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Racism

2019-07-31T13:07:17Z

WAliberty: Correct spelling

[[File:2019-05-30 17-27-08.jpg|175px|right|thumb|The future of the [[Democratic party]], [[Alexandria Ocasio-Cortez]], flashing a [[white supremacist]] hand signal.<ref>https://www.zerohedge.com/news/2019-05-30/aoc-white-supremacist</ref>]]
'''Racism''' is making a [[moral]] judgment about a person based on skin color or ethnic heritage. The hatred of another person because of the color of his or her skin is racist; some use the term ''racism'' for the perceived difference in origin, as a member of an [[Ethnic Group|ethnic group]].

The doctrine of [[substantive due process]] in United States constitutional law can be used to invalidate racist laws. Alternately, the [[Equal Protection|equal protection]] clause of the [[Fourteenth Amendment]] can be used to do the same. ''See e.g.'' [[Brown v. Board of Education]], 347 U.S. 483 (1954).

==Systemic or institutionalized racism==
Institutional racism includes the [[Jim Crow]] laws in heavily [[Democratic party|Democratic]] states or the discrimination and violence against minority white [[South Africa]]ns by their country's own government<ref>Multiple references:
*Newman, Alex (March 19, 2018). [https://www.thenewamerican.com/world-news/africa/item/28538-world-finally-notices-plight-of-south-africa-s-minority-farmers World Finally Notices Plight of South Africa's Minority Farmers]. ''The New American''. Retrieved May 20, 2018.
*Newman, Alex (March 25, 2018). [https://www.thenewamerican.com/world-news/africa/item/28577-secession-push-grows-as-south-african-regime-plots-land-thefts Secession Push Grows as South African Regime Plots Land Thefts]. ''The New American''. Retrieved May 20, 2018.
*Byas, Steve (April 25, 2018). [https://www.thenewamerican.com/usnews/foreign-policy/item/28837-petition-effort-to-admit-endangered-white-south-africans-spreads-and-intensifies Petition Effort to Admit Endangered White South Africans Spreads and Intensifies]. ''The New American''. Retrieved May 20, 2018.
*[https://video.foxnews.com/v/5785308294001/?playlist_id=5198073478001#sp=show-clips Minority of farmers struggle for survival in South Africa]. ''Fox News Video''. Retrieved May 20, 2018.
*Wallen, Joe (March 24, 2018). [https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/africa/south-africa-white-farmers-eff-mbuyiseni-ndlozi-anc-interview-a8271096.html South Africa: Taking farms from whites is justified because 'it's not really their land', says EFF spokesman]. ''The Independent''. Retrieved May 20, 2018.</ref> approaching the level of genocide.<ref>Multiple references:
*Newman, Alex (October 24, 2012). [https://www.thenewamerican.com/world-news/africa/item/13280-genocide-communism-threaten-south-africa Genocide and Communism Threaten South Africa]. ''The New American''. Retrieved May 20, 2018.
*Newman, Alex (December 11, 2014). [https://www.thenewamerican.com/world-news/africa/item/19699-warnings-grow-over-communism-and-genocide-in-south-africa Warnings Grow Over Communism and Genocide in South Africa]. ''The New American''. Retrieved May 20, 2018.</ref>

==Reconciliation vs. vindictiveness==
Laird Wilcox wrote:
{{Quotebox|"There is a [[humanist]] anti-racism that focuses on [[reconciliation]] and [[healing]], that works to bring people together, that functions openly and honestly without the use of dossiers, [[spies]], specious [[lawsuit]]s, [[disinformation]], and that recognizes the [[right]]s of individuals whether they agree with one another or not. This is the anti-racism of good neighbors, of people helping people, of community goodwill, and of the realization that we are all [[human being]]s. ...<br>On the other hand, there is a vindictive and corrupt anti-racism that focuses on paybacks and [[punishment]], that demonizes and degrades its critics, that attempts to carve out [[special rights]] for its constituency, that [[Liberal censorship|opposes free and open discussion]] of ideas, that attempts to silence, [[censor]] and stifle its opposition through intimidation and harassment, and encourages [[law enforcement]] scrutiny of opponents because of their alleged [[values]], opinions and beliefs."<ref>''The Watchdogs: A Close Look at Anti-Racist "Watchdog" Groups'', Laird Wilcox, Editorial Research Service, 1999, pg. 3. ISBN 0-993592-96-5.</ref>}}

American writers and filmmakers have created many works to undermine racism. ''[[Uncle Tom's Cabin]]'' opposed slavery. ''[[Huckleberry Finn]]'' showed a black man as a moral equal to whites. ''Song of the South'' was Disney's first live-action film starring a black man (the actor received a special Oscar for his performance).

==Racism hoaxes==
The decline of taking legitimate claims of racism in America reached a height when after 2009 the [[authoritarian]] ruling [[Democrat party]], with a [[veto]]-proof Congress, impugned opponents with legitimate concerns about the [[socialist]] and coercive mandates of the [[Affordable Care Act]], or Obamacare as it's more popularly known, as motivated by racism.

==The Democratic party's role in Civil Rights==
[[File:1924 DNC convention.jpg|right|350px|thumb|1924 Democratic Convention.]]
{{See also|Liberalism and racism}}
{{Racist Democrats}}

Liberals attempt to divide the races into different social classes through the use of [[racial quotas]] and [[affirmative action]] and place value on people and judge them based on their race and/or skin color. While most Americans look forward to a "post-racial America," where race is not a factor in a person's success, liberal interests demand that one's success depends on government intervention, and so attempt to artificially affect hiring and admissions decisions in order to keep certain people dependent on and grateful to the government for their livelihoods.

In contemporary times, [[cultural Marxist]]s have replaced the [[proletariat]] with [[identity politics]] as the oppressed group. Hence, a group of "oppressors" are needed whom doctrinaire Marxists falsely accuse of racism to fulfill their [[authoritarianism|authoritarian]] agenda.<ref>https://youtu.be/PkNzYttjSHE</ref>

In reality, many Democrat presidents from the end of the Civil war until now were either racist or had racist sympathies.

On some college campuses, liberals have supported and even implemented [[segregated college housing]], with the segregation based purely on one's skin color.<ref>Duke, Selwyn (September 10, 2018). [https://www.thenewamerican.com/culture/education/item/30025-leftists-are-now-advocating-racial-segregation Leftists Are Now Advocating Racial Segregation]. ''The New American''. Retrieved September 10, 2018.</ref>

'''Woodrow Wilson'''
[[File:FDR Truman and KKK.jpeg|right|250px|thumb|Despite historians revisionism, Democrat racism was well known at the time.]]
Woodrow Wilson was only the second Democrat elected president since the [[Civil War]], and he believed that blacks were inferior. Wilson segregated Washington, D.C. and all federal buildings and installations throughout the country with separate bathrooms and cafeterias - even in states without [[Jim Crow Laws]]. Wilson, segregated the Army, wiping out 50 years of social progress that Blacks had made under Republican administrations.<ref>https://www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2015/11/wilson-legacy-racism/417549/</ref> Military bases, post offices, and federal buildings in Northern states - states that won the war - were transformed to resemble Southern plantations, with Blacks allowed to work in the kitchen, but couldn't dine with Whites and had to use their own separate restrooms.

Wilson also believed that Italians were even more inferior,<ref>https://www.csmonitor.com/Books/chapter-and-verse/2015/1214/5-surprising-facts-about-Woodrow-Wilson-and-racism</ref> and he later appointed his anti-Semitic attorney general [[James McReynolds]] to the Supreme Court. According to [[Sigmund Freud]], Wilson had a mental disorder.

'''Franklin Roosevelt and Harry Truman'''

[[Franklin Roosevelt]] appointed [[Ku Klux Klan]] Grand Wizard [[Hugo Black]] to the Supreme Court. Franklin Roosevelt always opposed Republican civil rights bills and anti-lynching legislation.

FDR excluded the 4-time gold medalist [[Jesse Owens]] from the customary [[White House]] visit by [[Olympics|Olympic]] athletes. As Jesse Owens later explained:<ref>https://fee.org/articles/hitler-didn-t-snub-me-it-was-our-president/</ref>
{{Quotebox|[[Hitler]] didn’t snub me; it was our president [[FDR]] who snubbed me. The president didn’t even send a [congratulatory] telegram.}}

[[Harry Truman]], a Ku Klux Klan sympathizer, wrote a letter to his own wife condemning blacks and Orientals.<ref>https://www.trumanlibrary.org/whistlestop/study_collections/trumanpapers/fbpa/index.php?documentid=HST-FBP_1-21_01&documentVersion=both</ref>

==The Civil Rights movement==
'''John F. Kennedy'''
[[File:Kennedy on the campaign trail.jpg|right|300px|thumb|John Kennedy campaigning.]]
[[John F. Kennedy]] admired Hitler,<ref>https://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-4340596/JFK-s-diary-reveals-deep-fascination-Adolf-Hitler.html</ref> and his father Joe opposed US entry into World War II out of anti-Semitism.

Sen. John F. Kennedy of Massachusetts, who later ran for president, voted against it.<ref>HR. 6127. CIVIL RIGHTS ACT OF 1957. PASSED. https://www.govtrack.us/congress/votes/85-1957/s75</ref> Kennedy's 1957 book, ''Profiles in Courage'', celebrated the vote of Sen. Edmund Ross to acquit Pres. [[Andrew Johnson]], the first step in ending Republican [[Reconstruction]] reforms and paving the way for the Democrat era of [[Jim Crow]] laws and the [[segregation]] era.<ref>https://brewminate.com/andrew-johnson-impeachment-and-reconstruction/</ref>

'''Lyndon Johnson'''
The 1957 Civil Rights Act was the first federal civil rights legislation passed by the United States Congress since the Republicans passed the Civil Rights Act of 1875. Johnson told Sen. Richard Russell, {{quotebox|"These Negroes, they're getting pretty uppity these days and that's a problem for us since they've got something now they never had before, the political pull to back up their uppityness. Now we've got to do something about this, we've got to give them a little something, just enough to quiet them down, not enough to make a difference. For if we don't move at all, then their allies will line up against us and there'll be no way of stopping them, we'll lose the filibuster and there'll be no way of putting a brake on all sorts of wild legislation. It'll be Reconstruction all over again."<ref>Said to Senator Richard Russell, Jr. (D-GA) regarding the Civil Rights Act of 1957. As quoted in [http://books.google.com/books?id=HS9aAAAAYAAJ ''Lyndon Johnson and the American Dream''] (1977), by Doris Kearns Goodwin, New York: New American Library, p. 155.</ref>}}

[[Lyndon Johnson]] sought to buy off Blacks through dependency and said "I will have those n---ers vote Democrat for the next 200 years." While Johnson also appointed [[NAACP]] lawyer [[Thurgood Marshall]] the first African American Supreme Court Justice, a young White House attorney recommended Federal Judge William Henry Hastie—who had been Marshall's professor at Harvard Law School—as a more qualified African American candidate, but LBJ rejected the light-skinned Hastie, explaining, "Son, when I appoint a ni--er to the court, I want everyone to know he's a ni--er." <ref>http://www.msnbc.com/msnbc/lyndon-johnson-civil-rights-racism</ref>

'''Jimmy Carter and Walter Mondale'''
[[File:Carter mondale 1200.JPG|right|350px|thumb|Jimmy Carter on the campaign trail with the Democratic nominee, [[Walter Mondale]], in 1984.]]
According to ''The Real Jimmy Carter'' by Steven Hayward, [[Jimmy Carter]] did nothing to help the desegregation cause in the South and sometimes did the opposite, and like Bill Clinton, endorsed racist candidates for political offices.

Carter actively campaigned for his former vice-president, [[Walter Mondale]] against [[Ronald Reagan]] in 1984 under the [[Confederate flag]]. [[Jesse Jackson]] refused to release his delegates in 1984 to [[Gary Hart]], Clinton's old boss from the [[McGovern]] campaign of 1972. Jackson, the first African-American to win states in a major party primary, questioned the disparity between his vote total and delegate count, but even Hart sided with the DNC's rigging the primary rules.<ref>[https://www.nytimes.com/1984/05/20/us/disparity-between-jackson-s-vote-and-delegate-count-vexes-party.html?pagewanted=all DISPARITY BETWEEN JACKSON'S VOTE AND DELEGATE COUNT VEXES PARTY], By DAVID E. ROSENBAUM, ''New York Times'', May 20, 1984.</ref> In 1988 Jackson selected Ron Brown as his chief negotiator at the 1988 Democratic National Convention.<ref>https://socialistworker.org/2016/07/25/how-democrats-got-over-the-rainbow</ref> Brown went on to serve as DNC Chairman and Commerce Secretary until he died in a mysterious plane crash.<ref>https://www.amazon.com/Ron-Browns-Body-Presidency-Hillarys/dp/0785262377</ref>

'''Democratic Leadership Council'''

The Democratic Leadership Council (DLC) was a racist organization formed by remnants of the [[George McGovern]] and [[Gary Hart]] campaigns - less Jesse Jackson's [[Rainbow Coalition]].<ref>http://www.blackcommentator.com/46/46_cover.html</ref><ref>https://ofamerica.wordpress.com/tag/democratic-leadership-council/</ref> By 1992 it had taken over the DNC. Democratic strategists sought to distance themselves from the [[civil rights movement]] and begin pushing the "centrist" candidacy of Bill Clinton.<ref>[https://www.salon.com/2016/01/31/the_clintons_sordid_race_game_no_one_will_say_it_but_the_clintons_rise_was_premised_on_repudiating_black_voters/ The Clintons’ sordid race game: No one will say it, but the Clintons’ rise was premised on repudiating black voters], Corey Robin, ''Salon'', Jan 31, 2016</ref>

It is unknown why liberals feel the need to interfere in the lives and careers of hard-working African Americans, but it is likely due to a condescending attitude towards the African American community, which boasts some of the highest church attendance rates in the country and is therefore directly opposed to the liberal secularist agenda.

Creativity, which is espoused by the [[Creativity Movement]], is an [[atheistic]] white racist movement.<ref name="Atheistic">{{cite book|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=HB1wyFPRGm4C&pg=PA23&dq=atheism+white+supremacy&hl=en&ei=Re-OTfbHHuuD0QHOycm1Cw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=7&ved=0CEgQ6AEwBg#v=onepage&q=atheistic&f=false|title =The new white nationalism in America: its challenge to integration|publisher = [[Cambridge University Press]]|quote=For instance, Ben Klassen, founder of the atheistic World Church of the Creator and the author of ''The White Man's Bible'', discusses Christianity extensively in his writings and denounces religion that has brought untold horror into the world and divided the white race.|accessdate = 2011–03–27}}</ref><ref name="Religion">{{cite book|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=RonIunZ521sC&pg=PA247&dq=atheism+white+supremacy&hl=en&ei=u_OOTaGaM6Xi0gHJztygCw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=4&ved=0CDYQ6AEwAzgK#v=onepage&q&f=false|title =Contemporary voices of white nationalism in America|publisher = [[Cambridge University Press]]|quote=World Church of the Creator, an organization that espouses an atheistic and white supremacist religious philosophy known as Creativity.|accessdate = 2011–03–27}}</ref><ref name="Atheism">{{cite book|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=rBgn3xB75ZcC&pg=PA493&dq=competing+atheistic+white+racist+movement&hl=en&ei=5uWOTeSkCamw0QH7m92bCw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCkQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=competing%20atheistic%20white%20racist%20movement&f=false|title =The World's Religions: Continuities and Transformations|publisher = [[Taylor & Francis]]|quote=A competing atheistic or panthestic white racist movement also appeared, which included the Church of the Creator/ Creativity (Gardell 2003: 129–134).|accessdate = 2011–03–27}}</ref>

==Mass incarceration and the New Jim Crow: the Biden Crime Bill==
[[File:Clinton Gore.jpeg|right|350px|thumb|Clinton/Gore 1992 convention button.]]
:{{See also|Bill and Hillary Clinton and racism|Biden Crime Bill}}
The Clintons' cynical manipulation of Black voters and pandering to "white working class, hard-working white" nativist sentiment is well known.<ref>https://youtu.be/vjoMcqMTMfw</ref><ref>https://youtu.be/ijhL3-5sr18</ref> Under the Clintons, 250,000 [[African American]]s were imprisoned in the [[United States]], more than than under President Reagan,<ref>http://www.blackelectorate.com/articles.asp?ID=320</ref> a fact which Hillary Clinton takes credit for.<ref>https://www.thenation.com/article/hillary-clinton-does-not-deserve-black-peoples-votes/</ref> Cumulatively since the Clintons passed their crime bill, 2.5 million adult black males—more than 10% of the population—have been incarcerated leaving untold damage on black families.<ref>http://www.prisonpolicy.org/research/incarceration_rates_growth_causes/</ref>

The Clintons call [[Jesse Jackson]] that "Goddamn n****r" behind his back.<ref>http://polidics.com/news/hillary-clintons-jew-bastard.html</ref><ref>http://rapmusic.com/threads/hillary-clinton-hates-blacks-and-jews-caught-by-the-secret-service-and-endorsers.1074368/</ref><ref name="emptysuit.wordpress.com">https://emptysuit.wordpress.com/2010/08/02/the-clintons-jews-and-niggers-warning-graphic-language/</ref><ref>https://www.theblaze.com/contributions/racial-slurs-are-unsettling-if-used-by-celebrity-chefs-or-top-democrats/</ref>

That fact that 30-year-old allegations of [[sexual assault]] and improprieties are hurled at [[Bill Cosby]] with a devastating effect on his life and career while Bill Clinton was at the same time held up by many liberal Democrats as a paragon of manhood and public service in the media and judicial system is a testament to the bigotry and racism of the [[mainstream media]] and their supporters.

'''Voting Rights violations'''

In Arkansas, the Clinton administration was sued several times by blacks and [[Hispanic]]s for violations of the 1965 [[Voting Rights Act]] and lost every case. 10 years into their grip on Arkansas the [[United States Supreme Court]] ruled
{{Quotebox|violations of the [[Fourteenth amendment|fourteenth]] or [[fifteenth amendment]] justifying equitable relief have occurred in Arkansas.

In May 1990, the district court turned to those claims, holding that "the State of Arkansas has committed a number of constitutional violations of the voting rights of black citizens." In particular, the court determined that the "State has systematically and deliberately enacted new majority-vote requirements for municipal offices, in an effort to frustrate black political success in elections traditionally requiring only a plurality to win." In 1990...Devotion to majority rule for local offices lay dormant as long as the [[plurality]] system produced white office-holders. But whenever black candidates used this system successfully -- and victory by a plurality has been virtually their only chance of success in at-large elections in majority-white cities – the response was swift and certain. Laws were passed in an attempt to close off this avenue of black political victory...

