Conservapedia - User contributions [en]

Evolution and science

2016-02-07T05:36:09Z

RealScience: page is inherently biased

Scientific theory

2016-02-07T05:34:10Z

RealScience: eliminated unhelpful information

A '''scientific theory''' is a plausible and consistent explanation for observable [[phenomena]]. While a [[scientific law]] describes something that always happens in the same way, a scientific [[theory]] explains what causes it to do so.

For example, doctors have long known that being near a person who has a communicable disease exposes you to a risk of catching it (see [[quarantine]]). It was a "law" of [[contagion]] that staying far away protected you from catching the disease, even before Pasteur's [[germ theory of disease]] provided the modern scientific explanation (the "theory").

A successful theory is most consistent with the actual behavior of the universe. When a phenomenon is discovered that is inconsistent with the prevailing theory, the theory is either revised or thrown out entirely. An example of this is [[Newtonian mechanics]]--while Newton's 3 laws of motion provide extremely accurate descriptions/predictions of the behavior of medium-sized objects at low speeds, they are inconsistent with the behavior of very large, very fast, or very small objects. Newtonian mechanics has been shown to be a limiting case of the [[theory of relativity]] (in the limit where velocity goes to 0) and [[quantum mechanics]] (in the limit where [[Planck's constant]] goes to 0, essentially the limit of large objects). Usually a theory which is inconsistent with some experimental evidence is not completely falsified; it is instead shown to be a simplified version of a more complete theory.

==Scientific usage==

A theory is more substantial than a conjecture or [[hypothesis]], but may not be verified as consistent with [[empirical]] data. <ref>For example, scientists may refer to phlogiston theory or ether theory, which originally sounded plausible even though empirical verification was lacking. As a result, these theories are no longer accepted by scientists.</ref> Controversially, some scientists have declared that causes other than natural, observable ones should not be examined - and that theories involving such causes are "not scientific", e.g., [[behavioral psychology]]. This limitation and its implications for the [[philosophy of science]] plays a large role in the [[origins debate]].

For many philosophers of science, a theory must be ''[[falsifiable]]'' to be considered [[science|scientific]].
This means that there must be some way to do experiments that could counter the theory's predictions, thus disproving the current theory. <ref>"A theory not only explains known facts; it also allows scientists to make predictions of what they should observe if a [[theory]] is true. Scientific theories are testable. New evidence should be compatible with a theory. If it isn't, the theory is refined or rejected." [http://www.amnh.org/exhibitions/darwin/evolution/theory.php] </ref>

Generally accepted scientific theories have survived over time, have evolved when appropriate, and modified toward consistency with newly discovered data, have not been shown to be false and can make predictions about natural phenomena. <ref>http://www.thefreedictionary.com/theory </ref> Scientific theories can sometimes be used as the basis for industrial and technical developments.

A scientific theory should have to have strong experimental support or accepted by the scientific community. However, some scientists mistakenly refer to untested theories and competing theories. Theories are generally extremely well-confirmed, such as conservation of energy. Some more speculative 'theories' are more accurately labelled 'hypothesis' within the scientific community, such as String Theory.

== Common usage ==
Some evolutionists frequently claim that the word "theory" means very different things to scientists and non-scientists. For example, a PBS TV show says: <ref>http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/evolution/library/11/2/e_s_1.html</ref>
:''When we use the word "theory" in everyday life, we usually mean an idea or a guess, but the word has a much different meaning in science. This video examines the vocabulary essential for understanding the nature of science and evolution and illustrates how evolution is a powerful, well-supported scientific explanation for the relatedness of all life.''

The American Museum of Natural History exhibit on Darwin says: <ref>http://www.amnh.org/exhibitions/darwin/evolution/theory.php</ref>
:''In everyday use, the word "theory" often means an untested hunch, or a guess without supporting evidence. But for scientists, a theory has nearly the opposite meaning. A theory is a well-substantiated explanation of an aspect of the natural world that can incorporate laws, hypotheses and facts.''

An example of the term 'theory' in scientific literature is in the field of speculative physics, which proposes something commonly deemed 'String Theory'. At it's most basic level, string theory states that the entirety of the universe is made up of tiny, multi-dimensional strings. However, this proposal cannot currently be verified or refuted by modern science - that is, scientists cannot determine if this is right or wrong. Since String Theory makes no verifiable predictions about the universe, either, scientists cannot say that String Theory fits any facts we currently know. Therefore, String Theory is not the sort of scientific theory which is evidenced by facts and must make correct, verifiable predictions about the future. <ref>[http://www.nytimes.com/2004/12/07/science/07stri.html?ei=5090&en=fd15a74e2dca3af0&ex=1260075600&partner=rssuserland&pagewanted=all&position=] used the word "theory" 70 times without any suggestion that ideas must be well-substantiated before they qualify as a theory. Physicist Lawrence Krauss used the term "string theory" even though the theory has "yet to have any real successes in explaining or predicting anything measurable". [http://genesis1.phys.cwru.edu/~krauss/08essay.html] A month later, he argued that it should really be called the "string enterprise" because using the word "theory" causes problems with intelligent design advocates and those who say that evolution is "just a theory". [http://genesis1.phys.cwru.edu/~krauss/newscieditorial.html]</ref>

==Common scientific theories==

* Cell Theory - how our bodies are made up of cells. <ref>[http://library.thinkquest.org/12413/theory.html]</ref>

* Gravitational Theory - the explanation for how matter attracts other matter. <ref>[http://users.ameritech.net/dennisreynolds1/GravitationalTheory.html] </ref>

* Atomic Theory - the current understanding of the basic makeup of living and nonliving things. <ref> [http://library.thinkquest.org/27948/bohr.html] </ref>

* [[Theory of Evolution]] - the explanation of how species change and split apart over time through mutation. Although this theory may be controversial, it is widely accepted as a theory by the scientific community.

