territory of Deseret. While this was soon scaled down to the Utah territory by the United states government, the name Deseret was retained in the form of a newspaper (the Deseret Times) and the symbol on the state's highways (the beehive). Brigham Young, the then president of the Church was appointed governor of the Territory. The territory thrived, with the Saints in all positions of power (a territory consisting almost entirely of Saints unsurprisingly elected a territorial legislature that was entirely Mormon).

When federal officials, placed as patronage positions, arrived in Utah and found they could not profit in the usual way (skimming money off the top of deals, insisting on bribes and kickbacks for contracts), they started a drumbeat of negativity towards the Church in Washington. This led to the United States government marching an army of 2,500 troops towards Utah in 1857. This exercise of a nation taking arms against its own people failed miserably, with the troops poorly supplied and forced to march through the Rocky Mountains in the winter. Armed conflict was averted by Thomas Kaine, who convinced the governor of the territory at the time, Alfred Cummings, to order the army to pass by Salt Lake City and camp miles away. This failed expedition helped the Saints maintain a greater part of their independence from the federal government for a while longer.

==Controversy==

====Position of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, with respect to Christianity====
Members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints consider themselves Christians. They worship Jesus Christ as their Creator (see John 1:3), their Savior and Redeemer, and ultimately their eternal Judge. They believe that the events described in the New Testament in reality occurred, including Jesus Christ's virgin birth, his sinless life and miraculous ministry, and his suffering, death, and literal resurrection, through which forgiveness of sin, salvation (understood in LDS doctrine to indicate resurrection and immortality, a free gift to all; see 1 Corinthians 15:22), and ultimately exaltation (returning to and eternally dwelling in the presence of God and Jesus Christ and becoming "joint-heirs with Christ"; see Romans 8:17), are made possible.

The eleventh of the above-mentioned thirteen articles of faith contains the following statement:
<blockquote>“We claim the privilege of worshiping Almighty God according to the dictates of our own conscience, and allow all men the same privilege, let them worship how, where, or what they may." (see Articles of Faith 1:11)</blockquote>

====African Americans and the Priesthood====
African Americans were banned from the priesthood until, in June 1978, President Spencer W. Kimball is said to have received a revelation extending priesthood ordination to all worthy males of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (Official Declaration 2).
<ref name="Black">Emmanuel Abu Kissi, [http://byustudies.byu.edu/Reviews/Pages/reviewdetail.aspx?reviewID=117 Book review of Black and Mormon] BYU Studies Review, October 2006.</ref><ref> [http://www.pbs.org/mormons/themes/prohibition.html The Prohibition Against Blacks in the Priesthood], Public Broadcasting Service.</ref> <ref>[http://www.lds.org/ldsorg/v/index.jsp?vgnextoid=bbd508f54922d010VgnVCM1000004d82620aRCRD&locale=0&sourceId=36f2ce9566a43110VgnVCM100000176f620a____ LDS.org - Topic Definition - Priesthood Ordination before 1978]</ref>

The Book of Mormon attests that God invites “all to come unto him and partake of his goodness; and he denieth none that come unto him, black and white, bond and free, male and female; . . . and all are alike unto God” (2 Nephi 26:33). In our present day the First Presidency and Quorum of the Twelve Apostles have stated that all human beings are created in the image of God and that each is a beloved spirit son or daughter of Deity. <ref>“The Family: A Proclamation to the World,” 23 Sept. 1995, published in Ensign, Nov. 1995</ref>

<blockquote>In the twentieth century, various Church leaders continued to offer possible reasons why a race of people was prohibited from holding the priesthood. One explanation, carried over from the previous century, stated that blacks were descendants of Cain, the first murderer, and therefore were denied the priesthood because of lineage. Another theory held that blacks were less valiant in the premortal existence and therefore had certain spiritual restrictions placed upon them during mortality. Priesthood denial was perceived to be one of these spiritual restrictions. But by mid-century, President David O. McKay stated, "There is not now, and there never has been, a doctrine in this Church that the negroes are under a divine curse. . . .It is a practice, not a doctrine, and the practice will some day be changed".<ref name="Black" /></blockquote>