This series of laws represents a systematic and deliberate attempt to reduce black political opportunity. Such an attempt is plainly unconstitutional. It replaces a system in which blacks could and did succeed, with one in which they almost certainly cannot. The inference of [[bigotry|racial motivation]] is inescapable.<ref>Findings of the Supreme Court of the United States in [http://www.usdoj.gov/osg/briefs/1990/sg900402.txt Clinton vs Jeffers] No. 90-394 (1990) on appeal 730 F. Supp. 196, 198-201 (ED Ark. 1989) (three-judge court), aff'd, No. 89-2008 (Jan. 7, 1991).</ref><ref>http://commonsensewonder.blogspot.com/2016/09/bill-clintons-comment-about-trumps-make.html</ref>}}

In more than one thousand legislative elections, the Arkansas delta region sent not one black to the legislature. In 1988 the federal district court forced a change to the system in Crittenden County that watered down the presence of a large number of black voters.

The case began when blacks in Crittenden County filed a voting rights lawsuit attacking the county's ''at-large'' system for electing two members to the Arkansas House. The suit contended that the system deprived black voters of a chance to elect a black to the state assembly.

The evidence at trial was indeed overwhelming that the Voting Rights Act had been violated. Plaintiffs offered plenty of proof of monolithic voting along racial lines, intimidation of black voters and candidates, other official acts that made voting harder for blacks. A panel of 3 judges ordered Clinton, the Attorney General, and Secretary of State to redraw the boundaries to give maximum strength to black voters.

'''Lani Guinier'''
Local press reports in Arkansas from the late 1980s paint an ugly picture of the [[Clinton administration]]'s attempts to intimidate black voters.<ref>http://www.siliconinvestor.com/readreplies.aspx?subjectid=28880&msgid=18476315</ref> In her 1998 memoir ''Lift Every Voice'', former [[U.S Justice Department]] Civil Rights Division nominee Lani Guinier revealed that Clinton's record on [[race]] in Arkansas was so bad she was forced to take legal action. "As a staff lawyer for the [[NAACP]] Legal Defense and Education Fund [LDF], I had sued Gov. Clinton over Arkansas's deputy voter registration statute." A deputy voter registrar is someone authorized to register voters.

Guinier wrote, "In the late 1980s, in a particularly tense meeting in southeastern Arkansas - a section of the Mississippi Delta region where antebellum social relations are still in many respects the order of the day," Dayna Cunningham, a civil rights lawyer, was "one of a handful of black people there to discuss remedies for a highly contentious LDF voting rights suit. The meeting turned sour when one of the local whites demanded to know why, in his view, the whites were always made to pay for others' problems. Other whites in the group began to echo his charge...Bill Clinton, the lead defendant in the case, took to the podium to respond. In a tone of resignation, Clinton said, 'We have to pay because we lost,'" the inference being the loss of the [[Civil War]] as well as the Clintons' loss in the Supreme Court.

"Clinton had irresponsibly pandered to the backwards feeling of the white constituency," said Cunningham.

No good deed goes unpunished of course, so Guinier was not without her own problems for having unfortunately crossed paths with the Clintons, beginning at Yale. Three years after the ruckus in Arkansas President Clinton nominated her as Deputy Attorney General for Civil Rights. But the Clinton surrogates were lying in wait for her. A media smear campaign not only distorted her views, but in many cases presented them as the exact opposite. The ''New York Times'', which ordinarily presents the Clintons as the wonders of an age, ran an op-ed highly critical of Clinton's appointment, alleging Guinier was in favor of “[[segregation|segregating]] black voters in black-majority districts.” The ''Washington Post'', again no friend of conservatives, twisted Guinier's advocacy of proportional representation into a vision of “a society in which a minority can impose its will on the majority.”

Fairness and Accuracy in Reporting says of the ambush and firestorm that surrounded Guinier's nomination:
{{Quotebox|there was also an ideological agenda at work: promoting Clinton’s media-celebrated shift “back to the center.” ... To make her a proper sacrificial offering, however, the establishment media had to reinvent Guinier — transforming a sophisticated advocate of racial reconciliation and participatory democracy into a sinister, [[race baiting|race-baiting]] enemy of the American Way.<ref>http://fair.org/extra/lani-guinier/</ref>}}

The Democrats held both Houses of Congress and the presidency. Guinier's nomination, if the Clintons were serious about it should have been easy. She had been Hillary snd Bill's classmate at Yale. It was classic ''Clintonism'': destroying the life of a friend who was an advocate of racial reconciliation, painting the American people as racist, and promoting themselves. [[George Will]], it has been said, was too stupid and too lazy to actually read her writings. As [[Mike Klonsky]] noted, when the liberal lions of the Democratically controlled Senate, such as [[Ted Kennedy]] and even [[Carole Moseley Braun]] stepped away, now the Clintons could turn a message of reconciliation into repudiation in front of the whole nation.

What's a little misunderstanding among friends? Guinier said she felt betrayed by Clinton, whom she considered a friend since their days together at Yale Law School, and was angered when he called her "anti-democratic," - the person who protected voting rights of African-Americans despite Clinton's fight against it - in a nationally televised address announcing he was scuttling her nomination.<ref>https://www.c-span.org/video/?42098-1/assistant-attorney-general-nomination</ref>

'''Ricky Ray Rector'''
On the eve of the [[New Hampshire]] primary in 1992, Bill Clinton took off from the campaign trail to sign the death warrant and oversee the execution of a retarded black man, Ricky Ray Rector. Rector, who had been lobotomized, was mentally incompetent and unable to understand the charges against him.
<ref>[https://skepticalbrotha.wordpress.com/tag/christopher-hitchens/ Christopher Hitchens], Skeptical Brotha. Retrieved 23 June 2016</ref><ref>[http://www.blackstarnews.com/us-politics/elections/bill-clinton-hopped-up-on-whack-ricky-ray-rector-part-2.html Bill Clinton "Hopped Up On Whack" -- Ricky Ray Rector Part 2], Colin Benjamin, Black Star News, April 13, 2016</ref> "It was like executing a child," the prison chaplain said. Hillary, the master strategist of the Clintons' rise, fearing the Willie Horton syndrome which torpedoed [[Michael Dukakis]] in 1988 and the 'monkey business' which destroyed [[Gary Hart]] as well, still defended the execution in 2016.<ref>[https://theintercept.com/2016/03/17/hillary-clintons-indefensible-stance-on-the-death-penalty/ Hillary Clinton’s Indefensible Stance on the Death Penalty], Liliana Segura, ''The Intercept'', Mar. 17 2016</ref><ref>[https://www.salon.com/2016/01/31/the_clintons_sordid_race_game_no_one_will_say_it_but_the_clintons_rise_was_premised_on_repudiating_black_voters/ Jan 31, 2016 04:00 AM MDT The Clintons’ sordid race game: No one will say it, but the Clintons’ rise was premised on repudiating black voters], Corey Robin, ''Salon'', Jan. 31, 2016</ref>

Hillary was at his side when Bill Clinton raised mandatory sentencing guidelines which disproportionately sent Blacks to prison, giving the United States the highest mass incarceration rate in the world.<ref>[https://newrepublic.com/article/129433/clintons-war-drugs-black-lives-didnt-matter The Clintons’ War on Drugs: When Black Lives Didn’t Matter], By Donna Murch, ''The New Republic'', February 9, 2016</ref> The Clinton's championed the “three strikes you're out” law, passed a crime bill that created dozens of new federal capital crimes, mandated life sentences for some three-time offenders, and authorized more than $16 billion for more state prisons. By the time the Clintons' left office in 2001, the United States had the highest rate of incarceration in the world. [[Human Rights Watch]] reported that in seven states, African Americans constituted 80 to 90 percent of all drug offenders even though they were no more likely than whites to use or sell illegal drugs. Prison admissions for drug offenses reached a level in 2000 for African Americans more than 26 times the level they had been under [[Ronald Reagan]].<ref>[https://www.thenation.com/article/hillary-clinton-does-not-deserve-black-peoples-votes/ Why Hillary Clinton Doesn’t Deserve the Black Vote], Michelle Alexander, ''The Nation'', February 10, 2016</ref>

In late 2015, while several American cities smoldered in riots over police shootings, Hillary Clinton had several prison industry lobbyists working as fundraisers for her campaign. These fundraiser-lobbyists worked for the Corrections Corporation of America and Geo Group, which also run most of the [[immigrant]] detention centers.<ref>[https://www.huffingtonpost.com/h-a-goodman/while-missouri-students-battle-racism-prison-lobbyists-funded-hillary-clintons-campaign_b_8553370.html While Missouri Students Battle Racism, Prison Lobbyists Funded Hillary Clinton’s Campaign], H.A. Goodman, ''Huffington Post'', Nov 13, 2015</ref>

'''Rep. Ben McGee'''
In 1988 the U.S. Supreme Court ruled Clinton wrongfully tried to overturn the election of a black state representative, Mr. Ben McGee, and replace him with a white Democrat Clinton handpicked. The case grew out of the suit against Clinton to win voting rights for the people of Crittenden County.

'''Robert 'Say' MacIntosh'''
Robert 'Say' MacIntosh is a civil rights activist whom the ''Arkansas Democrat'' newspaper named Arkansan of the Year in the late 1970s for his charitable work with children in Little Rock's housing projects.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20080926012344/http://www.cals.lib.ar.us/butlercenter/manuscripts/collection/mss97-43.html]</ref> MacIntosh unsuccessfully ran for public office under Arkansas's racial gerrymandering and minority voter suppression laws of the Clinton era, including running as Lieutenant Governor in 1980. He considered challenging Bill Clinton in the 1986 Democratic gubernatorial primary but backed out when another African-American candidate, former anti-poverty agency head W. Dean Goldsby, filed on the last day.

A tree was ceremoniously planted on the Arkansas capitol grounds in the Clinton years on Martin Luther King, Jr. Day to honor Dr. King. McIntosh showed up the next day and chopped it down in front of the press, and commented, "No black man was invited to be present for the tree planting. I'm cutting it down till blacks are invited to be part of the political process in Little Rock." Wikipedia says "few debate that he has been a major part of local color in Arkansas."<ref>https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_"Say"_McIntosh</ref>

MacIntosh publicized allegations that Bill Clinton fathered an out of wedlock child named Danney Williams.<ref>https://twitter.com/danney_williams?s=09</ref> When Bill Clinton was in Little Rock, McIntosh would distribute leaflets within a five-block area to raise money for the child's upbringing. He had frequent face-to-face confrontations with Gov. Clinton over child support. Clinton privately referred to MacIntosh with aides using the "n" word.<ref name="emptysuit.wordpress.com"/>

The story resurfaced during the 2008 primaries, only this time the denials weren't so strong and adopted a more forgiving attitude.<ref>https://www.usnews.com/news/articles/2008/01/17/sex-lies-and-major-headlines</ref><ref>http://epubbookonline.com/b/3035/roger-stone/the-clintons-war-on-women/27</ref> Many blacks and Obama supporters were put off by the mainstream media spin and questioned the untimely death of Ron Brown.<ref>http://wc.blackplanet.com/news/article_comments.html?news_item_id=46467</ref><ref>http://aapoliticalpundit.blogspot.com/2007/12/blacks-clintons-presidency-and-ron.html</ref> Even the ''Washington Post'' noticed the racial undercurrent in Hillary Clinton's campaign.<ref>https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/12/22/AR2007122201762.html</ref>

'''Ron Brown'''
The death of Ron Brown remains a controversial subject among African-Americans.<ref>https://youtu.be/BMXnPYGDgVc</ref> Ron Brown was the first black [[Secretary of Commerce]] who died in the crash of Air Force Two. The crash occurred one week before Brown was slated to give testimony in the Clinton campaign finance scandal, among other scandals.<ref>https://youtu.be/HR-WkSEzaho</ref>

The father of Bill's vice president [[Al Gore]] was an ardent segregationist.

'''Confederate Flag Day'''
[[File:Arkansas State Flag.gif|right|thumb|The Arkansas State Flag. The top star above Arkansas represents the slaveholding Confederacy, an Act signed into law by Clinton.]]
The Arkansas Legislature's Act 116 of 1987 designated the star above the word "Arkansas" on the state flag as a commemoration of the Confederacy, signed into law by Gov. Clinton, as well as annual proclamations for Confederate Flag Day.

In April 1985 Clinton signed Act 985 into law, making the birthdates of Martin Luther King Jr. and [[Robert E. Lee]], General of the Confederate army, state holidays on the same day. The coded message sent to white constituents could not have been clearer.

'''Anti-Hispanic'''
The Clintons instituted [[racial profiling]] of [[Latino]]s as drug dealers in 1988. Specifically, the troopers were authorized to stop and search cars driven by Hispanics, especially those with Texas license plates. Again, the Clintons' Criminal Apprehension Program was challenged in federal court and ruled unconstitutional. But the program went on anyway with further destruction of civil liberties when the Clintons authorized state troopers to stop and search any car regardless of race.<ref>https://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-56765970.html</ref>

Roberto Garcia de Posada, executive director of the Hispanic Business Roundtable, cited the fact that Clinton was "a strong supporter of racial profiling against Hispanics," and that they do not have "the moral authority to lead a national campaign on this issue." The Clintons need to "apologize to all those Hispanics who suffered this 'morally indefensible' practice".

'''Superpredators'''
[[File:Blmhillary (1).jpg|right|350px|thumb|Democrat Presidential nominee [[Hillary Rodham Clinton]] confronted by Black Lives Matter protesters in 2016.]]
A Black Lives Matter activist confronted Hillary Clinton in 2016 about the Clintons' history of racism.<ref>[http://fair.org/home/why-did-it-take-an-activist-to-bring-superpredators-into-the-campaign/ Why Did It Take an Activist to Bring ‘Superpredators’ Into the Campaign?], By Jim Naureckas, FAIR, 27 Feb 2016</ref> In January 2016 ''[[Salon]]'' published an article on the dirty little secret among the liberal intelligentsia no one wants to talk about: the Clintons' rise and success has been based on stoking racial fears. Stan Greenberg conducted the focus groups that dictated the Clintons' daily buzzwords and talking points to provide the fodder and fuel the Clinton's lived and died on. Greenberg's work produced results claiming the Democratic party was too identified with [[Jesse Jackson]] and minorities to speak for 'average Americans' and it needed to appeal to white working-class swing voters.<ref>[http://prospect.org/article/crisis-working-majority-0 From Crisis to Working Majority], Stan Greenberg, ''The American Prospect'' 2, no. 7 (September 1991). Republished 24 May 2005</ref>

In 1992, for the first time in nearly half a century, the party platform made no mention of redressing racial injustice. Through triangulation and a policy of 'get tuff on crime', the Clinton's sought to repudiate and distance themselves from the Democratic party's commitment to the struggles of [[African-American]]s. The Clintons formulated a crime bill purportedly to 'put 100,000 new cops on the street'. Hillary became one of the chief spokespersons referring to black teens as dogs.
{{Quotebox|They are not just gangs of kids anymore. They are often the kinds of kids that are called ‘super-predators.’ No conscience, no empathy. We can talk about why they ended up that way but first we have to bring them to heel.<ref>[https://www.cbsnews.com/news/bernie-sanders-slams-clintons-racist-1996-super-predators-comment/ Bernie Sanders slams Clinton's "racist" 1996 super predators comment], By Reena Flores, CBS News, April 14, 2016</ref><ref>[http://fair.org/extra/superscapegoating/ Superscapegoating], Teen 'superpredators' hype set stage for draconian legislation, By Robin Templeton, FAIR, 1 Jan 1998</ref>}}

==="That boy" Obama===
In the 2008 presidential primaries, the Clintons were back at it: fostering racial fear and paranoia,<ref>[http://www.alternet.org/story/80258/america's_new_racial_reality%3A_white_minority_status America's New Racial Reality: White Minority Status], While Obama raises the bar for racial understanding, the Democratic Leadership Council leverages white voter fear. By Roberto Lovato / New America Media, March 21, 2008</ref> which by now seemed to be the regular program of the Democratic Leadership Council.<ref>[http://www.blackcommentator.com/46/46_cover.html Muzzling The African-American Agenda With Black Help], Bruce A. Dixon, ''The Black Commentator''. www.blackcommentator.com</ref> They tried to marginalize Obama as the black candidate with comparisons to Jesse Jackson<ref>[https://www.huffingtonpost.com/2008/01/26/bill-clinton-obama-is-jus_n_83406.html Bill Clinton: Obama Is Just Like Jesse Jackson], ''Huffington Post'', 03/28/2008</ref> emphasizing Hillary's 'wide appeal': "Sen. Obama's support among working, hard-working Americans, white Americans, is weakening again", Hillary told ''USA Today''.<ref>[http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/news/politics/election2008/2008-05-07-clintoninterview_N.htm Clinton makes case for wide appeal], By Kathy Kiely and Jill Lawrence, USA TODAY, 5/8/2008</ref> She stayed in the race even after it became apparent she lost, according to her, only because Obama might be assassinated.<ref>https://youtu.be/qipFBK7tGOc</ref>

As heir to the [[New Deal]] tradition and key to the New England donor base, Sen. [[Ted Kennedy]]'s blessing on the candidate for the 2008 Democratic presidential nomination was vital. The Clintons also were seeking bona fides among liberals and the [[civil rights]] movement. Clinton said of Obama, "that boy would have been carrying our bags and getting us coffee a few years ago".<ref>[http://urbanintellectuals.com/2015/07/17/did-you-know-bill-clinton-made-racist-comments-about-barack-obama-when-he-first-ran-for-president/ Did You Know Bill Clinton Made Racist Comments About Barack Obama When He First Ran For President], F. Taylor, Urban Intellectuals, July 17, 2015.</ref> Kennedy was offended by Clinton's racism and refused to give Hillary the endorsement.<ref>[https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2008/apr/28/hillaryclinton.usa Hillary has cynically turned to the one argument she has left: race], Gary Younge, ''Guardian'' UK, 2008.</ref><ref>[http://www.alternet.org/story/80258/america's_new_racial_reality%3A_white_minority_status America's New Racial Reality: White Minority Status], While Obama raises the bar for racial understanding, the Democratic Leadership Council leverages white voter fear. By Roberto Lovato / New America Media, March 21, 2008.</ref>

==2009-2017: Decline of race relations==
[[File:Baltimore rat infestations.jpeg|right|350px|thumb|Baltimore rat infestations. ''Source: Baltimore Sun.'' Experts rank Baltimore "the fourth most corrupt city in the nation."<ref>https://www.cheatsheet.com/culture/15-most-corrupt-cities-in-america-for-2018.html/</ref> Baltimore's last Republican mayor was elected in 1967, succeeded by Congresswoman [[Nancy Pelosi]]'s father, Thomas D'Alesandro who erected [[Confederate]] monuments.<ref>https://dailycaller.com/2017/08/19/pelosis-dad-once-praised-the-lives-of-robert-e-lee-and-stonewall-jackson-at-statue-dedication/</ref>]]
Barack Obama has no bloodline tracing back to American blacks. Obama was raised by his white mother and white grandparents and has little in common with the attitudes and experiences of American blacks.

