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Center for Science and Culture
2008-11-10T00:50:09Z
<p>Leslie: removing some too-obvious bias</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Infobox Organization<br />
|name = Center for Science and Culture<br />
|formation = 1994<br />
|type = Part of the [[Discovery Institute]]<br />
|status = Non-profit<br />
|purpose = Promote [[intelligent design]]<br />
|headquarters = [[Seattle]], [[Washington]], [[USA]]<br />
|leader_title = Program Director<br />
|leader_name = [[Stephen C. Meyer]]<br />
|num_staff = Three<br />
|num_volunteers =<br />
|budget = $4.1 million<br />
|website = [http://www.discovery.org/csc/ www.discovery.org/csc/]<br />
|remarks =<br />
}}<br />
<br />
The '''Center for Science and Culture''' (CSC), formerly known as the '''Center for Renewal of Science and Culture''' (CRSC), is part of the [[Discovery Institute]], a [[Christian right|conservative Christian]] [[think tank]]<ref>Patricia O’Connell Killen, a religion professor at Pacific Lutheran University in Tacoma whose work centers around the regional religious identity of the Pacific Northwest, recently wrote that "religiously inspired think tanks such as the conservative evangelical Discovery Institute" are part of the "religious landscape" of that area. [http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3944/is_200502/ai_n9521923 Intelligent Design: Creationism's Trojan Horse, A Conversation With Barbara Forrest], Church & State, Feb 2005 </ref> in the [[United States]]. The CSC lobbies for the inclusion of creationism in the form of [[intelligent design]] (ID) in public school science curricula as an explanation for the origins of [[life]] and the [[universe]] while casting doubt on the theory of [[evolution]] by portraying it as a "theory in crisis."<ref>[http://www.centerforinquiry.net/uploads/attachments/Forrest_Paper.pdf Understanding the Intelligent Design Creationist Movement: Its True Nature and Goals. A Position Paper from the Center for Inquiry, Office of Public Policy] [[Barbara Forrest]]. May, 2007.</ref><br />
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These positions have been rejected by the wider [[scientific community]], which identifies intelligent design as [[pseudoscience|pseudoscientific]] [[neo-creationism]] and whereas the theory of [[evolution]] is overwhelmingly accepted as a matter of [[scientific consensus]].<ref>"99.9 percent of scientists accept evolution" [http://nihrecord.od.nih.gov/pdfs/2006/07282006Record.pdf Cynthia Delgado, Finding the Evolution in Medicine, nih record, Vol. LVIII, No. 15] [[National Institutes of Health]]. July 28, 2006</ref><br />
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The Center for Science and Culture serves as the hub of the [[intelligent design movement]]. Nearly all of the luminaries of intelligent design are either CSC advisors, officers, or fellows. [[Stephen C. Meyer]], a fellow of the [[Discovery Institute]] and founder of the CSC, serves as Senior Fellow and Vice President, and [[Phillip E. Johnson]] is the Program Advisor. Johnson is commonly presented as the movement's "father" and architect of the center's [[Wedge strategy]] and "[[Teach the Controversy]]" campaign, as well as the [[Santorum Amendment]].<br />
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== History ==<br />
{{Intelligent Design}}<br />
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In an immediate response to the 1987 Supreme Court ruling in [[Edwards v. Aguillard]] against ''[[creation science]]'' being taught in [[United States]] [[public school]] science classes, the term ''intelligent design'' was coined as a substitute in the textbook ''[[Of Pandas and People]]'' which was published in 1989, beginning the campaigning of the [[intelligent design movement]] under the leadership of ''Pandas'' editor [[Charles Thaxton]].<ref name=kos>[http://www.dailykos.com/story/2006/3/11/8448/52824 Daily Kos: Know Your Creationists: Know Your Allies], by DarkSyde, Mar 11, 2006, interview with Barbara Forrest.</ref> The Edwards v. Aguillard ruling also inspired [[Phillip E. Johnson]] to begin anti-[[evolution]] campaigning. He met [[Stephen C. Meyer]], and through him was introduced to others who were developing what became the wedge strategy, including [[Michael Denton]],<ref>[http://www.discovery.org/scripts/viewDB/filesDB-download.php?command=download&id=1177 How Not to Critique Intelligent Design Theory] Del Ratzsch. </ref> [[Michael Behe]] and [[William Dembski]], becoming the de facto leader of the group. By 1995 Johnson was opposing the [[methodological naturalism]] of [[science]] in which "The Creator belongs to the realm of religion, not scientific investigation", and promoting "[[theistic realism]]" which "assumes that the universe and all its creatures were brought into existence for a purpose by God" and expects "this 'fact' of creation to have empirical, observable consequences."<ref name=waw>[http://www.infidels.org/library/modern/barbara_forrest/wedge.html The Wedge at Work, [[Barbara Forrest]] ]</ref> <!-- 404 not found, info belongs later... [http://www.touchstonemag.com/docs/issues/15.5docs/15-5pg40.html] This group formed the CSC and has continued to operate through it, forming the nucleus of the movement, which it remains to this day, with both Johnson and Meyer serving as CSC officers.--><br />
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In December 1993 [[Bruce Chapman]], president and founder of the [[Discovery Institute]], noticed an essay in the ''[[Wall Street Journal]]'' by Meyer about a dispute when biology lecturer [[Dean H. Kenyon]] taught intelligent design creationism in introductory classes.<ref name="wilgoren"> [http://www.nytimes.com/2005/08/21/national/21evolve.html?pagewanted=1&ei=5088&en=24bc7c9b16cac8a8&ex=1282276800&partner=rssnyt&emc=rss Politicized Scholars Put Evolution on the Defensive] Jodi Wilgoren. The New York Times, August 21 2005.</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.arn.org/docs/meyer/sm_opendebatelifesorigins.htm |title=Open Debate on Life's Origins: Meyer, Stephen C. |accessdate=2007-08-27 |author= Stephen C. Meyer |authorlink=Stephen C. Meyer |date= 1993-12-06 |publisher=Wall Street Journal }}</ref> Kenyon had co-authored ''[[Of Pandas and People]]'', and in 1993 Meyer had contributed to the teacher's notes for the second edition of ''Pandas''. Meyer was an old friend of Discovery Institute co-founder [[George Gilder]], and over dinner about a year later they formed the idea of a think tank opposed to [[materialism]]. In the summer of 1995 Chapman and Meyer met a representative of [[Howard Ahmanson, Jr.]]. Meyer, who had previously tutored Ahmanson's son in science, recalls being asked "What could you do if you had some financial backing?" <ref name="wilgoren"/><br />
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The '''Center for the Renewal of Science and Culture''', as it was originally named, grew out of a conference called "The Death of Materialism and the Renewal of Culture" that the Discovery Insitute organised in the summer of 1995. It was founded in 1996 by the Discovery Institute with funding provided by Fieldstead & Company, the Stewardship Foundation, Howard Ahmanson, Jr. and the MacLellan Foundation.<ref name="wilgoren"/><ref>{{waybackdate|site=http://www.discovery.org/center.html|date=19961103063611|title=Discovery Institute Press Release August 10, 1996}}</ref><ref name=waw/> The evolution of the Center's name in 2002 reflects its attempt to present itself as less religiously motivated in the public's eye.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.aaup.org/AAUP/pubsres/academe/2005/JF/Feat/forr.htm |title=AAUP: Wedging Creationism into the Academy |accessdate=2007-08-27 |author=Barbara Forrest |authorlink=Barbara Forrest |coauthors= Glenn Branch |date=January-February 2005 |work=Academe Online |publisher=American Association of University Professors }}</ref> The "renewal" in its name referred to its stated goal of "renewing" American culture by grounding society's major institutions, especially education, in religion as outlined in the Wedge document. Since that time the Center has disavowed any religious motivations to its agenda and so has dropped "renewal" from its title and moderated its formerly overtly religious language of its public statements <ref>{{waybackdate|site=http://www.discovery.org/crsc/aboutcrsc.html|date=19970608130849|title=What is The Center for the Renewal of Science & Culture All About?}}</ref>. This was done to appeal to a more secular audience to which the Center hopes its social and political programs will appeal and make inroads. <br />
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Despite these changes to attempt to appeal to a broader, less religious, audience, the CSC still states as a goal a redefinition of science, and the philosophy on which it is based, particularly the exclusion of what it calls the "unscientific principle of [[materialism]]", and in particular the acceptance of what it calls "the [[scientific theory]] of intelligent design". The position of the overwhelming majority of the scientific community is that the principle of [[Naturalism (philosophy)|naturalism]] allows [[falsifiability]] and that [[supernaturalism]] is unfalsifiable, meaning any suggested policies or curricula put forth by the Center that rest on supernatural suppositions would be by definition [[pseudoscience]], not science. The Center maintains that the exclusion of supernatural explanations introduces a bias that is driven by [[materialism]] rather than being scientifically based.<br />
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==CSC's Wedge strategy==<br />
{{main|Wedge strategy}}<br />
An internal CSC report dating from 1998 which outlined a five-year plan for fostering broader acceptance of ID was leaked to the public in 1999. This plan became known as the ''[[Wedge strategy]]''. The 'Wedge Document' explained the CSC's key aims are "''To defeat [[science|scientific]] [[materialism]] and its destructive [[moral]], [[culture|cultural]] and [[politics|political]] legacies''" and to "''replace materialistic explanations with the [[theism|theistic]] understanding that [[nature]] and [[human|human beings]] are created by [[God]]."''<br />
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To accomplish this, the document sets as "Five-Year Goals" "''To see [[intelligent design]] theory as an accepted alternative in the sciences and scientific research being done from the perspective of design theory''" and notably "''To see major new debates in education, life issues, legal and personal responsibility pushed to the front of the national agenda.''" This was seen in the following years, with public debates over the teaching of intelligent design in public school classrooms taking place in many states as part of the [[Teach the Controversy]] campaign.<br />
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If the CSC's strategy is successful, within twenty years the goals are "''To see intelligent design theory as the dominant perspective in [[science]]. ''" and "''To see design theory permeate our [[religion|religious]], cultural, moral and political life.''" <br />
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The CSC seeks to downplay the significance of the 'Wedge Document', saying "Conspircay [sic] theorists in the media continue to recycle the urban legend of the "Wedge" document."<ref>[http://www.discovery.org/scripts/viewDB/index.php?command=view&program=CSC%20Responses&id=2101 The "Wedge Document": So What?] Discovery Institute staff, February 3 2006</ref><br />
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==CSC campaigns==<br />
===Teach the Controversy===<br />
{{main|Teach the Controversy}}<br />
The CSC's Teach the Controversy campaign seeks to promote the teaching of "the full range of scientific views" on evolution <ref>[http://www.discovery.org/scripts/viewDB/index.php?command=view&id=2112&program=CSC%20-%20Science%20and%20Education%20Policy%20-%20School%20District%20Policy%20-%20MainPage Key Resources for Parents and School Board Members] Discovery Institute staff. August 21, 2007.</ref> on "unresolved issues" and the "scientific weaknesses of evolutionary theory" <ref>[http://www.discovery.org/csc/topQuestions.php#questionsAboutScienceEducationPolicy CSC Questions about Science Education Policy] Discovery Institute staff.</ref> Critics of the CSC's campaign say that they have manufactured the controversy and that they promote the false perception that evolution is "in crisis" and is a "dying theory".<ref name="kitzmiller_pg89">"ID's backers have sought to avoid the scientific scrutiny which we have now determined that it cannot withstand by advocating that the ''controversy'', but not ID itself, should be taught in science class. This tactic is at best disingenuous, and at worst a canard." [[Wikisource:Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District/4:Whether ID Is Science#Page 89 of 139|Ruling, Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District, page 89]]</ref><ref name="nejm">"That this controversy is one largely manufactured by the proponents of creationism and intelligent design may not matter, and as long as the controversy is taught in classes on current affairs, politics, or religion, and not in science classes, neither scientists nor citizens should be concerned." [http://content.nejm.org/cgi/content/full/354/21/2277 Intelligent Judging — Evolution in the Classroom and the Courtroom] George J. Annas, [[New England Journal of Medicine]], Volume 354:2277-2281 May 25, 2006</ref><ref name=AAAS> "Some bills seek to discredit evolution by emphasizing so-called "flaws" in the theory of evolution or "disagreements" within the scientific community. Others insist that teachers have absolute freedom within their classrooms and cannot be disciplined for teaching non-scientific "alternatives" to evolution. A number of bills require that students be taught to "critically analyze" evolution or to understand "the controversy." But there is no significant controversy within the scientific community about the validity of the theory of evolution. The current controversy surrounding the teaching of evolution is not a scientific one." [http://www.aaas.org/news/releases/2006/pdf/0219boardstatement.pdf AAAS Statement on the Teaching of Evolution] [[American Association for the Advancement of Science]]. February 16, 2006 </ref><ref>[http://www.centerforinquiry.net/uploads/attachments/Forrest_Paper.pdf Understanding the Intelligent Design Creationist Movement: Its True Nature and Goals. A Position Paper from the Center for Inquiry, Office of Public Policy] [[Barbara Forrest]]. May, 2007.</ref><br />
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The strategy has been to move from standards battles, to curriculum writing, to textbook adoption, all the while undermining the central positions of evolution in biology and methodological naturalism in science. The CSC is the primary organizer and promoter of the Teach the Controversy campaign. It adopted the tactic of remaining behind the scenes and orchestrating, underwriting and otherwise supporting local campaigns, ID groups, and proponents to act on its behalf in lobbying state and local politicians and school boards.<br />
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Examples of Teach the Controversy in action were the [[Kansas evolution hearings]], the [[Santorum Amendment]], [[Intelligent design movement#2002 Ohio Board of Education|2002 Ohio Board of Education intelligent design controversy]], and the [[Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District|Dover, Pennsylvania Board of Education intelligent design controversy]].<br />
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The CSC alleges that the program and curricula they advocate presents evidence both for and against [[evolution]] and then encourages students to evaluate the arguments themselves. Casting the conflicting points of view and agendas as an academic and scholarly controversy was proposed by [[Phillip E. Johnson]] of the Discovery Institute in his book ''The Wedge of Truth: Splitting the Foundations of Naturalism''. In it, he writes of the 1999-2000 [[Kansas evolution hearings]] controversy over the teaching of [[intelligent design]] in public school classrooms: ''"What educators in Kansas and elsewhere should be doing is to "teach the controversy."''<br />
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In its early years the CSC (then called the CRSC) offered science curriculum that assured teachers that its "Web curriculum can be appropriated without textbook adoption wars." This had the net effect of encouraging ID sympathetic teachers to side-step standard textbook adoption procedures. Anticipating a test case, Discovery Institute director Stephen C. Meyer along with David K. DeWolf and Mark Edward DeForrest published in the Utah Law Review a legal strategy for winning judicial sanction.<ref>[http://www.discovery.org/scripts/viewDB/index.php?programs=CRSC&command=view&id=1109 Santorum Language on Evolution], Center for Science and Culture</ref><br />
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According to published reports, the nonprofit Discovery Institute spends more than $1 million a year for research, polls, lobbying and media pieces that support intelligent design and their Teach the Controversy strategy.<ref name=battle>[http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A32444-2005Mar13.html Battle on Teaching Evolution Sharpens], Peter Slevin, [[Washington Post]], March 14 2005</ref><br />
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In August 2005 the New York Times reported that since 2004 there have been 78 campaigns in 31 states to either Teach the Controversy or include intelligent design in science curricla, twice the number seen in 2002-2003.<ref>[http://www.msu.edu/course/te/407/FS05Sec3/te408/files/Politicized%20Scholars%20Put%20Evolution%20on%20the%20Defensive%20-%20New%20York%20Times.pdf Politicized Scholars Put Evolution on the Defensive] Jodi Wilgoren. The New York Times, August 21 2005.</ref><br />
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===Intelligent design in higher education===<br />
The cultivation of support for ID and its social and political agenda in higher education is a very active part of CSC's strategy. Though the CSC claims there are established scholars in the scientific community who support intelligent design, it identifies only Discovery Institute Fellows and affiliates on its website,<ref>[http://www.discovery.org/csc/topQuestions.php CSC Frequently Asked Questions] Center for Science and Culture.</ref> Of those listed, [[Michael Behe]]'s support for intelligent design is so out of step with the scientific mainstream that his department at Lehigh university felt compelled to publish a policy statement: <br />
{{quotation|"The department faculty, then, are unequivocal in their support of evolutionary theory, which has its roots in the seminal work of Charles Darwin and has been supported by findings accumulated over 140 years. The sole dissenter from this position, Prof. Michael Behe, is a well-known proponent of "intelligent design." While we respect Prof. Behe's right to express his views, they are his alone and are in no way endorsed by the department. It is our collective position that intelligent design has no basis in science, has not been tested experimentally, and should not be regarded as scientific."<ref>[http://www.lehigh.edu/~inbios/news/evolution.htm Department Position on Evolution and "Intelligent Design"], Lehigh Department of Biological Sciences</ref>}} <br />
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CSC-recommended curricula benefits from special status at number of religious schools. [[Biola University]] and [[Oklahoma Baptist University]] are listed on the [[Access Research Network]] website as "ID Colleges." In addition, the Intelligent Design and Evolution Awareness (IDEA) Center, which began as a student organization at the [[University of California, San Diego]], helps establish student IDEA clubs on university and high school campuses. The Intelligent Design and Undergraduate Research Center, ARN’s student division, also recruits and supports followers at universities. Campus youth ministries play an active role in bringing ID to university campuses through lectures by ID leaders Phillip Johnson, William Dembski, Jonathan Wells, Michael Behe and others. This activity takes place outside university science departments.<br />
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Several public universities, including the [[University of California, Berkeley]] and the [[University of New Mexico]] have had intelligent design often as freshman seminars, honors courses and other courses outside required curricula in which instructors have wider latitude regarding course content).<ref>[http://chronicle.com/free/v48/i17/17a00801.htm Darwinism Under Attack], Beth McMurtrie, [[The Chronicle of Higher Education]], December 21, 2001</ref><br />
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===Research fellowships===<br />
The CSC offers lucrative fellowships of up to $60,000 a year for "support of significant and original research in the natural sciences, the history and philosophy of science, cognitive science and related fields." Published reports state that the CSC has awarded $3.6 million in fellowships of $5,000 to $60,000 per year to 50 researchers since its founding in 1996.<ref>[http://pewforum.org/news/display.php?NewsID=5262 Politicized Scholars Put Evolution on the Defensive], Jody Wilgoren, [[The New York Times]], August 21, 2005</ref> <br />
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To date none of the Center’s fellows has produced scientific research which has found wide acceptance within the broader [[scientific community]]. What research has been published is consistent with that called for in the Wedge Document however, which it says is to form the foundation of the center's [[Wedge strategy]]. Among these are 50 books on intelligent design, such as those by [[William A. Dembski]], many published by religious presses like [[InterVarsity]] or Crossway, and two documentary films, <cite>Unlocking the Mystery of Life</cite>, and <cite>The Privileged Planet</cite>. The former was broadcast briefly on public television creating a [[Intelligent design movement#2003 PBS video controversy|controversy]].<br />
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Since its founding in 1996, the CSC has spent 39 percent of its $9.3 million <!-- explain where the money comes from-->on research according to Meyer, underwriting books or papers, or often just paying universities to release professors from some teaching responsibilities so that they can ponder intelligent design. Over those nine years, $792,585 was spent to finance laboratory or field research in biology, paleontology or biophysics, while $93,828 was spent to help graduate students in paleontology, linguistics, history and philosophy.<br />
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The results of this are found in Discovery Institute-authored science class curricla, "model lesson plans," that are at the center of many of the [[Intelligent design movement#Intelligent design movement in the political arena|current debates]] about including intelligent design in public school science classes. These are promoted by the CSC which urges states and school boards to include criticism of evolution science lessons, to "[[Teach the Controversy]]," rather than actually teach intelligent design which is susceptible to legal challenges on [[First Amendment]] grounds.<br />
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==Controversies==<br />
In May 2005 the [[Discovery Institute]] donated $16,000 to the [[National Museum of Natural History|Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History]], and by museum policy, this minimum donation allowed them to celebrate their donation inside the museum in a gathering. The [[Discovery Institute]] decided to screen a film entitled [[The Privileged Planet (film)|The Privileged Planet]], based on the book [[The Privileged Planet]], written by two senior fellows of the [[Discovery Institute]].<ref>[http://www.discovery.org/scripts/viewDB/index.php?command=view&id=2170&program=CSC%20-%20Video%20and%20Curriculum%20-%20Multimedia The Privileged Planet], The Discovery Institute.</ref> Notably, the video was also a production of Illustra Media,<ref>[http://www.illustramedia.com/tppinfo.htm The Privileged Planet]</ref> which has been identified as a [[front organization|front]] for a creationist production company.<ref>[http://www.nmsr.org/smkg-gun.htm The Smoking Gun - "Intelligent Design" IS Religious Creationism!], Dave Thomas, New Mexicans for Science and Reason</ref> Upon further review, the [[National Museum of Natural History|Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History]] determined that the content of the video was inconsistent with the scientific research of the institution.<ref>[http://www.pandasthumb.org/pt-archives/001098.html The Panda's Thumb: Smithsonian Institution Statement]</ref> They therefore refunded the $16,000, clearly denied any endorsement of the content of the video or of the Discovery Institute, and allowed the film to be shown in the museum as per the original agreement. Editorials have decried as naïve and negligent the [[National Museum of Natural History|Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History's]] failure to identify the [[Discovery Institute]] as a creationist organization, exclude the video with its review process in the first place, and identify the entire incident as an example of [[Wedge strategy|Wedge Strategy]] in action.<ref>[http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/06/02/AR2005060201659.html Dissing Darwin], [[Washington Post]], June 3, 2005</ref><br />
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The Center also funded research for the controversial book <cite>From Darwin to Hitler</cite> by Center fellow [[Richard Weikart]].<ref>[http://www.darwintohitler.com/ From Darwin to Hitler]</ref> Weikart claims that Darwinism's impact on ethics and morality played a key role not only in the rise of [[eugenics]], but also in [[euthanasia]], [[infanticide]], [[abortion]], and racial extermination, all ultimately embraced by the Nazis. The reasoning and language Weikart employs mirrors both the preamble to the [[Wedge strategy|Wedge document]] and the center's early mission statement:<br />
{{quotation|The cultural consequences of this triumph of materialism were devastating. Materialists denied the existence of objective standards binding on all cultures, claiming that environment dictates our moral beliefs. ...<br />
Finally, materialism spawned a virulent strain of utopianism. Thinking they could engineer the perfect society through the application of scientific knowledge, materialist reformers advocated coercive government programs that falsely promised to create heaven on earth.<ref>{{waybackdate|site=http://www.discovery.org/crsc/aboutcrsc.html|date=19970608130849|title=What is The Center for the Renewal of Science & Culture All About?}}</ref>}}<br />
The Center also republishes similar articles from Weikart in which he expands on this theme.<ref>[http://www.discovery.org/scripts/viewDB/index.php?command=view&id=2172&program=CSC%20-%20Scientific%20Research%20and%20Scholarship%20-%20Social%20Sciences%20and%20Humanities Does Darwinism Devalue Human Life?], [[Richard Weikart]], ''The Human Life Review'', March 1, 2004</ref><br />
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On September 6, 2006, on the center's ''Evolution News & Views'' blog Discovery Institute staffer Casey Luskin published a post entitled "Putting Wikipedia On Notice About Their Biased Anti-ID Intelligent Design Entries." There Luskin reprinted a letter from a reader complaining that Wikipedia's coverage of ID to be "one sided" and that pro-intelligent design editors were censored and attacked. Along with the letter Luskin published a Wikipedia email address for general information and urged readers to "to contact Wikipedia to express your feelings about the biased nature of the entries on intelligent design."<ref>[http://www.evolutionnews.org/2006/09/wikipedia_youre_on_notice.html Putting Wikipedia On Notice About Their Biased Anti-ID Intelligent Design Entries] Casey Luskin, Evolution News & Views, September 6, 2006.</ref><br />
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==Criticisms==<br />
At the foundation of most criticism of the CSC and the Discovery Institute is the charge that the Institute intentionally misrepresents many facts in the promoting of its agenda. A wide spectrum of critics level this charge; from educators, scientists and the Smithsonian Institute to individuals who oppose the teaching of creationism alongside science on ideological grounds. The following are most common areas in which the Institute is accused of being intentionally misleading:<br />
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*'''Teach the Controversy''' Mainstream scientific organizations maintain that there is no controversy to teach, in the sense that the theory of evolution is fully accepted by the scientific community. Such controversies that do exist concern the details of the mechanisms of evolution, not the validity of the over-arching theory of evolution, and the controversy alleged by the Discovery Institute is manufactured.<br />
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*'''Santorum Amendment''' Despite the amendment lacking the weight of law, consistent with the Discovery Institute's [[Wedge strategy]], the amendment's inclusion in the conference report of the [[No Child Left Behind Act]] is constantly cited by the Discovery Institute as evidence that "federal education policy" calls for a "teach the controversy approach".<ref>[http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2004/12/10/EDGJIA98SK1.DTL Controversy over life's origins], [[Stephen C. Meyer]], [[John Angus Campbell]], [[San Francisco Chronicle]], December 10, 2004</ref><br />
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*'''Wedge strategy and the Discovery Institute agenda''' A common allegation often leveled at the CSC by critics is that it is conducting a campaign, the ultimate goal of which is to reshape American culture by influencing public policy to reflect conservative Christian values. The [[Wedge strategy|Wedge document]] bolsters this claim. They claim that the Center's dismissal of the document and strategy is disingenuous, as when the Center's actions in the political sphere, such as its Teach the Controversy campaign, are taken into account it becomes apparent that the Wedge strategy is indeed being followed.<br />
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*'''Peer review''' Though the CSC often claims that articles and books asserting intelligent design are published in the peer-reviewed scientific press, the only pro-ID article that has been published in a peer-reviewed scientific journal was quickly retracted by the publisher. That article, titled <cite>The Origin of Biological Information and the Higher Taxonomic Categories</cite>, was by the institute's Stephen C. Meyer and was published in <cite>Proceedings of the Biological Society of Washington</cite> in 2004. One month after its publication, the journal's publisher issued a statement repudiating the article as not meeting its scientific standards and as having side-stepped peer review (see [[Sternberg peer review controversy]]).<ref>[http://www.ncseweb.org/resources/news/2004/ZZ/608_bsw_repudiates_meyer_9_7_2004.asp BSW repudiates Meyer], [[National Center for Science Education]], September 7, 2004</ref><br />
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[[Intellectual dishonesty]], in the form of misleading impressions created by the use of rhetoric, intentional ambiguity, and misrepresented evidence and a lack of [[rigour]] is one of the most common criticisms of the Center..<ref>"ID supporters present fallacious arguments, use dishonest rhetoric, and often present non-contemptuous responses as evidence that their theories are gaining acceptance." [http://www.math.jmu.edu/~rosenhjd/BioScience.pdf Leaders and Followers in the Intelligent Design Movement] Jason Rosenhouse. BioScience, Vol. 53 No. 1, January 2003.</ref> It is alleged that its goal is to lead an unwary public to reach certain conclusions, and that many have been deceived as a result. Its critics, such as [[Eugenie Scott]], [[Robert Pennock]] and [[Barbara Forrest]], claim that the CSC knowingly misquotes scientists and other experts, deceptively omits contextual text through [[ellipsis]], and makes unsupported amplifications of relationships and credentials.<br />
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[[Barbara Forrest]], author of ''[[Creationism's Trojan Horse: The Wedge of Intelligent Design]]'' and [[Glenn Branch]] say that the CSC uses academic credentials and affiliations opportunistically.<ref name=acadme>[http://www.aaup.org/AAUP/pubsres/academe/2005/JF/Feat/forr.htm Wedging Creationism into the Academy] Proponents of a controversial theory struggle to gain purchase within academia. A case study of the quest for academic legitimacy. Barbara Forrest and Glenn Branch. January-February 2005. Academe, a publication of the American Association of University Professors</ref> In 2001 the Discovery Institute purchased advertisements in three national publications (the ''[[New York Review of Books]]'', the ''[[The New Republic|New Republic]]'' and the ''[[Weekly Standard]]'') to proclaim the adherence of approximately 100 scientists to the following statement: "We are skeptical of claims for the ability of random mutation and natural selection to account for the complexity of life. Careful examination of the evidence for Darwinian theory should be encouraged."<br />
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Such statements commonly note the institutional affiliations of signatories for purposes of identification. But this statement strategically listed either the institution that granted a signatory's PhD or the institutions with which the individual is presently affiliated. Thus the institutions listed for Raymond G. Bohlin, Fazale Rana, and Jonathan Wells, for example, were the University of Texas, Ohio University, and the University of California, Berkeley, where they earned their degrees, rather than their current affiliations: Probe Ministries for Bohlin, the Reasons to Believe ministry for Rana, and the CSC for Wells. During controversies over evolution education in Georgia, New Mexico, Ohio, and Texas, similarly confusing lists of local scientists were circulated.<br />
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In another instance, the CSC frequently mentions the Nobel Prize in connection with [[Henry F. Schaefer]], a CSC fellow, and chemist at the [[University of Georgia]]. Critics allege that CSC is inflating his reputation by constantly referring to him as a "five-time nominee for the Nobel Prize" since Nobel Prize nominations remain confidential for fifty years.<br />
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Alongside the allegation that the center intentionally misrepresents facts, [[Eugenie Scott]] and other critics say there is a noticeable conflict between what the CSC tells the public through the media and what they say before conservative Christian audiences. They contend that this is a studied and deliberate attempt at the obfuscation advocated by Wedge strategy author Phillip E. Johnson.<ref>"So the question is: "How to win?" That’s when I began to develop what you now see full-fledged in the "wedge" strategy: "Stick with the most important thing"—the mechanism and the building up of information. Get the Bible and the Book of Genesis out of the debate because you do not want to raise the so-called Bible-science dichotomy. Phrase the argument in such a way that you can get it heard in the secular academy and in a way that tends to unify the religious dissenters. That means concentrating on, "Do you need a Creator to do the creating, or can nature do it on its own?" and refusing to get sidetracked onto other issues, which people are always trying to do."[http://www.arn.org/docs/johnson/le_berkeleysradical.htm Berkeley's Radical An Interview with Phillip E. Johnson] Phillip E. Johnson. Touchstone Magazine June 2002</ref> When speaking to a mainstream audience and to the media, the institute portrays ID as a secular, scientific theory, that the teaching the controversy campaign does not promote ID, and that their agenda is not religiously motivated. But when speaking to what the Wedge document calls their "natural constituency, namely (conservative) Christians," the institute's officers express themselves in unambiguously religious language that contradicts these statements. This in the belief that they cannot afford to alienate their constituency and major funding sources, virtually all of which are conservative religious organizations and individuals such as [[Howard Ahmanson, Jr.]].<br />
<br />
Critics can also be found outside of the scientific community. Barry W. Lynn, executive director of [[Americans United for Separation of Church and State]] has voiced [[First Amendment]] concerns over Discovery Institute's activities. He described the approach of the teach the controversy movement's proponents as "a disarming subterfuge designed to undermine solid evidence that all living things share a common ancestry":<br />
<br />
{{quotation|"The movement is a veneer over a certain theological message. Every one of these groups is now actively engaged in trying to undercut sound science education by criticizing evolution," said Lynn. "It is all based on their religious ideology. Even the people who don't specifically mention religion are hard-pressed with a straight face to say who the intelligent designer is if it's not God."<ref name=battle/>}}<br />
<br />
In 2004 [[Barbara Forrest]] and [[Paul R. Gross]] published ''[[Creationism's Trojan Horse|Creationism's Trojan Horse: The Wedge of Intelligent Design]]'' documenting the history of the intelligent design movement and the DI's Center for Science and Culture as well as critiquing the ID "research"([[Oxford University Press]]).<ref>[[Barbara Forrest]] and [[Paul R. Gross]]. ''[[Creationism's Trojan Horse|Creationism's Trojan Horse: The Wedge of Intelligent Design]]''. 2004</ref> Forrest and Gross referred to the group as an outgrowth of Johnson's religious mission and explored its plans for "a rigorously God-centered view of creation, including a new 'science' based solidly on theism."<ref>[[Barbara Forrest]] and [[Paul R. Gross]]. ''[[Creationism's Trojan Horse|Creationism's Trojan Horse: The Wedge of Intelligent Design]]''. 2004, page 19 and 23</ref><br />
<br />
==Funding==<br />
The Center is funded through the [[Discovery Institute]], which is largely underwritten by grants and gifts from wealthy [[Christian fundamentalism|Christian fundamentalist]] conservative individuals and groups, such as [[Howard Ahmanson, Jr|Howard Ahmanson Jr.]], [[Philip F. Anschutz]], [[Richard Mellon Scaife]], and the MacLellan Foundation.<ref>[http://www.baptist2baptist.net/b2barticle.asp?ID=147 Discovery Institute emerging as force in creation, public policy] Karen L. Willoughby. Baptist2Baptist, May 15 2001.</ref><ref name="wp_slevin">[http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A32444-2005Mar13.html Battle on Teaching Evolution Sharpens] Peter Slevin. Washington Post, March 14 2005.</ref><ref>"Nearly all of the Discovery Institute's money for the Intelligent Design project comes in the form of grants from wealthy fundamentalists and from Christian political groups. In 2003, the Discovery Institute received some $4.1 million in donations and grants. At least twenty-two different foundations give money to the Intelligent Design project; two-thirds of these are religious institutions with explicitly Christian aims and goals." [http://www.talkreason.org/articles/deception.cfm Deception by Design] Lenny Flank. TalkReason.org</ref><br />
<ref>"Financed by some of the same Christian conservatives who helped Mr. Bush win the White House, the organization's intellectual core is a scattered group of scholars who for nearly a decade have explored the unorthodox explanation of life's origins known as intelligent design." ... "The records show financial support from 22 foundations, at least two-thirds of them with explicitly religious missions." [http://www.nytimes.com/2005/08/21/national/21evolve.html?pagewanted=1&ei=5088&en=24bc7c9b16cac8a8&ex=1282276800&partner=rssnyt&emc=rss Politicized Scholars Put Evolution on the Defensive] Jodi Wilgoren. The New York Times, August 21 2005.</ref><br />
<br />
Published reports place the Discovery Institute's budget for ID-related programs at over $4 million per year. The Center's expenditures can be assumed to be substantial based on the scope and quality of the Center's extensive public relations campaigns, materials and contributions to local and regional ID and Teach the Controversy efforts. <br />
<br />
CSC director, [[Stephen C. Meyer]], admits most of the Center's money comes from wealthy donors from the [[Christian right]].<ref name="wp_slevin"/> [[Howard Ahmanson, Jr|Howard Ahmanson Jr.]], who provided $1.5 million in funding that established the Center, has said his goal is "the total integration of biblical law into our lives."<ref>{{cite news | url=http://www.salon.com/news/feature/2004/01/06/ahmanson/ | title=Avenging angel of the religious right | publisher=[[Salon.com]] |date= 2004-01-06 | first=Max | last=Blumenthal | accessdate =2007-05-17}}</ref> The MacLellan Foundation commits itself to "the infallibility of the Scripture."<ref>{{cite news | url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A32444-2005Mar13.html | title=Battle on Teaching Evolution Sharpens| publisher=[[Washington Post]] |date=2005-03-14| first=Peter | last=Selvin | accessdate =2007-05-17}}</ref> Most Discovery Institute donors have also contributed significantly to the [[George W. Bush presidential campaign, 2004|Bush campaign]]. Until 1995, Ahmanson sat on the board of the Christian reconstructionist [[Chalcedon Foundation]],<ref>[http://www.publiceye.org/magazine/v08n1/chrisre3.html <br />
Christian Reconstructionism], Frederick Clarkson, The Public Eye, March and June 1994</ref> and funds many causes important to the [[Christian right]], including [[Christian Reconstructionism]].<br />
<br />
== Fellows ==<br />
<div style="-moz-column-count:3; column-count:3;"><br />
*Program Advisor: [[Phillip E. Johnson]]<br />
*Program Director: [[Stephen C. Meyer]]<br />
*Associate Director: [[John G. West]]<br />
<br />
=== Senior fellows ===<br />
*[[Michael J. Behe]]<br />
*[[David Berlinski]]<br />
*[[Paul Chien]]<br />
*[[William A. Dembski]]<br />
*[[David DeWolf]]<br />
*[[Guillermo Gonzalez (astronomer)|Guillermo Gonzalez]]<br />
*[[Michael Newton Keas]]<br />
*[[Nancy Pearcey]]<br />
*[[Jay Richards]]<br />
*[[Mark Ryland]]<br />
*[[Wesley J. Smith]]<br />
*[[Richard Weikart]]<br />
*[[Jonathan Wells (intelligent design advocate)|Jonathan Wells]]<br />
*[[Benjamin Wiker]]<br />
*[[Jonathan Witt]]<br />
<br />
===Fellows===<br />
* [[Raymond Bohlin]]<br />
* [[Walter Bradley]]<br />
* [[J. Budziszewski]]<br />
* [[John Angus Campbell]]<br />
* [[Robert Lowry Clinton]]<br />
* [[Jack Collins]]<br />
* [[William Lane Craig]]<br />
* [[Brian Frederick]]<br />
* [[Mark Hartwig]]<br />
* [[Kenneth Hermann]]<br />
* [[Cornelius G. Hunter]]<br />
* [[Robert Kaita]]<br />
* [[Dean H. Kenyon]]<br />
* [[Robert C. Koons]]<br />
* [[Forrest Mims]]<br />
* [[Scott Minnich]]<br />
* [[J.P. Moreland]]<br />
* [[Paul Nelson]]<br />
* [[Joseph Poulshock]]<br />
* [[Pattle Pak-Toe Pun]]<br />
* [[John Mark Reynolds]]<br />
* [[Henry Schaefer]]<br />
* [[Geoffrey Simmons]]<br />
* [[Wolfgang Smith]]<br />
* [[Charles Thaxton]]<br />
<br />
===Former Fellows===<br />
* [[Francis J. Beckwith]]<br />
* [[Michael Denton]]<ref>[[Barbara Forrest]] and [[Paul R. Gross]], ''[[Creationism's Trojan Horse|Creationism's Trojan Horse: The Wedge of Intelligent Design]]''. Oxford University Press, 2004. page 153</ref><br />
* [[Marcus R. Ross]]<ref>[[Barbara Forrest]] and [[Paul R. Gross]]. ''[[Creationism's Trojan Horse|Creationism's Trojan Horse: The Wedge of Intelligent Design]]''. 2004, page 59</ref> <br />
*[[Jeffrey Schloss]]<ref>Edie Lau, "[http://docs.newsbank.com/g/GooglePM/SB/lib00166,10D08083C220A998.html Some find middle ground in science-theology clash]," ''[[Sacramento Bee]]'', October 3, 2005</ref><ref> [http://www.pandasthumb.org/archives/2008/08/the-evolution-o-7.html "The evolution of Jeffrey P Schloss"], [[The Panda's Thumb (blog)|The Panda's Thumb]], August 12, 2008</ref><br />
</div><br />
<br />
== Staff ==<br />
* [[Bruce L. Gordon]], Research Director<br />