===Views on Same-Gender Attraction===
In October 2007, Elder Jeffrey R. Holland, of the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles, wrote an article in the Ensign magazine entitled "Helping Those Who Struggle with Same-Gender Attraction". <ref>[http://www.lds.org/portal/site/LDSOrg/menuitem.b12f9d18fae655bb69095bd3e44916a0/?vgnextoid=2354fccf2b7db010VgnVCM1000004d82620aRCRD&locale=0&sourceId=e5cbba12dc825110VgnVCM100000176f620a____ Helping Those Who Struggle with Same-Gender Attraction]</ref> In 2007, the Church published a pamphlet "God Loveth His Children", for those suffering from same-gender attraction. <ref>http://www.lds.org/topics/pdf/GodLovethHisChildren_04824_000.pdf God Loveth His Children</ref>

On June 7, 2006, ABC’s Nightline ran a story on members and former members of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints who struggle with same-gender attraction. The Church published a response to the inaccuracies in the Nightline story. <ref>[http://www.lds.org/ldsnewsroom/v/index.jsp?vgnextoid=d4ec39628b88f010VgnVCM100000176f620aRCRD&vgnextchannel=f5f411154963d010VgnVCM1000004e94610aRCRD Church Responds to Nightline Story on Mormons and Homosexuality]</ref>

The Church has a section on same-gender attraction on the Newsroom website. <ref>[http://www.lds.org/ldsnewsroom/v/index.jsp?vgnextoid=27f71f1dd189f010VgnVCM100000176f620aRCRD&vgnextchannel=726511154963d010VgnVCM1000004e94610aRCRD&vgnextfmt=tab1 Same-Gender Attraction]</ref>

===Polygamy===

Critics try to associate the Church with polygamy, but in fact the Church has denounced polygamy for most of its existence, and at least since 1905. Other belief systems, such as the [[ACLU]]'s, are more supportive of polygamy than this Church is.

A 1998 statement by current LDS President Gordon B. Hinckley states:
:This Church has nothing whatever to do with those practicing polygamy. They are not members of this Church. . . . If any of our members are found to be practicing plural marriage, they are excommunicated, the most serious penalty the Church can impose. Not only are those so involved in direct violation of the civil law, they are in violation of the law of this Church.<ref>[http://www.mormon.org/question/faq/category/answer/0,9777,1601-1-114-1,00.html What is the Church’s position on polygamy?] LDS website</ref>

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==See Also==
*[[List of LDS temples]]
*[[Christianity]]
*[[Christianity in Conservapedia]]

==External Links==

====Links to websites favorable to the Mormon Church====

*[http://www.lds.org Official Church Website]
*[http://www.mormon.org Official Church Website for Investigators]
*[http://scriptures.lds.org Official Online Version of the LDS Scriptures]
*[http://www.familysearch.org/ Official Church Genealogy Website, "the largest collection of free family history, family tree and genealogy records in the world."]
*[http://www.ldschurchtemples.com "News, schedules, photographs, and interesting facts of the temples of the LDS Church"]
*[http://www.fairlds.org Mormon Apologetics]
*[http://www.maxwellinstitute.com BYU Theologians]
*[http://www.lightplanet.com/mormons/ About Mormons]
*[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Church_of_Jesus_Christ_of_Latter-day_Saints Wikipedia article] on the LDS Church
*[http://www.intellectualconservative.com/article3282.html Are Mormons Conservative?]
*[http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,317272,00.html 21 Questions Answered About Mormon Faith]
*[http://www.newsroom.lds.org/ldsnewsroom/eng/news-releases-stories/what-you-will-find-when-you-step-inside-a-mormon-chapel What You Will Find When You Step Inside a Mormon Chapel], LDS Newsroom, 19 August 2008

====Links to Groups Not in Favor of the Mormon Church====
*[http://jesusnotjoseph.com JesusNotJoseph]
*[http://www.mrm.org Mormonism Research Ministry]
*[http://www.evangelicalbible.com/jw.htm#LDS The Mormon Church & the Nature of God]

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