Race relations largely deteriorated under Obama.<ref>[http://m.rasmussenreports.com/public_content/politics/current_events/social_issues/60_say_race_relations_have_gotten_worse_since_obama_s_election]</ref> Many Blacks felt he had neglected and abandoned them as he basked in his elite status among White liberals and gave tacit support and approval to radical fringe elements who rioted and burnt down Black communities.<ref>https://web.archive.org/web/20141120061248/http://www.examiner.com/article/obama-met-with-ferguson-activists-concerned-protests-stay-on-course</ref> Obama wanted to take away their [[Second Amendment]] rights, leaving Blacks at the mercy of criminals.<ref>https://www.foxnews.com/politics/2013/02/15/chicagos-murder-epidemic-complicates-obama-gun-ban-pitch.html</ref>

His church was Trinity United Church of Christ, a [[Black Liberation Theology]] Church. Obama ''personally'' bears much responsibility for the resurgence of human trafficking and [[slavery]] in [[Africa]] while serving the [[globalism|globalist agenda]].<ref>http://dailypost.ng/2017/11/30/libya-barack-obama-caused-slave-trade-africa-reno-omokri/amp/</ref>

His vice president Joe Biden made racist comments about South Asians.<ref>http://content.time.com/time/specials/packages/article/0,28804,1895156_1894977_1643323,00.html</ref>

==Hate crimes==
In very early January 2017, an extremely horrific and disturbing racist hate crime occurred when four black teens brutally beat and tortured an 18-year-old mentally-disabled white teenager in [[Chicago]]. It was a horrific hate crime, and one of the many, many horrifying things they did was tell the person to curse [[Donald Trump]] and white people.<ref>[https://www.wnd.com/2017/01/f-k-donald-trump-f-k-white-people/ 4 charged with hate crimes in kidnap, torture of mentally disabled man]. ''WND''. January 4, 2017. Retrieved January 6, 2017.</ref> It was charged as hate crime<ref>[https://www.foxnews.com/us/2017/01/05/hate-crime-charges-filed-in-chicago-beating-shown-on-facebook-live.html Hate crime charges filed in Chicago beating streamed on Facebook Live]. ''Fox News''. January 5, 2017. Retrieved January 6, 2017.</ref> and they were denied bail.<ref>Pathieu, Diane; Hope, Leah (January 6, 2017). [http://abc7chicago.com/news/judge-denies-bail-for-4-facebook-live-torture-suspects/1689291/ Judge denies bail for 4 Chicago Facebook Live torture suspects]. ''ABC 7''. Retrieved January 6, 2017.</ref> It was one of many [[Left-wing violence in the Trump era|anti-Trump hate crimes]] after the 2016 election.<ref>[https://www.foxnews.com/politics/2017/01/05/facebook-live-attack-latest-in-string-anti-trump-assaults.html Facebook Live attack the latest in string of anti-Trump assaults]. ''Fox News''. January 5, 2017. Retrieved January 6, 2017.</ref><ref>Nolte, John (July 5, 2018). [https://www.breitbart.com/big-journalism/2018/07/05/rap-sheet-acts-of-media-approved-violence-and-harassment-against-trump-supporters/Rap Sheet: ***555** Acts of Media-Approved Violence and Harassment Against Trump Supporters]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved August 21, 2018.</ref>

== See also ==
*[[Racist atheism]]
*[[Western atheism and race]]
*[[Ku Klux Klan]]
*[[Nazism]]
*[[Black history]]
*[[Reverse racism]]
*[[Evolutionary racism]]
*[[Bill and Hillary Clinton and racism]]
*[[Racist remarks]]

==References==
{{Reflist|colwidth=35em}}

==External links==
*[http://www.aim.org/wls/category/racism/ What Liberals Say - Category: Racism], [[Accuracy In Media]]
*[https://www.haaretz.com/print-edition/news/in-jaffa-israeli-racism-towards-arabs-is-routine-1.389050 In Jaffa, Israeli racism towards Arabs is routine.] Haaretz.com

[[Category:Racism|*]]
[[Category:Liberal Traits]]
[[Category:Psychology]]

Evangelist

2019-07-06T03:27:35Z

WAliberty: Minor

'''Evangelist''' properly refers to a minister of the Gospel, whose main calling is preaching to the lost, to help them become true Christians.Some also say it is a writer of [[Christian]] [[Gospel]] and is applied to the [[Apostle]]s [[Matthew]], [[Mark]], [[Luke]], and [[John]]. The term is also loosely applied to Christians, who actively [[witness]] to others, with the goal of [[Conversion|converting]] them to the Christian faith, commonly called "evangelizing".

==See also==
*[[Evangelism]]
[[Category:Christianity]]
[[Category:Evangelists]]

Big Tech

2019-07-06T00:32:12Z

WAliberty: Minor

'''Big Tech''' refers to several [[Silicon Valley]] technology firms, notably [[Google]], [[Apple]], [[Facebook]], and, in Seattle, [[Amazon.com|Amazon]] for driving technology growth and social change.

[[Microsoft]] and [[IBM]] are sometimes considered Big Tech firms because of their size, and [[Twitter]] not for its size but its societal impact. Twitter will likely be bought out by one of the larger firms at some point.

As of 2018, Google and Facebook controlled 60% of all digital advertising revenue, totaling over $60 billion.

Big Tech is playing a large role in the decline of [[patriotism]] as a value held by Americans.<ref>Wright, Morgan (November 28, 2018). [https://thehill.com/opinion/technology/418617-high-techs-globalism-is-slowly-killing-patriotism High tech’s globalism is slowly killing patriotism]. ''The Hill''. Retrieved November 28, 2018.</ref>

==Censorship==
{{See also|Censorship}}
Big Tech engaged in censorship of conservatives and Christians.<ref>Bomberger, Ryan (May 10, 2019). [https://www.lifesitenews.com/opinion/big-techs-separate-and-unequal-treatment-of-christians-and-conservatives Big Tech’s separate and unequal treatment of Christians and conservatives]. ''LifeSiteNews'' (from the ''Radiance Foundation''). Retrieved May 10, 2019.</ref>

In August 2018, multiple social media giants, with the support of the Left, mainstream media and Democrats,<ref>Multiple references:
*Bokhari, Allum (August 6, 2018). [https://www.breitbart.com/tech/2018/08/06/infowars-ban-cnn-democrats-successfully-lobby-big-tech-to-censor-their-critics/ InfoWars Ban: CNN, Democrats Successfully Lobby Big Tech to Censor Their Critics]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved August 6, 2018.
*Hudson, Jerome (August 6, 2018). [https://www.breitbart.com/big-hollywood/2018/08/06/hollywood-celebrates-masters-of-the-universe-banning-alex-jones-its-about-damn-time/ Hollywood Celebrates Masters of the Universe Banning Alex Jones: ‘It’s About Damn Time’]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved August 7, 2018.
*Nash, Charlie (August 7, 2018). [https://www.breitbart.com/tech/2018/08/07/cnn-leads-media-blackmail-campaign-to-boot-infowars-from-twitter/ CNN Leads Media Blackmail Campaign to Boot InfoWars from Twitter]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved August 7, 2018.
*Nolte, John (August 7, 2018). [https://www.breitbart.com/big-government/2018/08/07/sen-chris-murphy-big-tech-must-do-more-than-take-down-infowars/ U.S. Sen. Chris Murphy: Big Tech ‘Must Do More Than Take Down’ InfoWars]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved August 7, 2018.
*Clabough, Raven (August 8, 2018). [https://www.thenewamerican.com/usnews/constitution/item/29743-dem-senator-social-media-must-censor-hate-speech-to-maintain-democracy Dem Senator: Social Media Must Censor “Hate Speech” to Maintain Democracy]. ''The New American''. Retrieved August 8, 2018.
*Wong, Kristina (August 18, 2018). [https://www.breitbart.com/big-government/2018/08/18/virginia-democrat-mark-warner-corrals-masters-universe-deep-state/ TIMELINE: Virginia Democrat Mark Warner Surprise Force Behind Masters of the Universe Crackdown on Speech]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved August 19, 2018.
*Bokhari, Allum (September 7, 2018). [https://www.breitbart.com/tech/2018/09/07/buzzfeed-reporter-charlie-warzel-lobbied-twitter-to-ban-infowars-alex-jones/ BuzzFeed Reporter Charlie Warzel Lobbied Twitter to Ban Infowars, Alex Jones]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved September 8, 2018.</ref> [[Collusion|colluded]] to ban [[Alex Jones]]'s [[InfoWars]] from their sites simply because of his political views.<ref>Multiple references:
*Nolan, Lucas (August 6, 2018). [https://www.breitbart.com/tech/2018/08/06/facebook-apple-purge-infowars-for-hate-speech/ Facebook, Apple Purge InfoWars for ‘Hate Speech’]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved August 6, 2018.
*Murphy, James (August 6, 2018). [https://www.thenewamerican.com/tech/computers/item/29727-censorship-alex-jones-removed-from-apple-facebook-youtube-spotify Censorship: Alex Jones Removed from Apple, Facebook, YouTube, Spotify]. ''The New American''. Retrieved August 6, 2018.
*Breland, Ali (August 6, 2018). [https://thehill.com/policy/technology/400569-youtube-bans-alex-jones-following-spotify-apple-facebook YouTube bans Alex Jones after similar actions by Spotify, Apple, Facebook]. ''The Hill''. Retrieved August 6, 2018.
*Kirkwood, R. Cort (September 7, 2018). [https://www.thenewamerican.com/tech/computers/item/30002-twitter-shuts-down-alex-jones-infowars Twitter Shuts Down Alex Jones, Infowars]. ''The New American''. Retrieved September 7, 2018.
*Bokhari, Allum (September 7, 2018). [https://www.breitbart.com/tech/2018/09/07/apple-permanently-blacklists-infowars-app-from-store/ Apple Permanently Blacklists Infowars App from Store]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved September 7, 2018.
*Kirkwood, R. Cort (September 24, 2018). [https://www.thenewamerican.com/tech/computers/item/30148-paypal-dumps-alex-jones-still-handles-splc PayPal Dumps Alex Jones; Still Handles SPLC]. ''The New American''. Retrieved September 24, 2018.
See also:
*Murphy, James (July 31, 2018). [https://www.thenewamerican.com/usnews/constitution/item/29676-the-censorship-battle-of-alex-jones-and-why-it-affects-us-all The Censorship Battle of Alex Jones and Why It Affects Us All]. ''The New American''. Retrieved August 6, 2018.
*Pollak, Joel B. (August 6, 2018). [https://www.breitbart.com/big-government/2018/08/06/pollak-the-attack-on-alex-jones-is-an-attack-on-free-speech/ Pollak: The Attack on Alex Jones Is An Attack on Free Speech]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved August 6, 2018.
*[https://www.thenewamerican.com/tech/computers/item/29739-top-headline-jordan-belanger-deep-state-censoring-voices Top Headline - The Deep State is Censoring Voices That Do Not Agree With Them]. ''The New American''. August 7, 2018. Retrieved August 7, 2018.
*Caplan, Joshua (August 6, 2018). [https://www.breitbart.com/big-journalism/2018/08/06/alex-jones-tech-giants-running-circles-around-incredibly-stupid-republican-lawmakers/ Alex Jones: Tech Giants Running Circles Around ‘Incredibly Stupid’ Republican Lawmakers]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved August 6, 2018.
*Newman, Alex (September 7, 2018). [https://www.thenewamerican.com/print-magazine/item/29973-big-tech-censors-alex-jones-whos-next Big Tech Censors Alex Jones — Who’s Next?] ''The New American''. Retrieved September 7, 2018.</ref> In response to public criticism of the conspiring social media platforms' actions, leftists made dismissive excuses for those companies on social media and in the liberal media, claiming that they are "free to do what they want" because of their status as privately-owned companies, not realizing that the collusion of those platforms to censor and ban InfoWars and other conservative companies and individuals for their political views potentially violate antitrust laws.<ref>[https://www.conservativenewsandviews.com/2018/09/04/constitution/open-market-economy-ideas/ The Open-Market Economy of Ideas] at Conservative News and Views</ref> In February 2019, removed 22 pages related to Jones and InfoWars.<ref>Bowden, John (February 5, 2019). [https://thehill.com/policy/technology/428573-facebook-removes-22-pages-linked-to-alex-jones-infowars Facebook removes 22 pages linked to Alex Jones, InfoWars]. ''The Hill''. Retrieved February 5, 2019.</ref>

Facebook banned several people whose views it opposed, labeling them "dangerous," even though they did not violate the site's terms<ref>Multiple references:
*Murphy, James (May 3, 2019). [https://www.thenewamerican.com/tech/computers/item/32187-war-on-free-speech-facebook-bans-people-it-considers-dangerous War on Free Speech: Facebook Bans People It Considers “Dangerous”]. ''The New American''. Retrieved May 3, 2019.
*Nolan, Lucas (May 2, 2019). [https://www.breitbart.com/tech/2019/05/02/facebook-blacklists-prominent-conservatives-including-paul-joseph-watson-laura-loomer/ Facebook Blacklists Prominent Conservatives Including Paul Joseph Watson, Laura Loomer]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved May 3, 2019.
*Nolan, Lucas (May 3, 2019). [https://www.breitbart.com/tech/2019/05/03/facebook-falsely-brands-non-violent-users-dangerous-to-justify-un-personing/ Facebook Falsely Brands Non-Violent Users ‘Dangerous’ to Justify Un-Personing]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved May 3, 2019.
*Freiburger, Calvin (May 3, 2019). [https://www.lifesitenews.com/news/facebook-announces-drastic-new-bans-on-right-wing-media-figures-it-deems-dangerous-individuals Facebook announces drastic new bans on right-wing media figures it deems ‘dangerous individuals’]. ''LifeSiteNews''. Retrieved May 4, 2019.
*[https://video.foxnews.com/v/6032800824001/?playlist_id=5198073478001#sp=show-clips Tucker: Big tech has launched an attack on your rights]. ''Fox News Video''. May 3, 2019. Retrieved May 4, 2019.
*[https://video.foxnews.com/v/6032802887001/?playlist_id=5198073478001#sp=show-clips Facebook cracks down on 'controversial' people, but are they infringing upon free speech?] ''Fox News Video''. May 3, 2019. Retrieved May 4, 2019.
See also:
*Freiburger, Calvin (May 3, 2019). [https://www.lifesitenews.com/news/facebooks-new-link-banning-decree-more-terrifying-than-banning-dangerous-individuals-tech-expert-warns Facebook’s link-banning decree more ‘terrifying’ than ‘dangerous individuals’ ban, tech expert warns]. ''LifeSiteNews''. Retrieved May 4, 2019.
*Nolte, John (May 3, 2019). [https://www.breitbart.com/the-media/2019/05/03/not-defending-louis-farrakhan-alex-jones-doing-free-speech-wrong/ Nolte: If You’re Not Defending Louis Farrakhan and Alex Jones, You’re Doing Free Speech Wrong]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved May 3, 2019.
*Ciccotta, Tom (May 3, 2019). [https://www.breitbart.com/tech/2019/05/03/never-trumpers-and-leftists-praise-facebooks-blacklisting-of-conservatives/ Never Trumpers and Leftists Praise Facebook’s Blacklisting of Conservatives]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved May 3, 2019.
*Wulfsohn, Joseph A. (May 4, 2019). [https://www.lifezette.com/2019/05/conservative-james-woods-locked-out-of-twitter-other-figures-banned-by-facebook/ Conservative James Woods Locked Out of Twitter, Other Figures Banned by Facebook]. ''LifeZette''. Retrieved May 4, 2019.
*Caruso, Justin (May 3, 2019). [https://www.breitbart.com/entertainment/2019/05/03/james-woods-banned-from-twitter-amid-silicon-valleys-conservative-blacklisting-campaign/ James Woods Banned from Twitter Amid Silicon Valley’s Conservative Blacklisting Campaign]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved May 4, 2019.
*Morton, Victor (May 7, 2019). [https://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2019/may/7/david-horowitz-twitter-account-suspended/ Twitter suspends conservative activist David Horowitz]. ''The Washington Times''. Retrieved May 7, 2019.
*Ernst, Douglas (May 7, 2019). [https://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2019/may/7/jack-posobiec-magaphobia-twitter-account-for-track/ Twitter suspends Jack Posobiec's @MAGAphobia account for tracking violence against Trump supporters]. ''The Washington Times''. Retrieved May 7, 2019.
*Bokhari Allum (May 10, 2019). [https://www.breitbart.com/tech/2019/05/10/michelle-malkin-censored-on-facebook-for-opposing-censorship/ Michelle Malkin Censored on Facebook for Opposing Censorship]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved May 10, 2019.</ref> – Facebook continued allowing actual left-wing hate speech to go unpunished, however.<ref>Multiple references:
*Nolan, Lucas (May 3, 2019). [https://www.breitbart.com/tech/2019/05/03/facebook-bans-dangerous-conservative-figures-but-continues-to-allow-leftist-calls-for-violence/ Facebook Bans ‘Dangerous’ Conservative Figures but Continues to Allow Leftist Calls for Violence]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved May 3, 2019.
*Freiburger, Calvin (May 3, 2019). [https://www.lifesitenews.com/news/facebook-allows-left-wing-page-to-fantasize-about-trump-assassination-funeral Facebook allows left-wing page to fantasize about Pres. Trump assassination, funeral]. ''LifeSiteNews''. Retrieved May 4, 2019.</ref>

==Big Tech companies==

===Google===
{{See also|Google}}
[[Alphabet Inc.]] is the parent company of Google, which also owns [[YouTube]], [[Android]], [[The Groundwork]] and dozens of other companies. The Groundwork in 2015 boasted it could influence the [[vote]] in any [[democracy|democratic]] [[election]] anywhere in the world as much as 25%,<ref>[http://qz.com/520652/groundwork-eric-schmidt-startup-working-for-hillary-clinton-campaign/ THE GROUNDWORK The stealthy, Eric Schmidt-backed startup that’s working to put Hillary Clinton in the White House], Adam Pasick & Tim Fernholz, ''Quartz'', October 09, 2015. qz.com</ref> highlighting the [[Search engine manipulation effect]].