*[[Casey Luskin]], Program Officer in Public Policy & Legal Affairs.<ref name="LuskinBio">{{cite news | url=http://www.discovery.org/scripts/viewDB/index.php?command=view&isFellow=true&id=188 | title=Casey Luskin, Staff - Discovery Institute | publisher=Center for Science and Culture |date= 2008 | first= | last= | accessdate =2008-07-17}}</ref><br />
<br />
== See also ==<br />
* [[Discovery Institute intelligent design campaigns]]<br />
* [[Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District]]<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<!--See http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Footnotes for an explanation of how to generate footnotes using the <ref(erences/)> tags--> <br />
{{Reflist|2}}<br />
<br />
== External links ==<br />
* [http://www.discovery.org/csc/ Discovery Institute's CSC]<br />
* [http://www.antievolution.org/features/wedge.html The Wedge Strategy]<br />
*** [http://www.discovery.org/scripts/viewDB/filesDB-download.php?id=109 The Wedge Document -- So what? from the Discovery Institute] <br />
'''Articles'''<br />
* [http://www.seattleweekly.com/news/0605/discovery-darwin.php Discovery's Creation] A brief history of the Discovery institute and how the Wedge Document was made public.<br />
* [http://www.ncseweb.org/resources/articles/4116_evolving_banners_at_the_discov_8_29_2002.asp Evolving Banners at the Discovery Institute] - the NCSE shows the changing banners on the CRSC/CSC's website.<br />
* [http://pewforum.org/news/display.php?NewsID=5262 Politicized Scholars Put Evolution on the Defensive] Jody Wilgoren. Originally published in the [[The New York Times|New York Times]]. 21 August 2005<br />
* [http://www.mmisi.org/ir/31_02/west.pdf The Death of Materialism and the Renewal of Culture, JohnG. West, Jr.]<br />
<br />
<!-- Categorization --><br />
<br />
[[Category:Discovery Institute fellows and advisors| ]]<br />
[[Category:Discovery Institute campaigns| ]]<br />
[[Category:Intelligent design organizations]]<br />
[[Category:Intelligent design movement]]<br />
[[Category:Advocacy groups]]<br />
[[Category:Conservative think tanks based in the United States]]<br />
<br />
[[es:Centro para la Ciencia y la Cultura]]<br />
[[it:Center for Science and Culture]]</div>
Leslie
https://conservapedia.com/index.php?title=Andrew_Johnson&diff=553385
Andrew Johnson
2008-11-10T00:49:56Z
<p>Leslie: removing some too-obvious bias</p>
<hr />
<div>{{otherpeople2|Andrew Johnson (disambiguation)}}<br />
{{Infobox President<br />
|name=Andrew Johnson<br />
|nationality=American<br />
|image=Andrew Johnson - 3a53290u.png<br />
|caption=President Andrew Johnson, taken in 1865 by [[Mathew Brady|Matthew Brady]].<br />
|order=17th [[President of the United States]]<br />
|vicepresident=none<br />
|term_start=April 15, 1865<br />
|term_end=March 4, 1869<br />
|predecessor=[[Abraham Lincoln]]<br />
|successor=[[Ulysses S. Grant]]<br />
|birth_date={{birth date|mf=yes|1808|12|29}}<br />
|birth_place=[[Raleigh, North Carolina]]<br />
|death_date={{death date and age|mf=yes|1875|7|31|1808|12|29}}<br />
|death_place=[[Elizabethton, Tennessee]]<br />
|spouse=[[Eliza McCardle Johnson]]<br />
|children=Martha Johnson<br/>Charles Johnson<br/>Mary Johnson<br/>Robert Johnson<br/>Andrew Johnson, Jr.<br />
|occupation=[[Tailor]]<br />
|party=[[History of the Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic]]<br/>[[National Union Party (United States)|National Union]]<br />
|signature=Andrew Johnson Signature.png<br />
|order2=16th [[Vice President of the United States]]<br />
|term_start2=March 4, 1865<br />
|term_end2=April 15, 1865<br />
|president2=[[Abraham Lincoln]]<br />
|predecessor2=[[Hannibal Hamlin]]<br />
|successor2=[[Schuyler Colfax]]<br />
|jr/sr3=United States Senator<br />
|state3=[[Tennessee]]<br />
|term_start3=October 8, 1857<br />
|term_end3=March 4, 1862<br />
|preceded3=[[James C. Jones]]<br />
|succeeded3=[[David T. Patterson]]<br />
|term_start4=March 4, 1875<br />
|term_end4=July 31, 1875<br />
|preceded4=[[William Gannaway Brownlow|William G. Brownlow]]<br />
|succeeded4=[[David M. Key]]<br />
|order5=17th<br />
|title5=[[Governor of Tennessee]]<br />
|term_start5=October 17, 1853<br />
|term_end5=November 3, 1857<br />
|predecessor5=[[William B. Campbell]]<br />
|successor5=[[Isham G. Harris]]<br />
|order6=[[Governor of Tennessee|Military Governor of Tennessee]]<br />
|term_start6=March 12, 1862<br />
|term_end6=March 4, 1865<br />
|appointed6=[[Abraham Lincoln]]<br />
|predecessor6=[[Isham G. Harris]]<br />
|successor6=[[E. H. East]] (acting)<br />
|order7=Member of the [[U.S. House of Representatives]] from [[Tennessee]]'s [[Tennessee's 1st congressional district|1st]] district<br />
|term_start7=March 4, 1843<br />
|term_end7=March 3, 1853<br />
|predecessor7=[[Thomas D. Arnold]]<br />
|successor7=[[Brookins Campbell]]<br />
|religion=[[Christian]] (no denomination; attended Catholic and Methodist services)<ref>[http://www.adherents.com/people/pj/Andrew_Johnson.html Adherents.com: The Religious Affiliation of Andrew Johnson]</ref><br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''Andrew Johnson''' (December 29, 1808 – July 31, 1875) was the [[List of Presidents of the United States|seventeenth]] [[President of the United States]] (1865-69), succeeding to the Presidency upon [[Abraham Lincoln assassination|the assassination]] of [[Abraham Lincoln]]. He was one of only two [[Impeachment in the United States|U.S. Presidents to be impeached]].<br />
<br />
At the time of the [[Ordinance of Secession|secession of the Southern states]], Johnson was a [[United States Senate|U.S. Senator]] from [[Greeneville, Tennessee|Greeneville in eastern Tennessee]]. As a Unionist, he was the only southern Senator not to quit his post upon secession. He became the most prominent [[War Democrat]] from the South and supported the military policies of US President Abraham Lincoln during the [[American Civil War]] of 1861–1865. In 1862 Lincoln appointed Johnson military governor of occupied Tennessee, where he proved to be energetic and effective in fighting the rebellion and beginning transition to Reconstruction.<ref name="Britanica1">[http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9043849/Andrew-Johnson 'Andrew Johnson'], [[Encyclopædia Britannica]]</ref><br />
<br />
Johnson was nominated for the [[Vice President of the United States|Vice President]] slot in 1864 on the [[National Union Party (United States)|National Union Party]] ticket. He and Lincoln were [[United States presidential election, 1864|elected in November 1864]]. Johnson succeeded to the Presidency upon Lincoln's assassination on April 15, 1865.<br />
<br />
As president he took charge of Presidential Reconstruction{{ndash}} the first phase of [[Reconstruction era of the United States|Reconstruction]]{{ndash}} which lasted until the [[Radical Republican (USA)|Radical Republican]]s gained control of Congress in the 1866 elections. His conciliatory policies towards the South, his hurry to reincorporate the former Confederates back into the union, and his vetoes of civil rights bills embroiled him in a bitter dispute with some Republicans.<ref>{{cite book |title=American Legal History |last=Hall |first=Kermit |coauthors=Paul Finkelman, James W. Ely |year=2005 |edition=3rd edition |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |isbn=0-19-516225-0 |pages=259-260 }}</ref> The Radicals in the [[History of the United States House of Representatives|House of Representatives]] impeached him in 1868 while charging him with violating the [[Tenure of Office Act]], a law enacted by Congress in March 1867 over Johnson's veto, but he was acquitted by a single vote in the [[History of the United States Senate|Senate]].<br />
<br />
He is the most recent President to represent a party other than the Republican or Democratic parties, having represented both the Democrats and the [[National Union Party]].<br />
<br />
==Early life==<br />
[[Image:DSCF0857.JPG|thumb|left|Reconstruction of Johnson's boyhood home in [[North Carolina]], located at the [[Andrew Johnson National Historic Site]] in [[Greeneville, Tennessee]].]]<br />
Johnson was born on December 29, 1808, in [[Raleigh, North Carolina]], to [[Jacob Johnson (father of Andrew Johnson)|Jacob Johnson]] and Mary McDonough. Andrew Johnson's father, Jacob, died when Andrew was around three years old, leaving his family in poverty. Johnson's mother then took in work [[Spinning (textiles)|spinning]] and [[weaving]] to support her family and later remarried. She bound Andrew as an apprentice tailor when he was 14 or 10.<ref>14 according to ''Britannica'', 10 according to Karin L Zipf</ref> In the 1820s, he worked as a tailor in [[Laurens, South Carolina]].<ref>[http://www.hmdb.org/marker.asp?MarkerID=10133 Laurens Historic District historical marker]</ref> Johnson never attended any type of school and taught himself how to read and spell.<br />
<br />
At age 16 or 17 Johnson broke his [[apprenticeship]] and ran away with his brother to [[Greeneville, Tennessee]], where he found work as a tailor.<ref name="Britanica1" /><ref>Karin L Zipf. ''Labor Of Innocents: Forced Apprenticeship in North Carolina, 1715–1919'' (2005) pp 8–9</ref> At the age of 18, Johnson married [[Eliza McCardle Johnson|Eliza McCardle]] in 1827. Between 1828 and 1852, the couple had five children: Martha (1828), Charles (1830), Mary (1832), Robert (1834), and Andrew Jr. (1852).<ref name="timeline"/> Eliza taught Johnson arithmetic and also tutored him to improve his literacy and writing skills.<ref name="Britanica1" /><br clear="left"/><!-- for boyhood home photo --><br />
<br />
==Early political career==<br />
Johnson participated in debates at the local academy at Greeneville, Tennessee<ref name="whitehouse1">[http://www.whitehouse.gov/history/presidents/aj17.html Biography of Andrew Johnson]{{ndash}} www.whitehouse.gov</ref> and later organized a workingman's party that elected him as [[alderman]] in 1829. He served in this position until he was elected mayor in 1833.<ref name="Britanica1"/> In 1835 he was elected to the [[Tennessee House of Representatives]] where, after serving a single term, he was defeated for re-election.<ref name="timeline">{{cite web |url=http://ajmuseum.tusculum.edu/?page_id=6|title=The Andrew Johnson Collection|archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20070607123406/http://ajmuseum.tusculum.edu/ajcollect.html |archivedate=2007-06-07}} [http://www2.tusculum.edu/ajmuseum/wp-content/uploads/2008/05/timeline_master.pdf Timeline of President Andrew Johnson's Life (PDF)] from the website of the President [http://ajmuseum.tusculum.edu/ Andrew Johnson Museum and Library] at [[Tusculum College]]</ref><br />
<br />
Johnson was attracted to [[Andrew Jackson]]'s states' rights Democratic Party. He became a spokesman for the more numerous yeomen farmers and mountaineers against the wealthier, but fewer, planter elite families that had held political control both in the state and nationally.<ref name="whitehouse1"/><ref name="Britanica1"/> In 1839 Johnson was elected to the [[Tennessee Senate]], where he served two consecutive two-year terms.<ref name="timeline"/> In 1843 he became the first Democrat to win election as the U.S. Representative from [[Tennessee's 1st congressional district]]. Among his activities for the common man's interests as a member of the House of Representatives and the Senate, Johnson advocated 'a free farm for the poor' bill where farms would be given to landless farmers.<ref name="whitehouse1"/> Johnson was a U.S. Representative for five terms until 1853, when he was elected governor of Tennessee.<ref name="timeline"/><br />
<br />
==Political ascendancy==<br />
[[Image:Younger Andrew Johnson.jpg|thumb|right|Pre-[[American Civil War|Civil War]] photo of Johnson.]]<br />
Johnson was elected governor of Tennessee, serving from 1853 to 1857. He was then elected as a Democrat to the United States Senate, serving from October 8, 1857 to March 4, 1862. He was chairman of the Committee to Audit and Control the Contingent Expense ([[36th United States Congress|Thirty-sixth Congress]]). Before Tennessee voted on secession, Johnson{{ndash}} who lived in Unionist east Tennessee{{ndash}} toured the state speaking in opposition to the act, which he said was unconstitutional. Johnson was an aggressive stump speaker and often responded to hecklers, even those in the Senate. At the time of [[secession]] of [[Confederate States of America|the Confederacy]], Johnson was the only Senator from the seceded states to continue participation in Congress. His explanation for this decision was "Damn the negroes, I am fighting those traitorous aristocrats, their masters."<ref name="Britanica1" /><br />
<br />
Lincoln appointed Johnson military governor of occupied Tennessee in March 1862 with the rank of [[Brigadier general (United States)|brigadier general]].<ref name="Britanica1" /> During his three years in this office, he "moved resolutely to eradicate all pro-Confederate influences in the state." This "unwavering commitment to the Union" was a significant factor in his choice as vice-president by Lincoln.<ref>Sledge pg. 1071-1072</ref> Johnson vigorously suppressed the Confederates and later spoke out for black suffrage, arguing, "The better class of them will go to work and sustain themselves, and that class ought to be allowed to vote, on the ground that a loyal [[negro]] is more worthy than a disloyal white man."<ref>Patton p 126</ref> According to tradition and local lore, on August 8, 1863, Johnson freed his personal slaves.<ref>[http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=12586299 "Tennessee Recalls Emancipation, Segregation"], National Public Radio</ref><br />
<br />
===Vice presidency===<br />
As a leading [[War Democrat]] and pro-Union southerner, Johnson was an ideal candidate for the Republicans in 1864 as they enlarged their base to include War Democrats. They changed the party name to the [[National Union Party (United States)|National Union Party]] to reflect this expansion. During the election Johnson replaced [[Hannibal Hamlin]] as Lincoln's running mate. He was elected [[Vice President of the United States]] and was inaugurated March 4, 1865. At the ceremony, Johnson, who had been drinking to offset the pain of [[typhoid fever]] (as he explained later), gave a rambling speech and appeared intoxicated to many. In early 1865, Johnson talked harshly of hanging traitors like [[Jefferson Davis]], which endeared him to the Radicals.<ref>Trefousse p. 198</ref><br />
<br />
====Lincoln assassination====<br />
{{main|Abraham Lincoln assassination}}<br />
On April 14, 1865, Abraham Lincoln was shot and mortally wounded by [[John Wilkes Booth]], a [[Confederate States of America|Confederate]] sympathizer, while the President was attending a play at [[Ford's Theater]]. Booth's plan was to destroy the administration by ordering conspirators to assassinate Johnson and [[United States Secretary of State|Secretary of State]] [[William H. Seward]] that same night. Seward narrowly survived his wounds, while Johnson escaped attack as his would-be assassin, [[George Atzerodt]], failed to go through with the plan.<br />
<br />
==Presidency 1865–1869==<br />
[[Image:Andrew Johnson.jpg|thumb|Engraving of Johnson]]<br />
The morning after Lincoln's assassination, Johnson was sworn in as President of the United States on April 15, 1865 by Lincoln's newly appointed [[Chief Justice of the United States|Chief Justice]] [[Salmon P. Chase]]. Johnson was the first Vice President to succeed to the U.S. Presidency upon the [[assassination]] of a President and the third vice president to become a president.<ref>[http://australianpolitics.com/usa/president/presidents-list.shtml Complete list of U.S. presidents]</ref><ref name="whitehouse1"/><br />
<br />
Johnson had an ambiguous party status. He attempted to build a party of loyalists under the [[National Union Party (United States)|National Union]] label, but he did not identify with the two main parties while President&mdash;though he did try for the Democratic nomination in 1868. Asked in 1868 why he did not become a Democrat, he said "It is true I am asked why don't I join the Democratic Party. Why don't they join me...if I have administered the office of president so well?"<ref>Trefousse, Hans Louis. ''Andrew Johnson: A Biography'' (1997), p. 338-339.</ref><br />
<br />
===Reconstruction===<br />
{{main|Reconstruction era of the United States}}<br />
[[Image:Lincoln and Johnsond.jpg|thumb|A political cartoon of Andrew Johnson and Abraham Lincoln, 1865. The caption reads (Johnson): ''Take it quietly Uncle Abe and I will draw it closer than ever.'' (Lincoln): ''A few more stitches Andy and the good old Union will be mended.'']]<br />
Northern anger over the assassination of Lincoln and the immense human cost of the war led to demands for harsh policies. Vice President Andrew Johnson had taken a hard line and spoke of hanging rebel Confederates. In late April, 1865 he was noted telling an Indiana delegation that, "Treason must be made odious... traitors must be punished and impoverished ... their social power must be destroyed." However, when he succeeded Lincoln as President, Johnson took a much softer line noting, "I say, as to the leaders, punishment. I also say leniency, reconciliation and amnesty to the thousands whom they have misled and deceived."<ref>Milton 183</ref> and ended up pardoning many Confederate leaders and ex-Confederates to maintain their control of Southern state governments, Southern lands, and black people.<ref>Trefousse, Hans L. Andrew Johnson: A Biography (1989)</ref><br />
<br />
His class-based resentment of the rich appeared in a May 1865 statement to W.H. Holden, the man he appointed governor of North Carolina: "I intend to confiscate the lands of these rich men whom I have excluded from pardon by my proclamation, and divide the proceeds thereof among the families of the wool hat boys, the Confederate soldiers, whom these men forced into battle to protect their property in slaves."<ref>[http://docsouth.unc.edu/fpn/holden/holden.html "Memoirs of W.W. Holden: Electronic Edition".]</ref> In practice, Johnson was not at all harsh toward the Confederate leaders. He allowed the Southern states to hold elections in 1865, resulting in prominent ex-Confederates being elected to the U.S. Congress; however, Congress did not seat them. Congress and Johnson argued in an increasingly public way about [[Reconstruction era of the United States|Reconstruction]] and the manner in which the Southern secessionist states would be readmitted to the Union. Johnson favored a very quick restoration, similar to the plan of leniency that Lincoln advocated before his death.<br />
<br />
===Break with the Republicans: 1866===<br />
Johnson-appointed governments all passed [[Black Codes in the USA|Black Codes]] that gave the [[Freedmen]] second class status. In response to the Black Codes and worrisome signs of Southern recalcitrance, the Republicans blocked the re-admission of the ex-rebellious states to the Congress in fall 1865. Congress also renewed the [[Bureau of Refugees, Freedmen and Abandoned Lands|Freedman's Bureau]], but Johnson vetoed it. Senator [[Lyman Trumbull]] of Illinois, leader of the moderate Republicans, took affront at the Black Codes. Trumbull proposed the first Civil Rights bill.<br />
<br />
Although strongly urged by moderates in Congress to sign the Civil Rights bill, Johnson broke decisively with them by vetoing it on March 27. His veto message objected to the measure because it conferred citizenship on the Freedmen at a time when eleven out of thirty-six States were unrepresented and attempted to fix by Federal law "a perfect equality of the white and black races in every State of the Union." Johnson said it was an invasion by Federal authority of the rights of the States; it had no warrant in the Constitution and was contrary to all precedents. It was a "stride toward centralization and the concentration of all legislative power in the national government."<ref>Rhodes, ''History'' 6:68</ref> Johnson, in a letter to Governor Thomas C. Fletcher of Missouri, wrote, "This is a country for white men, and by God, as long as I am President, it shall be a government for white men."<ref> Trefousse pg. 236. Online reference to the quote available at http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/grant/peopleevents/e_impeach.html</ref><br />
<br />
The Democratic Party, proclaiming itself the party of white men, north and South, aligned with Johnson.<ref>Trefousse 1999</ref> However the Republicans in Congress overrode his veto (the Senate by the vote of 33:15, the House by 182:41) and the Civil Rights bill became law.<br />
<br />
The last moderate proposal was the [[Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Fourteenth Amendment]], also authored by moderate Trumbull. It was designed to put the key provisions of the Civil Rights Act into the Constitution, but it went much further. It extended citizenship to everyone born in the United States (except Indians on reservations), penalized states that did not give the vote to Freedmen, and most importantly, created new Federal civil rights that could be protected by Federal courts. It guaranteed the Federal war debt (and promised the Confederate debt would never be paid). Johnson used his influence to block the amendment in the states, as three-fourths of the states were required for ratification. (The Amendment was later ratified.)<br />
<br />
The moderate effort to compromise with Johnson had failed and an all-out political war broke out between the Republicans (both Radical and moderate) on one side, and on the other Johnson and his allies in the Democratic party in the North, and the conservative groupings in the South. The decisive battle was the [[United States House election, 1866|election of 1866]]. Johnson campaigned vigorously but was widely ridiculed.<ref>[http://www.usa-presidents.info/speeches/cleveland-speech.html Andrew Johnson Cleveland Speech (September 3, 1866)]</ref> The Republicans won by a landslide (the Southern states were not allowed to vote), and took full control of Reconstruction. Johnson was almost powerless.<br />
<br />
Historian [[James Ford Rhodes]] has explained Johnson's inability to engage in serious negotiations:<blockquote><br />
As Senator [[Charles Sumner]] shrewdly said, "the President himself is his own worst counselor, as he is his own worst defender." Johnson acted in accordance with his nature. He had intellectual force but it worked in a groove. Obstinate rather than firm it undoubtedly seemed to him that following counsel and making concessions were a display of weakness. At all events from his December message to the veto of the Civil Rights Bill he yielded not a jot to Congress. The moderate senators and representatives (who constituted a majority of the Union party) asked him for only a slight compromise; their action was really an entreaty that he would unite with them to preserve Congress and the country from the policy of the radicals.<br />
The two projects which Johnson had most at heart were the speedy admission of the Southern senators and representatives to Congress and the relegation of the question of 'negro suffrage' to the States themselves. Himself shrinking from the imposition on these communities of the franchise for the colored people, his unyielding position in regard to matters involving no vital principle did much to bring it about. His quarrel with Congress prevented the readmission into the Union on generous terms of the members of the late Confederacy; and for the quarrel and its unhappy results Johnson's lack of imagination and his inordinate sensitiveness to political gadflies were largely responsible: it was not a contest in which fundamentals were involved.<br />
He sacrificed two important objects to petty considerations. His pride of opinion, his desire to beat, blinded him to the real welfare of the South and of the whole country.<ref>Rhodes, ''History'' 6:74</ref></blockquote><br />
[[Image:Andew Johnson impeachment trial.jpg|thumb|[[Theodore R. Davis]]' illustration of Johnson's impeachment trial in the [[United States Senate]], published in ''Harper's Weekly''.]]<br />
<br />
===Impeachment===<br />
====First attempt====<br />
There were two attempts to remove President Andrew Johnson from office. The first occurred in the fall of 1867. On November 21, 1867, the House Judiciary committee produced a bill of impeachment that consisted of a vast collection of complaints against him. After a furious debate, a formal vote was held in the House of Representatives on December 5, 1867, which failed 108-57.<ref>Trefousse, 1989 pages 302–3</ref><br />
<br />
====Second attempt====<br />
{{main|Impeachment of Andrew Johnson}}<br />
[[Image:AJohnsonimpeach.jpg|thumb|The 1868 Impeachment Resolution]]<br />
Johnson notified Congress that he had removed [[Edwin Stanton]] as Secretary of War and was replacing him in the interim with Adjutant-General [[Lorenzo Thomas]]. Johnson had wanted to replace Stanton with former General [[Ulysses S. Grant]], who refused to accept the position. This violated the [[Tenure of Office Act]], a law enacted by Congress in March 1867 over Johnson's veto, specifically designed to protect Stanton.<ref>[http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9071723/Tenure-of-Office-Act Tenure of office act{{ndash}} Britannica Online Encyclopedia]</ref> Johnson had vetoed the act, claiming it was unconstitutional. The act said, "...every person holding any civil office, to which he has been appointed by and with the advice and consent of the Senate ... shall be entitled to hold such office until a successor shall have been in like manner appointed and duly qualified," thus removing the President's previous unlimited power to remove any of his Cabinet members at will. Years later in the case ''[[Myers v. United States]]'' in 1926, the [[Supreme Court of the United States|Supreme Court]] ruled that such laws were indeed unconstitutional.<ref>[http://concise.britannica.com/ebc/article-9380467/Tenure-of-Office-Act Tenure of office act{{ndash}} Britannica Concise]</ref><br />
<br />
The Senate and House entered into debate. Thomas attempted to move into the war office, for which Stanton had Thomas arrested. Three days after Stanton's removal, the House [[impeachment|impeached]] Johnson for intentionally violating the Tenure of Office Act.<br />
<br />
On March 5, 1868, a court of impeachment was constituted in the Senate to hear charges against the President. [[William M. Evarts]] served as his counsel. Eleven articles were set out in the resolution, and the trial before the Senate lasted almost three months. Johnson's defense was based on a clause in the Tenure of Office Act stating that the then-current secretaries would hold their posts throughout the term of the President who appointed them. Since Lincoln had appointed Stanton, it was claimed, the applicability of the act had already run its course.<br />
[[Image:The situation.jpg|thumb|left|''The Situation''<br/>A ''[[Harper's Weekly]]'' cartoon gives a humorous breakdown of "the situation". [[United States Secretary of War|Secretary of War]] [[Edwin Stanton]] aims a cannon labeled "Congress" on the side at [[President of the United States|President]] Johnson and [[Lorenzo Thomas]] to show how Stanton was using congress to defeat the president and his unsuccessful replacement. He also holds a rammer marked "Tenure of Office Bill" and cannon balls on the floor are marked "Justice". [[Ulysses S. Grant]] and an unidentified man stand to Stanton's left.]]<br />
<br />
There were three votes in the Senate: one on May 16 for the 11th article of impeachment, which included many of the charges contained in the other articles, and two on May 26 for the second and third articles, after which the trial adjourned. On all three occasions, thirty-five Senators voted "guilty" and nineteen "not guilty." As the Constitution requires a two-thirds majority for conviction in impeachment trials, Johnson was acquitted; the 35-19 vote was one less then the majority required. A single changed vote for guilty would have convicted and removed Johnson from office. Seven Republican senators were disturbed by how the proceedings had been manipulated in order to give a one-sided presentation of the evidence. Senators [[William Pitt Fessenden]], [[Joseph S. Fowler]], [[James W. Grimes]], [[John B. Henderson]], [[Lyman Trumbull]], [[Peter G. Van Winkle]],<ref> [http://law.jrank.org/pages/13490/Andrew-Johnson-Trial.html "Andrew Johnson Trial: The Consciences of Seven Republicans Save Johnson".]</ref> and [[Edmund G. Ross]] of Kansas, who provided the decisive vote,<ref>[http://www.eyewitnesstohistory.com/john.htm "The Trial of Andrew Johnson, 1868".]</ref> defied their party and public opinion and voted against conviction.<br />
<br />
Before 1960 most historians held the impeachment of Andrew Johnson as a violation of American values regarding division of powers and fair play.{{Fact|date=February 2008}} Had Johnson been successfully removed from office, he would have been replaced with [[Radical Republican (USA)|Radical Republican]] [[Benjamin Wade]], making the presidency and Congress somewhat uniform in ideology, although in many ways Wade was more "radical" than the Republicans in Congress. This would have established a precedent that a President could be removed not for "high crimes and misdemeanors," but for purely political differences.{{Fact|date=February 2008}}<br />
{{clr}}<br />
===Christmas Day amnesty for Confederates===<br />
One of Johnson's last significant acts was granting unconditional [[amnesty]] to all Confederates on Christmas Day, December 25, 1868. This was after the election of U.S. Grant to succeed him, but before Grant took office in March 1869. Earlier amnesties requiring signed oaths and excluding certain classes of people were issued both by Lincoln and by Johnson.<br />
<br />
===Administration and Cabinet===<br />
{{Infobox U.S. Cabinet<br />
|align=left<br />
|clear=yes<br />
|Name=A. Johnson<br />
|President=Andrew Johnson<br />
|President start=1865<br />
|President end=1869<br />
|Vice President=''None''<br />
|Vice President start=1865<br />
|Vice President end=1869<br />
|State=[[William H. Seward]]<br />
|State start=1865<br />
|State end=1869<br />
|War=[[Edwin M. Stanton]]<br />
|War start=1865<br />
|War end=1868<br />
|War 2=[[John Schofield|John M. Schofield]]<br />
|War start 2=1868<br />
|War end 2=1869<br />
|Treasury=[[Hugh McCulloch]]<br />
|Treasury start=1865<br />
|Treasury end=1869<br />
|Justice=[[James Speed]]<br />
|Justice start=1865<br />
|Justice end=1866<br />
|Justice 2=[[Henry Stanberry]]<br />
|Justice start 2=1866<br />
|Justice end 2=1868<br />
|Justice 3=[[William M. Evarts]]<br />
|Justice start 3=1868<br />
|Justice end 3=1869<br />
|Post=[[William Dennison (Ohio governor)|William Dennison]]<br />
|Post start=1865<br />
|Post end=1866<br />
|Post 2=[[Alexander Randall|Alexander W. Randall]]<br />
|Post start 2=1866<br />
|Post end 2=1869<br />
|Navy=[[Gideon Welles]]<br />
|Navy start=1865<br />
|Navy end=1869<br />
|Interior=[[John P. Usher]]<br />
|Interior date=1865<br />
|Interior 2=[[James Harlan (senator)|James Harlan]]<br />
|Interior start 2=1865<br />
|Interior end 2=1866<br />
|Interior 3=[[Orville H. Browning]]<br />
|Interior start 3=1866<br />
|Interior end 3=1869<br />
}}<br />
<br />
===States admitted to the Union===<br />
*[[Nebraska]] - March 1, 1867<br />
<br />
===Foreign policy===<br />
Johnson forced the [[France|French]] out of [[Mexico]] by sending a combat army to the border and issuing an ultimatum. The French withdrew in 1867, and the government they supported quickly collapsed. Secretary of State [[William H. Seward|Seward]] negotiated the [[Alaska purchase|purchase of Alaska]] from Russia on April 9, 1867 for $7.2 million. Critics sneered at "[[Seward's Folly]]" and "Seward's Icebox" and "Icebergia." Seward also negotiated to purchase the [[Danish West Indies]], but the Senate refused to approve the purchase in 1867 (it eventually happened in 1917). The Senate likewise rejected Seward's arrangement with the United Kingdom to arbitrate the [[Alabama Claims|''Alabama'' Claims]].<br />
<br />
The U.S. experienced tense relations with the United Kingdom and its colonial government in Canada in the aftermath of the war. Lingering resentment over the perception of British sympathy towards the Confederacy resulted in Johnson initially turning a blind eye towards a series of armed incursions by Irish-American civil war veterans into British territory in Canada, named the [[Fenian Raids]].<ref name="fenian">[http://www.doyle.com.au/fenian_raids.htm The Fenian Raids]</ref> Eventually, Johnson ordered the Fenians disarmed and barred from crossing the border, but his hesitant reaction to the crisis helped motivate the movement toward [[Canadian Confederation]].<ref name="fenian" /><br />
<br />
==Post-presidency==<br />
[[Image:Andrew Johnson House Greeneville year1886 153142pu.png|thumb|The Johnson home in [[Greeneville, Tennessee]] 1886, today restored and known as the [[Andrew Johnson National Historic Site]].]]<br />
Johnson was an unsuccessful candidate for election to the United States Senate from Tennessee in 1868 and to the House of Representatives in 1872. However, in 1874 the Tennessee legislature did elect him to the U.S. Senate. Johnson served from March 4, 1875, until his death from a stroke near [[Elizabethton, Tennessee]], on July 31 that same year. In his first speech since returning to the Senate, which was also his last, Johnson spoke about political turmoil in Louisiana.<ref name="senate">[http://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/minute/Death_of_Andrew_Johnson.htm United States Senate: Death of Andrew Johnson]</ref> His passion aroused a standing ovation from many of his fellow senators who had once voted to remove him from the presidency.{{Fact|date=April 2008}} He is the only former President to serve in the Senate.<ref name="senate" /><br />
<br />
Interment was in the Andrew Johnson National Cemetery, [[Greeneville, Tennessee]], where he was buried with a copy of the Constitution. Andrew Johnson National Cemetery is now part of the [[Andrew Johnson National Historic Site]].<br />
<br />
==Historians' changing views on Andrew Johnson==<br />
The [[Dunning School]] of the early 20th century saw Johnson as a heroic bulwark against the corruption of the Radical Republicans who tried to remove the entire leadership class of the white South. In their view, Johnson seemed to be the legitimate heir of the sainted Abraham Lincoln.{{Fact|date=February 2008}}<br />
<br />
By the 1930s a series of favorable biographies enhanced his prestige.<ref>Highly favorable were Winston (1928), Stryker (1929), Milton (1930), and Claude Bowers, ''The Tragic Era'' (1929).</ref> Johnson's Republican critics of the 1860s appeared as disreputable to liberal historians as did the Republican critics of Franklin D. Roosevelt. Furthermore, a Beardian School (named after [[Charles Beard]] and typified by [[Howard K. Beale]]) argued that the Republican Party in the 1860s was a tool of corrupt business interests, and that Johnson stood for the people. Historian Eric Foner says that by 1948, historians regarded Reconstruction, "as a time of corruption and misgovernment caused by granting black men the right to vote." They rated Johnson "near great." but have later changed their minds, rating Johnson "a flat failure".<ref name="WpostWorst">[http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/12/01/AR2006120101509_pf.html Washington Post Dec. 1, 2006]</ref><br />
<br />
The [[Civil Rights movement]] of the 1960s brought a new perspective to the practice of history as well as to civil legislation. Historians noted African American efforts to establish public education and welfare institutions, gave muted praise for Republican efforts to extend suffrage and provide other social institutions, and excoriated Johnson for siding with the opposition to extending basic rights to former slaves.<ref name="WpostWorst"/><br />
<br />
Johnson's [[purchase of Alaska]] from the [[Russian Empire]] in 1867 is believed to be a most important foreign policy action, with the purchase proving itself vital to national security during the [[Cold War]] (mid-1940s until the early 1990s).{{Fact|date=February 2008}} The idea and implementation is credited to Seward as Secretary of State, but Johnson approved the plan. Gold was not discovered in Alaska until 1880, thirteen years after the purchase and five years after Johnson's death, and oil was not discovered until 1968.<br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
{{portal|United States Army|United States Department of the Army Seal.svg}}<br />
{{portal|American Civil War}}<br />
*[[List of American Civil War generals#J|List of American Civil War generals]]<br />
*[[United States presidential election, 1864]]<br />
*[[History of the United States (1865-1918)]]<br />
*[[Tennessee Johnson]]<br />
<br />
==Bibliography==<br />
{{portal|Tennessee}}<br />
{{portal|United States Army|United States Department of the Army Seal.svg}}<br />
{{portal|American Civil War}}<br />
* Howard K. Beale, ''The Critical Year. A Study of Andrew Johnson and Reconstruction'' (1930). ISBN 0-8044-1085-2<br />
* Michael Les Benedict, ''[http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=104078634 The Impeachment and Trial of Andrew Johnson]'' (1999). ISBN 0-393-31982-2<br />
* Albert E. Castel, ''The Presidency of Andrew Johnson '' (1979). ISBN 0-7006-0190-2<br />
* D. M. DeWitt, ''The Impeachment and Trial of Andrew Johnson'' (1903).<br />
* W. A. Dunning, ''Essays on the Civil War and Reconstruction'' (New York, 1898) [http://books.google.com/books/pdf/Essays_on_the_Civil_War_and_Reconstructi.pdf?vid=OCLC02117529&id=2j0OAAAAIAAJ&output=pdf&sig=rB1llLZw_3h735Oxn9Lb4ie7iOA online edition]<br />
*[[William Archibald Dunning|W. A. Dunning]], ''Reconstruction, Political and Economic'' (New York, 1907) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=16224153 online edition]<br />
* Foster, G. Allen, ''Impeached: The President who almost lost his job'' (New York, 1964).<br />
* Eric L. McKitrick, ''Andrew Johnson and Reconstruction'' (1961). ISBN 0-19-505707-4<br />
* Martin E. Mantell; ''Johnson, Grant, and the Politics of Reconstruction'' (1973) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=89815306 online edition]<br />
*[[Mark Hatfield|Hatfield, Mark O.]], with the Senate Historical Office, Vice Presidents of the United States, 1789-1993.(Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1997), p.219<br />
* Howard Means, ''The Avenger Takes His Place: Andrew Johnson and the 45 Days That Changed the Nation'' (New York, 2006)<br />
* Milton; George Fort. ''The Age of Hate: Andrew Johnson and the Radicals'' (1930) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=14804076 online edition]<br />
* Patton; James Welch. ''Unionism and Reconstruction in Tennessee, 1860–1869'' (1934) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=94962448 online edition]<br />
* Rhodes; James Ford ''History of the United States from the Compromise of 1850 to the McKinley-Bryan Campaign of 1896.'' Volume: 6. 1920. Pulitzer prize. [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=24644891 online edition]<br />
* Schouler, James. ''History of the United States of America: Under the Constitution vol. 7. 1865–1877. The Reconstruction Period'' (1917) [http://books.google.com/books?vid=OCLC15799162&id=p4fAuPxMYPIC&printsec=toc&dq=annual+cyclopedia+1867 online edition]<br />
* Sledge, James L. III. "Johnson, Andrew" in ''Encyclopedia of the American Civil War.'' edited by David S. Heidler and Jeanne T. Heidler. (2000)<br />
* Lloyd P. Stryker, ''Andrew Johnson: A Study in Courage'' (1929). ISBN 0-403-01231-7 [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=295401 online edition]<br />
* Trefousse, Hans L. ''Andrew Johnson: A Biography'' (1989). ISBN 0-393-31742-0 [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=101075266 online edition]<br />
* Winston; Robert W. ''Andrew Johnson: Plebeian and Patriot'' (1928) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=3971949 online edition]<br />
<br />
===Primary sources===<br />
* Ralph W. Haskins, LeRoy P. Graf, and Paul H. Bergeron et al, eds. ''The Papers of Andrew Johnson'' 16 volumes; University of Tennessee Press, (1967–2000). ISBN 1572330910.) Includes all letters and speeches by Johnson, and many letters written to him. Complete to 1875.<br />
* [http://www.impeach-andrewjohnson.com/ Newspaper clippings, 1865–1869]<br />
* [http://www.andrewjohnson.com/09ImpeachmentAndAcquittal/ImpeachmentAndAcquittal.htm Series of [[Harper's Weekly]] articles covering the impeachment controversy and trial]<br />
*[http://starship.python.net/crew/manus/Presidents/aj2/aj2obit.html Johnson's obituary, from the ''New York Times'']<br />
<br />
==Notes==<br />
{{reflist|2}}<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
{{sisterlinks|s=Author:Andrew Johnson}}<br />
*{{gutenberg author|id=Andrew+Johnson | name=Andrew Johnson}}<br />
* [http://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/bday/1229.html Obituary, NY Times, August 1, 1875, ''Andrew Johnson Dead'']<br />
* [http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/impeach/articles.html Articles of Impeachment]<br />
* [http://www.whitehouse.gov/history/presidents/aj17.html White House Biography]<br />
*{{CongBio|J000116}} Retrieved on 2008-11-04<br />
*[http://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/resources/pdf/andrew_johnson.pdf Vice Presidential biography. From the Senate Historical Office.]<br />
* [http://www.mlwh.org/inside.asp?ID=91&subjectID=2 Mr. Lincoln's White House: Andrew Johnson]<br />
* [http://www.usa-presidents.info/speeches/cleveland-speech.html Andrew Johnson Cleveland Speech (September 3, 1866)]<br />
*[http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/ampage?collId=llcg&fileName=069/llcg069.db&recNum=629 ''Congressional Globe'' transcript of Johnsons inaugural address]<br />
*[http://www.archive.org/details/johnsonjohnson00andrrich ''Speeches of Andrew Johnson : President of the United States '' 1866 collection at archive.org]<br />
*[http://discovergreeneville.com/andrewjohnson Andrew Johnson's 200th Birthday Celebration site at DiscoverGreeneville.com]<br />
*[http://www.loc.gov/rr/program/bib/presidents/ajohnson/ Andrew Johnson: A Resource Guide from the Library of Congress]<br />
*[http://www.tennessee.gov/tsla/history/manuscripts/findingaids/131.pdf Tennessee State Library & Archives, Andrew Johnson Papers, 1846-1875]<br />
*[http://www.tennessee.gov/tsla/history/govpapers/findingaids/gp18.pdf Tennessee State Library & Archives, Papers of Governor Andrew Johnson, 1853-1857]<br />
*[http://www.tennessee.gov/tsla/history/govpapers/findingaids/gp20.pdf Tennessee State Library & Archives, Papers of (Military) Governor Andrew Johnson, 1862-1865]<br />
*[http://www.millercenter.virginia.edu/index.php/academic/americanpresident/johnson Essay on Andrew Johnson and shorter essays on each member of his cabinet and First Lady from the Miller Center of Public Affairs]<br />
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<br />
{{Persondata<br />
|NAME= Johnson, Andrew<br />
|ALTERNATIVE NAMES=<br />
|SHORT DESCRIPTION= seventeenth [[President of the United States]]<br/> [[Union (American Civil War)|Union]] [[Union Army|Army]] [[General officer|General]]<br />
|DATE OF BIRTH={{birth date|mf=yes|1808|12|29|mf=y}}<br />
|PLACE OF BIRTH= [[Raleigh, North Carolina]]<br />
|DATE OF DEATH={{death date|mf=yes|1875|7|31|mf=y}}<br />
|PLACE OF DEATH= [[Greeneville, Tennessee]]<br />
}}<br />
{{Lifetime|1808|1875|Johnson, Andrew}}<br />
[[Category:Presidents of the United States]]<br />
[[Category:Vice Presidents of the United States]]<br />
[[Category:Andrew Johnson]]<br />
[[Category:United States presidential candidates, 1860]]<br />
[[Category:United States presidential candidates, 1868]]<br />
[[Category:Union Army generals]]<br />
[[Category:Governors of Tennessee]]<br />
[[Category:United States Senators from Tennessee]]<br />
[[Category:Republican Party (United States) vice presidential nominees]]<br />
[[Category:Members of the United States House of Representatives from Tennessee]]<br />
[[Category:Tennessee State Senators]]<br />
[[Category:Members of the Tennessee House of Representatives]]<br />
[[Category:Mayors of places in Tennessee]]<br />
[[Category:Union political leaders]]<br />
[[Category:History of the United States (1865–1918)]]<br />
[[Category:Reconstruction]]<br />
[[Category:People of Tennessee in the American Civil War]]<br />
[[Category:Impeached United States officials]]<br />
[[Category:Scots-Irish Americans]]<br />
[[Category:People from the Triangle, North Carolina]]<br />
[[Category:People of North Carolina in the American Civil War]]<br />
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Leslie
https://conservapedia.com/index.php?title=Uniformitarianism_(science)&diff=553383
Uniformitarianism (science)
2008-11-10T00:49:33Z
<p>Leslie: removing some too-obvious bias</p>
<hr />