==Scientific inquiry==
{{quotebox|Surprisingly, modern methods of scientific inquiry were not generally accepted until the late sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries. Thus in terms of human history, scientific inquiry is in its infancy. [http://acept.asu.edu/courses/phs110/si/chapter1/main.html What Is Scientific Inquiry?] - Arizona Collaborative for Excellence in Preparation of Teachers (ACEPT)}}

== See also ==

*[[Computing]]
*[[Evolution and science]]

*[http://wilstar.com/theories.htm Scientific Laws, Hypotheses, and Theories - The Scientific Method]

==Notes and references==
<references/>

[[Category:Methodology of Science]]
[[Category:Science]]

Pseudoscience

2016-02-07T05:23:44Z

RealScience: added a new section, deleted unrelated/inaccurate information

'''Pseudoscience''' is [[hypothesis]] or speculation which has the trappings and [[rhetoric]] of [[science]], and is presented as science, but does not follow the [[scientific method]]. Pseudoscientific theories are typically not [[falsifiable]], and their purveyors show unwillingness to allow outsiders to observe, test, or replicate their findings.

== Misconceptions==

Although the word "theory" is often used interchangeably with hypothesis, an actual [[scientific theory]] requires significant proof and must meet a variety of standards.

== Falsifiability ==
The most cited element of scientific theory is [[falsifiability]], established by [[philosopher]] [[Karl Popper]]<ref>[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/popper/#BacHisTho Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, see in particular sections 2 and 3]</ref>. A falsifiable theory makes predictions, which can be used to test it. Thus, the theory of gravity is falsifiable, as it predicts that an apple held above the ground and released will fall. If it fails the test, it is discarded, and if it passes, it is not proven, but better supported.

== Disproven Science ==
The term pseudoscience is also often applied to theories which ''are'' falsifiable and have in fact been falsified and discarded. [[Phrenology]] predicted that psychological traits could be inferred from the shape of the skull, but no actual link was ever found. Various [[astrology|astrological]] theories predicted regular planetary effects on the earth and human health, but testing those failed.

The existence of [[God]] is thus not considered scientific theory, as no test can possibly be conceived which categorically disproves His existence. The same is the case for [[string theory]], which is a mathematical unification of scientific theory, but makes no predictions. Such things fall outside the realm of science.

== Charlatanism ==
The label ''pseudoscientist'' is commonly given to cranks and [[charlatan]]s, who claim abnormal powers and abilities, but refuse to demonstrate them in objective, controlled, monitored environments. For example, Uri Geller claims to be able to bend spoons without applying pressure to them, but he cannot do it in front of scientists or journalists<ref>http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=N3vGGf-ZIkc Uri Geller debunked by James Randi and Johnny Carson</ref>. Countless conjurers and mediums claim to be able to speak with the dead, but controlled circumstances revealed that they were really only conducting clever psychological tricks.

== Metaphysics ==
[[Spiritual]], [[metaphysical]], [[philosophical]], and [[religious belief]]s are occasionally confused with pseudoscience, as there is often an overlap in rhetoric, and charlatans blur the lines between scientific and philosophical ideas of knowledge.

== Public belief ==
Despite evidence and logic against pseudoscientific theories, many remain popular among the public. Homeopathic medicine is available at most health-food stores and is a multi-billion dollar business, and 31% of Americans believe in astrology.

There is no definitive or objective definition of the term "pseudoscience", so it is also sometimes used as a pejorative term. Pseudoscientists consider their work to be real science rather than pseudoscience. In addition to this, oftentimes theories which conflict with their theories are considered by them to be pseudoscience. Theories which are considered to be psuedoscience by the public may transition into being considered science if substantial evidence is found to support the theory. For example, before the theory of plate tectonics was fully developed, it was considered pseudoscience, whilst its predecessors, theories which involved an expanding Earth, are now considered pseudoscience.<ref>R. G. A. Dolby, ''Uncertain Knowledge: An Image of Science for a Changing World'', Published by Cambridge University Press, 2002. ISBN 0521892627, 9780521892629, 380 pages. [http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xd3ylT3WTLEC&pg=PA191&dq=pseudoscience+pejorative&num=100&as_brr=3 Page 191]</ref><ref>Brian Stableford, ''Science Fact and Science Fiction'', Published by CRC Press, 2006, ISBN 0415974607, 9780415974608, 729 pages. [http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=uefwmdROKTAC&pg=PA410&dq=pseudoscience+pejorative&num=100&as_brr=3 Page 410]</ref>

* [[Animal magnetism]]
* [[Astrology]]
* [[Biodynamic agriculture]]
* [[Social darwinism]]
* [[Dominionism]]
* [[Free Energy]]
* [[Graphology]]]]
* [[Iridology]]
* [[Lysenkoism]]
* [[Mesmerism]]
*Much of the work of [[PZ Myers]]<ref>http://www.truefreethinker.com/articles/pz-myers-pseudoscienceblogscom</ref>
* [[Orgone therapy]]
* [[Parapsychology]]
* [[Phrenology]]
* [[Population control]]
* [[Pseudoarchaeology]]
* [[Psychoanalysis]]
* [[Reflexology]]
* [[Self-projection as God]] (also known as [[vicarious autotheism]])
* [[Ufology]]

== See also ==
* [[Scientism]]
* [[hypothesis]]

Humor:
* [[Essay: You obviously don't understand how science works|You obviously don't understand how science works]] - Humor/[[Satire]]

==References==
<references/>

[[Category:Pseudoscience]]