In June 2019, [[Project Veritas]] released an undercover video in which a Google executive admitted that the company was working, through its policies and products, to prevent "the next Trump situation."<ref>Multiple references:
*Svab, Petr (June 24, 2019). [https://www.theepochtimes.com/google-stealthily-infuses-political-agenda-into-products-to-prevent-trump-reelection-insiders-documents-say_2976582.html Google Stealthily Infuses Political Agenda Into Products to Prevent Trump Reelection, Insiders, Documents Say]. ''The Epoch Times''. Retrieved June 24, 2019.
*Richardson, Valerie (June 24, 2019). [https://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2019/jun/24/google-exec-project-veritas-sting-says-only-big-te/ Google exec in Project Veritas sting says only big tech can stop 'the next Trump situation']. ''The Washington Times''. Retrieved June 24, 2019.
*Bokhari, Allum (June 24, 2019). [https://www.breitbart.com/tech/2019/06/24/project-veritas-google-exec-decries-trumps-election-how-do-we-prevent-it-from-happening-again/ Project Veritas – Google Exec Decries Trump’s Election: ‘How Do We Prevent It from Happening Again’]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved June 24, 2019.
*Kirkwood, R. Cort (June 24, 2019). [https://www.thenewamerican.com/usnews/politics/item/32684-google-is-gearing-up-to-defeat-trump-in-2020 Google Is Gearing Up To Defeat Trump In 2020]. ''The New American''. Retrieved June 24, 2019.
See also:
*Svab, Petr (June 26, 2019). [https://www.theepochtimes.com/google-doubles-down-on-deceiving-customers-about-its-political-manipulation_2980032.html Google Doubles Down on Deceiving Customers About Its Political Manipulation]. ''The Epoch Times''. Retrieved June 26, 2019.</ref> Google subsequently moved to censor the video from its platforms.<ref>Multiple references:
*Bokhari, Allum (June 24, 2019). [https://www.breitbart.com/tech/2019/06/24/google-censors-video-exposing-google/ Google Censors Video Exposing Google]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved June 24, 2019.
*Kirkwood, R. Cort (June 25, 2019). [https://www.thenewamerican.com/usnews/item/32698-youtube-scraps-veritas-expose-after-privacy-complaints YouTube Scraps Veritas' Exposé After Privacy Complaints]. ''The New American''. Retrieved June 25, 2019.
*Svab, Petr (June 25, 2019). [https://www.theepochtimes.com/youtube-deletes-expose-on-googles-stealthily-pushing-its-politics-on-users_2978328.html YouTube Deletes Exposé on Google’s Stealthily Pushing Its Politics on Users]. ''The Epoch Times''. Retrieved June 26, 2019.</ref>

===Apple===
{{See also|Apple Inc.}}

===Facebook===
{{See also|Facebook}}

===Twitter===
{{See also|Twitter}}

===Amazon===
{{See also|Amazon.com}}

===Instagram===
{{See also|Instagram}}

==See also==
*[[Big Media]]
*[[Social Credit System]]
*[[Political Profiling]]
*[[Media intelligence complex]]

==References==
{{Reflist|colwidth=35em}}

[[Category:Media]]
[[Category:Companies]]
[[Category:Liberal Organizations]]

Homosexuality as a judgement from God

2019-07-05T13:15:47Z

WAliberty: Spelling

The Bible says regarding [[homosexuality]], "Therefore God gave them over in the lusts of their hearts to impurity, so that their bodies would be dishonored among them. For they exchanged the truth of God for a lie, and worshiped and served the creature rather than the Creator, who is blessed forever. Amen. For this reason God gave them over to degrading passions; for their women exchanged the natural function for that which is unnatural, and in the same way also the men abandoned the natural function of the woman and burned in their desire toward one another, men with men committing indecent acts and receiving in their own persons the due penalty of their error." (Romans 1: 24-27).

== Bible commentator Matthew Henry on homosexuality being a judgment from God ==
[[Image:Matthew-henry.jpg|thumb|200px|right|[[Matthew Henry]] ]]
The Bible commentary [[Matthew Henry]] wrote about the above passage in Romans:
{{Cquote|By whom they were given up. God gave them up, in a way of righteous judgment, as the just punishment of their idolatry-taking off the bridle of restraining grace-leaving them to themselves-letting them alone; for his grace is his own, he is debtor to no man, he may give or withhold his grace at pleasure. Whether this giving up be a positive act of God or only privative we leave to the schools to dispute: but this we are sure of that it is no new thing for God to give men up to their own hearts' lusts, to send them strong delusions, to let Satan loose upon them, nay, to lay stumbling-blocks before them. And yet God is not the author of sin, but herein infinitely just and holy; for, though the greatest wickedness follow upon this giving up, the fault of that is to be laid upon the sinner's wicked heart. If the patient be obstinate, and will not submit to the methods prescribed, but wilfully takes and does that which is prejudicial to him, the physician is not to be blamed if he give him up as in a desperate condition; and all the fatal symptoms that follow are not to be imputed to the physician, but to the disease itself and to the folly and wilfulness of the patient."<ref>[https://www.blueletterbible.org/Comm/mhc/Rom/Rom_001.cfm Matthew Henry :: Commentary on Romans 1]</ref>}}

And [[God]] is gracious and merciful to those who [[repentance|repent]].

The [[Saint Paul|Apostle Paul]] wrote:
{{cquote|Or do you not know that the unrighteous will not inherit the kingdom of God? Do not be deceived; neither fornicators, nor idolaters, nor adulterers, nor [a]effeminate, nor homosexuals, nor thieves, nor the covetous, nor drunkards, nor revilers, nor swindlers, will inherit the kingdom of God. '''''Such were some of you; but you were washed, but you were sanctified, but you were justified in the name of the Lord Jesus Christ and in the Spirit of our God'''''. - I Corinthians 6:9-11 (NASB), emphasis added.}}

In 1980, a study was published in the ''American Journal of Psychiatry'' and eleven men participated in this study. The study reported that eleven homosexual men became heterosexuals "without explicit treatment and/or long-term psychotherapy" through their participation in a [[Pentecostalism|Pentecostal]] church.<ref>[https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7435713 E.M. Pattison and M.L. Pattison, "'Ex-Gays': Religiously Mediated Change in Homosexuals," American Journal of Psychiatry, Vol. 137, pp. 1553-1562, 1980]</ref>

== Homosexuality as a judgment from God further explanation ==

In [[Romans 1]], God, through the [[apostle Paul]], condemns both male and female homoeroticism, which, as a cultural practice, is shown to be a manifestation and a result of idolatry, in which man progressively acted contrary to that which God has revealed by creation, by design and normality. This is morality which is confirmed by written decree (the Law), as the next chapter declares. As a result of this continued rebellion, which was partly manifest in God being reduced to an image like unto corruptible creatures (like as today with homosexuals construing Christ to be homosexual, or sanctioning it, as well as nature effectively being worshiped), "God gave them up to uncleanness through the lusts of their own hearts, to dishonour their own bodies between themselves." (v. 24)

It is also stated that a certain afflictive punishment(s) of the body were incurred by those men who engaged in relations with each other. (v. 27) Unless repentance takes place, worse consequences will follow. (Rv. 21:28)

While some seek to render this chapter as only condemning homosexual relations when done as part of idolatry, the condemnation is not due to its association with paganism, rather as it inherently contrary to that which God ordained, then it is a manifestation of false religion, regardless of its form, though in ancient times in which religion was an inseparable part of culture, then formal idolatry was what was more manifested. Romans 1 proceeds to show that homosexuality is not alone as a fruit of idolatry, but that this particular pernicious physical sin is one of many inherently evil things. (Rm. 1:28-32) ''For more information please see:'' [[Romans 1]].

In summary, God's eternal power is manifest in His [[creation]] (Romans 1:18-20). Nonetheless, certain people chose to worship the creature more than the Creator (Romans 1:21-25). Therefore, God gave them up to homosexuality and other sins and gave them over to a reprobate mind (Romans 1:26-32). As an example of the truth of this teaching, [[feminist]]s, wishing to deny the [[Women#New Testament statements on the role of women|God-given role of women]], often engage in [[goddess]] worship and other forms of [[idolatry]]<ref>[http://www.leaderu.com/orgs/probe/docs/goddess.html "Probe Ministries: Goddess Worship," by Russ Wise]</ref> and as a consequence are often given up to lesbianism.<ref>[http://www.worldnetdaily.com/news/article.asp?ARTICLE_ID=56458 Hetero woman: Feminism turned me into a lesbian], from [[WorldNetDaily]]</ref>

== See also ==

*[[Causes of Homosexuality]]

==References==

<references/>

[[Category: Homosexuality]]

Microsoft

2019-06-24T06:36:38Z

WAliberty: Minor

[[Image:Microsoft logo.svg|right|frame]]
'''Microsoft''' is a liberal<ref>https://www.microsoft.com/about/diversity/en/us/programs/ergen/gleam.aspx</ref><ref>http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/html/politicsnorthwest/2010011331_microsoft_donates_to_r-71_camp.html</ref> American corporation founded by [[Bill Gates]] and Paul Allen in 1975, headquartered in Redmond, Washington, USA. Its current CEO is Satya Nadella; [[Steve Ballmer]] was CEO prior to Nadella. Microsoft focuses on developing and manufacturing [[software]], [[hardware]] and other technology oriented products and services. In 2014 it announced massive layoffs despite its wealth.

Microsoft was investigated for antitrust violations by the [[Department of Justice]], and in 2001 the Court of Appeals for the D.C. Circuit affirmed the finding of the trial court that monopolization by Microsoft had violated the [[Sherman Act]].<ref>United States v. Microsoft Corp., 346 U.S. App. D.C. 330 (D.C. Cir. 2001).</ref> The appellate court, however, overturned the lower court ruling to break Microsoft up and instead remanded the case to a new trial judge with instructions suggesting a less drastic remedy. By then, President [[George W. Bush]] had replaced [[Bill Clinton]] and the Bush Administration dropped the demand of the [[Clinton Administration]] for a break-up of Microsoft.

Devoid of [[conservative]] leadership, Microsoft was neither innovative nor competitive, and by 2014 it had been far surpassed by Apple, Google and smaller, innovative companies. In 2014, Microsoft announced layoffs of 14% of its workforce, totaling 18,000 jobs.<ref>https://www.businessinsider.com/microsoft-layoffs-2014-7?op=1</ref>
But, now in 2019, they are massively wealthy again, and their liberal and selfish ways, have utterly ruined the lives of people who live in Redmond or Bellevue.
They hire massive numbers of people, from around the world, at high salaries, and this drives the cost of housing up greatly. A 1000 square foot house nearby, built 60 years ago, now sells in two days for $750, 000. Plus, by bringing in so many people, from around the world, there is tremendous overcrowding. So developers manipulate retail properties, and build massive apartment buildings, attracting MS employees, who care nothing about the Eastside culture and dignity, and this causes the overcrowding and terrible traffic.
A ten minute commute, in 2015, can now be an hour.

Most people who have lived near MS, for years, are now reluctantly leaving their homes of 40 years, because of the taxes, traffic and the vast change in the caliber of people in the areas near Microsoft.

MS has begun a multi billion dollar renovation of some buildings on the main campus.

In short, a liberal mentality, has completely ruined the culture and lives of honest citizens, within a ten mile radius of MS.
==History==
Microsoft was founded in 1975 by Gates and Allen, after Gates dropped out of Harvard because he had an intense fascination with computers. Microsoft is a portmanteau of "microcomputer" and "software."
==Software products==
*[[Windows (operating system)]], including [[Windows 10]], [[Windows 8]], [[Windows 7]], [[Windows Vista]], [[Windows XP]], and older versions of the desktop OS, versions for servers, versions for media centers, teacher editions, and versions for mobile devices
*[[MS DOS]] Microsoft's first operating system
*SQL Server
*[[Microsoft Office]]: [[Microsoft Word|Word]], [[Microsoft Excel|Excel]] (spreadsheet editor), [[Microsoft PowerPoint|PowerPoint]] (slide-show creator), Publisher, Visio, Access (database creator), etc.
*[[Expression]] vector graphics editor
*Virtual PC emulator
*SharePoint
*[[Windows Defender]] [[anti-virus software|anti-virus]] and anti-spyware software
*Windows Live Writer blog publishing software
*XNA game development tool
*Visual Studio integrated development environment for C++, Visual Basic, C#, etc.
and hundreds more.
===Windows===
*''Main Article: [[Windows (operating system)]]
Windows is a series of operating systems produced and maintained by the Microsoft Corporation. It was estimated that as of December 2007 Microsoft Windows accounted for nearly 90% of operating system usage, with 3 out of 4 being Windows XP. Windows is used for desktop, and server computers, and more recently also for cellular phones and tablet computers. It is intended for use with the Intel x86-64 family of processors.
====Windows 1.0====
====Windows 2.0====
====Windows 3.0====
====Windows 95====
====Windows 98====
*''Main Article: [[Windows 98]]
Windows 98 is an operating system released by Microsoft on May 15, 1998. It was the successor to Windows 95 and the second major operating system in the Windows 9x series. It was succeeded by Windows 98 Special Edition and Windows ME. Microsoft ended support of Windows 98 in 2006.
====Windows NT====
====Windows 2000====
====Windows ME====
====Windows XP====
*''Main Article: [[Windows XP]]''
Windows XP is the penultimate significant release of the Microsoft Windows operating system, and was made available on October 25, 2001. "XP" stands for eXPerience.

Windows XP has been criticized for poor performance, significant security vulnerabilities, and poor DOS backwards compatibility, among others. Interestingly, when Windows Vista debuted, many organizations chose to retain XP in favor of the newer system, as it was perceived of as being of higher quality, though this was because Windows Vista had poor hardware driver support for computer technology at the time of its release and suffered poor memory optimization, which was eventually fixed with the first service pack update. To this day, the majority of professional networks run Windows XP, and many still run Windows 2000 Professional, including high security institutions like banks, hospitals, and government agencies. Institutions' hesitance to upgrade to newer operating systems is nothing new; many organizations continued to use DOS long after Windows became popular.

====Vista====
*''Main Article: [[Vista (operating system)]]''

Windows Vista was Microsoft's successor to Windows XP, superseded in 2009 by Windows 7. It came in 6 different versions: Ultimate, Home Premium, Home Basic, Starter, Business and Enterprise edition. All versions except Starter were available for both 32-bit and 64-bit processor types. Business users were also entitled to downgrade to Windows XP for compatibility with old applications.

====Windows 7====
*''Main Article: [[Windows 7]]''
Windows 7 (previously known as "Vienna" and before that, "Blackcomb") is the name for the version of Microsoft's Windows operating system preceding Windows 8, originally announced in February 2000, but was subject to major delays such as Windows XP SP2 and Windows Vista (which was also delayed by XP SP2). "Seven" was released on October 22, 2009. Work on Windows 7 began right after Windows Vista was released. Some early details of a few core operating system features surfaced at developer conferences such as WHEC in 2006.
====Windows 8====
*''Main Article: [[Windows 8]]''
Windows 8 is the name of the an operating system in the Microsoft Windows line, preceding Windows 10. It is a "landmark development", in operating systems, made by Microsoft, trending towards a more "mobile phone" interface. Windows 8 is the first Microsoft operating system, with support for ARM processors, also trending towards the mobile phone market.
====Windows 10====
*''Main Article: [[Windows 10]]''
Microsoft Windows 10 is the latest edition of Microsoft Windows. The tech giant released '10' to the public August 2015. It is the first release after the failed rollout of Windows 8. The first time Microsoft has released a limited-offer free upgrade.

==Publishing==
*Microsoft Press releasing books dealing with various computer technologies.

==Services==
*MSN Internet service provider
*[[Bing]] search engine
*[[Encarta]] encyclopedia
*Hotmail free internet e-mail service
*Windows Live web portal
*Xbox Live Xbox online multiplayer service
*[[MSNBC]] news service
*Windows Marketplace online shopping service
*Windows Live Spaces social-networking service
*Windows Live ID online ID and password storage service
*LIVE Anywhere cross-platform multiplayer gaming service
*Microsoft Ignition online digital music service

==Hardware products==
*[[Xbox]] gaming console
*[[Xbox 360]] gaming console
*[[Xbox One]] gaming console
*Surface touch-interface computer
*Natural keyboard
*LifeCam webcam
*SideWinder game-pad and joystick
*Ultra-Mobile PC tablet computer
*Fingerprint Reader reads fingerprint as password
*IntelliPoint Mouse optical mouse
*MSN TV, that allows web browsing
===Xbox===
*''Main Article: [[Xbox]]''
The Xbox is a video game console designed and produced by Microsoft Corporation. It was Microsoft's first system to be launched into the gaming console market, and competed with Sony's PlayStation 2, and the Nintendo GameCube. The Xbox was first released on November 15, 2001 in North America; February 22, 2002 in Japan; and on March 14, 2002 in Europe and Australia.
===Xbox 360===
*''Main Article: [[Xbox 360]]''

The Xbox 360 is a games console produced by the Microsoft coporation. It was first released in 2005. It was a successor to the moderately successful Xbox console. According to Microsoft, as of September 2008 over 22 million units had been sold and over 1000 games released for the console. It was succeeded by the Xbox One in 2013.

===Xbox One===
*''Main Article: [[Xbox One]]''

The Xbox One is the third video game system in the Xbox family created by Microsoft. It was released on November 22, 2013, one week after the release of the Sony PlayStation 4, one of the two competitors to the system, with the other being the Wii U.

==Subsidiaries of Microsoft==
===Rare===
*''Main Article: [[Rare (company)]]''

Rare Ltd. (formerly known as Rareware) is a British video game company that is currently a subsidiary of Microsoft. It is based in Twycross, Leicestershire. Founded in 1985 as Ultimate Play the Game, Rare has produced numerous critically and commercially successful titles such as the Banjo-Kazooie series, Battletoads, Star Fox Adventures, and the highly vulgar title Conker's Bad Fur Day. Microsoft bought the company from competitor Nintendo in 2002, for a sum of US$375 million (equivalent to about US$506.6 million in 2017).