<div>'''Uniformitarianism,''' in the [[philosophy of science]], is the assumption that the natural processes operating in the past are the same as those that can be observed operating in the present. Its methodological significance is frequently summarized in the statement: "The present is the key to the past." <br />
<br />
The concept of uniformity in [[Geology|geological]] processes can be traced back to the [[Islamic geography|Persian geologist]], [[Avicenna]] (Ibn Sina), in ''[[The Book of Healing]]'' (1027).<ref name=Hassani/><ref name=Goodfield/> Uniformitarianism was later formulated by Scottish [[Natural history|naturalists]] in the late 18th century, starting with the work of the [[geologist]], [[James Hutton]], which was refined by [[John Playfair]] and popularised by [[Charles Lyell]]'s ''Principles of Geology'' of 1830. The term ''uniformitarianism'' was coined in 1832 by [[William Whewell]], who also coined the term [[catastrophism]] for the preceding idea that the Earth had been created through supernatural means and had then been shaped by a series of catastrophic events caused by forces which no longer prevailed.<br />
<br />
==Four main forms of uniformitarianism==<br />
Uniformitarianism, though often treated as a single idea, is in fact a family of four related (but not identical) propositions. Paleontologist and evolutionary theorist [[Stephen Jay Gould]] usefully characterized them, in a 1965 paper <ref>Gould, S. J. 1965. Is uniformitarianism necessary? ''American Journal of Science'' 263: 223 - 228.</ref> , as: <br />
# Uniformity of law; <br />
# Uniformity of kind; <br />
# Uniformity of degree; and <br />
# Uniformity of result.<br />
The first sense of uniformity was almost universally accepted and quickly became part of the [[scientific consensus]]; the fourth was almost universally rejected by Western scientists from the mid-19th century onward. The second and particularly the third senses remained controversial and (though more increasingly accepted in the 20th century) have been occasionally challenged by scientists who believe the ''presumption'' of uniformity (in the second and third senses) is unwarranted<br />
<br />
==Uniformitarianism and Catastrophism==<br />
Uniformitarianism is one of the most basic principles of modern [[geology]], the observation that fundamentally the same geological processes that operate today also operated in the distant past. It exists in contrast with [[catastrophism]], which states that [[Earth]] surface features originated suddenly in the past, by geological processes radically different from those currently occurring. Note, however, that many "catastrophic" events are perfectly compatible with uniformitarianism. For example, [[Charles Lyell]] thought that ordinary geological processes would cause [[Niagara Falls]] to move upstream to [[Lake Erie]] within 10,000 years, leading to catastrophic flooding of a large part of North America.<br />
<br />
Uniformitarianism is a generalisation of the principle of [[actualism]], which states that present day-processes (astronomical, geological, [[Paleontology|paleontological]],...) can be used to interpret past patterns. The principle of actualism is the cornerstone of [[paleoecology]].<br />
<br />
The concept of uniformitarianism was first proposed in the 11th century by the [[Islamic geography|Persian geologist]], [[Avicenna]] (Ibn Sina, 980-1037), who provided the first uniformitarian explanations for geological processes in ''[[The Book of Healing]]''. He recognized that mountains were formed after a long sequence of events that predate human existence.<ref name=Hassani>{{cite web|author=Munim M. Al-Rawi and [[Salim Al-Hassani]]|title=The Contribution of Ibn Sina (Avicenna) to the development of Earth sciences|publisher=FSTC|url=http://www.muslimheritage.com/uploads/ibnsina.pdf|date=November 2002|accessdate=2008-07-01}}</ref><ref name=Goodfield>[[Stephen Toulmin]] and [[June Goodfield]] (1965), ''The Ancestry of Science: The Discovery of Time'', p. 64, [[University of Chicago Press]] ([[cf.]] [http://muslimheritage.com/topics/default.cfm?ArticleID=319 The Contribution of Ibn Sina to the development of Earth sciences])</ref> While discussing the formation of [[mountain]]s, he explained:<br />
<br />
{{quote|"Either they are the effects of upheavals of the [[Crust (geology)|crust]] of the [[earth]], such as might occur during a violent [[earthquake]], or they are the effect of [[water]], which, cutting itself a new route, has denuded the [[valley]]s, the [[Stratum|strata]] being of different kinds, some soft, some hard... It would require a long period of time for all such changes to be accomplished, during which the mountains themselves might be somewhat diminished in size."<ref name=Goodfield/>}}<br />
<br />
Later in the 11th century, the [[History of science and technology in China|Chinese naturalist]], [[Shen Kuo]], also recognized the concept of '[[deep time]]'.<ref name="Silvin">{{cite book | last = Sivin | first = Nathan | authorlink = Nathan Sivin | title = Science in Ancient China: Researches and Reflections | publisher = Ashgate Publishing [[Variorum]] series | date = 1995 | location = [[Brookfield, Vermont]] | pages = III, 23–24 }}</ref><br />
<br />
After ''The Book of Healing'' was [[Latin translations of the 12th century|translated into Latin in the 12th century]], a few other scientists also reasoned in uniformitarian terms, but the theory was not accepted until the late 18th century.<ref name=Hassani/> The uniformitarian explanations for the formation of [[sedimentary rock]] and an understanding of the immense stretch of [[geological time]] or '[[Deep time]]' were solidly supported by the 18th-century geologist [[James Hutton]], a pioneer of the principle, which was later popularised by [[Charles Lyell]] and influenced [[Charles Darwin]]. In the 18th and 19th centuries, the debate between the two theories was intense, since uniformitarianism seemed hard to reconcile with the prevailing [[religion|religious beliefs]] of the time. Today, however, most if not all mainstream scientists support uniformitarianism as do most mainstream religious denominations. <br />
<br />
Before [[continental drift]] (see [[plate tectonics]]) was recognized in the 20th century, the surface of Earth was believed to have remained generally unchanged since its formation. Cooling from a molten state was believed to have caused shrinkage, which caused mountains and folding of the surface. Currently it is accepted that much of the [[Mantle (geology)|mantle]] is viscous and fluid, and the [[Crust (geology)|crust]] is slowly moving over it, driven by convection currents. It is this relative motion that produces folding, compression, rises, depressions, etc.<br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
* [[Gradualism]]<br />
* [[Catastrophism]]<br />
* [[Scientific consensus]]<br />
* [[Paradigm shift]]<br />
* [[History of geology]]<br />
* [[History of paleontology]]<br />
<br />
== Notes ==<br />
{{reflist}}<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
* [http://www.physicalgeography.net/fundamentals/10c.html Uniformitarianism discussed in great detail at PhysicalGeography.net]<br />
* [http://geography.about.com/od/physicalgeography/a/uniformitarian.htm Uniformitarianism discussed at the Geography section of About.com]<br />
* [http://www.bartleby.com/65/un/uniformi.html Uniformitarianism discussed at the Columbia Encyclopedia, sixth edition, on-line].<br />
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[[Category:Geology]]<br />
[[Category:Philosophy of science]]<br />
[[Category:Evolution]]<br />
[[Category:History of earth science]]<br />
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Leslie
https://conservapedia.com/index.php?title=Politicization_of_science&diff=553382
Politicization of science
2008-11-10T00:49:09Z
<p>Leslie: removing some too-obvious bias</p>
<hr />
<div>The '''politicization of science''' is the manipulation of science for political gain. It occurs when [[government]], [[business]], or [[interest group]]s use legal or economic pressure to influence the findings of scientific research or the way it is disseminated, reported or interpreted. Historically, these groups have conducted various campaigns to promote their interests in defiance of [[scientific consensus]], and in an effort to manipulate [[public policy]].<ref name=discovery>[http://www.discovery.org/scripts/viewDB/index.php?command=view&program=CSC-News&id=2445 Evolution or design debate heats up.]</ref><ref name=AAAS>[http://www.aaas.org/news/releases/2006/pdf/0219boardstatement.pdf American Association for the Advancement of Science Statement on the Teaching of Evolution]</ref><ref name=nejm>[http://content.nejm.org/cgi/content/full/354/21/2277 Intelligent Judging — Evolution in the Classroom and the Courtroom] George J. Annas, [[New England Journal of Medicine]], Volume 354:2277-2281 May 25, 2006</ref><br />
<br />
==History==<br />
===Wheat production and the Soviet Union===<br />
<br />
{{Main|Lysenkoism}}<br />
<br />
[[Trofim Lysenko]] declared that the [[genetics]] of [[Mendel]]’s peas and [[Thomas Hunt Morgan|Morgan]]’s fruit flies was incorrect and simply a capitalist plot to exploit the peasants and working class. Lysenko believed that only [[environmental factors]] determined the performance of plants and that acquired characteristics could be inherited. With his theory that denied the existence of gene-based [[inheritance]], Lysenko promised almost instant improvements in agricultural production. Lysenko’s [[proletariat]] origins helped him to avoid the hatred of the Soviet authorities for the [[intelligentsia]]. He first became famous in 1928 by claiming that a series of simple steps, within reach of any farmer, produced markedly improved yields of wheat. All that was necessary was "[[vernalization]]" - soaking [[winter wheat]] seed in the fall, burying it in sacks under the snow, and planting it in the spring like ordinary spring wheat. This was all a [[fraud]], supported by falsified data and [[government corruption]].<ref name=fisher>Fisher, Ronald [http://www.library.adelaide.edu.au/digitised/fisher/229.pdf ''What Sort of Man is Lysenko?''] Listener 40, pp. 874–875, 1948</ref><br />
<br />
===Tobacco and cancer===<br />
<br />
By the mid-1950s there was a scientific consensus that smoking promotes lung cancer, but the [[tobacco industry]] fought the findings, both in the public eye and within the scientific community. Tobacco companies funded [[think tank]]s and lobbying groups, started health reassurance campaigns, ran advertisements in medical journals, and researched alternate explanations for lung cancer, such as pollution, asbestos and even pet birds. Denying the case against tobacco was "closed," they called for more research as a tactic to delay regulation.<ref name=physorg>[http://www.physorg.com/news91078097.html Tobacco companies obstructed science, history professor says]</ref><br />
<br />
==Modern accusations of politicization==<br />
{{Globalize/USA}}<br />
=== George W. Bush administration ===<br />
In 2004, The ''[[Denver Post]]'' reported that that [[George W. Bush administration]] "has installed more than 100 top officials who were once lobbyists, attorneys or spokespeople for the industries they oversee." At least 20 of these former industry advocates helped their agencies write, shape or push for policy shifts that benefit their former industries. "They knew which changes to make because they had pushed for them as industry advocates."<ref name=denver_post>[http://www.commondreams.org/headlines04/0523-02.htm When Advocates Become Regulators] Anne C. Mulkern. The Denver Post, May 23 2004.</ref><br />
<br />
Also in 2004, the scientific [[advocacy]] group [[Union of Concerned Scientists]] issued a report, ''Scientific Integrity in Policymaking: An Investigation into the Bush Administration's Misuse of Science''<ref name=americanprogress>[http://www.americanprogress.org/atf/cf/%7BE9245FE4-9A2B-43C7-A521-5D6FF2E06E03%7D/UCSINTEGRITY.PDF Scientific Integrity in Policymaking: An Investigation into the Bush Administration's Misuse of Science] Union of Concerned Scientists</ref><ref name=ucsintegrity>[http://www.ucsusa.org/scientific_integrity/interference/scientists-signon-statement.html Restoring Scientific Integrity in Policymaking] Union of Concerned Scientists</ref> which charged the following: <blockquote>A growing number of scientists, policy makers, and technical specialists both inside and outside the government allege that the current Bush administration has suppressed or distorted the scientific analyses of federal agencies to bring these results in line with administration policy. In addition, these experts contend that irregularities in the appointment of scientific advisors and advisory panels are threatening to upset the legally mandated balance of these bodies."</blockquote> A petition, signed by more than 9,000 scientists, including 49 Nobel laureates and 63 National Medal of Science recipients,<ref>[http://go.ucsusa.org/RSI_list/index.php Scientific Integrity Statement Signatories] Union of Concerned Scientists</ref> followed the report. The petition stated: <blockquote>"When scientific knowledge has been found to be in conflict with its political goals, the administration has often manipulated the process through which science enters into its decisions. This has been done by placing people who are professionally unqualified or who have clear conflicts of interest in official posts and on scientific advisory committees; by disbanding existing advisory committees; by censoring and suppressing reports by the government’s own scientists; and by simply not seeking independent scientific advice. Other administrations have, on occasion, engaged in such practices, but not so systematically nor on so wide a front. Furthermore, in advocating policies that are not scientifically sound, the administration has sometimes misrepresented scientific knowledge and misled the public about the implications of its policies."</blockquote><br />
<br />
The same year, Francesca Grifo, executive director of the Union of Concerned Scientists' Scientific Integrity Program, stated "We have reports that stay in draft form and don't get out to the public. We have reports that are changed. We have reports that are ignored and overwritten."<ref name=npr>[http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=5232410 Bush Science Push Fails to Transform Critics] Don Gonyea. National Public Radio, Weekend Edition Sunday, February 26 2006.</ref><br />
<br />
In response to criticisms, President Bush in 2006 unveiled a campaign in his [[State of the Union Address]] to promote scientific research and education to ensure American competitiveness in the world, vowing to "double the federal commitment to the most critical basic research programs in the physical sciences over the next 10 years."<br />
<br />
====Surgeon General====<br />
Dr. [[Richard Carmona]], the first [[Surgeon General of the United States|surgeon general]] appointed by President George W. Bush, publicly accused the administration in July 2007 of political interference and muzzling him on key issues like [[embryonic stem cell research]].<br />
<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.nytimes.com/2007/07/11/washington/11surgeon.html?_r=1 | title=Surgeon General Sees 4-Year Term as Compromised | publisher=[[New York Times]] | date=[[July 11]], [[2007]] | accessdate=2007-12-03 | first=Gardiner | last=Harris }}</ref><br />
<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.reuters.com/article/politicsNews/idUSN1034212120070710 | title=Former Bush surgeon general says he was muzzled | date=[[July 10]], [[2007]] | accessdate=2007-12-03 | first=Will | last=Dunham | publisher=[[Reuters]] }}</ref><br />
<br />
"Anything that doesn't fit into the political appointees' ideological, theological or political agenda is often ignored, marginalized or simply buried," Carmona testified.<br />
<ref> [http://www.usatoday.com/tech/science/2007-08-05-science-politics_N.htm USA TODAY] </ref><br />
<br />
Although he did not make personal accusations, the [[Washington Post]] reported on [[July 29]] that the official who blocked at least one of Carmona's reports was [[William R. Steiger]].<ref name=Post29>[http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/07/28/AR2007072801420.html?nav=hcmodule Bush Aide Blocked Report], Christopher Lee and Marc Kaufman, The Washington Post, July 29, 2007.</ref><br />
<br />
====Food and Drug Administration====<br />
<br />
In July 2006 the [[Union of Concerned Scientists]] (UCS) released survey results that demonstrate pervasive political influence of science at the [[Food and Drug Administration]] (FDA).<ref>[http://www.ucsusa.org/news/press_release/fda-scientists-pressured.html FDA Scientists Pressured to Exclude, Alter Findings<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> Of the 997 FDA scientists who responded to the survey, nearly one fifth (18.4 percent) said that they "have been asked, for non-scientific reasons, to inappropriately exclude or alter technical information or their conclusions in a FDA scientific document." This is the third survey Union of Concerned Scientists has conducted to examine inappropriate interference with science at federal agencies. The Department of Health and Human Services also conducted a survey addressing the same topic which generated similar findings.<ref>[http://www.usatoday.com/news/health/2004-12-16-fda-survey-usat_x.htm USATODAY.com - Survey: FDA scientists question safety<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> According to ''[[USA Today]]'', a survey of [[Food and Drug Administration]] scientists by [[Public Employees for Environmental Responsibility]] and the Union of Concerned Scientists found that many scientists have been pressured to approve or reject new drugs despite their scientific findings concerns.<ref name=usatoday>[http://www.usatoday.com/news/health/2004-12-16-fda-survey-usat_x.htm Survey: FDA scientists question safety]</ref> In July 2006, the Union of Concerned Scientists released survey results that they said "demonstrate pervasive political influence of science" at the [[Food and Drug Administration]]<ref name=ucsfda>[http://www.ucsusa.org/news/press_release/fda-scientists-pressured.html FDA Scientists Pressured to Exclude, Alter Findings; Scientists Fear Retaliation for Voicing Safety Concerns]</ref><ref name=ucsfda2>[http://www.ucsusa.org/assets/documents/scientific_integrity/Scientific-Integrity-at-Risk-FDA.pdf Examples of abuse, Scientific Integrity at Risk: The Food and Drug Administration]</ref><br />
<br />
====United States Department of the Interior====<br />
<br />
{{main|Julie MacDonald}}<br />
<br />
On [[May 1]], 2007, deputy assistant secretary at the [[United States Department of the Interior]] [[Julie MacDonald]] resigned after the Interior Department Inspector General, Honorable Earl E. Devaney, reported that MacDonald broke federal rules by giving non-public, internal government documents to oil industry and property rights groups, and manipulated scientific findings to favor Bush policy goals and assist land developers.<ref>{{cite news | url = http://www.usatoday.com/news/washington/2007-03-29-interior_N.htm?csp=15 | title = Report: Interior official blasted for twisting environmental data | publisher = USA Today | date = March 30, 2007}}</ref> On [[29 November]], 2007, another report by the Devaney found that MacDonald could have also benefitted financially from a decision she was involved with to remove the [[Sacramento splittail]] fish from the federal endangered species list.<ref name=ensnov29>[http://www.ens-newswire.com/ens/nov2007/2007-11-29-10.asp U.S. Endangered Species Program Burdened by Political Meddling]</ref><br />
<br />
MacDonald's conduct violated the Code of Federal Regulations (C.F.R.) under 5 C.F.R. 9 2635.703 Use of Nonpublic Information and 5 C.F.R. 5 2635.101 Basic Obligation of Public Service, Appearance of Preferential Treatment.<ref>{{cite news | url = http://www.biologicaldiversity.org/swcbd/programs/esa/pdfs/DOI-IG-Report_JM.pdf | title = REPORT OF INVESTIGATION: Julie MacDonald, Deputy Assistant Secretary, Fish, Wildlife and Parks | publisher = US Department of the Interior | date = March 23, 2007|format=PDF}}</ref></blockquote> MacDonald resigned a week before a House congressional oversight committee was to hold a hearing on accusations that she had "violated the Endangered Species Act, censored science and mistreated staff of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service."<ref name=AP-20070501>[http://www.boston.com/news/nation/washington/articles/2007/05/01/interior_official_quits_ahead_of_hearing Embattled Interior official resigns post"]</ref><br />
<br />
===Intelligent design===<br />
<br />
{{main|Intelligent design}}<br />
<br />
A current example is the [[intelligent design movement]] originating with the [[Discovery Institute]], which seeks to "defeat [the] [[Materialism|materialist]] [[world view]]" represented by the theory of [[evolution]] in favor of "a science consonant with [[Christian]] and [[Theism|theistic]] convictions".<ref>The '''[http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikisource/en/7/71/Wedge_Document.pdf Wedge Document]''' (PDF file), a 1999 Discovery Institute fundraising pamphlet. Cited in Handley P. [http://www.discovery.org/scripts/viewDB/index.php?command=view&program=CSC-News&id=2445 Evolution or design debate heats up.] ''The Times of Oman'', 7 March 2005.</ref> In contrast to scientific consensus the Discovery Institute portrays [[evolution]] as a "theory in crisis" with scientists criticizing evolution and that "fairness" and "equal time" requires educating students about the controversy. The scientific community and science education organizations have replied that any controversial aspects of evolution are a matter of religion and politics, not science.<ref name=AAAS> "Some bills seek to discredit evolution by emphasizing so-called "flaws" in the theory of evolution or "disagreements" within the scientific community. Others insist that teachers have absolute freedom within their classrooms and cannot be disciplined for teaching non-scientific "alternatives" to evolution. A number of bills require that students be taught to "critically analyze" evolution or to understand "the controversy." But there is no significant controversy within the scientific community about the validity of the theory of evolution. The current controversy surrounding the teaching of evolution is not a scientific one."<br />
[http://www.aaas.org/news/releases/2006/pdf/0219boardstatement.pdf AAAS Statement on the Teaching of Evolution] [[American Association for the Advancement of Science]]. February 16, 2006 </ref><ref>"That this controversy is one largely manufactured by the proponents of creationism and intelligent design may not matter, and as long as the controversy is taught in classes on current affairs, politics, or religion, and not in science classes, neither scientists nor citizens should be concerned." [http://content.nejm.org/cgi/content/full/354/21/2277 Intelligent Judging — Evolution in the Classroom and the Courtroom] George J. Annas, [[New England Journal of Medicine]], Volume 354:2277-2281 May 25, 2006</ref> The 2005 ruling in the Dover trial, [[Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District]], where the claims of intelligent design proponents were considered by a [[United States federal courts|United States federal court]] concluded that intelligent design is not science, that it "cannot uncouple itself from its creationist, and thus religious, antecedents", and concluded that the school district's promotion of it therefore violated the [[Establishment Clause of the First Amendment|Establishment Clause]] of the [[First Amendment to the United States Constitution|First Amendment to the U.S. Constitution]].<ref>{{cite court |litigants=Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District |vol=04 |reporter= cv |opinion= 2688 |pinpoint= |court= |date=[[December 20]] [[2005]] }}, [[Wikisource:Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District/6:Curriculum, Conclusion#Page 136 of 139|Conclusion of Ruling]].</ref> A 2006 article in scientific journal Science, said the reason that among the thirty-four developed countries surveyed, the U.S. ranks second from last in the number of adults who accept the theory of evolution: "The<br />
acceptance of evolution is lower in the United States than in Japan or Europe, largely because of<br />
widespread fundamentalism and the politicization of science in the United States."<ref> Miller, Jon D.; Scott, Eugenie C.; and Okamoto, Shinji. 2006. [http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/summary/313/5788/765 Public Acceptance of Evolution] Science. 313: 765-766.</ref><br />
<br />
===Global warming===<br />
<br />
{{main|Global warming controversy}}<br />
<br />
Both sides of the [[global warming controversy|controversy]] over [[global warming]] have accused each other of politicizing the science behind [[climate change]]. <br />
<br />
In ''[[Unstoppable Global Warming]]'', atmospheric physicist [[Fred Singer]] accused the Clinton Administration of pressuring the United Nations to remove from the first [[IPCC]] report all indicatiors of scientific disagreement with the pro-[[Kyoto Protocol]] position on the [[global warming controversy]].<br />
<br />
In 1991, a US corporate coalition including the [[National Coal Association]], the [[Western Fuels Association]] and [[Edison Electrical Institute]] created a [[public relations]] organization called the "[[Information Council on the Environment]]" (ICE). ICE launched a $500,000 advertising campaign to, in ICE's own words, "reposition global warming as theory (not fact)." Critics of industry groups have charged that the claims about a global warming controversy are part of a deliberate effort to reduce the impact any international treaty, such as the [[Kyoto Protocol]], might have on their business interests.<ref name=earthisland>[http://www.earthisland.org/eijournal/spring98/sp98a_fe.htm The PR Plot to Overheat the Earth]</ref><br />
<br />
In June 2005, John Vidal, environment editor of ''[[The Guardian]]'', asserted the existence of [[US State Department]] papers showing that the Bush administration thanked [[Exxon]] executives for the company's "active involvement" in helping to determine climate change policy, including the US stance on Kyoto. Input from the industry advocacy group [[Global Climate Coalition]] was also a factor.<ref>[http://www.guardian.co.uk/climatechange/story/0,12374,1501646,00.html Revealed: how oil giant influenced Bush, White House sought advice from Exxon on Kyoto stance] John Vidal. The Guardian, June 8 2005</ref> In 2006, ''The Guardian'' reported that according data found in official Exxon documents, 124 organizations have taken money from ExxonMobil or worked closely with who that have, and that "These organizations take a consistent line on climate change: that the science is contradictory, the scientists are split, environmentalists are charlatans, liars or lunatics, and if governments took action to prevent global warming, they would be endangering the global economy for no good reason. The findings these organisations dislike are labelled 'junk science'. The findings they welcome are labelled 'sound science'."<ref>[http://environment.guardian.co.uk/climatechange/story/0,,1875762,00.html?gusrc=rss&feed=1 The Denial Industry] The Guardian, September 19, 2006</ref><ref name=pacinist>[http://www.pacinst.org/topics/integrity_of_science/case_studies/selective_use_climate_update.pdf The Political and Selective Use of Data: Cherry-Picking Climate Information in the White House]</ref> The "selective use of data", [[cherry picking]], is identified as a notable form of scientific abuse by the [[Pacific Institute]], an organization created to provide independent research and policy analysis on issues at the intersection of development, environment, and security.<ref name=pacinst2>[http://integrityofscience.org Integrity of Science initiative of the Pacific Institute]</ref><br />
<br />
In December 2007, the [[Christian Science Monitor]] reported that at least since 2003, and especially after [[hurricane Katrina]], the George W. Bush administration has broadly attempted to control which climate scientists could speak with reporters, as well as edited scientists' congressional testimony on climate science and key legal opinions<ref name=csm>[http://www.csmonitor.com/2007/1212/p03s03-uspo.html Study Finds White House Manipulation on Climate Science]</ref> Those who have studied organizations set up to delay action and manufacture uncertainty about well established scientific consensus have <ref name=goodforyou>[http://www.houstonpress.com/2002-08-15/news/global-warming-is-good-for-you/ Global Warming is Good for You] Dylan Otto Krider, ''Houston Press, 2002''</ref>divided their tactics into three basic categories: first deny there is a problem, second, make the case that it's not a problem and may actually be beneficial, and failing that to admit it's a problem but insist there's nothing anyone can do about it. <br />
<br />
Climate change has also long been a political issue for the Democratic party politician [[Al Gore]]. Some political opponents have accused him of using the issue as a means to advance his political ambitions.<ref name=americanthinker>[http://www.americanthinker.com/2006/06/gores_grave_new_world.html Gore's Grave New World]</ref> He has not run for any political office since 2000. In 2007 Gore won an Academy Award (for ''[[An Inconvenient Truth]]'') and a [[Nobel Peace Prize]] for his work.<br />
<br />
===Waxman report===<br />
<br />
In August 2003, [[United States]], Democratic Congressman [[Henry A. Waxman]] and the staff of the [[United States House Committee on Government Reform|Government Reform Committee]] released a report concluding that the [[George W. Bush administration|administration of George W. Bush]] had politicized science and [[sex education]]. The report accuses the administration of modifying performance measures for abstinence-based programs to make them look more effective. The report also found that the Bush administration had appointed Dr. Joseph McIlhaney, a prominent advocate of abstinence-only program, to the Advisory Committee to the director of the [[Center for Disease Control]]. According to the report, information about comprehensive sex education was removed from the CDC's website. Other issues considered for removal included [[Agriculture#Environmental impact|agricultural pollution]], the [[Arctic National Wildlife Refuge]] and [[breast cancer]]; the report found that a [[National Cancer Institute]] website has been changed to reflect the administration view that there may be a risk of breast cancer associated with [[abortion]]s.<ref name=waxmanreport>[http://oversight.house.gov/features/politics_and_science/pdfs/pdf_politics_and_science_rep.pdf Politics and Science]</ref><ref name=waxmanpage>[http://www.house.gov/reform/min/politicsandscience/ Politics & Science: Investigating the Bush Administration's Promotion of Ideology Over Science]</ref> The website was updated after protests and now holds that no such risk has been found in recent, well-designed studies.<ref>The full report in PDF format is available from http://oversight.house.gov/features/politics_and_science/pdfs/pdf_politics_and_science_rep.pdf </ref><br />
<br />
==US House of Representatives Science Oversight and Investigation subcommittee==<br />
<br />
In January 2007, the [[House Committee on Science and Technology]] announced the formation of a new subcommittee, the [[United States House Science Subcommittee on Investigations and Oversight|Science Subcommittee on Investigations and Oversight]], which handles investigative and oversight activities on matters covering the committee's entire jurisdiction.<ref>"The Subcommittee handles investigative and oversight activities on matters covering the entire jurisdiction of the Committee on Science and Technology. This Subcommittee is new for the 110th Congress." [http://science.house.gov/subcommittee/default.htm Subcommittees, Committee on Science and Technology]</ref> The subcommittee has authority to look into a whole range of important issues, particularly those concerning manipulation of scientific data at Federal agencies. In an interview, subcommitte chairman Rep. [[Brad Miller (congressman)|Brad Miller]] pledged to "look into...scientific integrity issues under the Bush Administration. There have been lots of reports in the press of manipulating science to support policy, rigging advisory panels, and suppressing research by federal employees or with federal dollars. I've written about that here before, and you interviewed me a year ago about the manipulation of science. In addition to the published reports, the committee staff has been collecting accounts, some confidential, of interference by political appointees. I hope that more folks will come forward now that Democrats are in the majority and we show we're really going to pursue the issue.<ref>[http://www.dailykos.com/storyonly/2007/1/24/11426/3083 Democrats Form New Science Subcommittee] Brad Miller interview. [[Daily Kos]], January 24, 2007.</ref><br />
<br />
== See also ==<br />
*[[Antiscience]]<br />
*[[Artificial controversy]]<br />
*[[Cyril Burt]]<br />
*[[Denialism]]<br />
*[[Discovery Institute intelligent design campaigns]]<br />
*[[Framing (communication theory)]]<br />
*[[Kansas evolution hearings]]<br />
*[[Trofim Lysenko]]<br />
*[[Politicized issue]]<br />
*[[The Republican War on Science]]<br />
*[[Spin (public relations)]]<br />
*[[Scientists and Engineers for America]]<br />
*[[William R. Steiger]]<br />
<br />
== External links ==<br />
* [http://www.house.gov/reform/min/politicsandscience/ Politics & Science: Investigating the Bush Administration's Promotion of Ideology Over Science]. Website by US Congressman Henry Waxman and the Government Reform Committee.<br />
* [http://www.ucsusa.org/assets/documents/scientific_integrity/Scientific-Integrity-at-Risk-FDA.pdf Examples of abuse, Scientific Integrity at Risk: The Food and Drug Administration] The Union of Concerned Scientists (PDF file)<br />
* [http://www.ucsusa.org/ Union of Concerned Scientists website]<br />
* [http://integrityofscience.org Integrity of Science initiative of the Pacific Institute]<br />
* [http://www.usatoday.com/tech/science/2007-08-05-science-politics_N.htm Science vs. politics gets down and dirty] - USA TODAY<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{reflist}}<br />
<br />
==Additional reading==<br />
:*[http://www.waronscience.com/home.php ''The Republican War on Science''] [[Chris Mooney]] (2005). <br />
:*[http://www.ucsusa.org/scientific_integrity/interference/reports-scientific-integrity-in-policy-making.html ''Scientific Integrity in Policy Making: Investigation of the Bush administration's abuse of science''] [[Union of Concerned Scientists]] (2004). <br />
:*[http://www.cspo.org/Political_Science.html Political Science] [[The New York Times]] (2005).<br />
:*[http://www.skeptic.com/eskeptic/04-10-08.html Politicized Science: Science as Public Relations] [[Skeptic (U.S. magazine)]] (2004).<br />
:*[http://www.unc.edu/courses/2005spring/epid/278/001/Krider_Politicized%20Science_Spring%202004.htm Politicized Science] [[Dissent Magazine]] (2004)<br />
<br />
[[Category:Discovery Institute campaigns]]<br />
[[Category:Politics by issue]]<br />
[[Category:Science in society]]<br />
[[Category:Types of scientific fallacy]]<br />
[[Category:George W. Bush administration controversies]]<br />
[[Category:Denialism]]</div>
Leslie
https://conservapedia.com/index.php?title=Tom_Brokaw&diff=553381
Tom Brokaw
2008-11-10T00:49:06Z
<p>Leslie: removing some too-obvious bias</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Infobox journalist<br />
| name = Tom Brokaw<br />
| image = [[Image:Tom Brokaw by David Shankbone.jpg|250px]]<br />
| caption = Tom Brokaw in 2007 (Photo: David Shankbone)<br />
| birthname = Thomas John Brokaw <br />
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|mf=yes|1940|2|6}}<br />
| birth_place = [[Webster, South Dakota]], U.S.<br />
| age = 68<br />
| death_date = <br />
| death_place = <br />
| education = Degree in politics and journalism from University of South Dakota<br />
| occupation = Television journalist<br />
| alias = <br />
| gender = male<br />
| status = <br />
| title = | family = <br />
| spouse = Meredith Lynn Auld<br />
| children = Jennifer Jean<br />Andra Brooks<br />Sara Auld<br />
| relatives = <br />
| ethnic = <br />
| salary = <br />
| networth = <br />
| credits = ''[[Today (NBC program)|Today]]'' co-anchor<br />(1976&ndash;1981)<br />''[[NBC Nightly News]]'' anchor<br />(1982&ndash;2004)<br />''[[NBC Nightly News|NBC News]]'' Special [[Correspondent]]<br />(2004&ndash;present)<br />''[[Meet the Press]]'' moderator<br />(2008&ndash;present)<ref name=cfrorg>{{cite news|title=Tom Brokaw - Council on Foreign Relations|url=http://www.cfr.org/bios/6245/tom_brokaw.html|accessdate=2008-02-07}}</ref><br />
| agent = <br />
| URL = <br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''Thomas John "Tom" Brokaw''' (born February 6, 1940) is an American television journalist and author, and currently the interim moderator of [[NBC News|NBC]]'s ''[[Meet the Press]]''. Brokaw is best known as the former anchor and managing editor of ''[[NBC Nightly News]]''. His last broadcast as anchor was on December 1, 2004, after which he was succeeded by [[Brian Williams]] in a carefully planned transition. In the latter part of Brokaw's tenure, ''NBC Nightly News'' became the most watched cable or broadcast news program in the United States. Brokaw also hosted, wrote, and moderated special programs on a wide range of topics. Throughout his career, he has been the recipient of numerous awards and honors.<br />
<br />
Brokaw serves on the [[Howard University]] School of Communications Board of Visitors and on the boards of trustees of the [[University of South Dakota]], the [[Norton Simon Museum]], the [[American Museum of Natural History]] and the [[International Rescue Committee]]. As well as his television journalism, he has written for periodicals and has authored books. He still works at NBC as a Special Correspondent<ref name="cfrorg"/> and has worked on various documentaries for [[The History Channel]] and [[ESPN]] since his retirement as anchor.<br />
<br />
He is the only person in NBC's history to host all three major NBC News programs in his long career: ''[[Today (NBC program)|The Today Show]]'' in the '70s, ''NBC Nightly News'' in the '80s, '90s and '00s and as an interim replacement for [[Tim Russert]] on ''Meet the Press'' in 2008.<br />
<br />
==Biography==<br />
=== Early life ===<br />
[[Image:Brokaw-gavinspoint.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Tom Brokaw (left) greeting the 20,000th visitor to the [[Gavins Point Dam]] in 1958. Brokaw was a tour guide there.]]<br />
Brokaw was born in [[Webster, South Dakota]], the son of Eugenia "Jean" (née Conley), who worked in sales and as a post office clerk, and Anthony Orville "Red" Brokaw.<ref>[http://www.filmreference.com/film/77/Tom-Brokaw.html Tom Brokaw Biography (1940-)]</ref> He was the eldest of their three sons and was named after his maternal great-grandfather, Thomas Conley. His father was a descendant of [[Huguenot]] immigrants Bourgon and Cathernine (le Fevre) Broucard and his mother was [[Irish American]].<ref name="STL02">McGuire, John M. (November 6, 2002). "From Yankton to Yankee Town". ''St. Louis Post-Dispatch'', p. E1.</ref> His paternal great-grandfather, Richard P. Brokaw, founded the town of [[Bristol, South Dakota]], and the Brokaw House, a small hotel and the first structure in Bristol.<ref name="ALWFH9">Brokaw, Tom. (2003). ''A Long Way from Home: Growing Up in the American Heartland in the Forties and Fifties'', p. 9. New York: Random House.</ref><br />
<br />
Brokaw's father was a construction foreman for the [[United States Army Corps of Engineers|Army Corps of Engineers]]. He worked at the [[Black Hills Ordnance Depot]] (BHOD) and helped construct [[Fort Randall Dam]]; his job often required the family to resettle during Brokaw's early childhood.<ref name="MidwestToday">Jordan, Larry (February 1995). "[http://www.midtod.com/highlights/brokaw.phtml Tom Brokaw: A Heavyweight in a World of Lightweights]". ''Midwest Today''.</ref> The Brokaws lived for short periods in Bristol, Igloo (the small residential community of the BHOD), and [[Pickstown, South Dakota|Pickstown]], before settling in [[Yankton, South Dakota|Yankton]], where Brokaw attended high school.<ref name="STL02" /><ref name="MidwestToday" /><br />
<br />
As a [[high school]] student attending Yankton Senior High School,<ref name="Yahoo TV"/> Brokaw was governor of South Dakota [[American Legion]] [[Boys State]], and in that capacity he accompanied then South Dakota Governor [[Joe Foss]] to New York City for a joint appearance on a TV [[game show]]. It was to be the beginning of a long relationship with Foss, whom Brokaw would later feature in his book about World War II [[veterans]], ''The Greatest Generation''.<br />
<br />
Tom Brokaw dropped out of the [[University of Iowa]], where he says he majored in "beer and co-eds" before receiving his [[B.A.]] degree in [[Political Science]] from the [[University of South Dakota]] in [[Vermillion, South Dakota|Vermillion]] in 1964.<ref name="Yahoo TV">{{cite web|title=Tom Brokaw - Biography|url=http://tv.yahoo.com/tom-brokaw/contributor/213912/bio|publisher=Yahoo! TV|accessdate=2008-08-19}}</ref><br />
<br />
He has been married to [[Meredith Lynn Auld]] (a former [[Miss South Dakota]] and author) since 1962. They have three daughters, Jennifer Jean, Andrea Brooks and Sara Auld.<br />
<br />
===Career===<br />
{{proseline}}<br />
<br />
====1960s====<br />
His television career began at [[KTIV]] in [[Sioux City, Iowa]], followed by a three-year stint at [[KMTV]] in [[Omaha, Nebraska]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.museum.tv/archives/etv/B/htmlB/brokawtom/brokawtom.htm |title=Brokaw, Tom |publisher=Museum.tv |date= |accessdate=2008-11-04}}</ref><br />
<br />
In 1965, he became an editor of the late-evening news on [[WSB-TV]] in [[Atlanta, Georgia]]. The following year he joined [[NBC]] News, reporting from [[California]] and anchoring the 11 p.m. news for [[KNBC|KNBC-TV]] in [[Los Angeles, California|Los Angeles]]. <br />
<br />
====1970s====<br />
From 1973-1976 he was an NBC News [[White House]] correspondent, covering the [[Watergate scandal]]. During this time, he was asked by the higher-rated [[CBS News]] to join it after CBS's management had decided its reporter, [[Dan Rather]], was too hostile to then-President Richard Nixon. The switch never happened after word of it was leaked to the press.<br />
<br />
In 1976, Brokaw became NBC News' ''[[Today (NBC program)|Today Show]]'' host. He was also the floor reporter for the two major parties' presidential nominating conventions. <br />
<br />
====1980s====<br />
[[Image:BrokawLomaPrietaNakataA.jpg|thumb|right|Brokaw preparing his script for a live broadcast from the darkened ruins of San Francisco's Marina District in the aftermath of the [[1989 Loma Prieta earthquake]].]]<br />
<br />
In 1982, Brokaw began co-anchoring ''NBC Nightly News'', along with co-anchor [[Roger Mudd]]. When Mudd went on to host ''[[Meet the Press]]'' and ''American Almanac'', a weekly newsmagazine, Brokaw became the sole anchor of the ''NBC Nightly News with Tom Brokaw'' on September 5, 1983.<br />
<br />
In 1987, he wrote ''[[The Arms, the Men, the Money]]'', investigating [[Contras|Contra]] rebels. That same year he conducted the first one-on-one American TV interview with [[Mikhail Gorbachev]], and won an [[Alfred I. duPont-Columbia University Award]]. He also moderated the debates among all declared presidential candidates of both the Republican and Democratic parties.<br />
<br />
In 1989, he reported the collapse of the [[Berlin Wall]]. Also in January 1989, he was the first person ever to do a ''[[The More You Know]]'' [[public service announcement]].<br />
<br />
====1990s====<br />
From 1992-93 he anchored ''[[The Brokaw Report]]'' series of [[prime-time]] "critical issues" specials. He was also host, with [[Katie Couric]], of a prime-time [[newsmagazine]] called ''[[Now with Tom Brokaw and Katie Couric|Now]]''. The show aired from 1993-94, and was folded into the multi-night ''Dateline NBC'' program.<br />
<br />
In 1995, Brokaw reported from the site of the [[Oklahoma City bombing]]. The following year he reported from the scene of the [[TWA flight 800]] tragedy. <br />
<br />
In 1997, he interviewed [[Charlie Trie]] and [[Johnny Chung]], key figures in the [[1996 United States campaign finance controversy|campaign finance abuse scandal]].<br />
<br />
In 1999, he conducted the first North American TV interview with [[Prime Minister of Russia|Russian Prime Minister]] [[Yevgeny Primakov]], in Moscow. He also traveled to [[Tirana]], [[Albania]] during [[NATO]] airstrikes in [[Federal Republic of Yugoslavia|Yugoslavia]].<br />
<br />
====2000s====<br />
[[Image:Vladimir Putin with Tom Brokaw-1.jpg|thumb|right|Brokaw with [[Vladimir Putin]] before an interview on 2 June 2000.]]<br />
In 2000, he conducted the first American TV interview with [[President of Russia|Russian President]] [[Vladimir Putin]], in Moscow. He was also Master of Ceremonies at the opening of the [[National D-Day Museum]] in [[New Orleans, Louisiana]].<br />
<br />
Brokaw was Grand Marshall for the 112th [[Tournament of Roses]] parade in 2001.<br />
<br />
On [[September 11, 2001]], Brokaw joined [[Katie Couric]] and [[Matt Lauer]] around 9:30 a.m., following the live attack on the South Tower of the [[World Trade Center]], and continued to anchor all day, until after midnight, when [[MSNBC]] took over coverage. During the early stages of the disaster, Brokaw famously responded to Lauer's speculations over loss of life after the second tower fell by saying, "This is war. This is a declaration and execution of an attack on the United States."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.post-gazette.com/tv/20010912owentv4p4.asp |title=Tuned In: This was reality TV at its most horrific |publisher=Post-gazette.com |date= |accessdate=2008-11-04}}</ref> He also asked "Are we at war?" and exclaimed "War! War!" in the style of a sports chant.<ref> Brokaw, Tom (September 11, 2001) "NBC Live News Feed". NBC.</ref> Throughout the day, Brokaw was joined by [[David Bloom]], [[Jim Miklaszewski]] from the Pentagon, author [[Tom Clancy]], Senator [[John McCain]], and NBC Aviation expert [[Robert Hager]] at different points in the day, just to name a few.<br />
<br />
Brokaw returned for the following two days and expanded the ''NBC Nightly News'' to midnight, as well. Along with his contemporaries, [[Peter Jennings]] of [[American Broadcasting Company|ABC]] and [[Dan Rather]] of CBS, the three anchors provided thorough and blanket coverage of the attacks.<br />
<br />
In late September 2001, a letter containing [[anthrax]] was addressed to him as part of the [[2001 anthrax attacks]]. Brokaw wasn't harmed, but two NBC News employees were infected.<br />
<br />
In 2002, Brokaw announced his intention to go under retirement as anchor of the ''NBC Nightly News'' effective after the [[U.S. presidential election, 2004|2004 Presidential election]]. NBC then announced that [[Brian Williams]] would be Brokaw's successor as the anchor of ''NBC Nightly News'' on December 2, 2004. NBC also announced that Brokaw will remain with [[NBC News]] in a part-time capacity through 2014 serving as an analyst as well as anchoring and producing documentary programs.<br />
<br />
By the end of his time as ''Nightly News'' anchor, Brokaw was regarded as the most popular news personality in the United States. His program was consistently rated the highest evening news show, topping Dan Rather and Peter Jennings in the evening news ratings. This may explain why Brokaw was the only one of the three evening news anchors to have a sit-down interview with President [[George W. Bush]].<br />
<br />
Along with the two other pillars of the so-called "Big Three" — Peter Jennings (ABC) and Dan Rather (CBS) — Brokaw helped usher in the era of the TV [[news anchor]] as lavishly compensated, globe-trotting star in the 1980s. The magnitude of a news event could be measured by whether Brokaw and his counterparts on the other two networks showed up on the scene. Brokaw's retirement in December 2004, followed by Rather's ouster from the ''[[CBS Evening News]]'' in March 2005, and finally Jennings's death in August 2005, brought that era to a close.<br />
<br />
He closed his final ''Nightly News'' broadcast in front of 15.7 million viewers on NBC by saying:<br />
<br />
:"That's ''Nightly News'' for this Wednesday night. I'm Tom Brokaw. You'll see Brian Williams tomorrow night; I'll see you along the way."<br />
<br />
[[Image:TomBrokaw.jpg|thumb|Brokaw in 2006 speaking about the [[attack on Pearl Harbor]].]]<br />
<br />
====Ratings====<br />
By the time American viewers became familiar with Tom Brokaw and his ''NBC Nightly News'' the program was consistently ranked #1, [[Peter Jennings]] and ''[[World News with Charles Gibson|World News Tonight]]'' was ranked #2, [[Dan Rather]] and the ''[[CBS News|CBS Evening News]]'' was ranked #3. Earlier in his career, CBS under [[Walter Cronkite|Cronkite]] and Rather was #1 in the early and mid 1980s, Jennings was #1 in the late 1980s and mid 1990s, and Brokaw took over as America's most watched anchor in the late 1990s, holding the spot until his retirement in 2004.<br />
<br />
====Present====<br />
=====2006=====<br />
In 2006, Tom Brokaw became the second journalist to receive the prestigious [[Sylvanus Thayer Award]] by the [[USMA|United States Military Academy]] at West Point. The first one was legendary news anchor man [[Walter Cronkite]] in 1997.<br />
<br />
He is presently on the board of directors of the [[Council on Foreign Relations]], the [[Committee to Protect Journalists]], and the [[International Rescue Committee]].<br />
<br />
Some political independents, Libertarians, Reform party members and Green Party members have publicly urged Tom Brokaw to run as their candidate for national office: U.S. Senate, or President.<br />
<br />
Brokaw recently completed a documentary on global warming for the Discovery Channel entitled ''[[Global Warming: What You Need to Know, with Tom Brokaw]]''.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cutco2.org/2006/07/tom-brokaw-gets-involved.html |title=Cut CO2 - You Can Help Reduce Carbon Dioxide Emissions |publisher=Cutco2.org |date=Sunday, July 09, 2006 |accessdate=2008-11-04}}</ref><br />
<br />
On November 19, 2006, Brokaw delivered the keynote speech at the annual Dedication Day Ceremony at the Soldiers' National Cemetery in Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, honoring those who fought and died in the American Civil War.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thelincolnforum.org/symposiumSchedule06.html |title=The Lincoln Forum - Symposium Information |publisher=Thelincolnforum.org |date= |accessdate=2008-11-04}}</ref><br />
<br />
=====2007=====<br />
On January 2, 2007, Brokaw delivered one of the eulogies during the [[Death and state funeral of Gerald Ford|state funeral of former President Gerald R. Ford]].<br />
<br />
On May 28, 2007, Brokaw appeared on the History Channel special, ''Star Wars: The Legacy Revealed'', describing Darth Vader's attire.<br />
<br />
Brokaw was the host for the rollout of the [[Boeing 787]] airplane on July 8, 2007.<br />
<br />
Brokaw hosted and conducted interviews for the History Channel's ''[[1968 with Tom Brokaw]]'', a 2-hour documentary that first aired on December 9, 2007 which examined one of the most tumultuous years in American history.<br />
<br />
=====2008=====<br />
Brokaw hosted and conducted interviews for the History Channel's 2-hour program entitled ''King'' that aired on April 4, 2008, the 40th anniversary of the assassination of civil rights leader [[Martin Luther King, Jr]].<br />
<br />
Brokaw is currently NBC News Special Correspondent, providing election analysis along with [[Brian Williams]], [[Chris Matthews]], and [[Keith Olbermann]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://insidecable.blogsome.com/?s=brokaw |title=Inside Cable News |publisher=Insidecable.blogsome.com |date= |accessdate=2008-11-04}}</ref> <br />
<br />
On June 13, 2008, Brokaw broke into NBC's second round coverage of the U.S. open golf tournament at 3:39 p.m. EDT and publicly announced the death of his longtime friend and colleague, NBC News Washington Bureau Chief and ''Meet the Press'' moderator [[Tim Russert]]. The NBC NEWS special report announcing Russert's death was also broadcasted on [[CNBC]], and [[MSNBC]]. Later that night, he hosted a one-hour special program on NBC memorializing Russert and hosted the following Sunday's episode of ''[[Meet the Press]]'' remembering Tim Russert.<br />
<br />
===Meet the Press===<br />
On June 22, 2008, guest moderator Brian Williams announced at the end of that day's show that Tom Brokaw will replace [[Tim Russert]], on an interim basis, as host of ''[[Meet the Press]]'', chosen to serve as moderator until the end of the 2008 Presidential Campaign. NBC has not discussed any potential permanent replacements for Russert; Brokaw has stated that he has no intention of filling the position permanently, stating that "the plan is for me to be in place until they can find somebody who can take it over on a permanent basis."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://tv.msn.com/tv/article.aspx/?news=319902&affid=100055& |title=NBC: Brokaw to host 'Meet the Press' through Nov. - MSN TV News |publisher=Tv.msn.com |date= |accessdate=2008-11-04}}</ref> Rumored candidates for the job include [[Chuck Todd]], [[David Gregory (journalist)|David Gregory]], [[Andrea Mitchell]], [[Chris Matthews]], and [[Gwen Ifill]].<br />
<br />
===Presidential debate===<br />
Brokaw hosted the second presidential debate between [[Barack Obama]] and [[John McCain]] October 7, 2008 at [[Belmont University]]'s Curb Event Center in [[Nashville, Tennessee]]. The debate had a town-hall meeting format.<br />
<br />
===Career timeline===<br />
*1965: Anchor of [[WSB-TV]] late-evening news<ref name="autogenerated1">{{cite web|url=http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/4364148/ |title=Tom Brokaw - Nightly News with Brian Williams - MSNBC.com |publisher=Msnbc.msn.com |date=June 27, 2008 |accessdate=2008-11-04}}</ref><br />
*1966&ndash;1972: [[NBC News]] West Coast correspondent and [[KNBC]] anchor<ref name="autogenerated1" /><br />
*1973&ndash;1976: [[White House]] correspondent<ref name="autogenerated1" /><br />
*1976&ndash;1981: ''[[Today (NBC program)|Today Show]]'' host<ref name="autogenerated1" /><br />
*1982&ndash;1983: ''[[NBC Nightly News]]'' co-anchor<ref name="autogenerated1" /><br />
*1983&ndash;2004: ''NBC Nightly News'' anchor<ref name="autogenerated1" /><br />
*2004&ndash;present: Special Correspondent for [[NBC News]]<ref name="autogenerated1" /><br />
*2008&ndash;present: ''[[Meet the Press]]'' moderator (interim)<ref name="autogenerated1" /><br />
<br />
==Books==<br />
[[Image:Tom Brokaw at Book Signing 2007.JPG|thumb|Brokaw signing a book in Seattle in 2007]]<br />
*1998 ''[[The Greatest Generation]]'' ISBN 0-375-50202-5 (hardback) ISBN 0-385-33462-1 (paperback) Depicts the Americans who came of age during the Great Depression and fought World War II.<br />
*1999 ''The Greatest Generation Speaks'' ISBN 0-375-50394-3 (hardback) ISBN 0-385-33538-5 (paperback)<br />
*2001 ''An Album of Memories'' ISBN 0-375-50581-4 (hardback) ISBN 0-375-76041-5 (paperback)<br />
*2002 ''A Long Way from Home: Growing Up in the American Heartland'' ISBN 0-375-50763-9 (hardback) ISBN 0-375-75935-2 (paperback)<br />
*2006 ''Galen Rowell: A Retrospective'' ISBN 1-57805-115-0 (hardback) Foreword by Tom Brokaw<br />
*2007 ''Boom!: Voices of the Sixties Personal Reflections on the '60s and Today'' ISBN 1-40006-457-0 (hardback)<br />
<br />
==Awards==<br />
===Public and industry awards===<br />
*[[Peabody Award]] for a report called ''To Be An American'' <br />
*[[Alfred I. duPont-Columbia University Award]]s for excellence in broadcast journalism for ''Dateline NBC'' documentary special, ''Why Can't We Live Together'' on hidden realities of racial separation in suburban America<br />
*Alfred I. duPont-Columbia University Award for excellence in broadcast journalism for his interview with Mikhail Gorbachev<br />
*seven [[Emmy Award]]s including one for ''China in Crisis'' special report<br />
*1990 National Headliner Award from the National Conference of Christians and Jews for advancing the understanding of religion, race and ethnicity. <br />
*1993 Emmy award for reporting on floods in the Midwest <br />
*1995 Dennis Kauff Memorial Award for Lifetime Achievement in Journalism from [[Boston University]]<br />
*1995 Lowell Thomas Award from [[Marist College]]. <br />
*1997 [[University of Missouri–Columbia]] School of Journalism Honor Medal for Distinguished Service in Journalism <br />
*1997 inducted into the [[Television Academy Hall of Fame]]<br />
*1998 [[Fred Friendly]] First Amendment Award, a tribute to those "individuals whose broadcast career reflects a consistent devotion to freedom of speech and the principles embodied in the First Amendment." <br />
*1998 [[American Legion]] award for distinguished public service in the field of communication. <br />
*1998 Citizens' Scholarship Foundation of America's President's Award recognizing "devotion to helping young people through scholarships." <br />
*1999 Congressional Medal of Honor Society's ''"Tex" McCrary Excellence in Journalism Award'' <br />
*1999 Emmy award for international coverage of the [[Kosovo]] conflict<br />
*2005 Elected to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences<br />
*2005 Four Freedoms Medal: Freedom of Speech And Expression<br />
*2006 [[Washington State University]] [[Edward R. Murrow]] School of Communications Lifetime Achievement in Broadcasting Award<br />
*2006 [[Sylvanus Thayer Award]]: United States Military Academy at West Point<br />
*2006 Walter Cronkite Award for Journalism Excellence at Arizona State University<br />
*2007 Horatio Alger Award for overcoming adversity to achieve success through the American free enterprise system from the Horatio Alger Association of Distinguished Americans Inc.<br />
<br />
=== Honorary degrees ===<br />
*[[University of Notre Dame]]<br />
*[[California Institute of Technology]]<br />
*[[University of South Dakota]]<br />
*[[Saint Anselm College]] in [[Manchester, New Hampshire]]<br />
*[[Emory University]]<br />
*[[Duke University]]<br />
*[[Washington University in St. Louis]]<br />
*[[Boston College]]<br />
*[[Northwestern University]]<br />
*[[University of Pennsylvania]]<br />
*[[Fairfield University]]<br />
*[[Brandeis University]]<br />
*[[Dartmouth College]]<br />
*[[Florida State University]]<br />
*[[Providence College]]<br />
*[[Skidmore College]]<br />
*[[Johns Hopkins University]]<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{reflist|2}}<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
{{Commonscat}}<br />
*[http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/4364148/ Official Biography] from NBC News<br />
*[http://www.museum.tv/archives/etv/B/htmlB/brokawtom/brokawtom.htm Biography] from the [[Museum of Broadcast Communications]]<br />
*[http://www.nndb.com/people/309/000022243/ Tom Brokaw bio at NNDB.com]<br />
*{{imdb name|id=0111232|name=Tom Brokaw}}<br />
*[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=abnHcoK6vRU YouTube clip of Brokaw anchoring ''NBC Nightly News'' in place of John Chancellor, August 29, 1978]<br />
*[http://cetl.edtech.csulb.edu/tgg/ '''Greatest Generation'''] online ebook read by Tom Brokaw (2 chapters)<br />
*[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jsDVzNOeu48 Tom Brokaw's commencement speech at Stanford University video], [http://news-service.stanford.edu/news/2006/june21/broktext-062106.html transcript]<br />
<br />
{{s-start}}<br />
{{s-media}}<br />
{{s-bef|before=[[Barbara Walters]] and [[Jim Hartz]]}}<br />
{{s-ttl|title=[[Today (NBC program)|''Today'' Co-Anchor]] with [[Jane Pauley]]|years=October 11, 1976 &ndash; January 1, 1982<br />
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{{s-aft|after=[[Jane Pauley]] and [[Bryant Gumbel]]}}<br />
{{s-bef|before=[[John Chancellor]]}}<br />
{{s-ttl|title=[[NBC Nightly News|''NBC Nightly News'' Anchor]]|years=April 5, 1982 - December 1, 2004<br /><small>(Co-Anchor with [[Roger Mudd]] until September 5, 1983)}}<br />
{{s-aft|after=[[Brian Williams]]}}<br />
{{s-bef|before=[[Tim Russert]]}}<br />
{{s-ttl|title=[[Meet the Press|''Meet the Press'' Moderator]]|years=June 29, 2008 &ndash; present}}<br />
{{s-inc}}<br />
{{s-end}}<br />
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{{TodayShowAnchors}}<br />
{{NBCEveningNewsAnchors}}<br />
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|ALTERNATIVE NAMES= Brokaw, Thomas John (full name)<br />
|SHORT DESCRIPTION= Television journalist<br />
|DATE OF BIRTH= 1940-2-6<br />
|PLACE OF BIRTH= [[Webster, South Dakota]], U.S.<br />
|DATE OF DEATH= <br />
|PLACE OF DEATH= <br />
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Brokaw, Tom}}<br />
[[Category:1940 births]]<br />
[[Category:American broadcast news analysts]]<br />
[[Category:American television news anchors]]<br />
[[Category:American television reporters and correspondents]]<br />
[[Category:Irish-Americans]]<br />
[[Category:Irish-American broadcasters]]<br />
[[Category:Irish-American writers]]<br />
[[Category:Living people]]<br />
[[Category:Los Angeles television anchors]]<br />
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Leslie
https://conservapedia.com/index.php?title=Herbert_Spencer&diff=553380
Herbert Spencer
2008-11-10T00:48:25Z
<p>Leslie: removing some too-obvious bias</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Otherpeople}}<br />
{{Infobox_Philosopher |<br />
<!-- Scroll down to edit this page --><br />
<!-- Philosopher Category --><br />
region = Western Philosophy|<br />
era = [[19th-century philosophy]]|<br />
color = #B0C4DE |<br />
<br />
<!-- Image --><br />
image_name =Spencer1.jpg |<br />
image_caption =Herbert Spencer |<br />
<br />
<!-- Information --><br />
name =Herbert Spencer |<br />
birth =27 April, 1820 |<br />
death =8 December, 1903 |<br />
school_tradition = [[Evolutionism]], [[Positivism]],|[[Classical liberalism]] |<br />
main_interests = [[Evolution]], [[Positivism]], [[Laissez-faire]], [[utilitarianism]] |<br />
influences = [[Charles Darwin]], [[Auguste Comte]], [[John Stuart Mill]], [[George Henry Lewes]], [[Jean-Baptiste Lamarck]], [[Thomas Huxley]]|<br />
influenced = [[Charles Darwin]], [[Henry Sidgwick]], [[William Graham Sumner]], [[Thorstein Veblen]], [[Emile Durkheim]], [[Alfred Marshall]], [[Henri Bergson]], [[Nikolay Mikhaylovsky]], [[Auberon Herbert]] |<br />
notable_ideas = [[Survival of the fittest]]|<br />
}}<br />
'''Herbert Spencer''' ([[April 27]], [[1820]] – [[December 8]], [[1903]]) was an [[England|English]] [[philosopher]]; prominent [[Classical liberalism|classical liberal]] [[political theorist]]; and sociological theorist of the [[Victorian era]].<br />
<br />
Spencer developed an all-embracing conception of [[evolutionism|evolution]] as the progressive development of the physical world, biological organisms, the human mind, and human culture and societies. The lifelong [[bachelor]] contributed to a wide range of subjects, including [[ethics]], [[religion]], [[politics]], [[philosophy]], [[biology]], [[sociology]], and [[psychology]].<br />
<br />
He is best known for coining the [[phrase]], "[[survival of the fittest]]," which he did in ''Principles of Biology'' (1864), after reading [[Charles Darwin]]'s ''[[On the Origin of Species]]''.<ref name=sotf>{{cite web |url=http://educ.southern.edu/tour/who/pioneers/spencer.html |title=Pioneers of Psychology [2001 Tour] - School of Education & Psychology |accessdate=2007-08-29 |format= |work=}}<br>&nbsp;{{cite web |url=http://works.bepress.com/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1000&context=maurice_stucke |title=Better Competition Advocacy |accessdate=2007-08-29 |author=Maurice E. Stucke |authorlink= |coauthors= |date= |format=pdf |work= |publisher= |pages= |language= |archiveurl= |archivedate= |quote=Herbert Spencer in his ''Principles of Biology'' of 1864, vol. 1, p. 444, wrote “This survival of the fittest, which I have here sought to express in mechanical terms, is that which Mr. Darwin has called ‘natural selection’, or the preservation of favoured races in the struggle for life.”}}</ref> This term strongly suggests [[natural selection]], yet as Spencer extended evolution into realms of sociology and ethics, he made use of [[Lamarckism]] rather than natural selection.<br />
<br />
==Life==<br />
Herbert Spencer was born in [[Derby]], [[England]], on [[April 27]], [[1820]], the son of William George Spencer (generally called George). Spencer’s father was a religious dissenter who drifted from [[Methodism]] to [[Quaker]]ism, and who seems to have transmitted to his son an opposition to all forms of authority. He ran a school founded on the progressive teaching methods of [[Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi]] and also served as Secretary of the [[Derby Philosophical Society]], a scientific society which had been founded in the 1790s by [[Erasmus Darwin]], the grandfather of Charles.<br />
<br />
Spencer was educated in empirical science by his father, while the members of the Derby Philosophical Society introduced him to pre-Darwinian concepts of biological evolution, particularly those of Erasmus Darwin and Jean Baptiste Lamarck. His uncle, the Reverend Thomas Spencer, vicar of Hinton Charterhouse near [[Bath, England|Bath]], completed Spencer’s limited formal education by teaching him some mathematics and physics, and enough [[Latin]] to enable him to translate some easy texts. Thomas Spencer also imprinted on his nephew his own firmly free-trade and anti-statist political views. Otherwise, Spencer was an autodidact who acquired most of his knowledge from narrowly focused readings and conversations with his friends and acquaintances.<ref> Duncan, ''Life and Letters of Herbert Spencer'' pp. 53-55</ref><br />
<br />
As both an adolescent and a young man Spencer found it difficult to settle to any intellectual or professional discipline. He worked as a civil engineer during the railway boom of the late 1830s, while also devoting much of his time to writing for provincial journals that were nonconformist in their religion and radical in their politics. From 1848 to 1853 he served as sub-editor on the free-trade journal ''[[The Economist]]'', during which time he published his first book, ''[[Social Statics]]'' (1851), which predicted that humanity would shortly become completely adapted to the requirements of living in society with the consequential withering away of the state.<br />
<br />
Its publisher, [[John Chapman (publisher)|John Chapman]], introduced him to his salon which was attended by many of the leading radical and progressive thinkers of the capital, including [[John Stuart Mill]], [[Harriet Martineau]], [[George Henry Lewes]] and Mary Ann Evans ([[George Eliot]]), with whom he was briefly romantically linked. Spencer himself introduced the biologist [[Thomas Henry Huxley]], who would later win fame as 'Darwin’s Bulldog' and who remained his lifelong friend. However it was the friendship of Evans and Lewes that acquainted him with John Stuart Mill’s ''A System of Logic'' and with [[Auguste Comte]]’s [[Positivism]] and which set him on the road to his life’s work; he strongly disagreed with Comte.<ref> Duncan, ''Life and Letters of Herbert Spencer'' p. 113</ref><br />
<br />
The first fruit of his friendship with Evans and Lewes was Spencer's second book, ''Principles of Psychology'', published in 1855, which explored a physiological basis for psychology. The book was founded on the fundamental assumption that the human mind was subject to natural laws and that these could be discovered within the framework of general biology. This permitted the adoption of a developmental perspective not merely in terms of the individual (as in traditional psychology), but also of the species and the race. Through this paradigm, Spencer aimed to reconcile the [[associationist psychology]] of Mill’s ''Logic'', the notion that human mind was constructed from atomic sensations held together by the laws of the association of ideas, with the apparently more 'scientific' theory of [[phrenology]], which located specific mental functions in specific parts of the brain.<br />
<br />
Spencer argued that both these theories were partial accounts of the truth: repeated associations of ideas were embodied in the formation of specific strands of brain tissue, and these could be passed from one generation to the next by means of the [[Lamarckism|Lamarckian]] mechanism of use-inheritance. The ''Psychology'', he modestly believed, would do for the human mind what [[Isaac Newton]] had done for matter.<ref> Duncan, ''Life and Letters of Herbert Spencer'' p. 75</ref> However, the book was not initially successful and the last of the 251 copies of its first edition was not sold until June 1861. <br />
<br />
Spencer's interest in psychology derived from a more fundamental concern which was to establish the universality of natural law<ref> Duncan, ''Life and Letters of Herbert Spencer By David Duncan'' p. 537</ref>. In common with others of his generation, including the members of Chapman's salon, he was possessed with the idea of demonstrating that it was possible to show that everything in the universe - including human culture, language, and morality - could be explained by laws of universal validity. This was in contrast to the views of many theologians of the time who insisted that some parts of creation, in particular the human soul, were beyond the realm of scientific investigation. Comte's ''Systeme de Philosophie Positive'' had been written with the ambition of demonstrating the universality of natural law, and Spencer was to follow Comte in the scale of his ambition. However, Spencer differed from Comte in believing it was possible to discover a single law of universal application which he identified with progressive development and was to call the principle of [[evolutionism|evolution]].<br />
<br />
[[Image:Spencer Herbert Age 38.jpg|right|thumb|Spencer at age 38]]<br />
<br />
In 1858 Spencer produced an outline of what was to become the System of Synthetic Philosophy. This immense undertaking, which has few parallels in the English language, aimed to demonstrate that the principle of evolution applied in biology, psychology, sociology (Spencer appropriated Comte's term for the new discipline) and morality. Spencer envisaged that this work of ten volumes would take twenty years to complete; in the event it took him twice as long and consumed almost all the rest of his long life.<br />
<br />
Despite Spencer's early struggles to establish himself as a writer, by the 1870s he had become the most famous philosopher of the age<ref> Duncan, ''Life and Letters of Herbert Spencer'' p. 497</ref>. His works were widely read during his lifetime, and by 1869 he was able to support himself solely on the profit of book sales and on income from his regular contributions to Victorian periodicals which were collected as three volumes of ''Essays''. His works were translated into German, Italian, Spanish, French, Russian, Japanese and Chinese, and into many other languages and he was offered honors and awards all over Europe and North America. He also became a member of the [[Athenaeum]], an exclusive Gentleman's Club in London open only to those distinguished in the arts and sciences, and the [[X Club]], a dining club of nine founded by [[Thomas Henry Huxley|T.H. Huxley]] that met every month and included some of the most prominent thinkers of the Victorian age (three of whom would become presidents of the [[Royal Society]]).<br />
<br />
Members included physicist-philosopher [[John Tyndall]] and Darwin's cousin, the banker and biologist [[Sir John Lubbock]]. There were also some quite significant satellites such as liberal clergyman [[Arthur Stanley]], the Dean of Westminster; and guests such as [[Charles Darwin]] and [[Hermann von Helmholtz]] were entertained from time to time. Through such associations, Spencer had a strong presence in the heart of the scientific community and was able to secure an influential audience for his views. He never married, and despite his growing wealth and fame never owned a house of his own.<br />
<br />
The last decades of Spencer's life were characterized by growing disillusionment and loneliness. He never married, and after 1855 was a perpetual hypochondriac who complained endlessly of pains and maladies that no physician could diagnose. By the 1890s his readership had begun to desert him while many of his closest friends died and he had come to doubt the confident faith in progress that he had made the center-piece of his philosophical system. His later years were also ones in which his political views became increasingly conservative. Whereas ''Social Statics'' had been the work of a radical democrat who believed in votes for women (and even for children) and in the nationalization of the land to break the power of the aristocracy, by the 1880s he had become a staunch opponent of female suffrage and made common cause with the landowners of the [[Liberty and Property Defence League]] against what they saw as the 'socialism' of the administration of [[William Ewart Gladstone]]. Spencer's political views from this period were expressed in what has become his most famous work, ''The Man versus the State.''<br />
<br />
[[Image:Spencer Herbert grave.jpg|right|200px|thumb|Grave of Herbert Spencer in [[Highgate Cemetery]]. It is a coincidence that his grave is near that of Karl Marx.]]<br />
<br />
The exception to Spencer's growing conservativism was that he remained throughout his life an ardent [[Anti-imperialism|opponent of imperialism]] and [[Anti-militarism|militarism]]. His critique of the [[Boer War]] was especially scathing, and it contributed to his declining popularity in Britain.<ref> Duncan, ''Life and Letters of Herbert Spencer'' p. 464</ref><br />
<br />
In 1902, shortly before his death, Spencer was nominated for the [[Nobel Prize for literature]]. He continued writing all his life, in later years often by dictation, until he succumbed to poor health at the age of 83. His ashes are interred in the eastern side of London's [[Highgate Cemetery]] facing [[Karl Marx]]'s grave. At Spencer's [[funeral]] the Indian nationalist leader [[Shyamji Krishnavarma]] announced a donation of £1,000 to establish a lectureship at [[University of Oxford|Oxford University]] in tribute to Spencer and his work.<ref> Duncan, ''Life and Letters of Herbert Spencer,'' p. 537 </ref><br />
<br />
== The System of Synthetic Philosophy ==<br />
The basis for Spencer's appeal to many of his generation was that he appeared to offer a ready-made system of belief which could substitute for conventional religious faith at a time when orthodox creeds were crumbling under the advances of modern science. Spencer's philosophical system seemed to demonstrate that it was possible to believe in the ultimate perfection of humanity on the basis of advanced scientific conceptions such as the [[first law of thermodynamics]] and [[biological evolution]].<br />
<br />
In essence Spencer’s philosophical vision was formed by a combination of [[Deism]] and [[Positivism]]. On the one hand, he had imbibed something of eighteenth century Deism from his father and other members of the Derby Philosophical Society and from books like [[George Combe]]’s immensely popular ''The Constitution of Man'' (1828). This treated the world as a cosmos of benevolent design, and the laws of nature as the decrees of a 'Being transcendentally kind.' Natural laws were thus the statutes of a well governed universe that had been decreed by the Creator with the intention of promoting human happiness. Although Spencer lost his Christian faith as a teenager and later rejected any 'anthropomorphic' conception of the Deity, he nonetheless held fast to this conception at an almost sub-conscious level. At the same time, however, he owed far more than he would ever acknowledge to Positivism, in particular in its conception of a philosophical system as the unification of the various branches of scientific knowledge. He also followed Positivism in his insistence that it was only possible to have genuine knowledge of phenomena and hence that it was idle to speculate about the nature of the ultimate reality. The tension between Positivism and his residual Deism ran through the entire System of Synthetic Philosophy.<br />
<br />
Spencer followed Comte in aiming for the unification of scientific truth; it was in this sense that his philosophy aimed to be 'synthetic.' Like Comte, he was committed to the universality of natural law, the idea that the laws of nature applied without exception, to the organic realm as much as to the inorganic, and to the human mind as much as to the rest of creation. The first objective of the Synthetic Philosophy was thus to demonstrate that there were no exceptions to being able to discover scientific explanations, in the form of natural laws, of all the phenomena of the universe. Spencer’s volumes on biology, psychology, and sociology were all intended to demonstrate the existence of natural laws in these specific disciplines. Even in his writings on ethics, he held that it was possible to discover ‘laws’ of morality that had the status of laws of nature while still having normative content, a conception which can be traced to Combe’s ''Constitution of Man''.<br />
<br />
The second objective of the Synthetic Philosophy was to show that these same laws led inexorably to Progress. In contrast to Comte, who stressed only the unity of scientific method, Spencer sought the unification of scientific knowledge in the form of the reduction of all natural laws to one fundamental law, the law of evolution. In this respect, he followed the model laid down by the Edinburgh publisher [[Robert Chambers]] in his anonymous ''[[Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation]]'' (1844). Although often dismissed as a lightweight forerunner of [[Charles Darwin]]’s ''[[The Origin of Species]]'', Chambers’ book was in reality a programme for the unification of science which aimed to show that [[Laplace]]’s [[Nebular Hypothesis]] for the origin of the solar system and Lamarck’s theory of species transformation were both instances (in Lewes' phrase) of 'one magnificent generalization of progressive development.' Chambers was associated with Chapman’s salon and his work served as the unacknowledged template for the Synthetic Philosophy.<br />
<br />
==Concept of evolution==<br />
The first clear articulation of Spencer’s [[evolutionism|evolutionary]] perspective occurred in his essay 'Progress: Its Law and Cause' published in Chapman's ''[[Westminster Review]]'' in 1857, and which later formed the basis of the ''First Principles of a New System of Philosophy'' (1862). In it he expounded a theory of evolution which combined insights from [[Samuel Taylor Coleridge]]'s essay 'The Theory of Life' – itself derivative from [[Friedrich von Schelling]]'s [[Naturphilosophie]] – with a generalization of [[Karl Ernst von Baer|von Baer]]’s law of embryological development. Spencer posited that all structures in the universe develop from a simple, undifferentiated, homogeneity to a complex, differentiated, heterogeneity, while being accompanied by a process of greater integration of the differentiated parts. This evolutionary process could be found at work, Spencer believed, throughout the cosmos. It was a universal law, applying to the stars and the galaxies as much as to biological organisms, and to human social organization as much as to the human mind. It differed from other scientific laws only by its greater generality, and the laws of the special sciences could be shown to be illustrations of this principle.<br />
<br />
This attempt to explain the [[evolution of complexity]] was radically different to that to be found in Darwin’s ''[[Origin of Species]]'' which was published two years later. Spencer is often, quite erroneously, believed to have merely appropriated and generalized Darwin’s work on [[natural selection]]. But although after reading Darwin's work he coined the phrase '[[survival of the fittest]]' as his own term for Darwin's concept,<ref name=sotf/> and is often misrepresented as a thinker who merely applied the Darwinian theory to society, he only grudgingly incorporated natural selection within his overall system. The primary mechanism of species transformation that he recognized was [[Lamarckism|Lamarckian]] use-inheritance which posited that organs are developed or are diminished by use or disuse and that the resulting changes may be transmitted to future generations. Spencer believed that this evolutionary mechanism was also necessary to explain 'higher' evolution, especially the social development of humanity. Moreover, in contrast to Darwin, he held that evolution had a direction and an end-point, the attainment of a final state of 'equilibrium.'<br />
<br />
==Sociology==<br />
The evolutionary progression from simple, undifferentiated homogeneity to complex, differentiated, heterogeneity was exemplified, Spencer argued, by the development of society. He developed a theory of two types of society, the militant and the industrial, which corresponded to this evolutionary progression. Militant society, structured around relationships of hierarchy and obedience, was simple and undifferentiated; industrial society, based on voluntary, contractually assumed social obligations, was complex and differentiated. Society, which Spencer conceptualized as a 'social organism' evolved from the simpler state to the more complex according to the universal law of evolution. Moreover, industrial society was the direct descendant of the ideal society developed in ''Social Statics'', although Spencer now equivocated over whether the evolution of society would result in anarchism (as he had first believed) or whether it pointed to a continued role for the state, albeit one reduced to the minimal functions of the enforcement of contracts and external defence.<br />
<br />
==Ethics==<br />
[[Image:Herbert Spencer.jpg|right|180px|thumb]]<br />
The end point of the evolutionary process would be the creation of 'the perfect man in the perfect society' with human beings becoming completely adapted to social life, as predicted in Spencer’s first book. The chief difference between Spencer’s earlier and later conceptions of this process was the evolutionary timescale involved. The psychological – and hence also the moral – constitution which had been bequeathed to the present generation by our ancestors, and which we in turn would hand on to future generations, was in the process of gradual adaptation to the requirements of living in society. For example, aggression was a survival instinct which had been necessary in the primitive conditions of life, but was maladaptive in advanced societies. Because human instincts had a specific location in strands of brain tissue, they were subject to the Lamarckian mechanism of use-inheritance so that gradual modifications could be transmitted to future generations. Over the course of many generations the evolutionary process would ensure that human beings would become less aggressive and increasingly altruistic, leading eventually to a perfect society in which no one would cause another person pain.<br />
<br />
However, for evolution to produce the perfect individual it was necessary for present and future generations to experience the 'natural' consequences of their conduct. Only in this way would individuals have the incentives required to work on self-improvement and thus to hand an improved moral constitution to their descendants. Hence anything that interfered with the 'natural' relationship of conduct and consequence was to be resisted and this included the use of the coercive power of the state to relieve poverty, to provide public education, or to require compulsory vaccination. Although charitable giving was to be encouraged even it had to be limited by the consideration that suffering was frequently the result of individuals receiving the consequences of their actions. Hence too much individual benevolence directed to the 'undeserving poor' would break the link between conduct and consequence that Spencer considered fundamental to ensuring that humanity continued to evolve to a higher level of development.<br />
<br />
Spencer adopted a [[utilitarian]] standard of ultimate value – the greatest happiness of the greatest number – and the culmination of the evolutionary process would be the maximization of utility. In the perfect society individuals would not only derive pleasure from the exercise of altruism ('positive beneficence') but would aim to avoid inflicting pain on others ('negative beneficence'). They would also instinctively respect the rights of others, leading to the universal observance of the principle of justice – each person had the right to a maximum amount of liberty that was compatible with a like liberty in others. 'Liberty' was interpreted to mean the absence of coercion, and was closely connected to the right to private property. Spencer termed this code of conduct 'Absolute Ethics' which provided a scientifically-grounded moral system that could substitute for the supernaturally-based ethical systems of the past. However, he recognized that our inherited moral constitution does not currently permit us to behave in full compliance with the code of Absolute Ethics, and for this reason we need a code of 'Relative Ethics' which takes into account the distorting factors of our present imperfections.<br />
<br />
== Agnosticism ==<br />
Spencer's reputation among the Victorians owed a great deal to his [[agnosticism]], the claim that it is impossible for us to have certain knowledge of God. He rejected [[theology]] as representing the 'impiety of the pious.' He was to gain much notoriety from his repudiation of traditional religion, and was frequently condemned by religious thinkers for allegedly advocating atheism and materialism. Nonetheless, unlike Huxley, whose agnosticism was a militant creed directed at ‘the unpardonable sin of faith’ (in Adrian Desmond’s phrase), Spencer insisted that he was not concerned to undermine religion in the name of science, but to bring about a reconciliation of the two. <br />
<br />
Starting either from religious belief or from science, Spencer argued, we are ultimately driven to accept certain indispensable but literally inconceivable notions. Whether we are concerned with a Creator or the substratum which underlies our experience of phenomena, we can frame no conception of it. Therefore, Spencer concluded, religion and science agree in the supreme truth that the human understanding is only capable of 'relative' knowledge. This is the case since, owing to the inherent limitations of the human mind, it is only possible to obtain knowledge of phenomena, not of the reality ('the absolute') underlying phenomena. Hence both science and religion must come to recognize as the 'most certain of all facts that the Power which the Universe manifests to us is utterly inscrutable.' He called this awareness of 'the Unknowable' and he presented worship of the Unknowable as capable of being a positive faith which could substitute for conventional religion. Indeed, he thought that the Unknowable represented the ultimate stage in the evolution of religion, the final elimination of its last anthropomorphic vestiges.<br />
<br />
== Political views==<br />
Spencerian views in 21st century circulation derive from his political theories and memorable attacks on the reform movements of the late 19th century. He has been claimed as a precursor by [[Libertarians]] and [[philosophical anarchists]]. <br />
<br />
Politics in late Victorian Britain moved in directions that Spencer disliked, and his arguments provided so much ammunition for conservatives and individualists in Europe and America that they still are in use in the 21st century. <br />
<br />
By the 1880s he was denouncing "the new Toryism" (that is, the social reformist wing of Prime Minister [[William E. Gladstone]]). In ''The Man versus the State'' (1884), he attacked Gladstone and the Liberal party for losing its proper mission (they should be defending personal liberty, he said) and instead promoting paternalist social legislation. Spencer denounced Irish land reform, compulsory education, laws to regulate safety at work, prohibition and temperance laws, free libraries, and welfare reforms. His main objections were threefold: the use of the coercive powers of the government, the discouragement given to voluntary self-improvement, and the disregard of the "laws of life." The reforms, he said, were tantamount to "[[socialism]]", which he said was about the same as "slavery" in terms of limiting human freedom. Spencer vehemently attacked the widespread enthusiasm for annexation of colonies and imperial expansion, which subverted all he had predicted about evolutionary progress from ‘militant’ to ‘industrial’ societies and states. <br />
<br />
Spencer anticipated many of the analytical standpoints of later libertarian theorists such as [[Friedrich Hayek]], especially in his "law of equal liberty", his insistence on the limits to predictive knowledge, his model of a spontaneous social order, and his warnings about the "unintended consequences" of collectivist social reforms. <br />
<br />
<br />
===Social Darwinism===<br />