==Corporate Slogan==
:''Your potential. Our passion.''

==References==
<references/>
==External links==
* [https://www.microsoft.com Microsoft official site]
[[Category:Computers]]
[[Category:Companies]]
[[Category:Microsoft]]
[[Category:United States History]]
[[Category:Technology]]
[[Category:Liberal Companies]]

YMCA

2019-06-13T00:02:03Z

WAliberty: Minor

'''Y.M.C.A.''' ('''Young Men's Christian Association''') is a [[non-profit]] community service organization originally founded in [[London]] in 1844, as a men (and boys) only facility, the YMCA has changed to admit women (and girls). Activities that take place at the YMCA include [[swimming]], [[basketball]], working out, [[day care]] services, and more.<ref name="ymca.net">http://www.ymca.net/about_the_ymca/</ref>

There used to be an equivalent group for women called the [[YWCA]].<ref name="ymca.net"/>

In the U.S. the YMCA is a powerful religious activist group promoting "manly" (athletic) Christianity and the [[Social Gospel]].<ref name="ymca.net"/> However, they also fully promote " Pride" which is about homosexual activities, as listed on various chapters' websites.

== References ==
{{reflist}}
[[Category:Organizations]]

Prophet

2019-03-17T04:22:26Z

WAliberty: Minor

{{Bible}}
A '''prophet''' is one who speaks for [[God]] through divine revelation. Prophets in the [[Bible]] usually predict future events and the words of a prophet must always come to pass. If they do not, then he is a [[false prophet]] and must be put to death according to the book of [[Deuteronomy]].

A prophet absolutely must be 100% accurate, at all times, obviously.

Prophets in the [[Old Testament]] also have the distinction of being largely ignored by the Jewish people who they are trying to reach.

A large portion of the Bible deals with prophets and prophecy, including two sections of the books of the Bible, the Major Prophets and the Minor Prophets. Note that the Minor Prophets is in reference to the length of their texts, not that they themselves were less of a prophet than the Major Prophets.

The Major Prophets:

* Isaiah
* Jeremiah
* Ezekiel

The Minor Prophets:

* Daniel
* Deborah
* Hosea
* Joel
* Amos
* Obadiah
* Jonah
* Micah
* Nahum
* Habakkuk
* Zephaniah
* Haggai
* Samuel
* Zechariah
* Malachi

There are other prophets in the Bible as well that don't have books named after them, such as [[Elijah]] and [[Elisha]]. Furthermore, while discussion of prophets is less pronounced in the [[New Testament]] of the Bible than it is in the [[Old Testament|Old]], there are prophets in the New Testament as well, such as [[Agabus]].

== Prophets outside the Bible ==

Many religions that were set up after [[Jesus]] have labeled their founders as prophets, such as [[Islam]] with [[Mohammed]].

The [[Mormon]] Church believes in a succession of [[Prophets (Mormon)|Latter Day Prophets]] who have come in modern times.

[[Charismatic Church|Charismatic]] preachers, especially in the faith movement, will often refer to themselves as prophets.

[[Category:Bible]]
[[Category:Religion]]

==See also==
*[[Early Aramaic Jewish Christian prophesying]]

Second Great Awakening

2018-10-28T03:09:07Z

WAliberty: Minor edit

[[File:Second Awakening.jpg|right|thumb|300px|A meeting of Methodists in 1839]]
The '''Second Great Awakening''' (1800–1840s) was a major religious movement in the U.S. that reached out to the unchurched and brought large numbers of people to a vivid experience of Christianity, fueling the rapid growth of numerous denominations, especially the [[United Methodist Church|Methodists]], Baptists, and Disciples. It came a half century after the [[First Great Awakening]] and consisted of renewed personal salvation experienced in revival meetings. Major leaders included [[Charles Grandison Finney]], [[Lyman Beecher]], [[Barton Stone]], [[Peter Cartwright]] and [[James B. Finley]].

[[William Miller]] led a premillennial movement in New York that predicted the Second Coming on Oct. 22, 1844; after that non-event, a remnant formed the [[Seventh-day Adventist Church]].
==New England==
In New England, the renewed interest in religion inspired a wave of social activism centered in the colleges where religion had previously been disregarded. President [[Timothy Dwight]] of [[Yale College]] took the lead in chapel sermons and classroom discussions which motivated the students and prepared the way for a renewed religious interest. A revival began in 1802 that resulted in the conversion of a third of the Yale student body. The Awakening spread to other colleges and soon a stream of young college graduates was entering every form of religious work, particularly the Christian ministry and education and home and foreign mission enterprises.

In western New York, the spirit of revival encouraged the emergence of new new denominations, especially the [[Mormons]] and the [[Holiness movement]]. In the west especially—at Cane Ridge, Kentucky and in Tennessee—the revival strengthened the Methodists and the Baptists and introduced into America a new form of religious expression—the Scottish [[camp meeting]].<ref>On Scottish influences see Long (2002) and Elizabeth Semancik, "Backcountry Religious Ways" at [http://xroads.virginia.edu/~ug97/albion/areligio.html]</ref>

Guelzo (1997) highlights the key role of [[Charles Grandison Finney]] (1792-1875) by placing him in the tradition of [[Jonathan Edwards]]'s Calvinism. Finney was not a rebel against the New England theology, he was actually an heir to this tradition and resistant to popular notions of free will that challenged the New England culture. Such a reevaluation questions the view that the Second Great Awakening fits into a "declension" model in American religious history and forces a new understanding of the connection between this movement and American commercial markets.

==Missionaries==
The Congregationalists set up missionary societies, to evangelize the West. Their most successful missions were in Hawaii, where they converted most of the natives. Missionaries were preachers and educators, as well as exponents of Yankee culture. Publication and education societies promoted Christian education; most notable among them was the [[American Bible Society]], founded in 1816. Social activism inspired by the revival gave rise to abolition groups as well as the [[Society for the Promotion of Temperance]], and began efforts to reform prisons and care for the handicapped and mentally ill. They believed in the perfectibility of people and were highly moralistic in their endeavors. From the 1820s through the 1860s, missionaries saw themselves simply as communicators of the gospel who had come to found native churches among the heathen. They did not see themselves as modernizers or transformers of culture; that new role came during the [[Third Great Awakening]]. The first women missionaries from America were products of the equalitarianism of the Second Great Awakening.<ref>Ann White, "Counting the Cost of Faith: America's Early Female Missionaries." ''Church History.'' Volume: 57. Issue: 1. (1988) pp 19-30 [http://www.questia.com/read/77522678?title=Counting%20the%20Cost%20of%20Faith%3a%20America's%20Early%20Female%20Missionaries online edition]</ref>

===West===
The great Cane Ridge revival in 1801 in frontier Kentucky set the pattern for western revivals, which more closely resembled the [[First Great Awakening]] in New England; the use of camp meetings was inspired by revivals in Scotland. The camp meeting was a two-day (or longer) event, half religious and half social as it brought together settlers scattered over a wide area. Teams of preachers rotated in a continuous stream of sermons, as oxen were roasted and old friends and new mingled.

The converts joined small local congregations which eventually might build a log-cabin building as a church; more often services were held in fields or private homes. Cane Ridge and some other western revivals was multi-denominational, and included Methodist, Presbyterian, Baptist and Restorationist or Campbellite preachers (who later formed the Church of Christ and the Disciples of Christ denominations). The result was less isolation and individualism, and a greater sense of group identity through the local church. Later revivals took on much more of an Arminian emphasis that everyone can be saved, but during the initial Kentucky camp meetings Calvinism and predestination still dominated religious beliefs. Eslinger argues that the most important function of the early camp meeting was not that it offered people a form of worship more reflective of the emerging liberal culture, but rather that it "enabled great masses of people to more comfortably relate to that new culture."<ref>Ellen Eslinger, ''Citizens of Zion: The Social Origins of Camp Meeting Revivalism'' (1999), p. xx1</ref>

The western revival quickly Christianized large parts of Kentucky, Tennessee and southern Ohio and Indiana. Each denomination had assets that allowed it to thrive on the frontier. The efficient Methodists had a method (hence their name), which used itinerant [[circuit riders]] assigned to a territory by the bishop. He rode circuit to different locations recruiting and ministering on a regular schedule. Baptists used local preachers who their neighbors could see as having a special “call” from God.

Long (2002) notes that since the 1980s, scholars have connected American religious camp meetings, formerly thought to have their roots only in the American frontier experience, to Scottish holy fairs of the 17th-18th centuries. Long (2002) examines the sacramental theology in the communion sermons of James McGready given in Kentucky during the first decade of the 19th century. McGready's sermons demonstrate adherence to reformed theology, a Calvinist understanding of salvation, and a sacramental emphasis. A central theme of McGready's sermons stressed the believer meeting Christ at the communion table.

==Leading preachers==
* [[Timothy Dwight]]
* [[Nathaniel William Taylor]]
* [[Lyman Beecher]]
* [[Charles Grandison Finney|Charles Finney]]
* [[Peter Cartwright (exhorter)|Peter Cartwright]]
* [[Alexander Campbell]]
* [[Thomas Campbell]]
* [[Barton Stone]]
* [[Harry Hosier]]<ref>[https://wallbuilders.com/black-history-issue-2005/ The Rev. "Black Harry" Hoosier (or Hosier) 1750-1810]</ref>

==America's God ==
Noll (2002) argues that a distinctive intellectual synthesis unexpectedly emerged in the United States (and remarkably, in no other Protestant culture) by the early 19th century. It was a powerful potent compound of evangelical Protestant religion, liberal [[Republicanism|republican political ideology]], and [[Common Sense Realism|common sense moral reasoning]] and it came to infuse public life. The synthesis had a plausibility, flexibility, and popularity were the key to the remarkable Christianization that took place in both North and South between 1790 and 1865. Noll argues this synthesis was what won evangelicals their right to a public voice in the wake of the [[American Revolution]] and enabled them to build the nation's social and intellectual culture during the first half of the 19th century. He concludes that the unique synthesis, coupled with the active participation of evangelicals in public life, profoundly reshaped Christian theology in America.<ref>Mark Noll, ''America's God: From Jonathan Edwards to Abraham Lincoln'' (2002)</ref>

==Impact on denominations==
The Second Great Awakening exercised a profound impact on American religious history. The numerical strength of the Baptists and Methodists rose relative to that of the denominations dominant in the colonial period—the [[Anglican Communion|Anglicans]], Presbyterians, [[Congregational church|Congregationalists]], and [[Reformed churches|Reformed]]. Efforts to apply Christian teaching to the resolution of social problems presaged the [[Social Gospel]] of the late 19th century. The United States was becoming a more culturally diverse nation in the early to mid-19th century, and the growing differences within American Protestantism reflected and contributed to this diversity. The Awakening influenced numerous reform movements, especially [[abolitionists]].

==Impact on individuals==
The adolescence of poet [[Emily Dickinson]] was marked by the intense religious revivals that made Amherst College and her family's church, The First Congregational Church of Amherst, a major locus of influence in 1845-46 and in 1850, during the second phase of what is now called the Second Great Awakening. Schmidt (2005) traces the impact of these revivals on Dickinson, who was the only member of her family and close circle of friends who did ''not'' convert to Christianity and join her family's church by public profession of faith. Through close readings of poems, her early letters and certain letters by Dickinson family members, Dickinson's work appears as a rebellion against the religious orthodoxy of mid-nineteenth century Western Massachusetts and presents Dickinson as caught between two counter forces: the Calvinist tradition of examining one's inner life in preparation for religious conversion and the current pressure at revivals to stand up in front of a crowd and deliver a formulaic statement of faith. Her poems read show how Dickinson appropriated the meters and imagery of the hymns she sang at church and the diction of public professions of faith in order to write her own idiosyncratic spiritual autobiography—in the form of lyric poems—that explores her hesitations, doubts and her refusal to join, what she calls in poem F659/J539, "The Province of the Saved."<ref>Schmidt, (2005)</ref>

==Opposition==
Reeves (2005) examines the historical context, spiritual development, and theological arguments of four Protestant critics of Second Great Awakening revivalism who published critiques from the mid-1830s to the late-1840s: Calvin Colton, John Henry Hopkins, John Williamson Nevin, and Horace Bushnell. Historians have begun to give increased attention to the role played by critics of revivalism in the Great Awakening of the eighteenth century, but inadequate attention has been devoted to critics of revivalism in the Second Great Awakening. Several competitors vied for the right to define revivalism in the Second Great Awakening. ''New Divinity'' revivalists legitimated their revivals by the construction of an Edwardsean tradition of sober revivalism, but their definition of genuine revival was contested not only by ''Frontier,'' ''New Haven,'' and ''New Measures'' revivalists, but also by critics who questioned the underlying theological assumptions of revivalism.

The counter-revivalists were not merely reactive; they sought to counter revivalism by formulating alternative understandings of Christian theology and spirituality. High Church Episcopalians Calvin Colton and John Henry Hopkins argued for the superiority of the Episcopal Church; Colton praised his church's refusal to meddle in political affairs in the manner of revivalistic reformers, and Hopkins appealed to his church's faithfulness to the pattern established by the "Primitive Church" of the first four centuries against the "novelties" of revivalism. John Williamson Nevin criticized revivalism's subjectivism, countering with a churchly piety, grounded on the objective presence of Christ in the sacraments. Nevin envisioned an alliance between the German Reformed and German Lutheran Churches as a bulwark against Americanized evangelicalism. Horace Bushnell criticized revivalism for its supernaturalistic dualism; as an alternative, Bushnell offered a Romantic revision of the means of grace, in which parents could shape the Christian character of their children through the power of organic connections. The counter-revivalists in this study offered counter-narratives set against prevailing revivalistic norms to offer an alternative understanding of American religious culture and to open up new directions for the future of Christian piety and theology.<ref>Reeves (2005)</ref>

==Political Implications==

In the midst of shifts in theology and church polity, American Christians took it upon themselves to reform society during this period. Known commonly as antebellum reform, this phenomenon includes reforms in [[temperance]], [[women's rights]], [[abolitionism]], and a multitude of other questions and problems faced by society.

Historian Robert H. Abzug (1994) stresses the understanding common among participants of reform as being a part of God's plan. As a result, individual Christians contemplated their roles in society in purifying the world through the individuals to whom they could bring salvation.

Nord (1984, 1993) has emphasized the use of new communications media by the revivalists, especially high speed printing presses which allowed the production of large numbers of inexpensive Bibles, tracts and magazines.

The abolitionist movement especially was a product of the Second Great Awakening in the Northeast. The Congregational and presbyterian churches were especially influential. Men were the leaders but women were more numerous, and over 200 women's antislavery societies were organized. The men gave speeches and wrote pamphlets. The women's groups raised funds, distributed pamphlets, collected signatures to petition Congress, networked with women from the English antislavery movement, and welcomed black women abolitionists.<ref>Beth A. Salerno, ''Sister Societies: Women's Antislavery Organizations in Antebellum America.'' (2005)</ref>

==See also==
* [[Seventh-day Adventist Church]]
* [[United Methodist Church]]
* [[Southern Baptist Convention]]
* [[First Great Awakening]]
* [[Third Great Awakening]]
* [[Fourth Great Awakening]]
* [[Atheism vs. Christian revival and Christian apologetics]]
* [[Pietism]]