Spencer created the [[Social Darwinist]] model that applied the law of the survival of the fittest to society. Humanitarian impulses had to be resisted as nothing should be allowed to interfere with nature's laws, including the social struggle for existence. This interpretation has its primary source in [[Richard Hofstadter]]'s ''Social Darwinism in American Thought'', which is frequently cited in the secondary literature as an authoritative account of the Synthetic Philosophy. Through constant repetition Hofstadter's Spencer has taken on a life of its own, his views and arguments represented by the same few passages, usually cited not directly from the source but from Hofstadter's rather selective quotations. <br />
<br />
However, to regard Spencer as any kind of Darwinian, even of the 'Social' variety, is a gross distortion. He could never bring himself to abandon the idea that evolution equated to progress, that it involved the unfolding of a pre-existent pattern, and that there would be a final resting point – 'equilibrium' – in which an ultimate state of perfection was attained. Darwinian natural selection, with its open-ended process of change based on random variations that prospered or failed depending on their adaptation to environmental conditions, was thus far removed from Spencer’s vision of progressive development, and he struggled hard to find a place for it within his overall system. Against this background, his use of the theory of natural selection could never be more than window dressing as it threatened the idea of universal evolutionary progress and thus the scientific foundation for morality that he hoped to establish. In contrast to the harsh and unforgiving imperative that the weak must be made to go to the wall, his main political message was essentially an anti-political one about the efficacy of self-improvement rather than collective action in bringing about the promised future state of human perfection.<br />
<br />
==General influence==<br />
While most philosophers fail to achieve much of a following outside the academy or their professional peers, by the 1870s and 1880s Spencer had achieved an unparalleled popularity, as the sheer volume of his sales indicate. He was probably the first, and possibly the only, philosopher in history to sell over a million copies of his works during his own lifetime. In the United States, where pirated editions were still commonplace, his authorized publisher, Appleton, sold 368,755 copies between 1860 and 1903. This figure did not differ much from his sales in his native Britain, and once editions in the rest of the world are added in the figure of a million copies seems like a conservative estimate. As [[William James]] remarked, Spencer "enlarged the imagination, and set free the speculative mind of countless doctors, engineers, and lawyers, of many physicists and chemists, and of thoughtful laymen generally."<ref>James, William. "Herbert Spencer". ''The Atlantic Monthly'', Vol. XCIV (1904), p. 104.</ref> The aspect of his thought that emphasized individual self-improvement found a ready audience in the skilled working class.<br />
<br />
Spencer's influence among the leaders of thought was also immense, although it was most often expressed in terms of their reaction to, and repudiation of, his ideas. As his American follower [[John Fiske]] observed, Spencer's ideas were to be found "running like the weft through all the warp" of Victorian thought.<ref>Quoted in Offer, John (2000), ''Herbert Spencer: Critical Assessments'', p. 613. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 0415181852.</ref> Such varied thinkers as [[Henry Sidgwick]], [[T.H. Green]], [[G.E. Moore]], William James, [[Henri Bergson]], and [[Emile Durkheim]] defined their ideas in relation to his. Durkheim’s ''Division of Labour in Society'' is to a very large extent an extended debate with Spencer from whose sociology, many commentators now agree, Durkheim borrowed extensively.<ref> Robert G. Perrin, "Émile Durkheim's Division of Labor and the Shadow of Herbert Spencer," ''Sociological Quarterly'' 36#4 pp 791-808</ref> In post-[[January Uprising|1863-Uprising]] [[Poland]], many of Spencer's ideas became integral to the dominant [[ideology]], "[[Positivism in Poland|Polish Positivism]]." The leading Polish writer of the period, [[Bolesław Prus]], adopted Spencer's [[metaphor]] of society-as-organism, giving it a striking poetic presentation in his 1884 story, "[[Mold of the Earth]]," and highlighting the concept in the introduction to his most universal novel, ''[[Pharaoh (novel)|Pharaoh]]'' (1895).<br />
<br />
The early 20th century was hostile to Spencer. Soon after his death his philosophical reputation went into a sharp decline. Half a century after his death his work was dismissed as a "parody of philosophy",<ref>Himmelfarb, Gertrude (1968). ''Darwin and the Darwinian Revolution'', p. 222. Quoted in Richards, Robert J. (1989), ''Darwin and the Emergence of Evolutionary Theories of Mind and Behavior'', p. 243. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0226712001.</ref> and the historian [[Richard Hofstadter]] called him "the metaphysician of the homemade intellectual, and the prophet of the cracker-barrel agnostic."<ref>Hofstadter, Richard (1992). ''Social Darwinism in American Thought'', p. 32. Beacon Press. ISBN 0807055034.</ref> Nonetheless, Spencer’s thought had penetrated so deeply into the Victorian age that his influence did not disappear entirely. In the late 20th century, however, much more positive estimates have appeared.<ref> See Francis (2007)</ref><br />
<br />
=== Political influence ===<br />
Despite his reputation as a Social Darwinist, Spencer's political thought has been open to multiple interpretations. His political philosophy could both provide inspiration to those who believed that individuals were masters of their fate, who should brook no interference from a meddling state, and those who believed that social development required a strong central authority. In ''[[Lochner v. New York]]'', conservative justices of the [[United States Supreme Court]] could find inspiration in Spencer's writings for striking down a New York law limiting the number of hours a baker could work during the week, on the ground that this law restricted [[liberty]] of [[contract]]. Arguing against the majority's holding that a "right to free contract" is implicit in the [[due process clause]] of the [[Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Fourteenth Amendment]], [[Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr.]] wrote: "The Fourteenth Amendment does not enact Mr. Herbert Spencer's Social Statics." On the other hand, Spencer has also been described as a quasi-[[anarchism|anarchist]], as well as an outright anarchist. [[Georgi Plekhanov]], in his 1909 ''Anarchism and Socialism'', labeled Spencer a "conservative Anarchist."<ref>Plekhanov, Georgiĭ Valentinovich (1912), trans. Aveling, Eleanor Marx. ''Anarchism and Socialism'', p. 143. Chicago: Charles H. Kerr & Company.</ref> <br />
<br />
Spencer's ideas became very influential in [[China]] and [[Japan]] largely because he appealed to the reformers' desire to establish a strong nation-state with which to compete with the Western powers. He was translated by the Chinese scholar [[Yen Fu]], who saw his writings as a prescription for the reform of the [[Qing]] [[state]].<ref>Schwartz, Benjamin ''In Search of Wealth and Power'' (The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, Cambridge Massachusetts, 1964).</ref> Spencer also influenced the Japanese Westernizer [[Tokutomi Soho]], who believed that Japan was on the verge of transitioning from a "militant society" to an "industrial society," and needed to quickly jettison all things Japanese and take up Western ethics and learning.<ref>Pyle, Kenneth ''The New Generation in Meiji Japan'' (Stanford University Press, Stanford, California, 1969) </ref> He also corresponded with [[Kaneko Kentaro]], warning him of the dangers of imperialism.<ref>Spencer to Kaneko Kentaro, 26 August 1892 in ''the Life and Letters of Herbert Spencer'' ed. David Duncan, 1908 p 296.</ref><br />
<br />
===Influence on literature===<br />
Spencer also exerted a great influence on [[literature]] and [[rhetoric]]. His 1852 essay, “The Philosophy of Style,” explored a growing trend of [[Formalism (literature)|formalist]] approaches to [[writing]]. Highly focused on the proper placement and ordering of the parts of an English sentence, he created a guide for effective [[composition (language)|composition]]. Spencer’s aim was to free [[prose]] [[writing]] from as much "[[friction]] and [[inertia]]" as possible, so that the reader would not be slowed by strenuous deliberations concerning the proper context and meaning of a sentence. Spencer argued that it is the writer's ideal "To so present ideas that they may be apprehended with the least possible [[Mind|mental]] [[effort]]" by the reader.<br />
<br />
He argued that by making the meaning as readily accessible as possible, the writer would achieve the greatest possible [[communication|communicative]] [[efficiency]]. This was accomplished, according to Spencer, by placing all the subordinate clauses, objects and phrases before the subject of a sentence so that, when readers reached the subject, they had all the information they needed to completely perceive its significance. While the overall influence that “The Philosophy of Style” had on the field of rhetoric was not as far-reaching as his contribution to other fields, Spencer’s voice lent authoritative support to [[Formalism (literature)|formalist]] views of [[rhetoric]].<br />
<br />
Spencer also had an influence on [[literature]], as many [[novelist]]s came to address his ideas in their work. [[George Eliot]], [[Leo Tolstoy]], [[Thomas Hardy]], [[Bolesław Prus]], [[Abraham Cahan]] and [[D. H. Lawrence]] all referenced Spencer. [[Arnold Bennett]] greatly praised [http://praxeology.net/HS-SP.htm#firstprinciples ''First Principles''], and the influence it had on Bennett may be seen in his many novels. [[Jack London]] went so far as to create a character, ''[[Martin Eden]]'', a staunch Spencerian. [[H.G. Wells]] used Spencer's ideas as a theme in his [[novella]], ''[[The Time Machine]]'', employing them to explain the [[evolution]] of [[man]] into two [[species]]. It is perhaps the best testimony to the [[influence]] of Spencer’s beliefs and writings that his reach was so diverse. He influenced not only the administrators who shaped their societies’ inner workings, but also the artists who helped shape those societies' ideals and beliefs.<br />
<br />
==Primary sources==<br />
*[http://archives.ulrls.lon.ac.uk/dispatcher.aspx?action=search&database=ChoiceArchive&search=IN=MS791 Papers of Herbert Spencer in Senate House Library, University of London]<br />
* [http://oll.libertyfund.org/Home3/Author.php?recordID=0236 Most of Spencer's books are available online]<br />
*"On The Proper Sphere of Government" (1842)<br />
*[http://oll.libertyfund.org/?option=com_staticxt&staticfile=show.php%3Ftitle=273 ''Social Statics: or, The Conditions Essential to Human Happiness Specified, and the First of Them Developed''] (1851) <br />
**[http://www.panarchy.org/spencer/ignore.state.1851.html "The Right to Ignore the State"], Chapter XIX of the first edition of ''Social Statics''<br />
**''Social Statics: [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=96054973 Abridged and Revised]'' (1892)<br />
*"A Theory of Population" (1852)<br />
*[http://oll.libertyfund.org/?option=com_staticxt&staticfile=show.php%3Ftitle=1394 ''Principles of Psychology''] (1855), first edition, issued in one volume<br />
*[http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=98953755 ''Education'' (1861)]<br />
*''[http://praxeology.net/HS-SP.htm System of Synthetic Philosophy]',' in ten volumes<br />
**''[http://praxeology.net/HS-SP.htm#firstprinciples First Principles]'' ISBN 0-89875-795-9 (1862)<br />
**''Principles of Biology'' (1864, 1867; revised and enlarged: 1898), in two volumes<br />
***Volume I — Part I: ''The Data of Biology''; Part II: ''The Inductions of Biology''; Part III: ''The Evolution of Life''; Appendices<br />
***Volume II — Part IV: ''Morphological Development''; Part V: ''Physiological Development''; Part VI: ''Laws of Mutiplication''; Appendices<br />
**''Principles of Psychology'' (1870, 1880), in two volumes<br />
***Volume I — Part I:'' The Data of Pscyhology''; Part II: ''The Inductions of Pscyhology''; Part III: ''General Synthesis''; Part IV: ''Special Synthesis''; Part V: ''Physical Synthesis''; Appendix<br />
***Volume II — Part VI: ''Special Analysis''; Part VII: ''General Analysis''; Part VIII: ''Congruities''; Part IX: ''Corollaries''<br />
**''Principles of Sociology'', in three volumes<br />
***Volume I (1874-75; enlarged 1876, 1885) — Part I: ''Data of Sociology''; Part II: ''Inductions of Sociology''; Part III: ''Domestic Institutions''<br />
***Volume II — Part IV: ''Ceremonial Institutions'' (1879); Part V: ''Political Institutions'' (1882); Part VI [published here in some editions]: ''Ecclesiastical Institutions'' (1885) <br />
***Vollume III — Part VI [published here in some editions]: ''Ecclesiastical Institutions'' (1885); Part VII: ''Professional Institutions'' (1896); Part VIII: ''Industrial Institutions'' (1896); References<br />
**[http://oll.libertyfund.org/Texts/LFBooks/Spencer0236/PrinciplesEthics/HTMLs/0155-02_Pt05_Apps.html ''The Principles of Ethics''] (1897), in two volumes<br />
***Volume I — Part I: ''[http://fair-use.org/herbert-spencer/data-of-ethics The Data of Ethics]'' (1879); Part II: ''The Inductions of Ethics'' (1892); Part III: ''The Ethics of Individual Life'' (1892); References<br />
***Volume II — Part IV: ''The Ethics of Social Life: Justice'' (1891); Part V: ''The Ethics of Social Life: Negative Beneficence'' (1892); Part VI: ''The Ethics of Social Life: Positive Beneficence'' (1892); Appendices<br />
*[http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=96277756 ''The Study of Sociology'' (1873, 1896)]<br />
*[http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=3559105 ''An Autobiography''] (1904), in two volumes<br />
<br />
: See also {{cite book | author = Spencer, Herbert | title = An Autobiography | year = 1904 | publisher = D. Appleton and Company | location = | url = http://books.google.com/books?id=gUozqCwTGkEC&printsec=frontcover&dq=herbert+spencer&as_brr=1#PPR3,M2 }}<br />
*[http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=7900182 v1 ''Life and Letters of Herbert Spencer'' by David Duncan] (1908)<br />
*[http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=54665737 v2 ''Life and Letters of Herbert Spencer'' by David Duncan] (1908)<br />
*''Descriptive Sociology; or Groups of Sociological Facts,'' parts 1-8, classified and arranged by Spencer, compiled and abstracted by David Duncan, Richard Schepping, and James Collier (London, Williams & Norgate, 1873-1881).<br />
Essay Collections:<br />
*''Ilustrations of Universal Progress: A Series of Discussions'' (1864, 1883)<br />
*[http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=96054973 ''The Man Versus the State'' (1884)]<br />
*''Essays: Scientific, Political, and Speculative'' (1891), in three volumes:<br />
**Volume I (includes "The Development Hypothesis," "Progress: Its Law and Cause," "The Factors of Organic Evolution" and others)<br />
**Volume II (includes "The Classification of the Sciences," [http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/etext04/8phil10.txt ''The Philosophy of Style''] (1852), The Origin and Function of Music," "The Physiology of Laughter," and others)<br />
**Volume III (includes "The Ethics of Kant," "State Tamperings With Money and Banks," "Specialized Administration," "From Freedom to Bondage," "The Americans," and others)<br />
*''Various Fragments'' (1897, enlarged 1900)<br />
* ''[http://praxeology.net/HS-FC.htm Facts and Comments]'' (1902)<br />
<br />
==Philosophers' critiques==<br />
*[http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=99533534 ''Herbert Spencer: An Estimate and Review'' by Josiah Royce (1904)]<br />
*[http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=14557498 ''Lectures on the Ethics of T.H. Green, Mr. Herbert Spencer, and J. Martineau'' by Henry Sidgwick (1902)]<br />
*[http://www.marxists.org/archive/lafargue/1884/06/herbert-spencer.htm ''A Few Words with Mr Herbert Spencer'' by Paul Lafargue (1884)]<br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
*[[Auberon Herbert]]<br />
*[[Classical liberalism]]<br />
*[[Cultural evolution]]<br />
*[[Liberalism]]<br />
*[[Contributions to liberal theory]]<br />
*[[Libertarianism]]<br />
*''[[Mold of the Earth]]'' (a story by [[Bolesław Prus]], inspired by a concept of Spencer's)<br />
*[[Scientism]] and [[Positivism (philosophy)|positivism]]<br />
*[[Etherscope]]<br />
<br />
==Notes==<br />
{{reflist|2}}<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
* Carneiro, Robert L. and Perrin, Robert G. "Herbert Spencer's 'Principles of Sociology:' a Centennial Retrospective and Appraisal." ''Annals of Science'' 2002 59(3): 221-261 online at Ebsco<br />
* Duncan, David. ''The life and letters of Herbert Spencer'' (1908) [http://books.google.com/books?id=trlCAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=intitle:herbert+intitle:spencer&lr=&num=30&as_brr=3 online edition]<br />
*Elliot, Hugh. ''Herbert Spencer''. London: Constable and Company, Ltd., 1917<br />
*Elwick, James. "[http://www.shpltd.co.uk/elwick-spencer.pdf Herbert Spencer and the Disunity of the Social Organism]." ''History of Science'' 41, 2003, pp. 35-72.<br />
*Elliott, Paul 'Erasmus Darwin, Herbert Spencer and the origins of the evolutionary worldview in British provincial scientific culture', ''Isis'' 94 (2003), 1-29<br />
*Francis, Mark, ''Herbert Spencer and the Invention of Modern Life''. Newcastle UK: Acumen Publishing, 2007 ISBN 0801445906<br />
* Harris, Jose. "Spencer, Herbert (1820–1903)", ''Oxford Dictionary of National Biography,''(2004) [http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/36208 online], a standard short biography <br />
*Hofstadter, Richard, ''Social Darwinism in American Thought''. Boston: Beacon Press, 1955.<br />
*Kennedy, James G. ''Herbert Spencer''. Boston: G. K. Hall & Co., 1978<br />
*Lightman, Bernard, ''The Origins of Agnosticism: Victorian unbelief and the limits of knowledge''. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1987.<br />
*Mandelbaum, Maurice, ''History, Man, and Reason : a study in nineteenth-century thought''. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1971.<br />
*Rafferty, Edward C.; “[http://www.historians.org/annual/2006/06program/precirculated/Session145_Rafferty.pdf The Right to the Use of the Earth].,” Herbert Spencer, the Washington Intellectual Community, and American Conservation in the Late Nineteenth Century.<br />
*Richards, Robert J. ''Darwin and the Emergence of Evolutionary Theories of Mind and Behavior'' Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987.<br />
*Taylor, Michael W., ''Men versus the State: Herbert Spencer and Late Victorian Individualism''. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992.<br />
*Taylor, Michael W., ''The Philosophy of Herbert Spencer''. London: Continuum, (2007)<br />
*{{cite book | author=Three Initiates | title=The Kybalion | location=Chicago | publisher=The Yogi Publication Society/Masonic Temple | year=1912 | id= }}<br />
*Turner, Jonathan H., ''Herbert Spencer: A Renewed Appreciation''. Sage Publications, Inc., 1985. ISBN 0803924267<br />
*Versen, Christopher R.,'' Optimistic Liberals: Herbert Spencer, the Brooklyn Ethical Association, and the Integration of Moral Philosophy and Evolution in the Victorian Trans-Atlantic Community.'' Florida State University, 2006.<br />
<br />
===By Spencer===<br />
* Spencer, Herbert. ''Spencer: Political Writings'' (Cambridge Texts in the History of Political Thought) edited by John Offer (1993) [http://www.amazon.com/dp/0521437407 excerpt and text search]<br />
* Spencer, Herbert. ''Social Statics: The Man Versus the State''<br />
* Spencer, Herbert. '' The study of sociology'' [http://www.amazon.com/dp/1418188417 excerpt and text search]; also [http://www.questia.com/read/96277756?title=The%20Study%20of%20Sociology full text online free]<br />
* Spencer, Herbert. ''The Principles of Psychology'' [http://www.amazon.com/dp/1402182716 excerpt and text search]; [http://books.google.com/books?id=hTBVAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=inauthor:herbert+inauthor:spencer&lr=&num=30&as_brr=3 full text online]<br />
* Spencer, Herbert. ''Social Statics, Abridged and Revised: Together with the Man Versus the State'' (1896), highly influential among libertarians [http://www.questia.com/read/96054973?title=Social%20Statics%2c%20Abridged%20and%20Revised%3a%20Together%20with%20the%20Man%20Versus%20the%20State full text online free]<br />
* Spencer, Herbert. ''Education: Intellectual, Moral, and Physical'' (1891) 283pp [http://books.google.com/books?id=gztMAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=inauthor:herbert+inauthor:spencer&lr=&num=30&as_brr=3 full text online]<br />
* Spencer, Herbert. ''An Autobiography'' (1905, 2 vol) [http://books.google.com/books?id=gUozqCwTGkEC&printsec=frontcover&dq=inauthor:herbert+inauthor:spencer&lr=&num=30&as_brr=3 full text online]<br />
* [http://books.google.com/books?as_q=&num=30&btnG=Google+Search&as_epq=&as_oq=&as_eq=&as_brr=3&lr=&as_vt=&as_auth=herbert+spencer&as_pub=&as_sub=&as_drrb=c&as_miny=&as_maxy=&as_isbn= online writings of Spencer]<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
{{wikiquote}}<br />
{{wikisource author}}<br />
'''Biographical'''<br />
*{{sep entry|spencer|Herbert Spencer|David Weinstein|2008-02-27}}<br />
*The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy: [http://www.iep.utm.edu/s/spencer.htm Herbert Spencer] by William Sweet.<br />
*[http://www.bolender.com/Dr.%20Ron/SOC4044%20Sociological%20Theory/Class%20Sessions/Sociological%20Theory/Spencer,%20Herbert/spencer,_herbert.htm Extensive biography and overview of works]<br />
*[http://www.bolenderinitiatives.com/sociology/herbert-spencer-1820-1903 Review materials for studying Herbert Spencer]<br />
* [http://www.bolender.com/Dr.%20Ron/SOC4044%20Sociological%20Theory/Class%20Sessions/Sociological%20Theory/Spencer,%20Herbert/spencer,_herbert.htm Spencer's ideas]<br />
'''Sources'''<br />
*[http://oll.libertyfund.org/index.php?option=com_staticxt&staticfile=show.php%3Fperson=165&Itemid=28 Works by Herbert Spencer at the Online Library of Liberty] (HTML, facsimile PDF, reading PDF)<br />
*[http://www.archive.org/search.php?query=mediatype%3A(texts)%20-contributor%3Agutenberg%20AND%20(subject%3A%22Spencer%2C%20Herbert%2C%201820-1903%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Spencer%2C%20Herbert%2C%201820-1903%22) Works by & about Herbert Spencer] at [[Internet Archive]] (scanned books original editions color illustrated)<br />
* {{gutenberg author| id=Herbert+Spencer | name=Herbert Spencer}} (plain text and HTML)<br />
*[http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/etcbin/toccer-new2?id=SpeFirs.xml&images=images/modeng&data=/texts/english/modeng/parsed&tag=public&part=all "First principles"] Electronic Text Center, University of Virginia Library.<br />
* [http://praxeology.net/HS-SP.htm#firstprinciples First Principles Herbert's 'First Principles' online]<br />
* [http://www.constitution.org/hs/ignore_state.htm The Right to Ignore the State] by Herbert Spencer.<br />
* [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/spencer-darwin.html Excerpts from ''Progress: Its Law and Cause''] available from the [[Internet Modern History Sourcebook]]<br />
* [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/spencer-darwin.html Modern History Sourcebook: Herbert Spencer: Social Darwinism, 1857]<br />
*[http://www.lewrockwell.com/orig3/long3.html "Herbert Spencer: The Defamation Continues"] - a vindication by [[Roderick T. Long]]<br />
<br />
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|DATE OF DEATH=[[8 December]] [[1903]]<br />
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[[Category:1820 births]]<br />
[[Category:1903 deaths]]<br />
[[Category:19th century philosophers]]<br />
[[Category:Classical liberals]]<br />
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[[Category:English libertarians]]<br />
[[Category:English economists]]<br />
[[Category:English philosophers]]<br />
[[Category:English anthropologists]]<br />
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[[Category:Former anarchists]]<br />
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[[Category:Minarchists]]<br />
[[Category:Rhetoricians]]<br />
[[Category:People from Derby]]<br />
[[Category:Functionalism]]<br />
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[[zh:赫伯特·斯宾塞]]</div>
Leslie
https://conservapedia.com/index.php?title=Computer_science&diff=553379
Computer science
2008-11-10T00:48:20Z
<p>Leslie: removing some too-obvious bias</p>
<hr />
<div>'''Computer science''' (or '''computing science''') is the study and the [[science]] of the theoretical foundations of [[information]] and [[computation]] and their implementation and application in [[computer|computer system]]s.<ref>"''Computer science is the study of information''" [http://www.njit.edu/v2/archivecatalog/undergraduate/91/19-und.html Department of Computer and Information Science], Guttenberg Information Technologies</ref><ref>"''Computer science is the study of computation.''" [http://www.csbsju.edu/computerscience/curriculum Computer Science Department, College of Saint Benedict], Saint John's University</ref><ref>"''Computer Science is the study of all aspects of computer systems, from the theoretical foundations to the very practical aspects of managing large software projects.''" [http://study.massey.ac.nz/major.asp?major_code=2010&prog_code=93068 Massey University]</ref> Computer science has many sub-fields; some emphasize the computation of specific results (such as [[computer graphics]]), while others relate to properties of [[computational problem]]s (such as [[computational complexity theory]]). Still others focus on the challenges in implementing computations. For example, [[programming language theory]] studies approaches to describing computations, while [[computer programming]] applies specific [[programming language]]s to solve specific computational problems. A further subfield, [[human-computer interaction]], focuses on the challenges in making computers and computations useful, usable and universally accessible to [[humans|people]].<br />
<br />
== History ==<br />
{{main | History of computer science}}<br />
The early foundations of what would become computer science predate the invention of the modern [[digital computer]]. Machines for calculating fixed numerical tasks, such as the [[abacus]], have existed since antiquity. [[Wilhelm Schickard]] built the first mechanical calculator in 1623.<ref>{{cite web|author=Nigel Tout|title=Calculator Timeline|url=http://www.vintagecalculators.com/html/calculator_time-line.html|work=Vintage Calculator Web Museum|year=2006|accessdate=2006-09-18}}</ref> [[Charles Babbage]] designed a [[difference engine]] in [[Victorian era|Victorian]] times (between 1837 and 1901)<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.sciencemuseum.org.uk/on-line/babbage/index.asp | title=Science Museum - Introduction to Babbage | accessdate=2006-09-24}}</ref> helped by [[Ada Lovelace]].<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.scottlan.edu/Lriddle/women/ada-love.htm| title=A Selection and Adaptation From Ada's Notes found in "Ada, The Enchantress of Numbers," by Betty Alexandra Toole Ed.D. Strawberry Press, Mill Valley, CA | accessdate=2006-05-04}}</ref> Around 1900, the [[IBM]] corporation sold [[Key punch|punch-card machines]].<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.pattonhq.com/ibm.html | title=IBM Punch Cards in the U.S. Army | accessdate=2006-09-24}}</ref> However, all of these machines were constrained to perform a single task, or at best some subset of all possible tasks.<br />
<br />
During the 1940s, as newer and more powerful computing machines were developed, the term ''computer'' came to refer to the machines rather than their human predecessors. As it became clear that computers could be used for more than just mathematical calculations, the field of computer science broadened to study [[computation]] in general. Computer science began to be established as a distinct academic discipline in the 1960s, with the creation of the first computer science departments and degree programs.<ref name="Denning_cs_discipline">{{cite journal | last=Denning | first=P.J. | authorlink=Peter J. Denning | year=2000 | title=Computer Science: The Discipline | url=http://web.archive.org/web/20060525195404/http://www.idi.ntnu.no/emner/dif8916/denning.pdf | journal=Encyclopedia of Computer Science|format=PDF}}</ref> Since practical computers became available, many applications of computing have become distinct areas of study in their own right.<br />
<br />
Although many initially believed it impossible that computers themselves could actually be a scientific field of study, in the late fifties it gradually became accepted among the greater academic population.<ref name="Levy1984">{{cite book | authorlink = Steven Levy | last = Levy | first = Steven | title = [[Hackers: Heroes of the Computer Revolution]] | year = 1984 | id = ISBN 0-385-19195-2 | publisher = Doubleday }}</ref> It is the now well-known IBM brand that formed part of the computer science revolution during this time. IBM (short for International Business Machines) released the IBM 704 and later the IBM 709 computers, which were widely used during the exploration period of such devices. "Still, working with the IBM [computer] was frustrating...if you had misplaced as much as one letter in one instruction, the program would crash, and you would have to start the whole process over again".<ref name="Levy1984"/> During the late 1950s, the computer science discipline was very much in its developmental stages, and such issues were commonplace.<br />
<br />
Time has seen significant improvements in the usability and effectiveness of computer science technology. Modern society has seen a significant shift from computers being used solely by experts or professionals to a more widespread user base.<br />
<br />
== Major achievements ==<br />
<br />
{{Expand-section|date=June 2008}}<br />
<br />
[[Image:Enigma.jpg|170px|thumbnail|right|[[Germany|German]] military used the [[Enigma machine]] during [[World War II]] for communication they thought to be secret. The large-scale decryption of Enigma traffic at [[Bletchley Park]] was an important factor that contributed to Allied victory in WWII.<ref name="kahnbook" />]]<br />
<br />
Despite its relatively short history as a formal academic discipline, computer science has made a number of fundamental contributions to [[science]] and [[society]]. These include:<br />
<br />
;Applications within computer science<br />
<br />
* A formal definition of [[computation]] and [[computability]], and proof that there are computationally [[Undecidable problem|unsolvable]] and [[Intractable#Intractability|intractable]] problems.<ref>{{cite paper | author=Constable, R.L. | date=March 2000 | url=http://www.cs.cornell.edu/cis-dean/bgu.pdf | title=Computer Science: Achievements and Challenges circa 2000|format=PDF}}</ref><br />
* The concept of a [[programming language]], a tool for the precise expression of methodological information at various levels of abstraction.<ref>{{cite book|<br />
| last=Abelson<br />
| first=H.<br />
| authorlink=Hal Abelson<br />
| coauthors=G.J. Sussman with J.Sussman<br />
| year=1996<br />
| title=Structure and Interpretation of Computer Programs<br />
| edition=2nd Ed.<br />
| publisher=MIT Press<br />
| id=ISBN 0-262-01153-0<br />
| quote=The computer revolution is a revolution in the way we think and in the way we express what we think. The essence of this change is the emergence of what might best be called ''procedural epistemology'' — the study of the structure of knowledge from an imperative point of view, as opposed to the more declarative point of view taken by classical mathematical subjects.<br />
}}</ref><br />
<br />
;Applications outside of computing<br />
<br />
* Sparked the [[Digital Revolution]], which led to the current [[Information Age]] and the [[Internet]].<ref name="bgu">http://www.cis.cornell.edu/Dean/Presentations/Slides/bgu.pdf</ref><br />
* In [[cryptography]], [[Cryptanalysis of the Enigma|breaking the Enigma machine]] was an important factor contributing to the Allied victory in World War II.<ref name="kahnbook">[[David Kahn]], [[The Codebreakers]], 1967, ISBN 0-684-83130-9.</ref><br />
* [[Scientific computing]] enabled advanced study of the mind, and mapping the human genome became possible with [[Human Genome Project]].<ref name="bgu"/> [[Distributed computing]] projects such as [[Folding@home]] explore [[protein folding]].<br />
* [[Algorithmic trading]] has increased the [[Economic efficiency|efficiency]] and [[Market liquidity|liquidity]] of financial markets by using [[artificial intelligence]], [[machine learning]], and other [[statistics|statistical]] and [[Numerical analysis|numerical]] techniques on a large scale.<ref>[http://www.telegraph.co.uk/money/main.jhtml?xml=/money/2006/08/27/ccsoft27.xml Black box traders are on the march] The Telegraph, August 26, 2006</ref><br><br />
<br />
== Fields of computer science ==<br />
As a discipline, computer science spans a range of topics from theoretical studies of algorithms and the limits of computation to the practical issues of implementing computing systems in hardware and software.<ref name="CSAB1997">{{cite web|author=Computing Sciences Accreditation Board|title=Computer Science as a Profession|url=http://www.csab.org/comp_sci_profession.html |date=28 May 1997| accessdate=2008-09-01}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Committee on the Fundamentals of Computer Science: Challenges and Opportunities, National Research Council |title=Computer Science: Reflections on the Field, Reflections from the Field|url=http://www.nap.edu/catalog.php?record_id=11106#toc|publisher=National Academies Press|id=ISBN 978-0-309-09301-9|date=2004}}</ref><br />
The Computer Sciences Accreditation Board (CSAB) – which is made up of representatives of the [[Association for Computing Machinery]] (ACM), the [[Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers]] Computer Society, and the [[Association for Information Systems]] – identifies four areas that it considers crucial to the discipline of computer science: ''theory of computation'', ''algorithms and data structures'', ''programming methodology and languages'', and ''computer elements and architecture''. In addition to these four areas, CSAB also identifies fields such as software engineering, artificial intelligence, computer networking and communication, database systems, parallel computation, distributed computation, computer-human interaction, computer graphics, operating systems, and numerical and symbolic computation as being important areas of computer science.<ref name="CSAB1997"/><br />
<br />
=== Theory of computation ===<br />
:{| style="border:1px solid #ddd; text-align:center; margin: auto;" cellspacing="15"<br />
| [[Image:Afd exemple.png|96px]]<br />
|| [[Image:Wang tiles.png|96px]]<br />
|| '''P = NP''' ?<br />
|| [[Image:Blochsphere.svg|96px]]<br />
|-<br />
| [[Automata theory]]<br />
|| [[Computability theory (computer science)|Computability theory]]<br />
|| [[Computational complexity theory]]<br />
|| [[Quantum computer|Quantum computing theory]]<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==== Mathematical foundations ====<br />
:{| style="border:1px solid #ddd; text-align:center; margin: auto;" cellspacing="15"<br />
| <math> P \Rightarrow Q \,</math><br />
|| [[Image:Elliptic curve simple.png|96px]]<br />
|| [[Image:6n-graf.svg|96px]]<br />
|| '''int''' ''x''<br />
|| [[Image:Commutative diagram for morphism.svg|96px]]<br />
|| [[Image:SimplexRangeSearching.png|96px]]<br />
|-<br />
| [[Mathematical logic]]<br />
|| [[Number theory]]<br />
|| [[Graph theory]]<br />
|| [[Type Theory]]<br />
|| [[Category Theory]]<br />
|| [[Computational geometry]]<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=== Algorithms and data structures ===<br />
:{| style="border:1px solid #ddd; text-align:center; margin: auto;" cellspacing="15"<br />
| <math>O(n^2)</math><br />
|| [[Image:Sorting quicksort anim.gif|96px]]<br />
|| [[Image:Singly linked list.png|96px]]<br />
|-<br />
| [[Analysis of algorithms]]<br />
|| [[Algorithms]]<br />
|| [[Data structures]]<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=== Programming methodology and languages ===<br />
:{| style="border:1px solid #ddd; text-align:center; margin: auto;" cellspacing="15"<br />
| [[Image:Ideal compiler.png|96px]]<br />
|| [[Image:Python add5 syntax.svg|96px]]<br />
|-<br />
| [[Compilers]]<br />
|| [[Programming languages]]<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=== Computer elements and architecture ===<br />
:{| style="border:1px solid #ddd; text-align:center; margin: auto;" cellspacing="15"<br />
| [[Image:NOR ANSI.svg|96px]]<br />
| [[Image:Fivestagespipeline.png|96px]]<br />
| [[Image:SIMD.svg|96px]]<br />
|-<br />
| [[Digital logic]]<br />
| [[Microarchitecture]]<br />
| [[Multiprocessing]]<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=== Numerical and symbolic computation ===<br />
:{| style="border:1px solid #ddd; text-align:center; margin: auto;" cellspacing="15"<br />
| [[Image:1u04-argonaute.png|96px]]<br />
|| [[Image:User-FastFission-brain.gif|96px]]<br />
|| [[Image:Naphthalene-3D-balls.png|96px]]<br />
|| [[Image:Neuron-no labels.png|96px]]<br />
|| [[Image:X-43A (Hyper - X) Mach 7 computational fluid dynamic (CFD).jpg|96px]]<br />
|| [[Image:Wind-particle.png|96px]]<br />
|| <math>y = \sin(x) + c</math><br />
|-<br />
| [[Bioinformatics]]<br />
|| [[Cognitive Science]]<br />
|| [[Computational chemistry]]<br />
|| [[Computational neuroscience]]<br />
|| [[Computational physics]]<br />
|| [[Numerical_analysis|Numerical algorithms]]<br />
|| [[Symbolic mathematics]]<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Relationship with other fields ==<br />
Despite its name, a significant amount of computer science does not involve the study of computers themselves. Because of this, several alternative names have been proposed. Danish scientist [[Peter Naur]] suggested the term ''datalogy'', to reflect the fact that the scientific discipline revolves around data and data treatment, while not necessarily involving computers. The first scientific institution to use the term was the Department of Datalogy at the University of Copenhagen, founded in 1969, with Peter Naur being the first professor in datalogy. The term is used mainly in the Scandinavian countries. Also, in the early days of computing, a number of terms for the practitioners of the field of computing were suggested in the ''Communications of the ACM'' – ''turingineer'', ''turologist'', ''flow-charts-man'', ''applied meta-mathematician'', and ''applied epistemologist''.<ref>Communications of the ACM 1(4):p.6</ref> Three months later in the same journal, ''comptologist'' was suggested, followed next year by ''hypologist''.<ref>Communications of the ACM 2(1):p.4</ref> The term ''computics'' has also been suggested.<ref>IEEE Computer 28(12):p.136</ref> ''Informatik'' was a term used in Europe with more frequency.<br />
<br />
The renowned computer scientist [[Edsger W. Dijkstra|Edsger Dijkstra]] stated, "Computer science is no more about computers than astronomy is about telescopes." The design and deployment of computers and computer systems is generally considered the province of disciplines other than computer science. For example, the study of [[computer hardware]] is usually considered part of [[computer engineering]], while the study of commercial [[computer system]]s and their deployment is often called [[information technology]] or [[information systems]]. Computer science is sometimes criticized as being insufficiently scientific, a view espoused in the statement "Science is to computer science as hydrodynamics is to plumbing", credited to [[Stan Kelly-Bootle]]<ref>''Computer Language'', October 1990</ref> and others. However, there has been much cross-fertilization of ideas between the various computer-related disciplines. Computer science research has also often crossed into other disciplines, such as [[cognitive science]], [[economics]], [[mathematics]], [[physics]] (see [[quantum computing]]), and [[linguistics]].<br />
<br />
Computer science is considered by some to have a much closer relationship with [[mathematics]] than many scientific disciplines.<ref name="Denning_cs_discipline" /> Early computer science was strongly influenced by the work of mathematicians such as [[Kurt Gödel]] and [[Alan Turing]], and there continues to be a useful interchange of ideas between the two fields in areas such as [[mathematical logic]], [[category theory]], [[domain theory]], and [[algebra]].<br />
<br />
The relationship between computer science and [[software engineering]] is a contentious issue, which is further muddied by [[Debates within software engineering|disputes]] over what the term "software engineering" means, and how computer science is defined. [[David Parnas]], taking a cue from the relationship between other engineering and science disciplines, has claimed that the principal focus of computer science is studying the properties of computation in general, while the principal focus of software engineering is the design of specific computations to achieve practical goals, making the two separate but complementary disciplines.<ref>{{cite journal | last = Parnas<br />
| first = David L.<br />
| authorlink = David Parnas<br />
| year = 1998<br />
| title = [http://citeseer.ist.psu.edu/parnas98software.html Software Engineering Programmes are not Computer Science Programmes]<br />
| journal = Annals of Software Engineering<br />
| volume = 6<br />
| pages = 19–37<br />
| doi = 10.1023/A:1018949113292<br />
}}, p. 19: "Rather than treat software engineering as a subfield of<br />
computer science, I treat it as an element of the set, {Civil Engineering, Mechanical Engineering,<br />
Chemical Engineering, Electrical Engineering, ....}."</ref><br />
<br />
The academic, political, and funding aspects of computer science tend to depend on whether a department formed with a mathematical emphasis or with an engineering emphasis. Computer science departments with a mathematics emphasis and with a numerical orientation consider alignment [[computational science]]. Both types of departments tend to make efforts to bridge the field educationally if not across all research.<br />
<br />
== Computer science education ==<br />
Some universities teach computer science as a theoretical study of computation and algorithmic reasoning. These programs often feature the [[theory of computation]], [[analysis of algorithms]], [[formal methods]], [[Concurrency (computer science)|concurrency theory]], [[databases]], [[computer graphics]] and [[systems analysis]], among others. They typically also teach [[computer programming]], but treat it as a vessel for the support of other fields of computer science rather than a central focus of high-level study.<br />
<br />
Other colleges and universities, as well as [[secondary school]]s and vocational programs that teach computer science, emphasize the practice of advanced [[computer programming]] rather than the theory of algorithms and computation in their computer science curricula. Such curricula tend to focus on those skills that are important to workers entering the software industry. The practical aspects of computer programming are often referred to as [[software engineering]]. However, there is a lot of [[Debates within software engineering|disagreement]] over the meaning of the term, and whether or not it is the same thing as programming.<br />
<br />
== See also ==<br />
{{portal}}<br />
: ''Main list: [[List of basic computer science topics]]''<br />
<div class="references-small" style="-moz-column-count:2; column-count:2;"><br />
* [[Career domains in computer science]]<br />
* [[Computer scientist]]<br />
* [[Computing]]<br />
* [[English in computing|English in computer science]]<br />
* [[Informatics]]<br />
* [[List of academic computer science departments]]<br />
* [[List of computer science conferences]]<br />
* [[List of computer scientists]]<br />
* [[List of important publications in computer science|List of publications in computer science]]<br />
* [[List of pioneers in computer science]]<br />
* [[List of software engineering topics]]<br />
* [[Unsolved problems in computer science|List of open problems in computer science]]<br />
* [[Women in computer science]]<br />
</div><br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<br />
{{reflist|2}}<br />
<br />
== Further reading ==<br />
* [[Association for Computing Machinery]]. [http://www.acm.org/class/1998/overview.html 1998 ACM Computing Classification System]. 1998.<br />
* [[IEEE Computer Society]] and the [[Association for Computing Machinery]]. [http://www.computer.org/portal/cms_docs_ieeecs/ieeecs/education/cc2001/cc2001.pdf Computing Curricula 2001: Computer Science]. December 15, 2001.<br />