==Bibliography==
* Abzug, Robert H. "Cosmos Crumbling: American Reform and the Religious Imagination" (1994) (ISBN 0-195-04568-8)
* Ahlstrom, Sydney. ''A Religious History of the American People'' (1972) (ISBN 0-385-11164-9), standard scholarly survey
* Birdsall Richard D. "The Second Great Awakening and the New England Social Order." ''Church History'' 39 (1970): 345-64.
* Bratt, James D. "Religious Anti-revivalism in Antebellum America." ''Journal of the Early Republic'' (2004) 24(1): 65-106. ISSN 0275-1275 Fulltext: in Ebsco. Examines oppositional literature of the antirevivalists, namely, the doubters and critics. The article includes an appendix of selected revivalist critiques.
*Brown, Kenneth O. ''Holy Ground; a Study on the American Camp Meeting.'' (1992).
*Brown, Kenneth O. ''Holy Ground, Too, the Camp Meeting Family Tree.'' Hazleton: Holiness Archives, 1997.
* Bruce, Dickson D., Jr. ''And They All Sang Hallelujah: Plain Folk Camp-Meeting Religion, 1800–1845'' (1974).
* Butler Jon. "Enthusiasm Described and Decried: The Great Awakening as Interpretative Fiction." Journal of American History 69 (1982): 305-25. [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1893821 in JSTOR]
* Butler Jon. ''Awash in a Sea of Faith: Christianizing the American People.'' 1990.
* Carwardine, Richard J. ''Evangelicals and Politics in Antebellum America.'' (1993).
* Carwardine, Richard J. "The Second Great Awakening in the Urban Centers: An Examination of Methodism and the 'New Measures,'" ''Journal of American History'' 59 (1972): 327-340. [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0021-8723(197209)59%3A2%3C327%3ATSGAIT%3E2.0.CO%3B2-H in JSTOR]
* Cayton, Mary Kupiec. "The Expanding World of Jacob Norton: Reading, Revivalism, and the Construction of a "Second Great Awakening" in New England, 1787-1804," ''Journal of the Early Republic,'' Volume 26, Number 2, Summer 2006, pp. 221-248 [http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/journal_of_the_early_republic/v026/26.2cayton.html in Project Muse]
* Cross, Whitney, R. ''The Burned-Over District: The Social and Intellectual History of Enthusiastic Religion in Western New York, 1800–1850'' (1950).
* Eslinger, Ellen. ''Citizens of Zion: The Social Origins of Camp Meeting Revivalism.'' (1999). 306pp.
* Foster, Charles I. ''An Errand of Mercy: The Evangelical United Front, 1790–1837'' (1960).
* Foster, Douglas A. et al, eds. ''The Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement'' (2005) [http://www.amazon.com/gp/reader/0802838987/ref=sib_dp_bod_fc/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&p=S001#reader-link excerpt and text search]
* Griffin, Clifford S. "Religious Benevolence as Social Control, 1815-1860," ''The Mississippi Valley Historical Review,'' Vol. 44, No. 3. (Dec., 1957), pp. 423–444. [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0161-391X%28195712%2944%3A3%3C423%3ARBASC1%3E2.0.CO%3B2-Y in JSTOR]
* Guelzo, Allen C. "An Heir or a Rebel? Charles Grandison Finney and the New England Theology." ''Journal of the Early Republic, 1997 17(1): 61-94. Issn: 0275-1275 [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0275-1275(199721)17%3A1%3C61%3AAHOARC%3E2.0.CO%3B2-S online in Jstor]
* Hambrick-Stowe, Charles. ''Charles G. Finney and the Spirit of American Evangelicalism.'' (1996).
* Hankins, Barry. ''The Second Great Awakening and the Transcendentalists.'' (2004). 200 pp.
* Hatch, Nathan O. ''The Democratization of American Christianity'' (1989). [http://www.amazon.com/Democratization-American-Christianity-Nathan-Hatch/dp/0300050607/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1195465108&sr=1-1 excerpt and text search]
* Holifield, E. Brooks. ''God's Ambassadors: A History of the Christian Clergy in America'' (2007) [http://www.amazon.com/Gods-Ambassadors-History-Christian-America/dp/0802803814/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1228378556&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Johnson, Charles A. "The Frontier Camp Meeting: Contemporary and Historical Appraisals, 1805-1840" ''The Mississippi Valley Historical Review,'' Vol. 37, No. 1. (Jun., 1950), pp. 91-110. [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0161-391X%28195006%2937%3A1%3C91%3ATFCMCA%3E2.0.CO%3B2-2 in JSTOR]
* Keller, Charles Roy. ''The Second Great Awakening in Connecticut,'' (1942)
* Keller, Rosemary Skinner, Rosemary Radford Ruether, and Marie Cantlon, eds. ''Encyclopedia of Women and Religion in North America'' (3 vol 2006) [http://www.amazon.com/gp/reader/0253346851/ref=sib_dp_pt/103-4827826-5463040#reader-link excerpt and text search]
* Long, Kimberly Bracken. "The Communion Sermons of James Mcgready: Sacramental Theology and Scots-irish Piety on the Kentucky Frontier." ''Journal of Presbyterian History'' 2002 80(1): 3-16. Issn: 0022-3883
* Loveland Anne C. ''Southern Evangelicals and the Social Order, 1800-1860.'' 1980
* Marsden George M. ''The Evangelical Mind and the New School Presbyterian Experience: A Case Study of Thought and Theology in Nineteenth century America.'' 1970.
* McLoughlin William G. ''Modern Revivalism'' 1959.
* McLoughlin William G. ''Revivals, Awakenings, and Reform: An Essay on Religion and Social Change in America, 1607-1977'' 1978.
* McClymond, Michael, ed. ''Encyclopedia of Religious Revivals in America.'' (2007). Vol. 1, A–Z: 547 pp. Vol. 2, Primary Documents: 683 pp.
* Noll, Mark. ''America's God: From Jonathan Edwards to Abraham Lincoln'' (2002)
* Noll; Mark A. ed. ''God and Mammon: Protestants, Money, and the Market, 1790-1860'' (2002). [http://www.questia.com/library/book/god-and-mammon-protestants-money-and-the-market-1790-1860-by-mark-a-noll.jsp online edition]
* Nord, David Paul. "The Evangelical Origins of Mass Media in America, 1815–1835," ''Journalism Monographs', 88 (May 1984)
* Nord, David Paul. "Systematic Benevolence: Religious Publishing and the Marketplace in Early Nineteenth-Century America," in ''Communication and Change in American Religious History,'' ed. Leonard I. Sweet (1993), 239–69.
* Posey, Walter Brownlow. ''The Baptist Church in the Lower Mississippi Valley, 1776-1845'' (1957)
* Reeves, Russ Patrick. "Countering Revivalism and Revitalizing Protestantism: High Church, Confessional, and Romantic Critiques of Second Great Awakening Revivalism, 1835 to 1852." PhD dissertation U. of Iowa 2005. 290 pp. DAI 2005 66(4): 1393-A. DA3172430
* Rohrer, James R. ''Keepers of the Covenant: Frontier Missions and the Decline of Congregationalism, 1774-1818,'' 1995. [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=55527899 online edition]
* Roth Randolph A. ''The Democratic Dilemma: Religion, Reform, and the Social Order in the Connecticut River Valley of Vermont, 1791-1850.'' 1987
* Schmidt, Elizabeth. "Alone with God: Emily Dickinson's Early Religious Rebellion." PhD dissertation New York U. 2005. 207 pp. DAI 2005 66(4): 1357-1358-A. DA3170873
* Shiels Richard D. "The Second Great Awakening in Connecticut: Critique of the Traditional Interpretation." ''Church History'' 49#4 (1980): 401-15. [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=95163714 online edition]
* Smith, Timothy L. ''Revivalism and Social Reform: American Protestantism on the Eve of the Civil War'' 1957, a major interpretation [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=7947474 online edition]
* Wigger, John H. and Nathan O. Hatch. ''Methodism and the Shaping of American Culture'' (2001) [http://www.amazon.com/Methodism-Shaping-American-Culture-Wigger/dp/0687048540/ref=sr_1_2?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1195465108&sr=1-2 excerpt and text search]
* Wigger, John H. ''Taking Heaven by Storm: Methodism and the Rise of Popular Christianity in America'' (1998) [http://www.amazon.com/Taking-Heaven-Storm-Methodism-Christianity/dp/0252069943/ref=sr_1_2?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1228379123&sr=8-2 excerpt and text search]

===Primary Sources===
* Lyman Beecher, ''The Autobiography of Lyman Beecher,'' ed. by Barbara M. Cross, 2 vols. (1961).
* Sweet, W. W., ed. ''Religion on the American Frontier. Vol. I, The Baptists, 1783-1830'' (1939)
* Sweet, W. W., ed. ''Religion on the American Frontier, Vol. II, The Presbyterians: 1783-1840, A Collection of Source Materials'' (1936)
* Sweet, W. W., ed. ''Religion on the American Frontier. Vol. III,
* Sweet, W. W., ed. ''Religion on the American Frontier. Vol. IV, 1783-1840: The Methodists, A Collection of Source Materials'' (1964) [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0043-5597(194710)3:4:4%3C542:ROTAF1%3E2.0.CO;2-P online review]

====notes====
<references/>

[[Category:Early National U.S.]]
[[Category:Christian History]]
[[Category:Revivals]]
[[Category:Baptists]]
[[Category:Methodism]]

The Crusades

2018-09-20T03:41:10Z

WAliberty: Improve terminology

{{Middle Ages}}

[[Image:Crusader.jpg|thumb|200px|right|A returning Crusader]]
'''The Crusades''' (1095-1291) were a series of European Catholic campaigns into the Middle East, fought during the Middle Ages. They were the military responses made by Catholics, from western Europe to the Pope's pleas to re-capture the Holy Land from Islamic influence. The '''First Crusade''' created new Latin states in the Holy Land. Subsequent crusades were less successful except when they attacked Byzantium. Other medieval movements against heretics and infidels were also called crusades. The crusades ended with the Islamic recapture of all the Holy Land in 1291, when the last city controlled by crusaders, Acre, fell.

The crusades comprise a major chapter of [[Middle Ages|Medieval History]]. Extending over three centuries, they attracted every social class in western Europe. Kings and commoners, barons and bishops, knights and commoners—even teenagers—all participated in these expeditions to the eastern end of the Mediterranean. The motives of the crusaders were numerous: some sought riches; many sought adventure; most were moved by faith alone. Historians stress the central role of religious fervor, while mentioning as well the socio-economic factors crucial in enticing larger contingents. For example, crusaders often were fulfilling their feudal obligations. There were strong links between the papal reforms, the social necessity of violence and the exploitation of this inherent revivalistic imagination of the age of the Papacy.<ref>Douglas James, "Christians and the First Crusade," ''History Review,'' (Dec 2005), Issue 53</ref>

The crusades failed to achieve the permanent control of the Holy Land. However, their influence was wide and deep. Much of
the crusading fervor carried over to the successful fights against the Moors (Muslims) in Spain and the pagan Slavs in eastern Europe. Politically the crusades weakened the decrepit Byzantine Empire, but temporarily kept the Muslims away from it. The First Crusade strengthened the moral leadership of the
papacy in Europe, but the failures of the later crusades weakened both the crusading ideal and respect for the papacy
Contact with the East widened the scope of the Europeans, ended their isolation, and exposed them to an rich civilization. The economic effects of the crusades were modest, but they did reopen of the eastern Mediterranean to Western commerce, which itself had an effect on the rise of great cities such as Venice and the emergence of a money economy in the West.

The crusaders derived their name from the Latin word for "cross"—crux. A crusader went to the Holy Land with a cross of cloth sewn over his breast; when he returned, he had a similar cross for his back. Originally called to repel the Islamic forces that controlled [[Jerusalem]], the crusades evolved into a form of political decree called by the Papacy for political, social or economic reasons. The campaigns of [[Teutonic knight]]s against [[pagan]] strongholds in [[Eastern Europe]] are also sometimes called crusades. Lastly, military actions within Christendom against heretical and schismatic groups are sometimes called a crusade. Thus a crusade in most general terms was a directive of war issued by the Pope to all Rome-friendly nations against forces, whether Muslim, pagan or Eastern Orthodox, which were hostile to the Papacy.

The crusades in the Holy Land ultimately failed to establish permanent Christian kingdoms. The fourth crusade resulted in a very damaged relationship between [[Orthodox Church|Greek]] and [[Roman Catholic|Latin]] Christendom. Islamic expansion into remained a threat for centuries, with crusading orders establishing strongholds to protect Mediterranean islands.

On the other hand, the crusades in southern [[Spain]] were militarily successful, eventually leading to the end of Islamic power in the region in 1492. The Teutonic knights expanded Christian domains in Eastern Europe, and the [[Albigensian Crusade]], achieved its goal of destroying heretics in France.<ref>See Brian Tierney and Sidney Painter, ''Western Europe in the Middle Ages 300–1475''. 6th ed. (McGraw-Hill 1998)</ref>

== Need for a crusade ==
The Holy Land had been part of the [[Roman Empire]], and thus the [[Byzantine Empire]], until the Islamic conquests of the seventh and eighth centuries that forced the Byzantines out and saw the area gradually turn Islamic. Calm returned and Christians had generally been permitted to visit the sacred places in the Holy Land until 1071, when the [[Seljuk Turks]] assailed the Byzantines, defeating them at the [[Battle of Manzikert]], and conquered Jerusalem from the Egyptian Fatimids the same year. They were not friendly to Christian pilgrims, in contrast to how the Fatimids had been, and soon pilgrims came under threat of robbery or even death as they were no longer welcome. The Byzantine Emperor [[Alexius I]] asked for aid from the west both to the Popes and the Christian monarchs. Nothing meaningful happened. Alexius may have been hoping for money from the Pope for the hiring of mercenaries.
==Papal call==
Pope Urban II called upon the knights of Christendom to fight for the defense of the Christian East and the protection of pilgrims in a speech made at the [[Council of Clermont]] on November 27, 1095. Urban demanded that all internal feuds within Christendom end, threatening [[excommunication]] for anyone who continued to bicker internally, and promising an indulgence (less time in purgatory) to anyone who died in the crusade.

This time Europe listened. Those who were there erupted in spontaneous cries of "Deus le vult!" ("God wills it!") - which would become the watchword of what we now know as the Crusades.

Nothing like this had ever been done, and the Pope himself had no military power and had to count on those who were in positions of power to supply it. While the monarchs of Europe did not get directly involved, it was a series of prominent nobles who answered the call, among the most famous being: the Norman Bohemund of Taranto, former claimant to the Duchy of Apulia, his nephew Tancred, Count Raymond of Toulouse, [[Godfrey Of Bouillon|Duke Godfrey de Bouillon]] of Lorraine, Duke Hugh of Vermandois (brother of the King of France), Duke Robert of Normandy, and Count Robert of Flanders. The spiritual leader who accompanied them was French Bishop Adhemar du Puy, who was appointed Papal legate.

All that was known at the start was that the forces to participate would meet together in [[Constantinople]], where Alexius had no idea what was being unleashed.

==Timeline==
The Crusades are traditionally taught in university courses as a stand-alone event that had no precedent. There is some problem with this thought process.

*The first Crusade began in 1095:
** 460 years after the first Christian city was overrun by Muslim armies. (The Battle of Fahl and the 634 Siege of Damascus)
** 457 years after Jerusalem was conquered by Muslim armies.
** 453 years after Egypt was taken by Muslims armies.
** 443 years after Muslims first plundered Italy.
** 427 years after Muslims armies first laid siege to the Christian capital of Constantinople.
** 380 years after Spain was conquered by Muslim armies.
** 363 years after France was first attacked by Muslim armies.
** 249 years after the capital of the Christian world, Rome itself, was sacked by a Muslim army, and only after centuries of church burnings, killings, enslavement and forced conversions from Christianity to Muslim.

By the time the Crusades finally began, Muslim armies had conquered two-thirds of the Christian world.<ref>[http://www.sodahead.com/united-states/the-truth-about-the-crusades-islamis-not-the-religion-of-peace/question-4697558/ The TRUTH ABOUT THE CRUSADES. ISLAM...is NOT THE RELIGION OF PEACE....!!]</ref>

== The First Crusade ==
The [[First Crusade]], properly speaking, was lead by Feudal lords, mostly of [[Franks|Frankish]] origin. Many of the knights left home never expecting to return, knowing virtually nothing about the [[Holy Land]], and trusting in God for victory. The army consisted of almost 20,000 men, including a mass of [[squire]]s and other servants necessary to support a mounted knight. Arriving at Constantinople the force, which eventually reached almost 50,000 total men, was not what the Byzantine Emperor [[Alexius]] had expected. He had hoped for a few thousand well trained mercenaries to help him retake his lands from the Turks, and had little in common with the goal of 'freeing the Holy Land'. An uneasy tension ensued from 1096 to 1097 as the forces gathered, but through a combination of firmness and diplomacy, Alexius avoided serious complications. In return for his assurance of assistance, he obtained oaths of allegiance from the Crusader leaders, and their promise that they would help recapture [[Nicaea]] from the Turks and return to him any other former possessions which they conquered. Alexius then transported them across the Bosporus - being careful not to allow any large number of Crusader forces inside the walls of his capital at any given time. He also provided them with food and with an escort of Byzantine troops to guide them towards their objectives (and incidentally to prevent Crusader plundering).<ref>Encyclopedia of Military History, Dupuy & Dupuy, 1979, Pg. 312-313</ref>

After a hard march to the Holy Land, the army captured invested Nicaea in 1097. By a combination of skillful fighting and skillful diplomacy, Alexius arrange for the surrender of the city to him after a successful Crusader-Byzantine assault on the outer walls. The Crusaders were upset at Alexius' refusal to give them permission to sack the city.

The Crusaders continued to the southeast in parallel columns, without any one commander in charge. After fighting the inconclusive [[Battle of Dorylaeum]], the army split in half. Tancred and Baldwin, brother of Godfrey of Lorraine and future King of Jerusalem, went east took the Armenian fortress-city of [[Edessa]] - an action that destroyed the support of many local Armenian Christians for the Crusade, and weakened its internal bonds, as Baldwin and Tancred's men clashed over possession of the city, with Baldwin emerging triumphant. The main body of the army continued onward and besieged [[Antioch]]. The city was surrounded for 8 months from October 21, 1097 to June 3, 1098. Two relieving armies were driven off in the [[Battles of Harenc]] in December and February. Due to poor arrangements for supplies, the Crusading army was actually close to starvation, but was saved by the fortuitous arrival of English and Pisan flotillas which seized two nearby ports and brought provisions. Bickering among the Crusader leaders, especially [[Bohemund]] and [[Raymond]] was rampant. The initiative of Bohemund led to the capture of Antioch just 2 days before a relieving army of 75,000 strong under the atabeg of [[Mosul]], [[Kerboga]] would arrived, delayed itself after a fruitless three-week long attempt to dislodge Baldwin from Edessa.

Now it was the Crusaders turn to be trapped inside the city as Kerboga sieged Antioch from June 5, to June 28, 1098. The Crusaders were cut off from supplies and again near starvation. A Byzantine army was coming to take the city as agreed, but hearing that the Crusaders were doomed, turned back to Constantinople. It was then the 'Holy Lance' was discovered; the weapon said to have pierced Jesus' side. While few historians or theologians believe this miraculous discovery was valid, it energized the Crusader army at just the time they needed it. The [[Battle of the Orontes]] was fought on June 28 where 15,000 Crusaders left Antioch to battle and drove off the entire Moslem army and broke the siege, helped in part by the decision of several of the local emirs serving under Kerbogha to abandon him during the battle, fearing that he coveted their territory.

Due to internal bickering, many of the Crusaders did not continue on to [[Jerusalem]]. The force that arrived in June 1099 was only about 12,000 strong, far fewer than the army of defenders. They sieged the city from June 9 to July 18. Realizing they didn't have enough men to keep out supplies and starve the defenders, they boldly attacked. Overrunning the city, many of the inhabitants were massacred, including other Christians. A relieving force of 50,000 strong arrived in August to fight the Crusaders, but were routed at the [[Battle of Ascalon]]. The military aspects of the First Crusade had ended.

Four feudal kingdoms were established, which would remain for nearly 100 years. Several Military Orders, consisting of [[paladin]]s, were also set up within the next few years, focusing mainly around the protection of the welfare of pilgrims and the defense of Christendom within the framework of an organization that was both spiritual and martial in nature. The best known of these orders were the Knights of the Temple, or [[Templars]], and the Knights of the Hospital of St. John, or [[Hospitallers]]. The Hospitallers still exist today in the form of the Order of Malta and St. John's Ambulance.

== The Second Crusade ==
The [[Second Crusade]] occurred in 1145 when [[Edessa]] was retaken by Islamic forces. It was ultimately a failure, owing in part to the French king's insistence on betraying and attacking his only Muslim ally, [[Damascus]]. In 1187 the Muslims
captured Jerusalem under their leader [[Saladin]], which brought about a new call for a Crusade.

== The Third Crusade ==
[[File:Saladin2.jpg|thumb|left|270px]]The [[Third Crusade]] (1189–92) is famous for the battles between [[Richard I|Richard the Lionheart]] and [[Saladin]], highlighted by the deep respect the two enemies had for each other, and the sense of [[chivalry|chivalric]] honor of King Richard. The crusade also involved the king of France (who returned home after an argument with Richard at Acre) and the Holy Roman Emperor (who drowned en route). The crusade had the limited success of obtaining a truce between Richard and Saladin that promised to allow Christian pilgrimage to Jerusalem.