* [[Peter J. Denning]]. ''[http://portal.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=1053309&coll=&dl=ACM&CFID=15151515&CFTOKEN=6184618 Is computer science science?]'', Communications of the ACM, April 2005.<br />
* [[Donald E. Knuth]]. ''Selected Papers on Computer Science,'' CSLI Publications, Cambridge Univ. Press, 1996.<br />
* [[Peter J. Denning]], ''[http://portal.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=971303&dl=ACM&coll=&CFID=15151515&CFTOKEN=6184618 Great principles in computing curricula]'', Technical Symposium on Computer Science Education, 2004.<br />
<br />
== External links ==<br />
{{wikibooks}}<br />
{{wikiversity | Portal:Computer Science}}<br />
<br />
* {{dmoz|Computers/Computer_Science/}}<br />
* [http://www.lecturefox.com/computerscience/ Directory of free university lectures in Computer Science] <br />
* [http://liinwww.ira.uka.de/ bibliography/ Collection of Computer Science Bibliographies]<br />
* [http://csdir.org/ CS Directory and resources]<br />
* [http://se.ethz.ch/~meyer/gallery/ Photographs of computer scientists] ([[Bertrand Meyer]]'s gallery)<br />
<br />
=== Webcasts ===<br />
* [http://www.oid.ucla.edu/webcasts/courses/2006-2007/2006fall/cs1 UCLA Computer Science 1 Freshman Computer Science Seminar Section 1]<br />
* [http://webcast.berkeley.edu/course_details.php?seriesid=1906978395 Berkeley Introduction to Computers]<br />
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{{Computer_Science}}<br />
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Leslie
https://conservapedia.com/index.php?title=Political_agenda&diff=553377
Political agenda
2008-11-10T00:47:07Z
<p>Leslie: removing some too-obvious bias</p>
<hr />
<div>The '''political agenda''' is a set of issues and policies laid out by either the [[executive (government)|executive]] or cabinet in government which tries to dictate existing and near-future political news and debate. The political agenda while shaped by government can be influenced by grass-roots support from party activists at events such as a [[party conference]] and can even be shaped by non governmental activist groups which have a political aim. [[Non-governmental organisations]] such as [[Make Poverty History]] and environmental groups such as [[Greenpeace]] have been able to shape the political agenda at international conferences. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/entertainment/music/4645823.stm] <br />
<br />
Increasingly the mass media can have an effect in shaping the political agenda through its news coverage of news stories. Celebrity chef [[Jamie Oliver]] was able to shape the political agenda by running a series of programs which criticized the quality of school dinners in the [[United Kingdom]]. This led to government action by education secretary [[Ruth Kelly]] to improve the quality of meals which would not have occurred if it was not for such prominent and vocal criticism. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/education/4391695.stm]<br />
<br />
A political party can be described as “shaping the political agenda” or “setting the political agenda” if its promotion of certain issues gains prominent news coverage, for example at election time a political party wants to promote its polices and gain prominent news coverage in order to increase its support.<br />
<br />
Individual people with strong opinions on social or political issues are also often referred to as "having an agenda" or "pushing an agenda," such as [[homosexuals]] for [[LGBT rights]]. <br />
<br />
{{politics-stub}}<br />
[[Category:Political terms]]<br />
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[[he:אג'נדה]]</div>
Leslie
https://conservapedia.com/index.php?title=Science&diff=553376
Science
2008-11-10T00:46:57Z
<p>Leslie: removing some too-obvious bias</p>
<hr />
<div>{{sprotect2}}<br />
{{otheruses}}<br />
[[Image:Meissner effect p1390048.jpg|thumb|200px|right|The [[Meissner effect]] causes a [[magnet]] to levitate above a [[high-temperature superconductor]].]]<br />
[[Image:Apollo Moonwalk2.jpg|thumb|right|200px|A human protected by high technology during the first lunar landing, demonstrates knowledge developed through study of the natural sciences.]]<br />
'''Science''' (from the [[Latin]] ''scientia'', meaning "[[knowledge]]" or "knowing") is the effort to [[Discovery (observation)|discover]], and increase human understanding of how the [[physical]] [[world]] works. Through controlled methods, [[scientists]] use [[observable]] [[physical evidence]] of [[natural]] [[phenomena]] to collect data, and analyze this [[information]] to explain what and how things work. Such methods include [[experimentation]] that tries to [[simulate]] natural phenomena under controlled conditions and thought experiments. [[Knowledge]] in science is gained through [[research]].<br />
<br />
==Etymology==<br />
[[Image:DNA Overview2.png|thumb|right|upright|[[DNA]] determines the genetic structure of all life on earth]]<br />
The word '''science''' is derived from the [[Latin]] word {{lang|la|''scientia''}} for [[knowledge]], the nominal form of the verb {{lang|la|''scire''}}, "to know". The [[Proto-Indo-European root|Proto-Indo-European]] (PIE) root that yields ''scire'' is ''*skei-'', meaning to "cut, separate, or discern". Other words from the same root include [[Sanskrit]] {{transl|sa|''chyati''}}, "he cuts off", [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] {{transl|grc|''schizo''}}, "I split" (hence English ''schism'', ''schizophrenia''), Latin {{lang|la|''scindo''}}, "I split" (hence English ''rescind'').<ref>[http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?search=science&searchmode=none Etymology of "science" at Etymology Online]. See also details of the PIE root at [http://www.bartleby.com/61/roots/IE464.html American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language'', 4th edition, 2000.].</ref> From the [[Middle Ages]] to the [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]], ''science'' or ''scientia'' meant any systematic recorded knowledge.<ref>{{cite book | first=Neville | last=MacMorris | year=1989 | title=The Natures of Science | pages=pp. 31&ndash;33 | publisher=Fairleigh Dickinson University Press | location=New York | isbn=0838633218 }}</ref> ''Science'' therefore had the same sort of very broad meaning that ''[[philosophy]]'' had at that time. In other languages, including French, Spanish, Portuguese, Italian, Polish and Russian, the word corresponding to ''science'' also carries this meaning.<br />
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==History of science==<br />
{{main|History of science}}<br />
While [[empiricism|empirical]] investigations of the natural world have been described since [[Ancient history|antiquity]] (for example, by [[Aristotle]], [[Theophrastus]] and [[Pliny the Elder]]), and [[scientific method]]s have been employed since the [[Middle Ages]] (for example, by [[Ibn al-Haytham]], [[Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī]] and [[Roger Bacon]]), the dawn of [[modern science]] is generally traced back to the [[early modern period]], during what is known as the [[Scientific Revolution]] of the [[16th century|16th]] and [[17th century|17th centuries]].<br />
<br />
==History of usage of the word science==<br />
Well into the [[18th century|eighteenth century]], science and natural [[philosophy]] were not quite synonymous, but only became so later with the direct use of what would become known formally as the [[scientific method]], which was earlier developed during the [[Middle Ages]] and [[early modern period]] in Europe and the [[Islamic science|Middle East]] (see [[History of scientific method]]). Prior to the 18th century, however, the preferred term for the study of nature was [[natural philosophy]], while English speakers most typically referred to the study of the human mind as [[moral philosophy]]. By contrast, the word "science" in English was still used in the 17th century to refer to the [[Aristotelianism|Aristotelian]] concept of knowledge which was secure enough to be used as a sure prescription for exactly how to do something. In this differing sense of the two words, the philosopher [[John Locke]] in ''[[An Essay Concerning Human Understanding]]'' wrote that "natural philosophy [the study of nature] is not capable of being made a science".<ref name=Locke1838>{{cite book<br />
| last=Locke | first=J. | authorlink=John Locke | year = 1838<br />
| title = [[An Essay Concerning Human Understanding]]<br />
| publisher = Printed by Thomas Davison }}</ref><br />
<br />
By the early 1800s, natural philosophy had begun to separate from philosophy, though it often retained a very broad meaning. In many cases, ''science'' continued to stand for reliable knowledge about any topic, in the same way it is still used in the broad sense (see the introduction to this article) in modern terms such as [[library science]], [[political science]], and [[computer science]]. In the more narrow sense of ''science'', as natural philosophy became linked to an expanding set of well-defined laws (beginning with Galileo's laws, Kepler's laws, and Newton's laws for motion), it became more popular to refer to natural philosophy as natural science. Over the course of the nineteenth century, moreover, there was an increased tendency to associate science with study of the natural world (that is, the non-human world). This move sometimes left the study of human thought and society (what would come to be called [[social science]]) in a linguistic limbo by the end of the century and into the next.<ref name = Thurs>{{cite book | first=Daniel Patrick | last=Thurs | year=2007 | title=Science Talk: Changing Notions of Science in American Popular Culture| publisher=Rutgers University Press | location=New Brunswick, NJ | isbn = 978-0813540733 | oclc=170031241}}</ref><!-- p. 22-55 --><br />
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Through the 19th century, many English speakers were increasingly differentiating science (meaning a combination of what we now term natural and biological sciences) from all other forms of knowledge in a variety of ways. The now-familiar expression “[[scientific method]],” which refers to the ''prescriptive'' part of how to make discoveries in natural philosophy, was almost unused during the early part of the 19th century, but became widespread after the 1870s, though there was rarely totally agreement about just what it entailed.<ref name = Thurs/><!-- p. 74-79 --> The word "scientist," meant to refer to a systematically-working natural philosopher, (as opposed to an intuitive or empirically-minded one) was coined in 1833 by William Whewell.<ref name=Ross1962>{{cite journal | format = PDF | author = Ross, S. | year = 1962 | title = Scientist: The story of a word | journal = Annals of Science | volume = 18 | issue = 2 | pages = 65–85 | url = http://www.informaworld.com/index/739364907.pdf | accessdate = 2008-02-08 | doi = 10.1080/00033796200202722 <!--Retrieved from CrossRef by DOI bot-->}}</ref> Discussion of [[scientist]]s as a special group of people who did science, even if their attributes were up for debate, grew in the last half of the 19th century.<ref name = Thurs/><!-- p. 69-74, 79-84 --> Whatever people actually meant by these terms at first, they ultimately depicted science, in the narrow sense of the habitual use of the scientific method and the knowledge derived from it, as something deeply distinguished from all other realms of human endeavor.<br />
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By the twentieth century, the modern notion of science as a special brand of information about the world, practiced by a distinct group and pursued through a unique method, was essentially in place. It was used to give legitimacy to a variety of fields through such titles as "scientific" medicine, engineering, advertising, or motherhood.<ref name = Thurs/><!-- p. 95 --> Over the 1900s, links between science and [[technology]] also grew increasingly strong.<br />
<br />
===Distinguished from technology===<br />
By the end of the century, it is arguable that technology had even begun to eclipse science as a term of public attention and praise. Scholarly studies of science have begun to refer to "[[technoscience]]" rather than science or technology separately. Meanwhile, such fields as [[biotechnology]] and [[nanotechnology]] are capturing the headlines. One author has suggested that, in the coming century, "science" may fall out of use, to be replaced by technoscience or even by some more exotic label such as "techknowledgy."<ref name = Thurs/><!-- p. 142-144, 180-181 --><br />
<br />
==Scientific method==<br />
{{main|Scientific method}}<br />
<br />
[[Image:Bohr model.svg|thumb|The [[Bohr model]] of the [[atom]], like many ideas in the [[history of science]], was at first prompted by and later partially disproved by experiment.]]<br />
<br />
The [[scientific method]] seeks to explain the events of [[nature]] in a [[reproducible]] way, and to use these reproductions to make useful [[prediction]]s. It is done through observation of natural phenomena, and/or through experimentation that tries to simulate natural events under controlled conditions. It provides an objective process to find solutions to problems in a number of scientific and technological fields.<ref name=backer>{{cite web<br />
| last=Backer | first=Patricia Ryaby<br />
| date=[[October 29]], [[2004]]<br />
| url=http://www.engr.sjsu.edu/pabacker/scientific_method.htm<br />
| title=What is the scientific method?<br />
| publisher=San Jose State University<br />
| accessdate=2008-03-28 }}</ref><br />
<br />
Based on observations of a phenomenon, a scientist may generate a [[Scientific modeling|model]]. This is an attempt to describe or depict the phenomenon in terms of a logical physical or mathematical representation. As empirical evidence is gathered, a scientist can suggest a [[hypothesis]] to explain the phenomenon. This description can be used to make predictions that are testable by experiment or observation using the scientific method. When a hypothesis proves unsatisfactory, it is either modified or discarded.<br />
<br />
While performing experiments, [[Scientist]]s may have a preference for one outcome over another, and it is important that this tendency does not bias their interpretation.<ref>{{cite web<br />
| last=van Gelder | first=Tim | year=1999<br />
| url=http://www.philosophy.unimelb.edu.au/tgelder/papers/HeadsIWin.pdf<br />
| format=PDF<br />
| title="Heads I win, tails you lose": A Foray Into the Psychology of Philosophy<br />
| publisher=University of Melbourne<br />
| accessdate=2008-03-28<br />
}}</ref><ref>{{cite web<br />
| last=Pease | first=Craig<br />
| date=[[September 6]], [[2006]]<br />
| url=http://law-and-science.net/Science4BLJ/Scientific_Method/Deliberate.bias/Text.htm<br />
| title=Chapter 23. Deliberate bias: Conflict creates bad science<br />
| work=Science for Business, Law and Journalism<br />
| publisher=Vermont Law School<br />
| accessdate=2008-03-28<br />
}}</ref> A strict following of the scientific method attempts to minimize the influence of a scientist's bias on the outcome of an experiment. This can be achieved by correct [[Design of experiments|experimental design]], and a thorough [[peer review]] of the experimental results as well as conclusions of a study.<ref>{{cite book<br />
| first=David | last=Shatz | year=2004<br />
| title=Peer Review: A Critical Inquiry<br />
| publisher=Rowman & Littlefield | isbn=074251434X<br />
| oclc=54989960<br />
}}</ref><ref>{{cite book<br />
| first=Sheldon | last=Krimsky | year=2003<br />
| title=Science in the Private Interest: Has the Lure of Profits Corrupted the Virtue of Biomedical Research<br />
| publisher=Rowman & Littlefield | isbn=074251479X<br />
| oclc=185926306 }}</ref> Once the experiment results are announced or published, an important cross-check can be the need to validate the results by an independent party.<ref>{{cite book<br />
| first=Ruth Ellen | last=Bulger | year=2002<br />
| coauthors=Heitman, Elizabeth; Reiser, Stanley Joel<br />
| title=The Ethical Dimensions of the Biological and Health Sciences<br />
| edition=2nd edition | isbn=0521008867<br />
| publisher=Cambridge University Press<br />
| oclc=47791316 }}</ref><br />
<br />
Once a hypothesis has survived testing, it may become adopted into the framework of a [[theory (science)|scientific theory]]. This is a logically reasoned, self-consistent model or framework for describing the behavior of certain natural phenomena. A theory typically describes the behavior of much broader sets of phenomena than a hypothesis—commonly, a large number of hypotheses can be logically bound together by a single theory. These broader theories may be formulated using principles such as [[parsimony]] (e.g., "[[Occam's Razor]]"). They are then repeatedly tested by analyzing how the collected evidence ([[fact]]s) compares to the theory. When a theory survives a sufficiently large number of empirical observations, it then becomes a scientific generalization that can be taken as fully verified.<br />
<br />
Despite the existence of well-tested theories, science cannot claim absolute knowledge of nature or the behavior of the subject or of the field of study due to [[Epistemology|epistemological]] problems that are unavoidable and preclude the discovery or establishment of absolute [[truth]]. Unlike a mathematical proof, a scientific theory is [[empirical]], and is always open to [[falsifiability|falsification]], if new evidence is presented. Even the most basic and fundamental theories may turn out to be imperfect if new observations are inconsistent with them. Critical to this process is making every relevant aspect of research publicly available, which allows ongoing review and repeating of experiments and observations by multiple researchers operating independently of one another. Only by fulfilling these expectations can it be determined how reliable the experimental results are for potential use by others.<br />
<br />
Isaac Newton's Newtonian [[mechanics|law of gravitation]] is a famous example of an established law that was later found not to be universal—it does not hold in experiments involving motion at speeds close to the speed of light or in close proximity of strong gravitational fields. Outside these conditions, Newton's Laws remain an excellent model of motion and gravity. Since general relativity accounts for all the same phenomena that Newton's Laws do and more, general relativity is now regarded as a more comprehensive theory.<ref>{{cite book<br />
| first=Bernard F. | last=Schutz | year=2003<br />
| title=Gravity from the ground up<br />
| publisher=Cambridge University Press<br />
| isbn=0521455065<br />
| oclc=239632969 }}</ref><br />
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=== Mathematics ===<br />
[[Image:Michelsonmorley-boxplot.svg|thumb|Data from the famous [[Michelson–Morley experiment]]]]<br />
[[Mathematics]] is essential to many sciences. One important function of mathematics in science is the role it plays in the expression of scientific ''models''. Observing and collecting measurements, as well as hypothesizing and predicting, often require extensive use of mathematics and mathematical models. [[Calculus]] may be the branch of mathematics most often used in science, but virtually every branch of mathematics has applications in science, including "pure" areas such as [[number theory]] and [[topology]]. Mathematics is fundamental to the understanding of the natural sciences and the social sciences, many of which also rely heavily on [[statistics]].<br />
<br />
Statistical methods, comprised of mathematical techniques for summarizing and exploring data, allow scientists to assess the level of reliability and the range of variation in experimental results. Statistical thinking also plays a fundamental role in many areas of science.<br />
<br />
[[Computational science]] applies computing power to simulate real-world situations, enabling a better understanding of scientific problems than formal mathematics alone can achieve. According to the [[Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics]], computation is now as important as theory and experiment in advancing scientific knowledge.<ref>[http://www.siam.org/students/resources/report.php Graduate Education for Computational Science and Engineering], SIAM Working Group on CSE Education. Accessed [[2008-04-27]].</ref><br />
<br />
Whether mathematics itself is properly classified as science has been a matter of some debate. Some thinkers see mathematicians as scientists, regarding physical experiments as inessential or mathematical proofs as equivalent to experiments. Others do not see mathematics as a science, since it does not require an experimental test of its theories and hypotheses. Mathematical [[theorem]]s and [[formula]]s are obtained by [[Mathematical logic|logical]] derivations which presume [[axiom]]atic systems, rather than the combination of [[empirical]] observation and logical reasoning that has come to be known as the [[scientific method]]. In general, mathematics is classified as [[formal science]], while natural and social sciences are classified as [[empirical]] sciences.<ref>{{cite book | title = Philosophy of Science: From Problem to Theory | author = Bunge, Mario Augusto | year = 1998 | publisher = Transaction Publishers | page 24 | isbn = 0-765-80413-1}}</ref><br />
<br />
== Philosophy of science==<br />
[[Image:Bose Einstein condensate.png|right|thumb|Velocity-distribution data of a gas of [[rubidium]] atoms, confirming the discovery of a new phase of matter, the [[Bose–Einstein condensate]].]]<br />
{{main|Philosophy of science}}<br />
<br />
The philosophy of science seeks to understand the nature and justification of scientific knowledge. It has proven difficult to provide a definitive [[Scientific method#Philosophical issues|account of the scientific method]] that can decisively serve to distinguish science from non-science. Thus there are legitimate arguments about exactly where the borders are, leading to the [[problem of demarcation]]. There is nonetheless a set of core precepts that have broad consensus among published philosophers of science and within the [[scientific community]] at large.<br />
<br />
Science is reasoned-based analysis of [[sensation]] upon our awareness. As such, the scientific method cannot deduce anything about the realm of [[reality]] that is beyond what is observable by existing or theoretical means.<ref>{{cite book<br />
| first=Lawrence A. | last=Kuznar | year=1997<br />
| title=Reclaiming a Scientific Anthropology<br />
| publisher=Rowman Altamira | isbn=076199114X<br />
| oclc=231704464 }}</ref> When a manifestation of our reality previously considered [[supernatural]] is understood in the terms of causes and consequences, it acquires a scientific explanation.<ref>{{cite book<br />
| first=Christopher B. | last=Kaiser | year=2007<br />
| title=Toward a Theology of Scientific Endeavour: The Descent of Science<br />
| publisher=Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. | isbn=0754641597<br />
| oclc=74964819 }}</ref><br />
<br />
Some of the findings of science can be very [[counter-intuitive]]. [[Atomic theory]], for example, implies that a granite boulder which appears a heavy, hard, solid, grey object is actually a combination of subatomic [[Particle physics|particles]] with none of these properties, moving very rapidly in space where the mass is concentrated in a very small fraction of the total volume. Many of humanity's [[folk physics|preconceived notions]] about the workings of the [[universe]] have been challenged by new scientific discoveries. [[Quantum mechanics]], particularly, examines phenomena that seem to defy our most basic postulates about causality and fundamental understanding of the world around us. Science is the branch of knowledge dealing with people and the understanding we have of our environment and how it works.<br />
<br />
There are different schools of thought in the philosophy of scientific method. [[Methodological naturalism]] maintains that scientific investigation must adhere to [[empirical]] study and independent verification as a process for properly developing and evaluating natural explanations for [[observation|observable]] phenomena.<ref>{{cite journal|journal = The Review of Metaphysics|title = Casebeer, William D. Natural Ethical Facts: Evolution, Connectionism, and Moral Cognition|author = Brugger, E. Christian|volume = 58| issue = 2|year = 2004}}</ref> Methodological naturalism, therefore, rejects [[supernatural]] explanations, [[Appeal to authority|arguments from authority]] and biased [[observational studies]]. [[Critical rationalism]] instead holds that unbiased observation is not possible and a demarcation between natural and supernatural explanations is arbitrary; it instead proposes [[falsifiability]] as the landmark of empirical theories and falsification as the universal empirical method. Critical rationalism argues for the ability of science to increase the scope of testable knowledge, but at the same time against its [[authority]], by emphasizing its inherent [[fallibilism|fallibility]]. It proposes that science should be content with the rational elimination of errors in its theories, not in seeking for their verification (such as claiming [[Certainty|certain]] or probable proof or disproof; both the proposal and falsification of a theory are only of methodological, conjectural, and tentative character in critical rationalism).<ref>{{cite book | title = Conjectures and Refutations: The Growth of Scientific Knowledge | author = Popper, Karl | publisher = Routledge | year = 2002}}</ref> [[Instrumentalism]] rejects the concept of truth and emphasizes merely the utility of theories as instruments for explaining and predicting phenomena.<ref>{{cite book|title = The Rationality of Science | author = Newton-Smith, W. H. | location = London | publisher = Routledge | year = 1994 | page = 30}}</ref><br />
<br />
==Critiques==<br />
===Science, pseudoscience and nonscience===<br />
{{main|Cargo cult science|Fringe science|Junk science|Pseudoscience|Scientific misconduct}}<br />
Any established body of [[knowledge]] which masquerades as science in an attempt to claim a legitimacy which it would not otherwise be able to achieve on its own terms is not science; it is often known as [[fringe science|fringe]]- or alternative science. The most important of its defects is usually the lack of the carefully controlled and thoughtfully interpreted experiments which provide the foundation of the natural sciences and which contribute to their advancement. Another term, [[junk science]], is often used to describe scientific theories or data which, while perhaps legitimate in themselves, are believed to be mistakenly used to support an opposing position. There is usually an element of political or ideological bias in the use of the term. Thus the arguments in favor of limiting the use of fossil fuels in order to reduce global warming are often characterized as junk science by those who do not wish to see such restrictions imposed, and who claim that other factors may well be the cause of global warming. A wide variety of commercial advertising (ranging from hype to outright fraud) would also fall into this category. Finally, there is just plain bad science, which is commonly used to describe well-intentioned but incorrect, obsolete, incomplete, or over-simplified expositions of scientific ideas.<br />
<br />
The status of many bodies of knowledge as true sciences, has been a matter of debate. Discussion and debate abound in this topic with some fields like the [[social sciences|social]] and [[behavioural sciences]] accused by critics of being unscientific. Many groups of people from academicians like Nobel Prize physicist [[Percy W. Bridgman]],<ref>{{cite journal | last = Siepmann | first = J. P. | title=What is Science? (Editorial) | journal=Journal of Theoretics | year=1999 | volume=3 | url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1998RPPh...61...77K | accessdate=2007-07-23 }}</ref> or Dick Richardson, Ph.D.—Professor of Integrative Biology at the [[University of Texas at Austin]],<ref>{{cite web | last=Richardson | first=R. H. (Dick) | date=January 28, 2001 | url=http://www.sbs.utexas.edu/resource/onlinetext/Definitions/economicsNOTscience.htm | title=Economics is NOT Natural Science! (It is technology of Social Science.) | publisher=The University of Texas at Austin | accessdate=2007-07-23 }}</ref> to politicians like U.S. Senator [[Kay Bailey Hutchison]] and other co-sponsors,<ref>{{cite web | author=Staff | date=May 19, 2006 | url=http://www.asanet.org/page.ww?section=Advocacy&name=Social+Sciences+Under+Attack | title=Behavioral and Social Science Are Under Attack in the Senate | publisher=American Sociological Association | accessdate=2007-07-23 }}</ref> oppose giving their support or agreeing with the use of the label "science" in some fields of study and knowledge they consider non-scientific, ambiguous, or scientifically irrelevant compared with other fields. [[Karl Popper]] denied the existence of evidence<ref>''Logik der Forschung'', new appendix ''*XIX'' (not yet available in the English edition ''Logic of scientific discovery'')</ref> and of scientific method.<ref>{{cite book<br />
| first=Karl | last=Popper | authorlink=Karl Popper<br />
| chapter=Preface, On the non-existence of scientific method<br />
| title=Realism and the Aim of Science<br />
| year=1983 | edition=1st edition<br />
| publisher=Rowman and Littlefield<br />
| location=Totowa, New Jersey }}</ref> Popper holds that there is only one universal method, the negative method of [[trial and error]]. It covers not only all products of the human mind, including science, mathematics, philosophy, art and so on, but also the evolution of life.<ref>Karl Popper: ''Objective Knowledge'' (1972)</ref> He also contributed to the [[Positivism dispute]], a philosophical dispute between [[Critical rationalism]] ([[Popper]],[[Albert]]) and the [[Frankfurt School]] ([[Adorno]], [[Habermas]]) about the methodology of the social sciences.<ref>Critical examination of various positions on this issue can be found in [[Karl R. Popper]]'s ''The Poverty of Historicism''.</ref><br />
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===Philosophical focus===<br />
Historian [[Jacques Barzun]] termed science "a [[faith]] as [[fanaticism|fanatical]] as any in [[history]]" and warned against the use of scientific thought to suppress considerations of [[meaning]] as integral to [[humanity|human]] existence.<ref>Jacques Barzun, ''Science: The Glorious Entertainment'', Harper and Row: 1964. p. 15. (quote) and Chapters II and XII.</ref> Many recent thinkers, such as [[Carolyn Merchant]], [[Theodor Adorno]] and [[E. F. Schumacher]] considered that the 17th century [[scientific revolution]] shifted science from a focus on understanding [[nature]], or [[wisdom]], to a focus on manipulating nature, i.e. [[power (sociology)|power]], and that science's emphasis on manipulating nature leads it inevitably to manipulate people, as well.<ref name=UW>Fritjof Capra, ''Uncommon Wisdom'', ISBN 0-671-47322-0, p. 213</ref> Science's focus on quantitative measures has led to critiques that it is unable to recognize important qualitative aspects of the world.<ref name=UW/> It is not clear, however, if this kind of criticism is adequate to a vast number of non-experimental scientifics fields like [[Astronomy]], [[Cosmology]], [[Evolutionary Biology]], [[Complexity Theory]], [[Paleontology]], [[Paleoanthropology]], [[Archeology]], [[Earth Sciences]], [[Climatology]], [[Ecology]] and other sciences, like [[Statistical Physics]] of irreversible [[non-linear]] systems, that emphasize systemic and historically contingent frozen accidents. Considerations about the philosophical impact of science to the discussion of the (or lack of) meaning in human existence are not suppressed but strongly discussed in the literature of science divulgation, a movement sometimes called [[The Third Culture]].<br />
<br />
The implications of the ideological denial of [[ethics]] for the practice of science itself in terms of fraud, plagiarism, and data falsification, has been criticized by several academics. In "Science and Ethics", the philosopher [[Bernard Rollin]] examines the ideology that denies the relevance of ethics to science, and argues in favor of making education in ethics part and parcel of scientific training.<ref>{{cite book<br />
| first=Bernard E. | last=Rollin | year=2006<br />
| title=Science and Ethics<br />
| publisher=Cambridge University Press<br />
| isbn=0521857546<br />
| oclc=238793190 }}</ref><br />
<br />
===The media and the scientific debate===<br />
The [[mass media]] face a number of pressures that can prevent them from accurately depicting competing scientific claims in terms of their credibility within the scientific community as a whole. Determining how much weight to give different sides in a scientific debate requires considerable expertise on the issue at hand.<ref>{{cite web<br />
| last=Dickson | first=David | date=[[October 11]], [[2004]]<br />
| url=http://www.scidev.net/Editorials/index.cfm?fuseaction=readEditorials&itemid=131&language=1<br />
| title=Science journalism must keep a critical edge<br />
| publisher=Science and Development Network<br />
| accessdate=2008-02-20<br />
}}</ref> Few journalists have real scientific knowledge, and even beat reporters who know a great deal about certain scientific issues may know little about other ones they are suddenly asked to cover.<ref>{{cite web<br />
| last=Mooney | first=Chris | year=2007<br />
| url=http://cjrarchives.org/issues/2004/6/mooney-science.asp<br />
| title=Blinded By Science, How 'Balanced' Coverage Lets the Scientific Fringe Hijack Reality<br />
| publisher=Columbia Journalism Review<br />
| accessdate=2008-02-20<br />
}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal<br />
| last=McIlwaine | first=S. | coauthors=Nguyen, D. A.<br />
| title=Are Journalism Students Equipped to Write About Science?<br />
| journal=Australian Studies in Journalism<br />
| year=2005 | volume=14 | pages=41–60<br />
| url=http://espace.library.uq.edu.au/view/UQ:8064<br />
| accessdate=2008-02-20 }}</ref><br />
<br />
===Epistemological inadequacies===<br />
Psychologist [[Carl Jung]] believed that though science attempted to understand all of nature, the experimental method used would pose artificial, conditional questions that evoke only partial answers.<ref>{{cite book | isbn = 0691017948 | title = Synchronicity: An Acausal Connecting Principle | pages = 35 | publisher = Princeton University Press | last = Jung | first = Carl | year = 1973 | authorlink = Carl Jung}}</ref> [[Robert Anton Wilson]] criticized science for using instruments to ask questions that produce answers only meaningful in terms of the instrument, and that there was no such thing as a completely objective vantage point from which to view the results of science.<ref>{{cite video|<br />
| people=Wilson, Robert Anton<br />
| title=[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lO7tGOr2NU0 Real Reality]<br />
| medium=Adobe Flash video | publisher=YouTube<br />
| year2=[[2007]] }}</ref><br />
<br />
== Scientific community ==<br />
{{main|Scientific community}}<br />
The scientific community consists of the total body of scientists, its relationships and interactions. It is normally divided into "sub-communities" each working on a particular field within science.<br />
<br />
=== Fields ===<br />
{{main|Fields of science}}<br />
<!-- The organizational tables have been moved to the main article "Fields of science" --><br />
Fields of science are commonly classified along two major lines: [[natural science]]s, which study [[natural]] phenomena (including [[Biology|biological life]]), and [[social sciences]], which study [[human behavior]] and [[Society|societies]]. These groupings are [[empirical]] sciences, which means the knowledge must be based on [[Observation|observable]] [[phenomena]] and capable of being [[experiment]]ed for its [[validity]] by other researchers working under the same conditions.<ref name=Popper>{{cite book | last = Popper | first = Karl | authorlink = Karl Popper | title = The Logic of Scientific Discovery | origyear = 1959 | edition = 2nd English edition | year = 2002 | publisher = Routledge Classics | location = New York, NY | isbn = 0-415-27844-9 | oclc =59377149 }}</ref><!-- p. 20 --> There are also related disciplines that are grouped into interdisciplinary and applied sciences, such as [[engineering]] and [[health science]]. Within these categories are specialized scientific fields that can include elements of other scientific disciplines but often possess their own terminology and body of expertise.<ref>See: {{cite web | author=Editorial Staff | date=March 7, 2007 | url=http://www.seedmagazine.com/news/2007/03/scientific_method_relationship.php | title=Scientific Method: Relationships among Scientific Paradigms | publisher=Seed magazine | accessdate=2007-09-12 }}</ref><br />
<br />
[[Mathematics]], which is sometimes classified within a third group of science called [[formal science]], has both similarities and differences with the natural and social sciences.<ref name=Popper/><!-- p. 3 --> It is similar to [[empirical]] sciences in that it involves an objective, careful and systematic study of an area of knowledge; it is different because of its method of verifying its knowledge, using [[A priori and a posteriori (philosophy)|''a priori'']] rather than empirical methods.<ref name=Popper/><!-- p. 10-11 --> [[Formal science]], which also includes [[statistics]] and [[logic]], is vital to the empirical sciences. Major advances in formal science have often led to major advances in the physical and biological sciences. The formal sciences are essential in the formation of [[hypotheses]], [[theories]], and [[physical law|laws]],<ref name=Popper/><!-- p. 79-82 --> both in discovering and describing how things work (natural sciences) and how people think and act (social sciences).<br />
<br />
=== Institutions ===<br />
[[Image:Académie des Sciences 1671.jpg|thumb|150px|[[Louis XIV]] visiting the {{lang|fr|[[French Academy of Sciences|Académie des sciences]]}} in 1671.]]<br />
<br />
[[Learned society|Learned societies]] for the communication and promotion of scientific thought and experimentation have existed since the [[Renaissance]] period.<ref>{{cite web | last=Parrott | first=Jim | date=August 9, 2007 | url=http://www.scholarly-societies.org/1599andearlier.html | title=Chronicle for Societies Founded from 1323 to 1599 | publisher=Scholarly Societies Project | accessdate=2007-09-11}}</ref> The oldest surviving institution is the {{lang|it|''[[Accademia dei Lincei]]''}} in [[Italy]].<ref>{{cite web | year=2006 | url=http://positivamente.lincei.it/ | title=Benvenuto nel sito dell'Accademia Nazionale dei Lincei | language=Italian | publisher=Accademia Nazionale dei Lincei | accessdate=2007-09-11}}</ref> National [[Academy of Sciences]] are distinguished institutions that exist in a number of countries, beginning with the British ''[[Royal Society]]'' in 1660<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.royalsoc.ac.uk/page.asp?id=2176 | title=Brief history of the Society | publisher=The Royal Society | accessdate=2007-09-11}}</ref> and the French {{lang|fr|''[[Académie des Sciences]]''}} in 1666.<ref>{{cite web | first=G.G. | last=Meynell | url=http://www.royalsoc.ac.uk/page.asp?id=2176 | title=The French Academy of Sciences, 1666-91: A reassessment of the French Académie royale des sciences under Colbert (1666-83) and Louvois (1683-91) | publisher=Topics in Scientific & Medical History | accessdate=2007-09-11}}</ref><br />
<br />
International scientific organizations, such as the ''[[International Council for Science]]'', have since been formed to promote cooperation between the scientific communities of different nations. More recently, influential government agencies have been created to support scientific research, including the ''[[National Science Foundation]]'' in the [[United States|U.S.]]<br />
<br />
Other prominent organizations include the [[academy of Sciences|academies of science]] of many nations, [[CSIRO]] in Australia, {{lang|fr|[[Centre national de la recherche scientifique]]}} in France, [[Max Planck Society]] and {{lang|de|[[Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft]]}} in Germany, and in Spain, [[CSIC]].<br />
<br />
=== Literature ===<br />
{{main|Scientific literature}}<br />
<br />
An enormous range of [[scientific literature]] is published.<ref>{{cite journal<br />
| last=Ziman | first=Bhadriraju<br />
| journal=Science<br />
| title=The proliferation of scientific literature: a natural process<br />
| year=1980 | volume=208 | issue=4442<br />
| pages=369&ndash;371<br />
| doi= 10.1126/science.7367863<br />
| pmid=7367863 }}</ref> [[Scientific journal]]s communicate and document the results of research carried out in universities and various other research institutions, serving as an archival record of science. The first scientific journals, ''[[Journal des Sçavans]]'' followed by the ''[[Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society|Philosophical Transactions]]'', began publication in 1665. Since that time the total number of active periodicals has steadily increased. As of 1981, one estimate for the number of scientific and technical journals in publication was 11,500.<ref>{{cite book<br />
| first=Krishna | last=Subramanyam<br />
| coauthors=Subramanyam, Bhadriraju | year=1981<br />
| title=Scientific and Technical Information Resources<br />
| publisher=CRC Press | isbn=0824782976<br />
| oclc=232950234 }}</ref> While [[Pubmed]] lists almost 40,000, related to the medical sciences only.<ref> ftp://ftp.ncbi.nih.gov/pubmed/J_Entrez.txt</ref><br />
<br />
Most scientific journals cover a single scientific field and publish the research within that field; the research is normally expressed in the form of a [[scientific paper]]. Science has become so pervasive in modern societies that it is generally considered necessary to communicate the achievements, news, and ambitions of scientists to a wider populace.<br />
<br />
[[Science magazine]]s such as [[NewScientist|New Scientist]], [[Science & Vie]] and [[Scientific American]] cater to the needs of a much wider readership and provide a non-technical summary of popular areas of research, including notable discoveries and advances in certain fields of research. [[Science book]]s engage the interest of many more people. Tangentially, the [[science fiction]] genre, primarily fantastic in nature, engages the public imagination and transmits the ideas, if not the methods, of science.<br />
<br />
Recent efforts to intensify or develop links between science and non-scientific disciplines such as [[Literature]] or, more specifically, [[Poetry]], include the ''Creative Writing <-> Science'' resource developed through the [[Royal Literary Fund]].<ref>{{cite web<br />
| first=Mario | last=Petrucci<br />
| url=http://writeideas.org.uk/creativescience/index.htm<br />
| title=Creative Writing <-> Science<br />
| accessdate=2008-04-27 }}</ref><br />
<br />
== See also ==<br />
{{Portal|Science|Nuvola apps kalzium.png}}<br />
: ''Main lists: [[List of basic science topics]] and [[List of science topics]]''<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="float:left; margin-left:.5em; font-size:90%;"<br />
!Application<br />
|<br />
* [[Military funding of science]]<br />
* [[Scientific computing]]<br />
* [[Scientific enterprise]]<br />
* [[Science and technology]]<br />
|-<br />
!Controversy<br />
|<br />
* [[Fringe science]]<br />
* [[Junk science]]<br />
* [[Pathological science]]<br />
* [[Pseudoscience]]<br />
* [[Relationship between religion and science]]<br />
* [[Creation-evolution controversy]]<br />
* [[Scientific misconduct]]<br />
* [[Scientific skepticism]]<br />
|-<br />
!History<br />
|<br />
* [[History of science and technology]]<br />
* [[Historiography of science]]<br />
* [[Protoscience]]<br />
* [[Scientific constants named after people]]<br />
* [[Scientific laws named after people]]<br />
* [[Scientific phenomena named after people]]<br />
* [[Scientific revolution]]<br />
* [[Scientific units named after people]]<br />
* [[Scientometry]]<br />
|-<br />
!Philosophy<br />
|<br />
* [[Naturalism (philosophy)]]<br />
* [[Philosophy of science]]<br />
* [[Rhetoric of science]]<br />
* [[Scientific method]]<br />
* [[Antiscience]]<br />
|-<br />
!Media<br />
|<br />
* [[List of publications in science]]<br />
* [[Science.tv]]<br />
|}<br />
{{-}}<br />
<br />
==Notes==<br />
{{reflist|2}}<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
* [[Paul Feyerabend|Feyerabend, Paul]] (2005). ''Science, history of the philosophy'', as cited in {{cite book |author=Honderich, Ted |title=The Oxford companion to philosophy |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford [[Oxfordshire]] |year=2005 |pages= |isbn=0199264791 |oclc= 173262485|doi=}} of.'' Oxford Companion to Philosophy. Oxford.<br />