== The Fourth Crusade ==
The [[Fourth Crusade]], begun by [[Innocent III]] in 1202, intended to retake the Holy Land but was soon subverted by [[Venetian]]s who used the forces to sack the Christian city of [[Zara]]. Innocent excommunicated the Venetians and crusaders. Eventually the crusaders arrived in [[Constantinople]], but due to strife which arose between them and the [[Byzantines]], rather than proceed to the Holy Land the crusaders instead sacked Constantinople and other parts of [[Asia Minor]] effectively establishing the Latin Empire of Constantinople in [[Greece]] and Asia Minor . Both Zara and Constantinople were Christian cities, and the ultimate effect was a severely damaged relationship between Greek and Latin Christendom.

This was effectively the last crusade sponsored by the papacy; later crusades were sponsored by individuals.

==Minor Crusades==
In addition to the four main crusades there were several minor ones.
===The People's (Peasants') Crusade (1095-96)===
As soon as the Pope issued his appeal in 1095 preachers like Peter the Hermit and Walter the Penniless fanned out across Western Europe, reaching [[Piety|pious]] common people in rural areas, including many peasants. They aroused such an enthusiasm among the peasants that neither the secular lords nor the local clergy could stop the people from marching east, filled with hopes for freedom from serfdom and the zest for adventure. Thousands of peasants set off with few supplies or weapons and no money, and no idea of the enormous distance to be traveled. They believed that God would provide the guidance for direction and the sustenance for life. More prosperous farmers and burghers were also involved. Five uncoordinated bands trekked across the Balkan region toward Constantinople. The Byzantine Christians welcomed them reluctantly and even contemptuously, for the pilgrims robbed them and raided their farms and villages. The Byzantine army fought them in pitched battles; most peasants never reached Constantinople. The thousands who did arrive were militarily useless and unwelcome. The Emperor Alexius temporarily fed and housed them outside the city, then hurried them across the Bosporus into Asia Minor. There the peasants were all killed by the Turkish forces.<ref>Sir Steven Runciman, "The First Crusade: Constantinople to Antioch," in M. W. Baldwin, ed. ''The first hundred years'' (1969) pp. 281-85 [http://digicoll.library.wisc.edu/cgi-bin/History/History-idx?type=turn&entity=History.CrusOne.p0313&isize=M online edition];
Frederic Duncalf, "The Peasants' Crusade," ''The American Historical Review,'' Vol. 26, No. 3 (Apr., 1921), pp. 440-453 [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0002-8762(192104)26%3A3%3C440%3ATPC%3E2.0.CO%3B2-P in JSTOR]</ref>

====Attacking Jews====
A smaller group of peasants led by Gottschalk took out their fervor on a more local target, the Jewish communities of Lotharingia. Their actions were condemned by the Church and the local populace.<ref>The Age of Faith, Will Durant, 1950, Pg. 589</ref><ref name="RS">Riley-Smith, Jonathan. ''The Crusades: a History.'' (2005)</ref> A much larger threat against Jews took the form of a larger mob led by Count Emico of Leiningen, who was more organized and more brutal. Already a man with a sullied reputation, he ignored the pleas of the Bishops in town after town to desist. Apart from being hidden by the local populace when they heard Emico was coming, there was little the Jews could do. Previously in Europe, local difficulties against Jewish communities would rise from time to time in various places, but would be isolated to that local area. This started a phase not previously seen, a systematic effort to weed out and attack Jewish communities.

===The Children's Crusade (1212)===
Even more [[pathetic]] than the peasant crusade of 1095-96 was a movement in France and Germany which attracted large numbers of peasant teenagers and young people (few were under age 15). They were convinced they could succeed where older and more sinful crusaders had failed: the miraculous power of their faith would triumph where the force of arms had not. Many parish priests and parents encouraged such religious fervor and urged them on. The Pope and bishops opposed the attempt but failed to stop it entirely. A band of several thousand youth and young men led by a German named Nicholas set out for Italy. About a third survived the march over the Alps and got as far as Genoa; another group came to Marseilles. The luckier ones eventually managed to get safely home, but many others were sold as lifetime slaves on the auction blocks of Marseilles slave dealers.<ref>Dana C. Munro, "The Children's Crusade," ''The American Historical Review,'' Vol. 19, No. 3 (Apr., 1914), pp. 516-524 [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0002-8762(191404)19%3A3%3C516%3ATCC%3E2.0.CO%3B2-C in JSTOR]; and Norman P. Zacour, "The Children's Crusade," in R. L. Wolff, and H. W. Hazard, eds., ''The later Crusades, 1189-1311'' (1969) pp. 325-342, esp. 330-37 [http://digicoll.library.wisc.edu/cgi-bin/History/History-idx?type=article&did=HISTORY.CRUSTWO.I0023&isize=M online edition]</ref>

===The Fifth Crusade (1217-1221)===
Instigated by Pope Innocent III in 1215, this crusade was led in 1217 by John Brienne, king of Jerusalem, with the object of conquering Egypt. In 1219 the crusaders captured Damietta. The sultan of Egypt offered to exchange Jerusalem for Damietta but this was rejected. After an unsuccessful assault on Cairo in 1221, the defeated crusaders surrendered Damietta in return for the freedom to retreat.<ref>Thomas C. Van Cleve, "The Fifth Crusade," in R. L. Wolff, and H. W. Hazard, eds., ''The later Crusades, 1189-1311'' (1969) pp. 377-428 [http://digicoll.library.wisc.edu/cgi-bin/History/History-idx?type=goto&id=History.CrusTwo&isize=M&page=377 online edition]</ref>
===The Sixth Crusade (1228-1229)===
The sixth or " Diplomatic Crusade" was led by Emperor Frederick II of the Holy Roman Empire. He began in 1228, but fought no battles. Instead, by negotiation he obtained Jerusalem and a strip of territory from Acre to Jerusalem for the Christians. In 1225 he married Yolanda, the young heiress to the kingdom of Jerusalem; upon her death in 1228, Frederick crowned himself king of Jerusalem.

===The Seventh Crusade (1248-1250)===
Led by King Louis IX of France (reigned. 1226-1270) and directed against the Arabs of Egypt, this crusade was a complete failure. The crusaders were decisively defeated en route to Cairo and King Louis was captured; the Arabs demanded and received a huge ransom for the release of the hapless king.<ref>Joseph R. Strayer, "The Crusades of Louis IX," in R. L. Wolff and H. W. Hazard, eds., ''The later Crusades, 1189-1311'' (1969) pp. 487-521 [http://digicoll.library.wisc.edu/cgi-bin/History/History-idx?type=goto&id=History.CrusTwo&isize=M&submit=Go+to+page&page=487 online edition]; Peter Jackson, ''The Seventh Crusade, 1244-1254'' (2007) [http://www.amazon.com/Seventh-Crusade-12441254-Texts-Translation/dp/0754657221/ref=sr_1_5?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1205399558&sr=8-5 excerpt and text search]</ref>
===The Eighth Crusade (1270)===
Ignoring his advisers, King Louis IX again attacked the Arabs in Tunis in North Africa. He picked the hottest season of the year for campaigning and his army was devastated by disease. The king himself died, ending the last major attempt to free the Holy Land.<ref>Joseph R. Strayer, "The Crusades of Louis IX," in R. L. Wolff and H. W. Hazard, eds., ''The later Crusades, 1189-1311'' (1969) pp. 487-521 [http://digicoll.library.wisc.edu/cgi-bin/History/History-idx?type=goto&id=History.CrusTwo&isize=M&submit=Go+to+page&page=487 online edition]</ref>

===Other Medieval Crusades===
At the time people used "crusade" to describe other religious wars waged against heretics, such as Hussites and Albigensian, as well as Moors in Spain and pagans in the Baltic region.
====The Albigensian Crusade (13th century)====
Pope Innocent III in 1209 called for a war against the Albigensians, a religious sect which had sprung up in southern France, centered near the cities of Albi and Toulouse in Provence.<ref>Essentially, the Albigensians believed in a non-Christian dualist doctrine: there was a coexistence, they affirmed, between good and evil, represented by such opposites as God and the Evil One, light and darkness, soul and body, afterlife and earthly life.</ref> A bloody series of campaigns ended with Provence in ruins (1229) and the heretics defeated. In 1233 Pope Gregory IX placed the Dominicans in charge of investigating the remnants of Albigensianism with the legal power to name and condemn any surviving heretics. This marked the start of the [[Inquisition]].
====Teutonic Knights (1229-1525)====
A German religious and military order originally founded during the siege of Acre in the Third Crusade and modeled after the Knights Templars and Hospitalers, the Teutonic Knights moved to eastern Europe early in the 13th century.<ref>Charles Moeller, "Teutonic Order," [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/14541b.htm ''Catholic Encyclopedia'' (1912) vol 14 online]</ref> There, under their grand master, Hermann von Salza, they became powerful and prominent. In 1229, responding to an appeal from the [[Poland, history|Duke of Poland]], they began a crusade against the pagan Slavs of Prussia. They became sovereigns over lands they conquered over the next century. In a series of campaigns, the Teutonic Knights gained control over the whole Baltic coast, founding numerous towns and fortresses and establishing Christianity.<ref>Edgar N. Johnson, "The German Crusade on the Baltic," in [http://digicoll.library.wisc.edu/cgi-bin/History/History-idx?type=article&did=HISTORY.CRUSTHREE.I0028&isize=M H. W. Hazard, ed. ''The fourteenth and fifteenth centuries''] (1975) pp 545-85</ref>
===Crusades in Spain (711-1492)===
Muslims crossed from Africa into Spain early in the eighth century and in 711 at the battle of Río Barbate, they defeated the Visigoths and pressed forward to capture Toledo. By 718, the Moors (the name given North African Muslims by the Spaniards) had completed their conquest of the Iberian Peninsula, except for small Christian remnants in the Pyrenees. They remained on for the next 674 years until driven out by Spanish and Portuguese Christians.

The period of the Spanish Crusades began in the eleventh century when a religious revival was initiated by Cluniac monks in the small kingdoms in the north of Spain, which had recovered some of their lost territory. The revival expressed itself in a growing hatred for the infidel. Slowly yet steadily, at first sparked mainly by Burgundians and Normans from France, the Christians began to force the Moors out of northern and central Spain. Known as the [[Wars of the Reconquest]], these centuries-long conflicts intensified the Catholic sentiments of the people, developing an intense, even fanatical unity of religion and patriotism which was long characteristic of the Spaniards.

By the middle of the 15th century, the last bastion of Moorish power on the peninsula was the kingdom of Granada in southwestern Spain. When the marriage of Isabella, Queen of Castile, to Ferdinand, Prince of Aragon, in 1469 united Spain, they vigorously began their last campaign against the Moors. In January 1492 the Spanish entered the city of Granada and Moorish power ended in Europe. The expulsion of the Moors from Spain may be considered the last of the many medieval crusades.<ref>Charles Julian Bishko, "The Spanish and Portuguese Reconquest, 1095-1492" in [http://digicoll.library.wisc.edu/cgi-bin/History/History-idx?type=goto&id=History.CrusThree&isize=M&page=396 H. W. Hazard, ed. ''The fourteenth and fifteenth centuries''] (1975) pp 396-456</ref>

==Long-term Impact==
Thus, though Jerusalem was held for nearly a century and other strongholds in the Near East would remain in Christian possession much longer, the crusades in the Holy Land ultimately failed to establish permanent Christian kingdoms. Islamic expansion into Europe, while temporarily stalled, would renew and remain a threat for centuries with the disintegration of the [[Byzantine Empire]] and culminate with the campaigns of [[Suleiman the Magnificent]] in the sixteenth century.

While the crusades achieved only temporary military success, they had a powerful impact on western Europe. The crusaders returned with a vastly widened knowledge of the world they lived in, and a willingness to explore that became a permanent part of the west European mindset. In religion, culture, and commerce, post-Crusades Europe was visibly affected by its prolonged encounter with another continent and another way of life.

===Commerce and economy===
The merchants of Venice and other Italian cities gained the most profit. They amassed considerable income in payment for the services they rendered the crusaders and were enriched by the commercial rights they obtained throughout the Near East. Genoa, Pisa, and Venice gained special monopolies throughout the eastern Mediterranean. Their merchants used these privileges to introduce into the Western world such oriental luxuries as silks, spices, and pearls, whose transportation and sale made the cities rich. The demand for these products encouraged explorers to seek out new and more direct routes to the East—most famously in the discovery and exploration of the Americas by Columbus and others starting in 1492. The crusades helped create a moneyed aristocracy and encouraged the growth of capitalism in the Italian cities. Silks and spices not only raised the standard of living of the rich, they stimulated the entire urban economy, although cities remained small.

The returning crusaders came back to Europe with new tastes in dress and diet, such as peaches and spinach. They gave up the custom of wearing a load of heavy armor at nearly all times and appeared in the flowing robes of silk or cotton which were the traditional habit of the Muslims.
===Weakens feudalism===
In rural areas, where the vast majority of Europeans lives, the crusades tended to weaken feudalism and strengthen central governments. Thousands of feudal aristocrats died young and many baronial families lost heavily or even went bankrupt because they borrowed money for the adventure and could not repay. Since credit markets were undeveloped and inefficient, the crusaders paid high premiums to borrow; many accepted donations from friends and family. For a local baron to bring along 10 knights on a crusade cost some 3000 livres a year. There was some plunder along the way, but plunder was hard to liquefy to pay off loans back home. Instead of acquiring new rich new lands and fabulous wealth in the East, many noble families sold, pawned or mortgaged lands, castles, benefices, and jewels; most saw their finances damaged. Money lenders in Italian cities grew rich. The feudal barons were the basis of localism; power now tended to become more centralized and national. Of course when the kings crusaded, it cost them dearly and weakened their throne. [[Richard the Lionhearted]] of England sold off the income he was owed from Scotland, and tried to sell London itself but could not find a buyer. By contributing to the rise of the cities, the development of a money economy, and the strengthening of national monarchies, hastened, to some extent, feudalism's collapse.<ref>Fred A. Cazel, Jr. "Financing the Crusades," in [http://digicoll.library.wisc.edu/cgi-bin/History/History-idx?type=header&id=History.CrusSix N. P. Zacour, and H.W. Hazard, eds. ''The impact of the Crusades on Europe'' (1989), pp 116-49 online]</ref>
===Church===
The crusades at first helped, then hurt the church and the [[Papacy, history|papacy]]. In the early stages, the popes took the leadership of Europe in a great holy cause against the infidel world. Germany, France and England in particular responded to the popes. However the popes lost that leadership to secular princes by the time of the Third Crusade; during the Fourth Crusade the crusaders rejected Innocent III's demands.

The Crusades were a major contributing factor in the separation of the Eastern and Western Churches. The Crusaders deposed the native Patriarchs and appointed Latin Patriarchs in their place. These appointments were ratified by the Pope.

In the kingdom of Jerusalem, the commercial interests fostered an unexpected friendship with the Muslims, leading to an acceptance of oriental customs, and toleration of the rival religion. No such tolerance was visible in Western Europe.

===Culture===
====Impact on the West====

In terms of cultural influence, 20th century historians have revised the traditionally positive picture of the Crusades, finding little evidence of significant impact. 19th century historians saw in the Crusades a major stimulus for the renewed interest in learning, art, literature, and architecture that took place across Western Europe, and some historians had even argued the Crusades were mainly responsible for the [[Renaissance]].

It has been argued that the crusades stimulated broader vision and better understanding of the wider world for the countries who embarked on them. Men who had never been 30 miles beyond their village or manor saw firsthand new places, peoples and customs. One impact the Crusades did have on literary art was the immortalisation of the Crusading heroes in oft-recited poems. The ''Estoire de la guerre sainte'' is in Old French couplets, lauding the exploits of Richard the Lion-Hearted in the Third Crusade. A free poetical spirit characterizes ''Le Chanson d'Antioche'' that describes the First Crusade. The ages-old tales of Arthur and Charlemagne were given a fresh crusading complexion during the Middle Ages.

====Impact on the East====

A significant long-term cultural impact on the Muslim world is the resultant resentment, fear and distrust of Christian Europe, evidence of which as survived into the 21st century.<ref>Philip Khurl Pitti, "The Impact of the Crusades on Moslem Lands," in N. P. Zacour and H. W. Hazard, eds., [http://digicoll.library.wisc.edu/cgi-bin/History/History-idx?type=article&did=HISTORY.CRUSFIVE.I0015&isize=M ''The Impact of the Crusades on the Near East,'' (1985) pp. 33-58, online]; Car Hillenbrand, ''The Crusades, Islamic Perspectives''. (2000).</ref> When The US president [[George W. Bush]] described in 2001 the newly defined [[War on terror]] as a "Crusade", the Islamic world in particular was alarmed at what was widely considered to be ill-judged language.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/4938202.stm BBC Online - The Crusades: A history of conflict]</ref> In 2006, [[Osama Bin Laden]], speaking from hiding, described Western policy towards the Muslim world as a "Zionist-Crusader war against Islam" <ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/4938202.stm BBC Online - The Crusades: A history of conflict]</ref>

===The Byzantine Empire===
The crusades postponed the Turkish conquest of the Byzantine Empire until 1453, but the determination of Westerners to conquer and colonize the lands of Byzantium led to its downfall. Rather than curing its ills, they made its death inevitable. The plunder of Constantinople in 1204 and the Venetian monopoly of its trade were a fatal blow to the political and economic life of the empire. Even after its restoration in 1261, Constantinople never regained its former strength.

==Historiography and Memory==
===Legend and literature in the West===
Legend and literature surrounded the Crusades with an aura of romance and grandeur, of chivalry and courage.<ref>See Dana Carleton Munro, [http://www.historians.org/info/AHA_history/dcmunro.htm "War and History,' ''American Historical Review'' 32:2 (January 1927): 219–31 online]</ref> The myth is only remotely related to reality. The countless tales of the gallant knights of the Cross glitter in hyperbole. Many stories are true about the crusaders' feats of valor. However the crusaders occupied the Holy Land only temporarily. In their major mission, the crusaders lost in the very long run.