*[[David Papineau|Papineau, David]]. (2005). ''Science, problems of the philosophy of.'', as cited in {{cite book |author=Honderich, Ted |title=The Oxford companion to philosophy |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford [[Oxfordshire]] |year=2005 |pages= |isbn=0199264791 |oclc= 173262485|doi=}}<br />
*{{cite book | author = Feynman, R.P. | year = 1999 | title = The Pleasure of Finding Things Out: The Best Short Works of Richard P. Feynman | publisher = Perseus Books Group | isbn = 0465023959 | oclc = 181597764 }}<br />
<br />
==Further reading==<br />
* Augros, Robert M., Stanciu, George N., "The New Story of Science: mind and the universe", Lake Bluff, Ill.: Regnery Gateway, c1984. ISBN 0895268337<br />
* [http://lipas.uwasa.fi/~ts/popsci.html A Book List of Popularized Natural and Behavioral Sciences]<br />
* Baxter, Charles {{PDFlink|[http://www.adihome.org/phpshop/pdf/articles/DIN_02_01_10.pdf "Myth versus science in educational systems"]|66.4&nbsp;KB}}<br />
*{{cite book|last=Becker|first=Ernest|title=The structure of evil; an essay on the unification of the science of man|location=New York|publisher=G. Braziller|year=1968|authorlink=Ernest Becker}}<br />
* "''[http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/cgi-local/DHI/dhi.cgi?id=dv1-57 Classification of the Sciences]''". Dictionary of the History of Ideas.<br />
* Cole, K. C., ''Things your teacher never told you about science: Nine shocking revelations'' [[Newsday]], [[Long Island, New York]], March 23, 1986, pg 21+<br />
* Feynman, Richard [http://calteches.library.caltech.edu/51/02/CargoCult.pdf "Cargo Cult Science"]<br />
* Gopnik, Alison, [http://www.amacad.org/publications/winter2004/gopnik.pdf "Finding Our Inner Scientist"], [[Daedalus (journal)|Daedalus]], Winter 2004.<br />
* Krige, John, and Dominique Pestre, eds., ''Science in the Twentieth Century'', Routledge 2003, ISBN 0-415-28606-9<br />
* [[Thomas Samuel Kuhn|Kuhn, Thomas]], ''[[The Structure of Scientific Revolutions]]'', 1962.<br />
* MacComas, William F. {{PDFlink|[http://earthweb.ess.washington.edu/roe/Knowability_590/Week2/Myths%20of%20Science.pdf "The principal elements of the nature of science: Dispelling the myths"]|189&nbsp;KB}} Rossier School of Education, University of Southern California. Direct Instruction News. '''Spring 2002''' 24–30.<br />
* [http://evolution.berkeley.edu/evosite/nature/index.shtml "Nature of Science"] University of California Museum of Paleontology<br />
* {{cite book| last = Obler | first = Paul C. | coauthors = Estrin, Herman A. | title = The New Scientist: Essays on the Methods and Values of Modern Science | publisher = Anchor Books, Doubleday | date = 1962}}<br />
* {{cite book | first=Daniel Patrick | last=Thurs | year=2007 | title=Science Talk: Changing Notions of Science in American Popular Culture| pages=pp. 22&ndash;52 | publisher=Rutgers University Press | location=New Brunswick, NJ | isbn=978-0-8135-4073-3 }}<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
{{sisterlinks|Science}}<br />
'''Publications''':<br />
* "''[[b:GCSE Science|GCSE Science textbook]]''". [[Wikibooks]].org<br />
<br />
'''News''':<br />
* [http://www.newscientist.com Current Events]. [[New Scientist]] Magazine, Reed Business Information, Ltd.<br />
* [http://www.sciencedaily.com ScienceDaily]<br />
* [http://www.discovermagazine.com Discover Magazine]<br />
<br />
'''Resources''':<br />
* [http://www.science.gov United States Science Initiative]. Selected science information provided by U.S. Government agencies, including research and development results.<br />
* [http://www.euroscience.org/ Euroscience]:<br />
** [http://www.euroscience.org/esof.html Euroscience Open Forum] (ESOF)<br />
[[Category:Science|Science]]<br />
* [http://www.scienceresourceonline.com Science Resources]<br />
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[[ru:Наука]]<br />
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Leslie
https://conservapedia.com/index.php?title=Government&diff=553375
Government
2008-11-10T00:46:34Z
<p>Leslie: removing some too-obvious bias</p>
<hr />
<div>{{pp-semi-vandalism|small=yes}}<br />
{{Essay-like|date=March 2008}}<br />
:''For the government of parliamentary systems, see [[Executive (government)]].<br />
[[Image:Government-Vedder-Highsmith-detail-1.jpeg|thumb|300px|Detail from [[Elihu Vedder]], ''Government'' (1896). Library of Congress [[Thomas Jefferson Building]], Washington, D.C.]]<br />
{{Wiktionarypar|government}}<br />
A '''government''' is "the organization, that is the governing authority of a political unit,"<ref>[http://wordnet.princeton.edu/perl/webwn?s=government Wordnet Search 3.0: Government]</ref> "the ruling power in a political society,"<ref>[http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Government LoveToKnow: 1911 Encyclopedia: Government]</ref> and the apparatus through which a governing body functions and exercises authority.<ref>American 760</ref> "Government, with the authority to make laws, to adjudicate disputes, and to issue administrative decisions, and with a monopoly of authorized force where it fails to persuade, is an indispensable means, ''proximately'', to the peace of communal life."<ref name="adler 80">Adler 80-81</ref> "A compulsory territorial monopolist of protection and jurisdiction equipped with the power to tax without unanimous consent."<ref>{{cite book|title=The Myth of National Defense|author=Hoppe, Hans-Hermann|pages=8|isbn=0-945466-37-4|year=2003}}</ref> Statist theorists maintain that the necessity of government derives from the fact that the people need to live in communities, yet personal autonomy must be constrained in these communities.<br />
<br />
A [[state]] or [[province]] of sufficient size and complexity will have different layers or levels of government: local, regional and national.<br />
<br />
== Types of government ==<br />
[[Image:DSC04509.JPG|thumb|The [[U.S. Capitol]] houses the main workings of [[United States|American]] democracy.]]<br />
*[[Anarchy]] - Absence, or lack of government.<ref>American 65</ref><ref>Technically, anarchy is not a form of government</ref><br />
*[[Constitutional Monarchy]] - A government that has a king, but his/her power is strictly limited by the government. Example: [[United Kingdom]].<br />
*[[Democracy]] - Rule by a government where the [[people]] as a whole hold the power. It may be exercised by them ([[direct democracy]]), or through representatives chosen by them ([[representative democracy]]).<ref>American 483</ref><ref><br />
[[Takis Fotopoulos|Fotopoulos, Takis]], ''The Multidimensional Crisis and [[Inclusive Democracy]]''. (Athens: Gordios, 2005). ([http://www.inclusivedemocracy.org/fotopoulos/english/brbooks/multi_crisis_id/multi_crisis_id.htm English translation] of the book with the same title published in Greek).<br />
</ref><ref name="victoria"><br />
{{cite web<br />
|url=http://www.parliament.vic.gov.au/SARC/E-Democracy/Final_Report/Glossary.htm<br />
|title=Victorian Electronic Democracy : Glossary<br />
|date=July 28, 2005<br />
|accessdate=2007-12-14<br />
}}<br />
</ref><br />
*[[Despotism]] - Governing by a single individual, the despot, who wields all the power and authority of the state. Other persons are subsidiary to the despot. <br />
*[[Dictatorship]] - Rule by an individual who has full power over the country.<ref>American 503</ref> See also [[Autocracy]] and [[Stratocracy]].<br />
*[[Monarchy]] - Rule by an individual who has inherited the role and expects to bequeath it to their heir.<ref>American 1134</ref><br />
*[[Oligarchy]] - Rule by a small group of people who share similar interests or family relations.<ref>American 1225</ref><br />
*[[Plutocracy]] - A government composed of the wealthy class.<br />
*[[Theocracy]] - Rule by a religious elite.<ref>American 1793</ref><br />
*[[Tyranny]] - Governing by a single ruler, the tyrant, holding vast, if not absolute power through a state.<br />
<br />
Some countries have hybrid forms of Government such as modern [[Iran]] with its combination of democratic and theocratic institutions, and constitutional monarchies such as [[The Netherlands]] combine elements of monarchy and democracy.<ref><br />
{{cite web<br />
|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ir.html<br />
|title=CIA World Factbook -- Iran<br />
|date=2007<br />
|accessdate=2007-12-04<br />
|publisher=Central Intelligence Agency<br />
}} ([https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/print/ir.html printable version])</ref><ref><br />
{{cite web<br />
|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/print/nl.html<br />
|title=CIA - World Factbook -- Netherlands<br />
|publisher=Central Intelligence Agency<br />
|date=2007<br />
|accessdate=2007-12-04<br />
}}<br />
</ref><br />
<br />
==Origin of government==<br />
<br />
For many thousands of years when people were [[hunter-gatherer]]s and small scale farmers, humans lived in small, "relatively non-hierarchical" and mostly self-sufficient communities. However, the human ability to precisely communicate abstract, learned information allowed humans to become ever more effective at agriculture,<ref name="christian networked">Christian 146-147</ref> and that allowed for ever increasing population densities.<ref name="christian 245">Christian 245</ref> David Christian explains how this resulted in states with laws and governments:<br />
<br />
{{quote|As farming populations gathered in larger and denser communities, interactions between different groups increased and the social pressure rose until, in a striking parallel with star formation, new structures suddenly appeared, together with a new level of complexity. Like stars, cities and states reorganize and energize the smaller objects within their gravitational field.|David Christian, p. 245|<u>Maps of Time</u>}}<br />
<br />
The exact moment and place that the phenomenon of human government developed is lost in time; however, history does record the formations of very early governments. About 5,000 years ago, the first small city-states appeared.<ref name="christian 245"/> By the third to second millenniums BC, some of these had developed into larger governed areas: the [[Indus Valley Civilization]], [[Sumer]], [[Ancient Egypt]] and the [[List of Neolithic cultures of China|Yellow River Civilization]].<ref name="christian 294"/><br />
<br />
States formed as the results of a positive feedback loop where ''population growth'' results in ''increased information exchange'' which results in ''innovation'' which results in ''increased resources'' which results in further population growth.<ref>Christian 253</ref><ref><br />
Most of this sentence is in the present tense because the process is still ongoing.<br />
</ref> The role of cities in the feedback loop is important. Cities became the primary conduits for the dramatic increases in information exchange that allowed for large and densely packed populations to form, and because cities concentrated knowledge, they also ended up concentrating power.<ref>Christian 271</ref><ref>The concept of the city itself became a self-reinforcing cycle. "The creation of such large and dense communities ''required'' new forms of power," and since cities concentrate power, the new (sovereign) rulers had incentives to build and expand cities to further increase their power.(Christian 271,321)</ref> "Increasing population density in farming regions provided the demographic and physical raw materials used to construct the first cities and states, and increasing congestion provided much of the motivation for creating states."<ref name="christian 248">Christian 248</ref><br />
<br />
===Fundamental purpose of government===<br />
The fundamental purpose of government is the maintenance of basic security and [[social order|public order]] — without which individuals cannot attempt to find happiness.<ref>Schulze 81</ref> The philosopher [[Thomas Hobbes]] figured that people, as rational animals, saw submission to a government dominated by a sovereign as preferable to [[State of nature|anarchy]].<ref name="dietz 68">Dietz 68</ref><ref name="hobbes"/><br />
<br />
People in a community ''create'' and ''submit to'' government for the purpose of establishing for themselves, safety and public order.<ref name="hobbes transfer">Dietz 65-66</ref><ref name="hobbes">[http://www.iep.utm.edu/s/soc-cont.htm#H2 Social Contract Theory]</ref><ref>Hobbes idea of the necessity of the formation of government is known as the [[social contract]] theory.</ref><ref>The field of study and thought about the necessity of governments and governments' relationships with people is known as [[political philosophy]].</ref><br />
<br />
===Early governments===<br />
These are examples of some of the earliest known governments:<br />
<br />
* '''Ancient Egypt'''—3000 BC<ref name="christian 294">Christian 294</ref><br />
* '''Indus Valley Civilization'''—3000 BC<ref name="christian 294"/><ref name="higham">Higham, "Indus Valley Civilization"</ref><br />
* '''Sumer'''—5200 BC<ref name="christian 294"/><br />
* '''Yellow River Civilization (China)'''—2000 BC<ref name="christian 294"/><br />
<br />
===Expanded roles for government===<br />
====Military defense====<br />
<br />
The fundamental purpose of government is to protect one from his or her neighbors; however, a sovereign of one country is not necessarily sovereign over the people of another country. The need for people to defend themselves against potentially ''thousands'' of non-neighbors necessitates a national defense mechanism—a [[military]].<br />
<br />
Militaries are created to deal with the highly complex task of confronting large numbers of enemies. A farmer can defend himself from a single enemy person—or even five enemies, but he can't defend himself from twenty thousand—even with the help of his strongest and bravest family members. A far larger group would be needed, and despite the fact that most of the members of the group would not be related by family ties, they would have to learn to fight for one another ''as if'' they were all in the same family. An organization that trains people to do this is an [[army]].<br />
<br />
Wars and armies predated governments, but once governments came onto the scene, they proceeded to dominate the formation and use of armies. Governments seek to maintain monopolies on the use of force,<ref name="adler 80"/> and to that end, they usually suppress the development of private armies within their states.<br />
<br />
====Security (Internal)====<br />
<br />
One of the most important role of the government is to provide security, and to enforce [[Law]].<br />
The instruments that are used for this purpose are [[Police]], the management of [[Identity documents]], etc.<br />
<br />
<br />
====Economic security====<br />
<br />
Increasing complexities in society resulted in the formations of governments, but the increases in complexity didn't stop. As the complexity and interdependency's of human communities moved forward, economies began to dominate the human experience enough for an individual's survival potential to be affected substantially by the region's economy. Governments were originally created for the purpose of increasing people's survival potentials, and in that same purpose, governments became involved in manipulating and managing regional economies.<ref>Schulze 13,58</ref> One of a great many examples would be [[Wang Mang]]'s attempt to reform the currency in favor of the peasants and poor in ancient China.<ref>General Zhaoyun par. 1</ref><br />
<br />
At a bare minimum, government ensures that [[money]]'s value will not be undermined by prohibiting [[counterfeiting]], but in almost all societies—including [[capitalism|capitalist]] ones—governments attempt to regulate many more aspects of their economies.<ref>Interestingly, during [[World War I]], the "capitalist" countries of Europe implemented economic measures that would make a [[socialist]] proud.(Schulze 275)</ref> However, very often, government involvement in a national economy has more than just a purpose of stabilizing it for the benefit of the people. Often, the members of government shape the government's economic policies for their own benefits. This will be discussed shortly.<br />
<br />
====Social security====<br />
<br />
Social security is related to economic security. Throughout most of human history, parents prepared for their old age by producing enough children to ensure that some of them would survive long enough to take care of the parents in their old age.<ref name="nebel 165">Nebel 165-166</ref> In modern, relatively high-income societies, a mixed approach is taken where the government shares a substantial responsibility of taking care of the elderly.<ref name="nebel 165"/><br />
<br />
This is not the case everywhere since there are still many countries where social security through having many children is the norm. Although social security is a relatively recent phenomenon, prevalent mostly in developed countries, it deserves mention because the existence of social security substantially changes reproductive behavior in a society, and it has an impact on reducing the ''cycle of poverty''.<ref name="nebel 165"/> By reducing the cycle of poverty, government creates a self-reinforcing cycle where people see the government as friend both because of the financial support they receive late in their lives, but also because of the overall reduction in national poverty due to the government's social security policies--which then adds to public support for social security.<ref><br />
Bruce Bartlett. [http://www.commentarymagazine.com/viewarticle.cfm/Social-Security-Then-and-Now-9867 ''Social Security Then and Now'']. <u>COMMENTARY</u>. March 2005, Vol. 119, No. 3, pp. 52-56. In the online<!-- available for free for those with library cards through a library database called SIRS --> version on paragraph 13 it suggests that, During the [[Great Depression]], Roosevelt wanted to suppress revolutionary tendencies by tying workers to the state—hence a state-run social security system. Also read the paragraphs above where it talks about populist demagogues and socialist revolutions in other countries. Tying workers to the state through social security was a politically strategic move designed to preserve the United States of America and its democracy.<br />
</ref><br />
<br />
====Healthcare====<br />
Governments play a major role (with importance varying from a country to another) in contributing to the [[health]] of the cititzens.<br />
This role includes funding (directectly or indirectly via subsidies) and even manageing the healthcare system.<br />
It also intervene by elaborating [[Laws]] aiming at protecting the health of the citizens.<br />
<br />
====Environmental security====<br />
<br />
Governments play a crucial role in managing environmental public goods such as the atmosphere, forests and water bodies. Governments are valuable institutions for resolving problems involving these public goods at both the local and global scales (e.g., [[climate change]], [[deforestation]], [[overfishing]]). Although in recent decades the economic market has been championed by certain quarters as a suitable mechanism for managing environmental entities, markets have serious failures and governmental intervention and regulation and the rule of law is still required for the proper, just and sustainable management of the environment.<br />
<br />
<br />
====Education====<br />
The government plays a central role in participating to the education of the citizens. In particular it finances (directly or via subsidizing) a huge portion of the educational system (Schools, Universities, continuous education).<br />
<br />
==Positive aspects of government==<br />
Governments vary greatly, and the situation of [[citizens]] within their governments can vary greatly from person to person. For many people, government is seen as a positive force.<br />
<br />
===Upper economic class support===<br />
Governments often seek to manipulate their nations' economies — ostensibly for the nations' benefits. However, another aspect of this kind of intervention is the fact that the members of government often take opportunities to shape economic policies for their own benefits. For example, capitalists in a government might adjust policy to favor capitalism, so capitalists would see that government as a friend. In a feudal society, feudal lords would maintain laws that reinforce their powers over their lands and the people working on them, so those lords would see their government as a friend. Naturally, the exploited persons in these situations may see government ''very'' differently.<br />
<br />
===Support for democracy===<br />
Government, especially in democratic and republican forms, can be seen as the entity for a sovereign people to establish the type of society, laws and national objectives that are desired collectively. A government so created and maintained will tend to be quite friendly toward those who created and maintain it.<!-- The wording here isn't very good. I'm open to better alternatives. --><br />
<br />
===Religion===<br />
Government can benefit or suffer from religion, as religion can benefit or suffer from government. While governments can threaten people with physical harm for observed violations of the law, religion often provides a psychological disincentive for socially destructive or anti-government actions.<ref name="dietz 151">Dietz 151n70</ref><ref name="damnation"><br />
Dietz 138</ref> Religion can also give people a sense of peace and resolve even when they are in trying circumstances, and when an individual's religious beliefs are aligned with the government's, that person will tend to see government as a friend—especially during religious controversies.<br />
<br />
==Negative aspects of government==<br />
Since the positions of individuals with respect to their governments can vary, there are people who see a government or governments as negative.<br />
<br />
===War===<br />
<br />
In the most basic sense, a people of one nation will see the government of another nation as the enemy when the two nations are at war. For example, the people of [[Carthage]] saw the [[Rome|Roman]] government as the enemy during the [[Punic wars]].<ref><br />
{{cite web<br />
|url=http://history.boisestate.edu/WESTCIV/punicwar/<br />
|title=The Punic Wars<br />
|last=E.L. Skip Knox<br />
|accessdate=2007-12-14<br />
|publisher=Department of History, Boise State University<br />
}}<br />
</ref><br />
<br />
===Enslavement===<br />
<br />
In early [[human history]], the outcome of war for the defeated was often enslavement. The enslaved people would not find it easy to see the conquering government as a friend.<br />
<br />
===Religious opposition===<br />
<br />
There is a flip side to the phenomenon of people's ability to view a government as a friend because they share the government's religious views. People with opposing religious views will have a greater tendency to view that government as their enemy. A good example would be the condition of [[Catholicism in England]] before the [[Catholic Emancipation]]. Protestants—who were politically dominant in [[England]]—used political, economic and social means to reduce the size and strength of Catholicism in England over the 16th to 18th centuries, and as a result, Catholics in England felt that their religion was being oppressed.<ref><br />
{{cite web<br />
|url=http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/05445a.htm<br />
|title=CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: England (Since the Reformation)<br />
|accessdate=2007-12-14<br />
|date=1913<br />
|publisher=www.newadvent.org<br />
}}<br />
</ref><br />
<br />
===Class oppression===<br />
<br />
Whereas capitalists in a capitalist country may tend to see that nation's government as their friend, a class-aware group of industrial workers—a [[proletariat]]—may see things very differently. If the proletariat wishes to take control of the nation's [[means of production|productive resources]], and they are blocked in their endeavors by continuing adjustments in the law made by capitalists in the government,<ref><br />
Christian 358<br />
</ref> then the proletariat will come to see the government as their enemy—especially if the conflicts become violent.<br />
<br />
The same situation can occur among peasants. The peasants in a country, e.g. Russia during the reign of [[Catherine the Great]], may revolt against their landlords, only to find that their revolution is put down by government troops.<ref>McKay 613</ref><br />
<br />
== Critical views and alternatives ==<br />
The relative merits of various forms of government have long been debated by philosophers, politicians and others. However, in recent times, the traditional conceptions of government and the role of government have also attracted increasing criticism from a range of sources. Some argue that the traditional conception of government, which is heavily influenced by the zero-sum perceptions of state actors and focuses on obtaining security and prosperity at a national level through primarily unilateral action, is no longer appropriate or effective in a modern world that is increasingly connected and interdependent. One such school of thought is [[human security]], which advocates for a more people-based (as opposed to state-based) conception of security, focusing on protection and empowerment of individuals. Human security calls upon governments to recognise that insecurity and instability in one region affects all and to look beyond national borders in defining their interests and formulating policies for security and development. Human security also demands that governments engage in a far greater level of cooperation and coordination with not only domestic organisations, but also a range of international actors such as foreign governments, intergovernmental organisations and non-government organisations. <br />
<br />
Whilst human security attempts to provide a more holistic and comprehensive approach to world problems, its implementation still relies to a large extent on the will and ability of governments to adopt the agenda and appropriate policies. In this sense, human security provides a critique of traditional conceptions of the role of government, but also attempts to work within the current system of state-based international relations. Of course, the unique characteristics of different countries and resources available are some constraints for governments in utilising a human security framework.<br />
<br />
== Synopsis ==<br />
<br />
Government is sometimes an enemy and sometimes a friend of the citizens of this government. Government exalts some of its citizens and oppresses others. At times, governments can be aligned with its citizens religious, economic and social views, and at other times—misaligned.<br />
<br />
The role of government in the lives of people has expanded significantly during human history. Government's role has gone from providing basic security to concern in religious affairs to control of national economies and eventually to providing lifelong social security. As societies have become more complex, governments have become likewise more complex, powerful and, in some cases, intrusive. The controversies over how large, how powerful and how intrusive governments should become will likely continue for the remainder of human history.<br />
<br />
==Notes==<br />
{{reflist|2}}<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
* {{cite book<br />
|title=The Common Sense of Politics<br />
|last=Adler<br />
|first=Mortimer J.<br />
|date=1996<br />
|publisher=Fordham University Press, New York<br />
|isbn=0-8232-1666-7<br />
}}<br />
<br />
* {{cite book<br />
|title=American Heritage dictionary of the English language<br />
|edition=4th edition<br />
|publisher=[[Houghton Mifflin]] Company<br />
|location=222 Berkeley Street, Boston, MA 02116<br />
|isbn=0-395-82517-2<br />
|pages=pp. 572, 770<br />
|ids=american<br />
}}<br />
<br />
* {{cite book<br />
|title=Maps of Time<br />
|last=Christian<br />
|first=David<br />
|date=2004<br />
|publisher=University of California Press<br />
|isbn=0-520-24476-1<br />
}}<br />
<br />
* {{cite book<br />
|title=Thomas Hobbes &amp; Political Theory<br />
|last=Dietz<br />
|first=Mary G.<br />
|date=1990<br />
|publisher=University Press of Kansas<br />
|isbn=0-7006-0420-0<br />
}}<br />
<br />
* {{cite web<br />
|url=http://www.chinahistoryforum.com/index.php?showtopic=565<br />
|title=WANG MANG: China History Forum<br />
|last=General Zhaoyun<br />
|publisher=China History Forum<br />
|date=2004-08-04<br />
|accessdate=2007-11-02<br />
}}<br />
<br />
* {{cite web<br />
|url=http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Government<br />
|title=LoveToKnow Classic Encyclopedia<br />
|publisher=LoveToKnow Corp.<br />
|accessdate=2007-12-04<br />
|date=1911<br />
}}<br />
<br />
* {{cite book<br />
|title=A History of World Societies<br />
|last=McKay<br />
|first=John P.<br />
|coauthors=Bennett D. Hill, John Buckler<br />
|date=1996<br />
|publisher=[[Houghton Mifflin]] Company<br />
|isbn=0-395-75379-1<br />
}}<br />
<br />
* {{cite web<br />
|url=http://wordnet.princeton.edu/perl/webwn?s=government<br />
|title=WordNet Search 3.0<br />
|accessdate=2007-11-10<br />
|work=WordNet a lexical database for the English language<br />
|publisher=Princeton University/Cognitive Science Laboratory /221 Nassau St./ Princeton, NJ 08542<br />
|first=George A.<br />
|last=Miller<br />
|coauthors=Christiane Fellbaum, and Randee Tengi, and Pamela Wakefield, and Rajesh Poddar, and Helen Langone, and Benjamin Haskell<br />
|date=2006<br />
|id=wordnet:earth science<br />
}}<br />
<br />
* {{cite book<br />
|title=Environmental Science (7th ed.)<br />
|last=Nebel<br />
|first=Bernard J.<br />
|coauthors=Richard T. Wright<br />
|publisher=Prentice Hall, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458<br />
|date=2007<br />
|isbn=0-13-083134-4<br />
}}<br />
<br />
* {{cite book<br />
|title=States, Nations and Nationalism<br />
|last=Schulze<br />
|first=Hagen<br />
|date=1994<br />
|publisher=Blackwell Publishers Inc, 350 Main Street, Malden, Massachusetts 02148, USA<br />
}}<br />
<br />
== Additional references ==<br />
<!-- Some of these entries are links to articles in<br />
online databases that some people may not have access to; beneath the online database reference is a list of references that that article uses. Please do not remove this explanation. --><br />
*{{cite web|author=Higham, Charles F. W.|title=Indus Valley Civilization|work=Encyclopedia of Ancient Asian Civilizations|location=New York|publisher=Facts On File, Inc.|year=2004|work=Ancient and Medieval History Online|publisher=Facts On File, Inc.|url=http://www.fofweb.com/activelink2.asp?ItemID=WE49&iPin=EAAC0309&SingleRecord=True|accessdate=2007-12-07}}<!-- name: higham indus --><br />
:*Kenoyer, J. M. ''Ancient Cities of the Indus Civilization''. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998<br />
:*[[Gregory Possehl|Possehl, Gregory L.]] ''Harappan Civilization: A Recent Perspective''. New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1993<br />
:*''Indus Age: The Writing System''. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1996<br />
:*“Revolution in the Urban Revolution: The Emergence of Indus Urbanisation,” ''Annual Review of Anthropology'' 19 (1990): 261–282.<br />
<br />
*{{cite web|author=Higham, Charles F. W.|title=History of ancient and medieval Asia|location=New York|publisher=Facts On File, Inc.|year=2004|work=Ancient and Medieval History Online|url=http://www.fofweb.com/activelink2.asp?ItemID=WE49&iPin=EAAC0871&SingleRecord=True|accessdate=2007-12-07}}<!-- name: higham history --><br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
===Governmental roles===<br />
<div style="-moz-column-count:3; column-count:3;"><br />
* [[Governor]]<br />
* [[Head of State]]<br />
* [[Leadership]]<br />
* [[Premier]]<br />
* [[Monarch]]<br />
* [[Favourite]]<br />
* [[Statesman]]<br />
* [[Citizen]]<br />
* [[President]]<br />
* [[Head of Government]]<br />
* [[Prime Minister]]<br />
* [[King]]<br />
* [[Sovereignty|Sovereign]]<br />
* [[Constitutional monarchy|Constitutional monarch]]<br />
* [[Figurehead]]<br />
* [[Shah]]<br />
* [[Emir]]<br />
* [[Sultan]]<br />
* [[Czar]]<br />
* [[Caesar (title)]]<br />
* [[House of Commons]]<br />
* [[Senators]]<br />
</div><br />
<br />
=== Relevant lists ===<br />
{{wikiquote}}<br />
* [[List of forms of government]]<br />
<br />
=== Related topics ===<br />
* [[Governance]]<br />
* [[Human Security]]<br />
* [[Official statistics]]<br />
<br />
[[Category:Government| ]]<br />
<br />
[[am:መንግሥት]]<br />
[[ar:حكومة]]<br />
[[arc:ܡܕܒܪܢܘܬܐ]]<br />
[[bn:সরকার]]<br />
[[zh-min-nan:Chèng-hú]]<br />
[[be-x-old:Урад]]<br />
[[bs:Vlada]]<br />
[[bg:Правителство]]<br />
[[ca:Govern]]<br />
[[cs:Vláda]]<br />
[[ny:Boma]]<br />
[[cy:Llywodraeth]]<br />
[[da:Regering]]<br />
[[de:Regierung]]<br />
[[el:Κυβέρνηση]]<br />
[[es:Gobierno]]<br />
[[eo:Registaro]]<br />
[[fa:حکومت]]<br />
[[fr:Gouvernement]]<br />
[[ga:Rialtas]]<br />
[[gl:Goberno]]<br />
[[ko:정부]]<br />
[[hi:सरकार]]<br />
[[hr:Vlada]]<br />
[[id:Pemerintah]]<br />
[[is:Ríkisstjórn]]<br />
[[it:Governo]]<br />
[[he:ממשלה]]<br />
[[lv:Valdība]]<br />
[[lo:ລັດຖະບານ]]<br />
[[lb:Regierung]]<br />
[[lt:Vyriausybė]]<br />
[[hu:Kormány (állami szerv)]]<br />
[[mi:Kāwanatanga]]<br />
[[ms:Kerajaan]]<br />
[[nl:Regering]]<br />
[[ja:政府]]<br />
[[no:Styresmakt]]<br />
[[nn:Styresmakt]]<br />
[[pl:Rada Ministrów]]<br />
[[pt:Rząd (ujednoznacznienie)]]<br />
[[ro:Guvern]]<br />
[[ru:Правительство]]<br />
[[scn:Cuvernu]]<br />
[[simple:government]]<br />
[[sl:Vladavina]]<br />
[[sr:Влада]]<br />
[[fi:Hallinto]]<br />
[[sv:Regering]]<br />
[[tl:Pamahalaan]]<br />
[[ta:அரசு]]<br />
[[th:รัฐบาล]]<br />
[[tr:Hükûmet]]<br />
[[vi:Chính phủ]]<br />
[[uk:Уряд]]<br />
[[yi:רעגירונג]]<br />
[[yo:Ìjọba]]<br />
[[zh:政府]]</div>
Leslie
https://conservapedia.com/index.php?title=Socialism&diff=553374
Socialism
2008-11-10T00:46:10Z
<p>Leslie: removing some too-obvious bias</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Socialism sidebar|expanded=all}}<br />
'''Socialism''' refers to a broad set of economic theories of social organization advocating state or collective ownership and administration of the [[means of production]] and distribution of goods, and the creation of an [[egalitarianism|egalitarian]] society.<ref name="SocialismAVeryShortIntroduction"> ''Newman, Michael''. (2005) ''Socialism: A Very Short Introduction'', Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-280431-6</ref><ref>[http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/socialism "Socialism"] ''[[Merriam-Webster]]''. Merriam Webster Online.</ref> Modern socialism originated in the late nineteenth-century [[working class]] political movement. [[Karl Marx]] posited that socialism would be achieved via [[class struggle]] and a [[proletarian revolution]] which represents the ''transitional'' stage between [[capitalism]] and [[communism]].<ref>Marx, Karl, ''Communist Manifesto, Penguin (2002)</ref><ref>[http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9109587 "Socialism"] ''[[Encyclopedia Britannica]]''. 2006. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.</ref><br />
<br />
Socialists mainly share the belief that [[capitalism]] unfairly concentrates power and wealth among a small segment of society that controls [[capital (economics)|capital]] and creates an [[social equality|unequal]] society. All socialists advocate the creation of an egalitarian society, in which wealth and power are distributed more evenly, although there is considerable disagreement among socialists over how, and to what extent this could be achieved.<ref name="SocialismAVeryShortIntroduction"/><br />
<br />
Socialism is not a discrete philosophy of fixed doctrine and program; its branches advocate a degree of [[social interventionism]] and economic rationalization, sometimes opposing each other. Another dividing feature of the socialist movement is the split on how a socialist economy should be established between the [[Reformism|reformists]] and the [[Revolutionary socialism|revolutionaries]]. Some socialists advocate ''complete'' [[nationalization]] of the means of production, distribution, and exchange; while others advocate [[state ownership|state control]] of capital within the framework of a market economy. [[Social democracy|Social democrats]] propose ''selective'' nationalization of key national industries in [[Mixed economy|mixed economies]] combined with tax-funded welfare programs; [[Libertarian socialism]] (which includes [[Socialist Anarchism]] and [[Libertarian Marxism]]) rejects state control and ownership of the economy altogether and advocates ''direct collective ownership'' of the means of production via co-operative [[workers' councils]] and [[workplace democracy]]. <br />
<br />
In the 1970s and the 1980s, Yugoslavian, Hungarian, Polish and Chinese Communists instituted various forms of [[market socialism]] combining co-operative and State ownership models with the free market [[trade|exchange]].<ref>"Market socialism," ''Dictionary of the Social Sciences''. Craig Calhoun, ed. Oxford University Press 2002; and "Market socialism" ''The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Politics''. Ed. Iain McLean and Alistair McMillan. Oxford University Press, 2003. See also [[Joseph Stiglitz]], "Whither Socialism?" Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1995 for a recent analysis of the market socialism model of mid–20th century economists [[Oskar R. Lange]], [[Abba P. Lerner]], and [[Fred M. Taylor]].</ref> This is unlike the earlier theoretical market socialist proposal put forth by [[Oskar Lange]] in that it allows [[market]] forces, rather than central planners to guide [[Production theory basics|production]] and [[trade|exchange]].<ref>"Market socialism," ''Dictionary of the Social Sciences''. Craig Calhoun, ed. Oxford University Press 2002; and "Market socialism" ''The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Politics''. Ed. Iain McLean and Alistair McMillan. Oxford University Press, 2003. See also [[Joseph Stiglitz]], "Whither Socialism?" Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1995 for a recent analysis of the market socialism model of mid–20th century economists [[Oskar R. Lange]], [[Abba P. Lerner]], and [[Fred M. Taylor]].</ref> [[Anarcho-syndicalists]], [[Luxemburgists]] (such as those in the [[Socialist Party USA]]) and some elements of the [[United States]] [[New Left]] favor decentralized collective ownership in the form of [[cooperatives]] or workers' councils.<br />
<br />
==Origins of socialism==<br />
<br />
Etymologically, the English coinage '''socialism''' (1839) derives from the French '''socialisme''' (1832), the mainstream introduction of which usage is attributed, in France, to [[Pierre Leroux]]<ref> Leroux: socialism is “the doctrine which would not give up any of the principles of Liberty, Equality, Fraternity” of the [[French Revolution]] of 1789. "Individualism and socialism" (1834)</ref> and to [[Marie Roch Louis Reybaud]]; and in Britain to [[Robert Owen]] in 1827, father of the [[cooperative movement]].<ref>Oxford English Dictionary, etymology of socialism</ref><ref>Russell, Bertrand (1972). A History of Western Philosophy. Touchstone. p. 781</ref><br />
<br />
Western European social critics were the first, modern socialists{{ndash}} [[Robert Owen]], [[Charles Fourier]], [[Pierre-Joseph Proudhon]], [[Louis Blanc]], and [[Claude Henri de Rouvroy, Comte de Saint-Simon|Saint-Simon]], who criticised the excessive poverty and inequality consequence of the [[Industrial Revolution]], and advocated reform via the egalitarian distribution of wealth and the transformation of society to small communities ''without'' private property. Saint-Simon delineated ''collectivist'' principles reorganizing society to so build socialism upon planned, [[utopian]] communities.<br />
<br />
Linguistically, the contemporary connotation of the words '''socialism''' and '''communism''' accorded with the adherents' and opponents' cultural attitude towards Religion. In Christian Europe, of the two, ''communism'' was believed the [[atheism|atheist]] way of life. In Protestant England, ''communism'' was too-culturally and -aurally close to the Papist Roman Catholic [[Mass (liturgy)#The Communion Rite|communion rite]], hence English atheists denoted themselves '''socialists'''.<ref>{{cite book<br />
|last=Williams<br />
|first=Raymond<br />
|authorlink=Raymond Williams<br />
|title=[[Keywords: A Vocabulary of Culture and Society|Keywords: a vocabulary of culture and society]]<br />
|publisher=Fontana<br />
|year=1976<br />
|id=0006334792}}</ref><br />
<br />
In 1847, Frederick Engels said Socialism was respectable on the Continent, while Communism was not; the [[Owenites]], in England, and the [[Fourierists]], in France, were considered '''Socialists''', while working-class movements that "proclaimed the necessity of total social change" denoted themselves '''Communists'''. This, latter branch of '''Socialism''', was "powerful enough" to produce the communisms of [[Étienne Cabet]], in France, and [[Wilhelm Weitling]], in Germany.<ref>Engels, Frederick, ''Preface to the 1888 English Edition of the Communist Manifesto, p202. Penguin (2002)</ref><br />
<br />
==International Workingmen's Association{{ndash}} First International==<br />
[[Image:communist-manifesto.png|thumb|left|upright|Socialists made varying interpretations of [[The Communist Manifesto]].]]<br />
<br />
In 1864, the [[International Workingmen's Association]] (IWA){{ndash}} the '''First International'''{{ndash}} was founded in London. Londoner Victor le Lubez, a French radical republican, invited Karl Marx to participate ''as a representative of German workers''.<ref> [http://www.marxists.org/glossary/orgs/f/i.htm#iwma MIA: Encyclopedia of Marxism: Glossary of Organisations, ''First International (International Workingmen’s Association)'', accessed 5 July 2007 ]</ref> In 1865, the IWA had its preliminary conference, and its first congress, at Geneva, in 1866. Karl Marx was member of the committee; he and Johann Georg Eccarius, a London tailor, were ''the two mainstays of the International, from its inception to its end''; the [[First International]] was the premiere international forum promulgating socialism.<br />
<br />
In 1869, under the influence of Marx and Engels, the [[Social Democratic Workers' Party of Germany]] was founded. In 1875, the SDW Party merged with the [[General German Workers' Association]], of [[Ferdinand Lassalle]], metamorphosing to the contemporary [[German Social Democratic Party]] (SPD). Since the 1870s, in Germany, Socialism was associated with [[trade unions]], as the SPD constituted trade unions, while, in Austria, France, and other countries, socialist parties and anarchists did like-wise. That ideologic development greatly contrasts with the British experience of Socialism, wherein politically-moderate [[New Model Union]]s dominated unionized labor from the mid–nineteenth century, and trade-unionism was stronger than the ''political'' labor movement, until appearance of the [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour Party]] in the early twentieth century. The first U.S. socialist party was founded in 1876, then metamorphosed to a Marxist party in 1890; the [[Socialist Labor Party]] exists today. An early leader of the Socialist Labor Party was [[Daniel De Leon]] who had considerable influence beyond the United States as well.{{Fact|date=April 2008}}<br />
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Socialists supported and advocated many branches of Socialism{{ndash}} from the Gradualism of trade unions to the radical Revolution of Marx and Engels to the [[Anarchist]]s emphasizing small-scale communities and [[agrarianism]]; all co-existing with the most influential Marxism and Social Democracy. The Anarchists, led by the [[Mikhail Bakunin]], believed Capitalism and State inseparable, neither can be abolished without abolishing the other.</font><br />
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==The Second International==<br />
<br />
As the ideas of Marx and Engels gained popularity, especially in Central Europe, Socialists united into an international organization, and founded the [[Second International (politics)|Second International]] in 1889, the centennial of the French Revolution; from 20 countries, 300 socialist and labor union organizations sent 384 delegates.<ref>[http://www.marxisthistory.org/subject/usa/eam/secondinternational.html ''The Second (Socialist) International 1889–1923''] accessed 12 July 2007</ref> The ''Second International'' was denominated the '''Socialist International''' with Friedrich Engels its honorary third-congress president in 1893.<br />
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In 1895, Engels said there now is a ''single, generally recognized, crystal clear theory of Marx'' and a ''single, great international army of socialists''.<br />
<br />