The historical memory of the crusades has been sharply divided. The Catholic tradition in Europe looked upon them favorably, but the Protestant historians were more negative. [[Martin Luther]] once suggested that the Turks were God's instrument for punishing Christians. In recent decades a sense of western guilt is apparent, as in the 1995 BBC television series, presented by Terry Jones, which portrayed the crusades as a long, misguided war of intolerance, ignorance and barbarism against a peaceful and sophisticated Muslim world.<ref>Donald E. Queller and Thomas F. Madden. ''The Fourth Crusade: The Conquest of Constantinople'' (2nd ed. 1999), p. 1, Most historians have a negative view of the reliability of the BBC series.</ref>

Knobler (2006) examines the use of the crusades as a national symbol from the 19th century to the 1910s in France, Spain, the Ottoman Empire, Ethiopia, Britain, Russia, and Bulgaria. Though the Enlightenment and its secular ideological successors held the crusades as an example of medieval barbarity. Enlightenment thinkers like historian-philosophers [[Voltaire]] and [[David Hume]] denounced the crusades, as did the great historian of Byzantium [[Edward Gibbon]], who wrote:
:"The principle of the crusades was a savage fanaticism; and the most important effects were analogous to the cause…. The belief of the Catholics was corrupted by new legends…. The active spirit of the Latins preyed on the vitals of their reason and religion…. The lives and labours of millions, which were buried in the East, would have been more profitably employed in the improvement of their native country."<ref>Edward Gibbon, ''The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire,'' (1776), [http://books.google.com/books?id=Hy8OAAAAQAAJ&pg=PT249&lpg=PT249&dq=%22principle+of+the+crusades+was+a+savage+fanaticism%22&source=web&ots=PGcJRsXv2k&sig=gH4PAb31uRoQu2u54z7h_hzGp8U&hl=en ch 61 p. 1086]</ref>
In the 19th century, however, romantic writers like novelist Sir [[Walter Scott]] created heroic images of the crusaders. The romantics and conservative adherents of the European ancien régimes appropriated crusading imagery for their own 19th century political goals, downplaying religion to fit within a modern, secular context and presenting crusades as a counterpoint to liberal ideas of nationalism.

Knobler (2006) explores three primary themes: memory of the crusades as it relates to debates over the generation and use of national symbols; the crusader as a romantic hero; and the Muslim recollection of the crusades as a shameful blot on the past of Christian nations. The crusades appealed to many Europeans because they reflected a morally unambiguous time, sparked romanticized images of warfare in a time of imperialist expansion, and provided heroic templates for modern "crusading" imperialist heroes.<ref>Adam Knobler, "Holy Wars, Empires, and the Portability of the Past: the Modern Uses of Medieval Crusades." ''Comparative Studies in Society and History'' 2006 48(2): 293-325. Issn: 0010-4175 Fulltext: [[Cambridge Journals]]; see also Elizabeth Siberry, ''The New Crusaders: Images of the Crusades in the Nineteenth and Early Twentieth Centuries'' (2000)</ref>

===The Muslim world===

Muslim historiography does not cover the crusades with the same intensity as the West. One modern reason could be that Turks were primarily responsible for the defeat of the crusaders, and Arab historians (who have written much of modern Islamic history) may have underplayed this, due to the Turks role in establishing the Ottoman Empire - a period that suppressed Arab nationalism for seven centuries into the era of World War I.<ref>Hillenbrand, ''The Crusades, Islamic Perspectives'' p. 5</ref>

The great Muslim hero was a [[Kurdistan|Kurd]], Saladin (1138–93). Having defeated the crusaders in 1187, and become sovereign and founder of the Ayyubid dynasty in Egypt and Syria, Salah al-Din (Saladin) has been for a century the object of an intense glorification in the Arab world. Farah Antun's play ''Sultan Saladin and the Kingdom of Jerusalem'' (1914) illustrates how the historical figure of Saladin came to be presented as a prophet of Arab nationalism. Antun (1874-1922) was a Syrian Christian who presents Saladin as the champion of a just jihad against the Crusaders and as a faithful upholder of the virtues of wisdom, determination, and frankness, calling on the peoples of all Arab countries to unite against Western imperialists. The refusal of Antun's Saladin to become embroiled in quarrels within Europe had obvious echoes in World War I and caused the play to be censored by the British authorities in Egypt. In Palestine, the glorification also took the form of pilgrimages to Nabi Musa and became an occasion to celebrate the memory of the great hero of Muslim history. A recent myth proclaims him the initiator of Palestinian pilgrimages. The figure of the past has become the modern hero of Arab nationalism, giving hope to a society prey to war and dispersion. At the same time, however, the pilgrimage ritual highlights the limits of the hero: constantly appealed to and put to the test, he has begun to show signs of fragility.<ref>Emma Aubin-Boltanski, "Salah Al-din, un Heros a l'epreuve: Mythe et Pelerinage en Palestine," [Saladin, a Hero under Scrutiny: Myth and Pilgrimage in Palestine]. ''Annales: Histoire, Sciences Sociales'' [[in French]] 2005 60(1): 91-107. Issn: 0395-2649</ref>

===Church Liturgy===

Linder (2001) examines 15th century Church liturgy designed to generate support for the war effort against the Turks and to legitimize its aims. Two types of Contra Turcos Masses were used: masses converted to this function through the addition of appropriate three core prayers and complete dedicated masses. The most popular example of the first type was the triple prayer set originally established by Clement V as a Holy Land crusade liturgy and subsequently mobilized against the Turks. The second type is represented by nine different mass formularies that were introduced after the fall of Constantinople in 1453. Most surviving liturgies are of German or French provenance, indicating extensive use not only among the front-line populations but also in areas far removed from any threat. The liturgy displays an its intense crisis rhetoric. Its predominant stance of vulnerability and defensiveness entailed aggressive mobilization and the conceptualization of the Turk as the actual, specific manifestation of the generic infidel, the competing religious Other; and the remarkable continuity - in form and in content - that linked this liturgy with its parent liturgies (mainly those of the campaigns against the pagans and the Holy Land Crusades) further accentuated these traits. The communicative function and value of this liturgy is highlighted by the concentration of the direct, unmediated communicative elements in that part of the mass that was the most accessible to the laity.<ref>Amnon Linder, "The War Liturgy Against the Turks in the Late Middle Ages." ''Historia: Journal of the Historical Society of Israel'' . 2001 (8): 73-105. Issn: 0334-4843; the text is in Hebrew.</ref>

== See also ==

*[[Dome of the Rock]]
*[[Al-Aqsa Mosque]]
*[[Famous Castles in the World]]

==Basic further reading==
* Andrea, Alfred J. ''Encyclopedia of the Crusades''. (2003).
* Asbridge, Thomas. ''The First Crusade: A New History: The Roots of Conflict between Christianity and Islam'' (2005) [http://www.amazon.com/First-Crusade-History-Conflict-Christianity/dp/0195189051/ref=pd_bbs_9/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1192595071&sr=8-9 excerpt and text search]
* France, John. ''Western Warfare in the Age of the Crusades, 1000-1300'' (1999) [http://www.questia.com/read/109099963 online edition]
*Hillenbrand, Car. ''The Crusades, Islamic Perspectives''. (2000). [http://www.amazon.com/Crusades-Islamic-Perspectives-Car-Hillenbrand/dp/1579582109/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1205278657&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
*Holt, P.M. ''The Age of the Crusades: The Near East from the Eleventh Century to 1517''. (1986).
* Housley, Norman. ''The Later Crusades, 1274-1580: From Lyons to Alcazar'' (1992) [http://www.questia.com/read/65567896 online edition]
* Madden, Thomas F. ''The New Concise History of the Crusades''. (2005).
*Riley-Smith, Jonathan. ''The Crusades: A History'' (2005) [http://www.amazon.com/Crusades-History-Jonathan-Riley-Smith/dp/0300101287/ref=pd_bbs_7/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1192595071&sr=8-7 excerpt and text search]
*Riley-Smith, Jonathan, ed. ''The Oxford History of the Crusades''. (1995). [http://www.questia.com/read/72527140 online edition]; [http://www.amazon.com/Oxford-Illustrated-History-Crusades-Histories/dp/0192854283/ref=pd_bbs_12/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1192595071&sr=8-12 excerpt and text search]
*Riley-Smith, Jonathan, ed. ''The Atlas of the Crusades'' (1991)
* Tyerman, Christopher. ''God's War: A New History of the Crusades'' (2006)

==Detailed Bibliography==
===Surveys===
* Andrea, Alfred J. ''Encyclopedia of the Crusades''. (2003).
* Asbridge, Thomas. ''The First Crusade: A New History: The Roots of Conflict between Christianity and Islam'' (2005) [http://www.amazon.com/First-Crusade-History-Conflict-Christianity/dp/0195189051/ref=pd_bbs_9/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1192595071&sr=8-9 excerpt and text search]
* France, John. ''Western Warfare in the Age of the Crusades, 1000-1300'' (1999) [http://www.questia.com/read/109099963 online edition]
*Hillenbrand, Car. ''The Crusades, Islamic Perspectives''. (2000). [http://www.amazon.com/Crusades-Islamic-Perspectives-Car-Hillenbrand/dp/1579582109/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1205278657&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
*Holt, P.M. ''The Age of the Crusades: The Near East from the Eleventh Century to 1517''. (1986).
* Housley, Norman. ''The Later Crusades, 1274-1580: From Lyons to Alcazar'' (1992) [http://www.questia.com/read/65567896 online edition]
* Madden, Thomas F. ''The New Concise History of the Crusades''. (2005).
* Phillips, Jonathan, and Martin Hoch. ''The Second Crusade: Scope and Consequences'' (2002) [http://www.amazon.com/Second-Crusade-Scope-Consequences/dp/0719057116/ref=sr_1_4?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1205372474&sr=1-4 excerpt and text search]
* Queller, Donald E., and Thomas F. Madden. ''The Fourth Crusade: The Conquest of Constantinople'' (2nd ed. 1999) [http://www.amazon.com/Fourth-Crusade-Conquest-Constantinople-Middle/dp/0812217136/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1205270938&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
*Riley-Smith, Jonathan. ''The Crusades: A History'' (2005) [http://www.amazon.com/Crusades-History-Jonathan-Riley-Smith/dp/0300101287/ref=pd_bbs_7/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1192595071&sr=8-7 excerpt and text search]
*Riley-Smith, Jonathan, ed. ''The Oxford History of the Crusades''. (1995). [http://www.questia.com/read/72527140 online edition]; [http://www.amazon.com/Oxford-Illustrated-History-Crusades-Histories/dp/0192854283/ref=pd_bbs_12/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1192595071&sr=8-12 excerpt and text search]
*Riley-Smith, Jonathan, ed. ''The Atlas of the Crusades'' (1991)
* Runciman, Steven. ''A History of the Crusades, Volume I: The First Crusade and the Foundations of the Kingdom of Jerusalem.''; ''Volume II: The Kingdom of Jerusalem and the Frankish East 1100-1187.'' and ''Volume III: The Kingdom of Acre and the Later Crusades'' (1951–53), the classic history; very hostile toward the crusaders
*Setton, Kenneth ed., ''A History of the Crusades''. (1969-1989), the standard scholarly history in six volumes, published by the University of Wisconsin Press [http://digicoll.library.wisc.edu/cgi-bin/History/History-idx?type=browse&scope=History.HistCrusades complete text online].
: Includes: [http://digicoll.library.wisc.edu/cgi-bin/History/History-idx?id=History.CrusOne ''The first hundred years''] (2nd ed. 1969); [http://digicoll.library.wisc.edu/cgi-bin/History/History-idx?type=header&id=History.CrusTwo ''The later Crusades, 1189-1311''] (1969); [http://digicoll.library.wisc.edu/cgi-bin/History/History-idx?type=header&id=History.CrusThree ''The fourteenth and fifteenth centuries''] (1975); [http://digicoll.library.wisc.edu/cgi-bin/History/History-idx?type=header&id=History.CrusFour ''The art and architecture of the crusader states''] (1977); [http://digicoll.library.wisc.edu/cgi-bin/History/History-idx?type=header&id=History.CrusFive ''The impact of the Crusades on the Near East''] (1985); [http://digicoll.library.wisc.edu/cgi-bin/History/History-idx?type=header&id=History.CrusSix ''The impact of the Crusades on Europe''] (1989)
* Tyerman, Christopher. ''God's War: A New History of the Crusades'' (2006)

===Specialized studies===
* Abulafia, David. ''Frederick II: A Medieval Emperor'' (1988)
* Boas, Adrian J. ''Jerusalem in the Time of the Crusades: Society, Landscape, and Art in the Holy City under Frankish Rule'' (2001) [http://www.questia.com/read/107613849 online edition]
* Bréhier, Louis. "Crusades," [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/04543c.htm ''Catholic Encyclopedia'' (1908) vol 4. online]
* Bréhier, Louis. "Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem (1099-1291)," [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/08361a.htm ''Catholic Encyclopedia'' (1910) vol 8. online]
* Bull, Marcus, and Norman Housley, eds. ''The Experience of Crusading Volume 1, Western Approaches.'' (2003) (323pp)
** Edbury, Peter, and Jonathan Phillips, eds. ''The Experience of Crusading Volume 2, Defining the Crusader Kingdom.'' (2003) 326pp; specialized articles by scholars
* Butler, R. Urban. "Urban II," [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/15210a.htm ''Catholic Encyclopedia'' (1911) online]
* Edgington, Susan B., and Sarah Lambert, eds. ''Gendering the Crusades.'' (2002) 232pp essays by scholars.
* Folda, Jaroslav. ''Crusader Art in the Holy Land, From the Third Crusade to the Fall of Acre'' (2005) [http://www.amazon.com/Crusader-Holy-Land-Third-Crusade/dp/0521835836/ref=sr_1_3?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1205436596&sr=8-3 excerpt and text search]
* France, John. ''Victory in the East: A Military History of the First Crusade'' (1996)
* James, Douglas. "Christians and the First Crusade." ''History Review'' (Dec 2005), Issue 53; online at [[EBSCO]]
* Kagay, Donald J., and L. J. Andrew Villalon, eds. ''Crusaders, Condottieri, and Cannon: Medieval Warfare in Societies around the Mediterranean.'' (2003) [http://www.questia.com/read/109303998 online edition]
* Munro, Dana Carleton. ''The Kingdom of the Crusaders'' (1936) [http://www.questia.com/read/3840921 online edition]
* Peters, Edward. ''Christian Society and the Crusades, 1198-1229'' (1971) [http://www.questia.com/read/14405191 online edition]
* Powell, James M. ''Anatomy of a Crusade, 1213-1221,'' (1986) [http://www.questia.com/read/3123539 online edition]
* Richard, Jean. ''Saint Louis: Crusader King of France'' (1992)
* Riley-Smith, Jonathan. ''The First Crusade and the Idea of Crusading''. (1986).
* Smail, R. C. "Crusaders' Castles of the Twelfth Century" ''Cambridge Historical Journal'' Vol. 10, No. 2. (1951), pp. 133–149. [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=1474-6913%281951%2910%3A2%3C133%3ACCOTTC%3E2.0.CO%3B2-J in JSTOR]
* Tyerman, Christopher. ''England and the Crusades, 1095-1588.'' (1988). 492 pp.
===Islam and Byzantium===
* Florean, Dana. "East Meets West: Cultural Confrontation and Exchange after the First Crusade." ''Language & Intercultural Communication,'' 2007, Vol. 7 Issue 2, pp144–151 in [[EBSCO]]
* Gabrieli, Francesco. ''Arab Historians of the Crusades'' (2009)
* Harris, Jonathan. ''Byzantium and the Crusades.'' (2003). Pp. 276pp
* Hillenbrand, Carole. ''The Crusades: Islamic Perspectives'' (2008) [http://www.amazon.com/Crusades-Islamic-Perspectives-Surveys/dp/0748606300/ref=sr_1_15?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1250294196&sr=1-15 excerpt and text search]
* Lane-Poole, Stanley. ''Saladin and the Fall of the Kingdom of Jerusalem'' (1898) [http://books.google.com/books?id=sb4bAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=intitle:Saladin+intitle:and+intitle:the+intitle:Fall+intitle:of+intitle:the+intitle:Kingdom+intitle:of+intitle:Jerusalem&lr=&num=30&as_brr=0&ei=gm3bR9CgCYPQiQGb0P3VAQ full text online]
* Maalouf, Amin. ''Crusades Through Arab Eyes'' (1989) [http://www.amazon.com/Crusades-Through-Arab-Eyes-Maalouf/dp/0805208984/ref=pd_bbs_sr_4/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1192595071&sr=8-4 excerpt and text search]
* Riley-Smith, Jonathan. ''The Crusades, Christianity, and Islam'' (2008) [http://www.amazon.com/Crusades-Christianity-Bampton-Lectures-America/dp/0231146248/ref=sr_1_6?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1250294049&sr=1-6 excerpt and text search]

===Historiography===
* Constable, Giles. "The Historiography of the Crusades" in Angeliki E. Laiou, ed. ''The Crusades from the Perspective of Byzantium and the Muslim World'' (2001); major overview of scholarship [http://www.doaks.org/Crusades/CR01.pdf online]
* Laiou, Angeliki E. ed. ''The Crusades from the Perspective of Byzantium and the Muslim World'' (2001) [http://www.doaks.org/CRcnts.html online edition]
* Madden, Thomas F. ed. ''The Crusades: The Essential Readings'' (2002) ISBN 0-631-23023-8 284pp, articles by scholars
* Munro, Dana Carleton. "War and History,' ''American Historical Review'' 32:2 (January 1927): 219–31. On medieval histories of the crusades. [http://www.historians.org/info/AHA_history/dcmunro.htm online edition]

===Primary sources===
* Housley, Norman, ed. ''Documents on the Later Crusades, 1274-1580'' (1996)
* Krey, August C. ''The First Crusade: The Accounts of Eye-Witnesses and Participants'' (1958).
* Shaw, M. R. B. ed.''Chronicles of the Crusades'' (1963) [http://www.questia.com/read/58956484 online edition]
* Villehardouin, Geoffrey, and Jean de Joinville. ''Chronicles of the Crusades'' ed. by Sir Frank Marzials (2007) [http://www.amazon.com/Chronicles-Crusades-Dover-Value-Editions/dp/0486454363/ref=pd_bbs_sr_8?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1205270195&sr=8-8 excerpt and text search]
:Villehardouin's ''Conquest of Constantinople'' is a standard reference work on the Fourth Crusade; it is the first work in medieval French prose. Joinville's life of St. Louis is a classic description of the life and times of King Louis IX; it is written in Old French and is perhaps the best biography written in the Middle Ages.

====References====
<references/>

[[Category:Military History]]
[[Category:Medieval History]]
[[Category:Christian History]]
[[Category:Crusades]]
{{DEFAULTSORT:Crusades}}