Despite being outlawed in Germany by the [[Anti-Socialist Laws]] of 1878, the [[Social Democratic Party of Germany]] masterfully used the limited, universal, male suffrage available to exercise the electoral strength necessary to compel rescindment of the Anti-Socialist laws in 1890.<ref>Engels, 1895 Introduction to Marx's ''Class Struggles in France 1848–1850''</ref> In 1893, the SPD received 1,787,000 votes, a quarter of the votes cast. Before the SPD published Engels's 1895 introduction to Marx's ''Class Struggles in France 1848–1850'', they deleted phrases felt too-revolutionary for mainstream readers.<ref>cf Footnote 449 in ''Marx Engels Collected Works'' on Engels' 1895 Introduction to Marx's ''Class Struggles in France 1848–1850''</ref><br />
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Karl Marx believed possible a peaceful, socialist transformation of England, ''despite'' the British Aristocracy and Ruling Class revolting against such a popular victory.<ref>In England, "Insurrection would be madness where peaceful agitation would more swiftly and surely do the work... But, mark me, as soon as it finds itself outvoted on what it considers vital questions, we shall see here a new slave owners's war". [http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/bio/media/marx/71_07_18.htm ''Interview with Karl Marx, Head of L'Internationale, by R. Landor''] New York World, 18 July 1871.</ref> Whereas the United States and Holland might also effect peaceful transformations, not France; Marx thought it had ''perfected . . . an enormous, bureaucratic and military organization, with its ingenious State machinery'' that required forcible deposition; nevertheless, with Karl Marx only eight years dead, Engels said it was possible to achieve a peaceful, socialist revolution in France.<ref>Fischer, Ernst, ''Marx in his own words'', p135, quoting from Marx, ''The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Bonaparte''</ref><br />
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===World War I===<br />
<br />
When [[World War I]] began in 1914, most European socialists supported the bellicose aims of their national governments. The British, French, Belgian, and German social democratic parties discarded their political commitments to [[internationalism|proletarian internationalism]] and worker solidarity to co-operate with their imperial governments.<br />
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In Russia, N. Lenin denounced the Europeans' Great War war as an [[imperialist]] conflict, and urged workers, worldwide, to use the war as occasion for [[proletarian]] revolution. The Second International dissolved during the war; Lenin, Leon Trotsky, [[Karl Liebknecht]], and [[Rosa Luxemburg]], and other anti-war Marxists conferred in the [[Zimmerwald Conference]] in September 1915.<br />
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==The Revolutions of 1917–23==<br />
[[Image:Stalin Lenin jk.jpg|thumb|[[Vladimir Lenin]] (background) and [[Joseph Stalin]].]]<br />
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By the year 1917, the ''third'' year of a ninety-day war, the patriotism propelling the [[First World War]] metamorphosed to political radicalism in most of Europe, the United States (cf. [[Socialism in the United States]]), and Australia. In February, popular revolution exploded in Russia when workers, soldiers, and peasants established '''soviets''' (councils) wielding executive power in a Provisional Government valid until convocation of a [[Constituent Assembly]]. In April, Lenin arrived in Russia from Germany, calling for ''All power to the soviets''. In October, his party (the Bolsheviks) won support of most soviets while he and Trotsky simultaneously led the [[October Revolution]]. On 25 October 1917, at the Petrograd Soviet, Lenin declared "Long live the world socialist revolution!"<ref>Lenin, ''Meeting of the Petrograd Soviet of workers and soldiers' deputies 25 October 1917'', Collected works, Vol 26, p239. Lawrence and Wishart, (1964)</ref><br />
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On 26 October, the day after assuming executive power, Lenin wrote ''Draft Regulations on Workers' Control'', which granted workers control of businesses with more than five workers and office employees, and access to all books, documents, and stocks, and whose decisions were to be "binding upon the owners of the enterprises".<ref>Lenin, ''Collected Works'', Vol 26, pp. 264–5. Lawrence and Wishart (1964)</ref> Immediately, the Bolshevik Government nationalised banks, most industry, and disavowed the national debts of the deposed [[Romanov]] royal régime; it governed via elected soviets; and it sued for peace and withdrew from the First World War.<br />
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Despite that, the peasant [[Socialist-Revolutionary Party|Socialist-Revolutionary]] (SR) Party won the [[Constituent Assembly]] against the Bolshevik Party, who then acted resolutely the next day.<ref><br />
{{cite web<br />
|last=Caplan<br />
|first=Brian<br />
|title=Lenin and the First Communist Revolutions, IV<br />
|publisher=George Mason University<br />
|url=http://www.gmu.edu/departments/economics/bcaplan/museum/his1d.htm<br />
|format=HTML<br />
|accessdate=2008-02-14}}<br />
</ref> The Constituent Assembly convened for thirteen hours (16.00 hrs 5 Jan – 4.40 hrs 6 Jan 1918). Socialist-Revolutionary Leader [[Victor Chernov]] was elected President of a Russian republic; next day, the Bolsheviks dissolved the Constituent Assembly.<ref> Payne, Robert; "The Life and Death of Lenin", Grafton: paperback pp. 425–440</ref> The Bolshevik Russian Revolution of October 1917 engendered Communist parties worldwide, and their concomitant [[revolutions of 1917-23]]. Few Communists, then, doubted that the Russian success of Socialism depended upon successful, working-class socialist revolutions effected in developed capitalist-economy countries;<ref>Bertil, Hessel, Introduction, ''Theses, Resolutions and Manifestos of the first four congresses of the Third International'', pxiii, Ink Links (1980)</ref><ref> ''We have always proclaimed, and repeated, this elementary truth of Marxism, that the victory of socialism requires the joint efforts of workers in a number of advanced countries''. Lenin, ''Sochineniya'' (Works), 5th ed. Vol. XLIV p. 418, Feb 1922. (Quoted by Mosche Lewin in ''Lenin's Last Struggle'', p. 4. Pluto (1975))</ref> thus, in 1919, Lenin and Trotsky organised the world's Communist parties into a new ''international association of workers''{{ndash}} the [[Communist International]], the '''Comintern''', also denominated the '''Third International'''.<br />
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In November 1918, the [[German Revolution]] deposed the monarchy; as in Russia, the councils of workers and soldiers were comprised mostly of [[SPD]] and USPD (Independent Social Democrats) revolutionaries installed to office as the [[Weimar republic]]; the SPD were in power, led by [[Friedrich Ebert]]. In January 1919. the left-wing [[Spartacist uprising|Spartacist Putsch]] challenged the SPD government, and President Ebert ordered the Army and [[Freikorps]] mercenaries to violently suppress the Workers' and Soldiers' councils. In the event, Communist leaders [[Karl Liebknecht]] and [[Rosa Luxemburg]] were captured and summarilly executed. Also that year, in Bavaria, the Communist régime of [[Kurt Eisner]] in [[Bavaria]] was so suppressed. In Hungary, [[Béla Kun]] briefly headed a Hungarian Communist government. Throughout, popular socialist revolutions in [[Vienna]], Italy's northern industrial cities, the German Ruhr (1920) and Saxony (1923); all failed in spreading revolutionary socialism to Europe's advanced, capitalist countries.<br />
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In Russia, Socialist circumstances were desperate; in August 1918, assassin [[Fanya Kaplan]] shot Lenin in the neck, leaving him with wounds from which he never fully recovered. Earlier, in June, the Soviet Government had implemented [[War Communism]] to manage the foreign economic boycott of Russia, and invasions by Imperial Germany, Imperial Britain, the U.S., and France, interfering in the Russian Civil War beside royalist White Russians; to control starvation, private business was outlawed, strikers could be shot, the white collar classes were forced to work manually, and, from the peasantry, they required grain for workers in cities.<br />
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By 1920, as Red Army commander, Trotsky had mostly defeated the royalist White Armies. In 1921, War Communism was ended, and, under the [[New Economic Policy]] (NEP), private ownership was allowed for small and medium peasant enterprises; industry remained State-controlled, Lenin acknowledged that the NEP was a necessary capitalist measure for a country mostly unripe for Socialism, thus, the existence of NEP businessmen and NEP women (NEP Men) flourished,<ref>[http://www.soviethistory.org/index.php?action=L2&SubjectID=1924nepmen&Year=1924 ''Soviet history: NEPmen'']</ref> and the [[Kulak]]s gained capitalist power as rich peasants.<br />
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In 1923, on seeing the Soviet State's greatly coercive power, the dying Lenin said Russia had reverted to ''a bourgeois tsarist machine . . . barely varnished with socialism''.<ref>Serge, Victor, ''From Lenin to Stalin'', p. 55.</ref> After his death (January 1924), the [[Communist Party of the Soviet Union]]{{ndash}} then controlled by Joseph Stalin{{ndash}} rejected the theory that socialism could not be built solely in the U.S.S.R., and declared the [[Socialism in One Country]] policy. Despite the marginal [[Left Opposition]]'s demanding restoration of Soviet Democracy,<ref>Serge, Victor, ''From Lenin to Stalin'', p. 52.</ref> Stalin developed a bureaucratic, [[authoritarian]] government, that was condemned by Democratic Socialists, Anarchists, [[Trotskyists]], ''et alles'', for undermining the initial Socialist ideals of the Bolshevik Russian Revolution.<ref><br />
{{cite web<br />
|last=Brinton<br />
|first=Maurice<br />
|authorlink=Maurice Brinton<br />
|title=The Bolsheviks and Workers' Control 1917–1921 : The State and Counter-revolution<br />
|publisher=[[Solidarity (UK)|Solidarity]]<br />
|year=1975<br />
|url=http://www.spunk.org/texts/places/russia/sp001861/bolintro.html<br />
|format=HTML<br />
|accessdate=2007-01-22}}<br />
</ref><br />
<br />
==The inter-war era and World War II==<br />
[[Image:Stalin1.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Joseph Stalin]]]]<br />
The [[October revolution|Russian Revolution]] of October 1917 brought about the definitive ideological division between Communists as denoted with a capital "C" on the one hand and other communist and socialist trends such as anarcho-communists and social democrats, on the other. The [[Left Opposition]] in the Soviet Union gave rise to [[Trotskyism]] which was to remain isolated and insignificant for another fifty years, except in Sri Lanka where Trotskyism gained the majority and the pro-Moscow wing was expelled from the Communist Party.<br />
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In 1922, the fourth congress of the [[Communist International]] took up the policy of the [[United Front]], urging Communists to work with rank and file Social Democrats while remaining critical of their leaders, who they criticized for "betraying" the working class by supporting the war efforts of their respective capitalist classes. For their part, the social democrats pointed to the dislocation caused by revolution, and later, the growing authoritarianism of the Communist Parties. When the Communist Party of Great Britain applied to affiliate to the Labour Party in 1920 it was turned down.<br />
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==Socialism after World War II==<br />
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In 1945, the world’s three great powers met at the Yalta Conference to negotiate an amicable and stable peace. UK Prime Minister [[Winston Churchill]] joined USA President [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] and [[Joseph Stalin]], General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union's Central Committee. With the relative decline of Britain compared to the two superpowers, the USA and the Soviet Union, however, many viewed the world as "bi-polar"{{ndash}} a world with two irreconcilable and antagonistic political and economic systems. Many termed the Soviet Union "socialist", not least the Soviet Union itself, but also commonly in the USA, China, Eastern Europe, and many parts of the world where Communist Parties had gained a mass base. In addition, scholarly critics of the Soviet Union, such as economist [[Friedrich Hayek]] were commonly cited as critics of socialism.<br />
This view was not universally shared, particularly in Europe, and especially in Britain, where the Communist Party was very weak. In 1951, British Health Minister [[Aneurin Bevan]] expressed the view that, "It is probably true that Western Europe would have gone socialist after the war if Soviet behaviour had not given it too grim a visage. Soviet Communism and Socialism are not yet sufficiently distinguished in many minds."<ref>Bevan, Aneurin, ''In Place of Fear'', p 63, p91</ref><br />
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===Chinese socialism===<br />
[[Image:LittleRedBook.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Little Red Book]]'s 5 to 6.5 billion copies might be a world record.]]<br />
In 1949, the [[Chinese Revolution]] established a Communist state in China. Criticizing the invasion and trade embargo of the young Soviet state, Bevan wrote "At the moment it looks as though the United States is going to repeat the same folly in China... You cannot starve a national revolution into submission. You can starve it into a repressive dictatorship; you can starve it to the point where the hellish logic of the police state takes charge."<ref>Bevan, Aneurin, ''In Place of Fear'', p63</ref><br />
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===Elsewhere===<br />
In 1951, the [[Socialist International]] was refounded by the European social democratic parties. It declared: "Communism has split the International Labour Movement and has set back the realisation of Socialism in many countries for decades... Communism falsely claims a share in the Socialist tradition. In fact it has distorted that tradition beyond recognition. It has built up a rigid theology which is incompatible with the critical spirit of Marxism."<ref name = "socialist-Frankfurt Declaration"> [http://www.socialistinternational.org/5Congress/1-FRANKFURT/Frankfurtdecl-e.html The Frankfurt Declaration]</ref><br />
In the postwar years, socialism became increasingly influential throughout the so-called [[Third World]]. Countries in Africa, Asia, and Latin America frequently adopted socialist economic programs. In many instances, these nations nationalized industries held by foreign owners. The Soviet Union had become a superpower through its adoption of a planned economy, albeit at enormous human cost. This achievement seemed hugely impressive from the outside, and convinced many nationalists in the former colonies, not necessarily communists or even socialists, of the virtues of state planning and state-guided models of social development. This was later to have important consequences in countries like [[China]], [[India]] and [[Egypt]], which tried to import some aspects of the Soviet model.<br />
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The last quarter of the twentieth century marked a period of major crisis for Communists in the Soviet Union and the [[Eastern bloc]], where the growing shortages of housing and consumer goods, combined with the lack of individual rights to assembly and speech, began to disillusion more and more Communist party members. With the rapid collapse of Communist party rule in the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe between 1989 and 1991, the Soviet version of socialism has effectively disappeared as a worldwide political force.<br />
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===Social Democracy in power===<br />
[[Image:Attlee BW cropped.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Clement Attlee]], U.K. Prime Minister, Labour Party government, 1945–51]]<br />
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In 1945, the British [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour Party]], led by [[Clement Attlee]], was elected to office based upon a radical, socialist program. Socialist and Communist parties dominated the post-war French, Italian, Czehchoslovak, Belgian, Norwegian, and other, governments. In Sweden, the [[Sveriges socialdemokratiska arbetareparti|Social Democratic Party]] held power from 1936 to 1976 and then again from 1982 to 1991 and from 1994 to 2006. Labour parties governed Australia and New Zealand. In Germany, the Social Democrats lost in 1949. In Eastern Europe, the war-resistance unity, between '''Social Democrats''' and '''Communists''', continued in the immediate postwar years, until Stalin imposed "Communist" régimes.<br />
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At first, '''Social Democracy''' held the view of having begun a ''serious assault'' against '''Want, Disease, Ignorance, Squalor, and Idleness''', the five '''Giant Evils''' afflicting the working class, identified by the British social reformer [[William Beveridge]];<ref> cf Beckett, Francis, ''Clem Attlee'', Politico, 2007, p243. "Idleness" meant unemployment, and hence the starvation of the worker and his/her family. It was not then a pejorative term. Unemployment benefit, as well as national insurance and hence state pensions, were introduced by the 1945 Labour government.</ref> however, from the Labour Party's left wing, [[Aneurin Bevan]], who had introduced the Labour Party’s National Health Service in 1948, criticised the Attlee Government for not progressing further, demanding that the ''main streams of economic activity are brought under public direction'' with economic planning, criticising the implementation of nationalization for not empowering the workers, in the nationalised industries, with democratic control of operations.<br />
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''In Place of Fear'', the most widely read socialist book of the period,<ref>Crosland, Anthony, ''The Future of Socialism'', p52</ref> Bevan begins: ''A young miner in a South Wales colliery, my concern was with one practical question: Where does the power lie in this particular state of Great Britain, and how can it be attained by the workers?''<ref>Bevan, Aneurin, ''In Place of Fear'' p.50, pp.126–128, p.21 MacGibbon and Kee, second edition (1961)</ref><br />
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The ''Frankfurt Declaration'' of the re-founded Socialist International stated:<br />
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{{cquote2| 1. From the nineteenth century onwards, Capitalism has developed immense productive forces. It has done so at the cost of excluding the great majority of citizens from influence over production. It put the rights of ownership before the rights of Man. It created a new class of wage-earners without property or social rights. It sharpened the struggle between the classes.<br />
<br />
Although the world contains resources, which could be made to provide a decent life for everyone, Capitalism has been incapable of satisfying the elementary needs of the world’s population. It proved unable to function without devastating crises and mass unemployment. It produced social insecurity and glaring contrasts between rich and poor. It resorted to imperialist expansion and colonial exploitation, thus making conflicts, between nations and races, more bitter. In some countries, powerful capitalist groups helped the barbarism of the past to raise its head again in the form of Fascism and Nazism.| The Frankfurt Declaration 1951<ref name = "socialist-Frankfurt Declaration"/>}}<br />
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The post-war social democrat governments introduced social reform and wealth redistribution via state welfare and taxation. The new U.K. Labour Government effected the [[nationalization]]s of major public utilities such as mines, gas, coal, electricity, rail, iron, steel, and the Bank of England.<ref>British Petroleum, privatized in 1987, was officially nationalised in 1951 per government archives [http://yourarchives.nationalarchives.gov.uk/index.php?title=Nationalisation_of_Anglo-Iranian_Oil_Company%2C_1951] with further government intervention during the 1974–79 Labour Government, cf 'The New Commanding Height: Labor Party Policy on North Sea Oil and Gas, 1964–74' in ''Contemporary British History'', Volume 16, Issue 1 Spring 2002 , pages 89–118. Elements of these entities already were in public hands. Later Labour re-nationalised steel (1967, British Steel) after Conservatives de-nationalized it, and nationalized car production (1976, British Leyland), [http://www.uksteel.org.uk/history.htm]. In 1977, major aircraft companies and shipbuilding were nationalised</ref> To wit, France claimed to be the world's most State-controlled, capitalist country.<ref>The nationalized public utilities include CDF (Charbonnages de France), EDF (Électricité de France), GDF (Gaz de France), airlines (Air France), banks (Banque de France), and Renault (Régie Nationale des Usines Renault) [http://www.sund.ac.uk/~os0tmc/contem/trente1.htm].</ref><br />
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In the U.K., the National Health Service provided free health care to all of the British population. Working-class housing was provided in council housing estates, and university education available via a school grant system. Ellen Wilkinson, Minister for Education, introduced free milk in schools, sayining, in a 1946 Labor Party conference: ''Free milk will be provided in Hoxton and Shoreditch, in Eton and Harrow. What more social equality can you have than that?'' To wit, Clement Attlee's biographer says this ''contributed enormously to the defeat of childhood illnesses resulting from bad diet. Generations of poor children grew up stronger and healthier, because of this one, small, and inexpensive act of generosity, by the Attlee government''.<ref>Beckett, Francis, ''Clem Attlee'', p247. Politico's (2007)</ref><br />
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In 1956, [[Anthony Crosland]] said that 25 per cent of British industry was nationalized, and that public employees, including those in nationalised industries, constituted a like percentage of the country's total employed population.<ref>Crosland, Anthony, ''The Future of Socialism'', pp.9, 89. Constable (2006)</ref> Yet the Social Democrats did not seek ending capitalism; national outlook and dedication to the “post-war order” prevented nationalization of the industrial commanding heights, as Lenin put it. In 1945, they were denominated '''socialist''', but, in the U.K., Social Democrats were the parliamentary majority, ''The government had not the smallest intention of bringing in the ‘common ownership of the means of production, distribution, and exchange’'' as written in [[Clause 4]] of the Labor Party Constitution;<ref name = "Beckett-p243">Beckett, Francis, ''Clem Attlee'', Politico, 2007, p243</ref> nevertheless, Crosland said Capitalism had ended: ''To the question, ‘Is this still capitalism?’, I would answer ‘No’.''<ref> Crosland, Anthony, ''The Future of Socialism'' p46. Constable (2006)</ref> In 1959, the German [[Social Democratic Party of Germany|Social Democratic Party]] adopted the [[Godesberg Program]], rejecting [[class struggle]] and [[Marxism]].<br />
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In 1980, with the rise of conservative [[neoliberal]] politicians such as [[Ronald Reagan]], in the U.S., [[Margaret Thatcher]], in Britain, and [[Brian Mulroney]], in Canada, the Western, '''socialist welfare state''' was attacked from within. As Education Secretary of the Conservative Government, 1970–1974, Margaret Thatcher ''abolished'' free milk for school children; thus, [[monetarism|monetarists]] and [[neoliberalism|neoliberals]] attacked '''social welfare systems''' as impediments to ''private'' entrepreneurship at public expense.<br />
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In the 1980s and 1990s, Western European Socialists were pressured to reconcile their collectivist economic programmes with a free-market-based communal European economy. In the U.K., the [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour Party]] struggled much; its epitome is [[Neil Kinnock]]’s passionate and public attack against the Party's [[Militant Tendency]] at a Labour Party conference, and his repudiation of the demands of the defeated striking miners after a year-long strike against pit closures. In the 1990s, released from the Left's progressive pressure, the Labour Party, under [[Tony Blair]], posited policies based upon the free market economy to deliver ''public services'' via ''private'' contractors.<br />
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In 1989, at Stockholm, the 18th Congress of the Socialist International adopted a ''Declaration of Principles'', saying that ''Democratic socialism is an international movement for freedom, social justice, and solidarity. Its goal is to achieve a peaceful world where these basic values can be enhanced and where each individual can live a meaningful life with the full development of his or her personality and talents, and with the guarantee of human and civil rights in a democratic framework of society''.<ref>[http://www.socialistinternational.org/4Principles/dofpeng2.html Socialist International - Progressive Politics For A Fairer World<!--Bot-generated title-->]</ref><br />
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The objectives of the Party of European Socialists, the European Parliament's '''Socialist Bloc''', are ''to pursue international aims in respect of the principles on which the European Union is based, namely principles of freedom, equality, solidarity, democracy, respect of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms, and respect for the Rule of Law''. Today, the rallying cry of the French Revolution{{ndash}} Equality, Liberty, and Fraternity{{ndash}} now constitute essential socialist values''.<ref>R Goodin and P Pettit (eds), ''A to contemporary political philosophy''</ref><br />
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In 1995, the British Labour Party revised its political aims: ''The Labour Party is a democratic socialist party. It believes that, by the strength of our common endeavour we achieve more than we achieve alone, so as to create, for each of us, the means to realise our true potential, and, for all of us, a community in which power, wealth, and opportunity are in the hands of the many, not the few'';<ref>[http://www.labour.org.uk/labour_policies Labour Party Clause Four]</ref> famously, Cabinet minister [[Herbert Morrison]] said, ''Socialism is what the Labour Government does''.<ref name = "Beckett-p243"/><br />
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==Socialism in the 21st century==<br />
[[Image:HugoChavez1824.jpeg|thumb|[[Hugo Chavez]]]]<br />
[[Image:Vladimir Putin with Kim Jong-Il-2.jpg|thumb|[[North Korea]] is one of the remaining officially socialist states. Dear Leader [[Kim Jong-il]], with Russian President [[Vladimir Putin]] in 2000.]]<br />
{{Cquote2|Those who want to go directly to hell, they can follow capitalism. And those of us who want to build heaven here on earth, we will follow socialism.|[[Hugo Chávez]]<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/6438753.stm "Chavez launches biting US attack"] ''BBC News'', March 11 2007</ref>}}<br />
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In some Latin American countries, socialism has re-emerged in recent years, with an [[anti-imperialist]] stance, the rejection of the policies of [[neo-liberalism]] and the [[nationalisation]] or part nationalisation of oil production, land and other assets. Venezuelan President [[Hugo Chávez]] and Bolivian President [[Evo Morales]], for instance, refer to their political programs as socialist. Chávez has coined the term "21st century socialism" (sometimes translated more literally as "[[Socialism of the 21st century]]"). After winning re-election in December 2006, President Chávez said, "Now more than ever, I am obliged to move Venezuela's path towards socialism."<ref>[http://www.voanews.com/english/2007-07-09-voa37.cfm ''Many Venezuelans Uncertain About Chavez' '21st century Socialism' ''], Voice of America, Washington 9 July 2007. Accessed 12 July 2007</ref><br />
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In the developing world, some elected socialist parties and communist parties remain prominent, particularly in India and Nepal. The Communist Party of Nepal in particular calls for multi-party democracy, social equality, and economic prosperity.<ref>[http://www.cpnm.org/ ''Communist Party of Nepal' '']</ref> In China, the Chinese Communist Party has led a transition from the command economy of the Mao period to an economic program they term the [[socialist market economy]] or "[[socialism with Chinese characteristics]]." Under [[Deng Xiaoping]], the leadership of China embarked upon a program of market-based reform that was more sweeping than had been Soviet leader [[Mikhail Gorbachev]]'s [[perestroika]] program of the late 1980s. Deng's program, however, maintained state ownership rights over land, state or cooperative ownership of much of the heavy industrial and manufacturing sectors and state influence in the banking and financial sectors. In South Africa the ANC abandoned its partial socialist allegiances on taking power and followed a standard neo-liberal route. But from 2005 through to 2007 the country was wracked by many thousands of protests from poor communities. One of these gave rise to a mass movement of shack dwellers, [[Abahlali baseMjondolo]] that, despite major police suppression, continues to advocate for popular people's planning and against the marketization of land and housing. Communist candidate Dimitris Christofias won a crucial presidential runoff in Cyprus, defeating his conservative rival with a majority of 53%.<ref>[http://www.elpasotimes.com/nationworld/ci_835244 ''Christofias wins Cyprus presidency' '']</ref> The Left Party in Germany has also grown in popularity.<ref>[http://www.wsws.org/articles/2008/feb2008/hess-f15.shtml ''Germany’s Left Party woos the SPD' '']</ref><br />
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[[African socialism]] continues to be a major ideology around the continent.<br />
<br />
[[List of socialist countries]]:<br />
*{{flagicon|China}} [[People's Republic of China]] (since 1949); [[Communist Party of China]] <br />
*{{flagicon|Cuba}} [[Cuba|Republic of Cuba]] ([[Cuban Revolution]] in 1959, socialist state declared in 1961); [[Communist Party of Cuba]];<br />
*{{flagicon|North Korea}} [[North Korea|Democratic People's Republic of Korea]] (since 1948); [[Workers Party of Korea|Korean Workers' Party]] officially describes itself as a socialist republic governed according to the ideology of [[Juche]], which is derived from Marxist-Leninist theory.<ref>{{cite web|title=On the Juche Idea|author=Kim Jong-Il|url=http://www1.korea-np.co.jp/pk/062nd_issue/98092410.htm#4.%20THE%20GUIDING%20PRINCIPLES%20OF%20THE%20JUCHE%20IDEA|date=31 March 1982|accessdate=2007-01-03}}</ref><br />
*{{flagicon|Laos}} [[Laos|Lao People's Democratic Republic]] (since 1975); [[Lao People's Revolutionary Party]]<br />
*{{flagicon|Vietnam}} [[Vietnam|Socialist Republic of Vietnam]] (since 1976); [[Communist Party of Vietnam]] (ruled the [[Democratic Republic of Vietnam]] since 1954)<br />
<br />
==Socialism as an economic system==<br />
<br />
{{See also|Socialist economics}}<br />
<br />
Economically, '''socialism''' denotes an economic system of '''state ownership''' and / or '''worker ownership''' of the means of production and distribution. In the U.S.S.R., state ownership of the means of production was combined with central planning{{ndash}} what goods and services to make and provide, how they were to be produced, the quantities, and the sale prices (cf. [[Economy of the Soviet Union]]). Soviet economic planning was an alternative to allowing the market ([[supply and demand]]) to determine prices and production. During the [[Great Depression]], socialists considered Soviet-style planned economies the remedy to Capitalism's inherent flaws{{ndash}} [[monopoly]], [[business cycle]]s, [[unemployment]], unequally distributed wealth, and the economic exploitation of workers.<br />
<br />
In the West, neoclassical [[economic liberalism|liberal]] economists, e.g. [[Friedrich Hayek]] and [[Milton Friedman]], said that socialist planned economies would fail, because planners could not have the business information inherent to a market economy (cf. [[economic calculation problem]]), nor would managers in Soviet-style socialist economies match the motivation of profit.<br />
<br />
Consequent to Soviet economic stagnation in the 1970s and 1980s, socialists began to accept parts of their critique. Polish economist [[Oskar Lange]], an early proponent of "[[market socialism]]", proposed a Central Planning Board establishing prices and controls of investment. The prices of producer goods would be determined through trial and error. The prices of consumer goods would be determined by supply and demand, with the supply coming from state-owned firms that would set their prices equal to the [[marginal cost]], as in [[perfect competition|perfectly competitive]] markets. The Central Planning Board would distribute a "social dividend" to ensure reasonable income equality.<ref name="Rosser">John Barkley Rosser and Marina V. Rosser, ''Comparative Economics in a Transforming World Economy'' (Cambridge, MA.: MIT Press, 2004).</ref> <br />
<br />
In Western Europe, particularly in the period after [[World War II]], many socialist parties in government implemented what became known as ''mixed economies''.<ref>For instance, in the biography of the 1945 Labour Party Prime Minister Clem Attlee, Beckett states "the government... wanted what would become known as a mixed economy". Beckett, Francis, ''Clem Attlee'', (2007) Politico's. Beckett also makes the point that "Everyone called the 1945 government 'socialist'."</ref> These governments [[Nationalisation|nationalised]] major and economically vital industries while permitting a free market to continue in the rest. These were most often monopolistic or infrastructural industries like mail, railways, power and other utilities. In some instances a number of small, competing and often relatively poorly financed companies in the same sector were nationalised to form one government monopoly for the purpose of competent management, of economic rescue (in the UK, [[British Leyland]], Rolls Royce), or of competing on the world market.<ref> In the UK, [[British Aerospace]] was a combination of major aircraft companies [[British Aircraft Corporation]], [[Hawker Siddeley]] and others. [[British Shipbuilders]] was a combination of the major shipbuilding companies including [[Cammell Laird]], [[Govan Shipbuilders]], [[Swan Hunter]], and [[Yarrow Shipbuilders]]</ref> Typically, this was achieved through compulsory purchase of the industry (i.e. with compensation). For example in the UK the nationalization of the coal mines in 1947 created a coal board charged with running the coal industry commercially so as to be able to meet the interest payable on the bonds which the former mine owners' shares had been converted into.<ref> {{cite book |authorlink=Socialist Party of Great Britain |author=Socialist Party of Great Britain |title=The Strike Weapon: Lessons of the Miners’ Strike |publisher=Socialist Party of Great Britain |location=London |year=1985 |url=http://www.worldsocialism.org/spgb/pdf/ms.pdf |format=PDF |accessdate=2007-04-28}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Hardcastle |first=Edgar |authorlink=Edgar Hardcastle |title=The Nationalisation of the Railways |journal=Socialist Standard |volume=43 |issue=1 |publisher=Socialist Party of Great Britain |year=1947 |url=http://www.marxists.org/archive/hardcastle/1947/02/railways.htm |accessdate=2007-04-28}}</ref> <br />
<br />
Some socialists propose various decentralized, worker-managed economic systems. One such system is the "cooperative economy," a largely free [[market economy]] in which workers manage the firms and democratically determine remuneration levels and labor divisions. Productive resources would be legally owned by the [[cooperative]] and rented to the workers, who would enjoy [[usufruct]] rights.<ref>For more information on the cooperative economy, see Jaroslav Vanek, ''The Participatory Economy'' (Ithaca, NY.: Cornell University Press, 1971).</ref> Another, more recent, variant is "[[participatory economics]]," wherein the economy is planned by decentralized councils of workers and consumers. Workers would be remunerated solely according to effort and sacrifice, so that those engaged in dangerous, uncomfortable, and strenuous work would receive the highest incomes and could thereby work less.<ref>For more information on participatory economics, see [[Michael Albert]] and [[Robin Hahnel]], ''The Political Economy of Participatory Economics'' (Princeton, NJ.: Princeton University Press, 1991).</ref> Some Marxists and Anarcho-communists also propose a worker managed economy based on workers councils, however unlike participatory economics in Anarcho communism workers are remunerated according to their needs (which are largely self determined in an anarcho communist system). Recently socialists have also been working with the [[Technocracy movement]] to promote such concepts as [[Energy Accounting]].{{Fact|date=June 2008}}<br />
<br />
==Socialism and social and political theory==<br />
<br />
Doctrinally, Marxist and non-Marxist social theorists agree that '''Socialism''' developed in reaction to '''modern industrial capitalism''', but disagree on the nature of their relationship. [[Émile Durkheim]] posits that socialism is rooted in the desire to bring the State closer to the realm of individual activity, in countering the [[anomie]] of a Capitalist society. In socialism, [[Max Weber]] saw acceleration of the rationalization started in Capitalism. As critic of Socialism, he warned that placing the economy entirely in the State's bureaucratic control would result in an ''[[iron cage]] of future bondage''.<br />
<br />
In the middle of the twentieth century, Socialist intellectuals retained much influence in European philosophy; ''[[Eros and Civilization]]'' (1955), by [[Herbert Marcuse]], explicitly attempts merging Marxism with [[Freudianism]]; and the social science of [[Structuralism]] much influenced the socialist [[New Left]] in the 1960s and the 1970s.<br />
<br />
==Criticisms of socialism==<br />
<br />
{{Main|Criticisms of socialism}}<br />
<br />
Criticisms of socialism range from claims that socialist economic and political models are inefficient or incompatible with civil liberties to condemnation of specific [[socialist state]]s. There is much focus on the economic performance and human rights records of [[Communist state]]s, although some{{who?}} proponents of socialism reject the categorization of such states as socialist.<br />
<br />
In the [[Economic calculation problem|economic calculation debate]], [[classical liberalism|classical liberal]] [[Friedrich Hayek]] argued that a socialist [[command economy]] could not adequately transmit information about prices and productive quotas due to the lack of a [[price mechanism]], and as a result it could not make rational economic decisions. [[Ludwig von Mises]] argued that a socialist economy was not possible at all. Hayek further argued that the social control over distribution of wealth and private property advocated by socialists cannot be achieved without reduced prosperity for the general populace, and a loss of political and economic freedoms.<ref>{{cite book|last=Hayek|first=Friedrich |authorlink=Friedrich Hayek|title=[[The Road to Serfdom]]|publisher=[[University of Chicago Press]]|edition=50th anniversary ed.|year=1994|isbn=0-226-32061-8}}</ref><ref>Hans-Hermann Hoppe. [http://www.mises.org/etexts/Soc&Cap.pdf ''A Theory of Socialism and Capitalism'']. Kluwer Academic Publishers. page 46 in PDF.</ref><br />
<br />
Hayek's views were echoed by [[Winston Churchill]] in an electoral broadcast prior to the [[United Kingdom general election, 1945|British general election of 1945]]:<br />
<blockquote><br />
''. . . a socialist policy is abhorrent to the British ideas of freedom. Socialism is inseparably interwoven with totalitarianism and the object worship of the state. It will prescribe for every one where they are to work, what they are to work at, where they may go and what they may say. Socialism is an attack on the right to breathe freely. No socialist system can be established without a political police. They would have to fall back on some form of Gestapo, no doubt very humanely directed in the first instance''.<ref>Alan O. Ebenstein. ''Friedrich Hayek: A Biography.'' (2003). University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0226181502 p.137</ref><br />
</blockquote><br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
<br />
{{commonscat}}<br />
* [[Anti-globalization]]<br />
* [[Anti-capitalism]]<br />
* [[Class struggle]]<br />
* [[Communism]]<br />
* [[Dictatorship of the proletariat]]<br />
* [[Heaven on Earth: The Rise and Fall of Socialism]]<br />
* [[History of socialism]]<br />
* [[History of socialism in Great Britain]]<br />
* [[Industrial revolution]]<br />
* [[Labour movement]]<br />
* [[List of socialist songs]]<br />
* [[List of socialist countries]]<br />
* [[Marxism]]<br />
* [[Proletariat]]<br />
* [[Proletarian revolution]]<br />
* [[Social democracy]]<br />
* [[Socialist state]]<br />
* [[Socialism in the United States]]<br />
* [[Syndicalism]]<br />
* [[To each according to his contribution]]<br />
<br />
==Notes==<br />
<br />
{{reflist|2}}<br />
<br />
==References and further reading==<br />
* Guy Ankerl, ''Beyond Monopoly Capitalism and Monopoly Socialism'', Cambridge MA: Schenkman, 1978.<br />
* Beckett, Francis, ''Clem Attlee'', Politico's (2007) 978-1842751923<br />
* G.D.H. Cole, ''History of Socialist Thought, in 7 volumes'', Macmillan and St. Martin's Press, 1965; Palgrave Macmillan, 2003 reprint; 7 volumes, hardcover, 3160 pages, ISBN 1-4039-0264-X.<br />
* [[Friedrich Engels]], ''Socialism: Utopian and Scientific'', Pathfinder; 2r.e. edition (December 1989) 978-0873485791<br />
* [[Friedrich Engels]], ''The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State'', Zurich, 1884. {{LCC|HQ504 .E6}}<br />
* Albert Fried and Ronald Sanders, eds., ''Socialist Thought: A Documentary History'', Garden City, NY: Doubleday Anchor, 1964. {{LCCN|64|0|11312}}.<br />
* [http://www.selvesandothers.org/view804.html Phil Gasper], ''The Communist Manifesto: A Road Map to History's Most Important Political Document'', [http://www.haymarketbooks.org/Merchant2/merchant.mv?Screen=PROD&Store_Code=Haymarket&Product_Code=MSACM Haymarket Books], paperback, 224 pages, 2005. ISBN 1-931859-25-6.<br />
* [[Élie Halévy]], ''Histoire du Socialisme Européen''. Paris, Gallimard, 1948.<br />
* [[Michael Harrington]], ''Socialism'', New York: Bantam, 1972. {{LCCN|76||154260}}.<br />
* [[Jesús Huerta de Soto]], [http://www.jesushuertadesoto.com/pdf_socialismo/indice.pdf ''Socialismo, cálculo económico y función empresarial''] (''Socialism, Economic Calculation, and Entrepreneurship''), Unión Editorial, 1992. ISBN 8472094200.<br />
* Makoto Itoh, ''Political Economy of Socialism''. London: Macmillan, 1995. ISBN 0333553373.<br />
*{{cite book |last=Kitching |first=Gavin |authorlink=Gavin Kitching |coauthors= |title=Rethinking Socialism |publisher=Meuthen |year=1983 |location= |pages= |url=http://www.gavinkitching.com/marx_0.htm |doi= |id=ISBN 0416358403 }}<br />
* [[Oskar Lange]], ''On the Economic Theory of Socialism'', Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press, 1938. {{LCCN|38|0|12882}}.<br />
* Michael Lebowitz, ''[http://www.monthlyreview.org/builditnow.htm Build It Now: Socialism for the 21st Century]'', [http://www.monthlyreview.org Monthly Review Press], 2006. ISBN 1-58367-145-5.<br />
* Marx, Engels, ''The Communist Manifesto'', Penguin Classics (2002) 978-0140447576<br />
* Marx, Engels, ''Selected works in one volume'', Lawrence and Wishart (1968) 978-0853151814<br />
* [[Ludwig von Mises]], ''[[Socialism: An Economic and Sociological Analysis]]'' [http://www.mises.org/books/socialism/contents.aspx], Liberty Fund, 1922. ISBN 0-913966-63-0.<br />
* [[Joshua Muravchik]], [http://www.pbs.org/heavenonearth/resources.html ''Heaven on Earth: The Rise and Fall of Socialism''], San Francisco: Encounter Books, 2002. ISBN 1-893554-45-7.<br />
* Michael Newman, ''Socialism: A Very Short Introduction'', Oxford University Press, 2005. ISBN 0-19-280431-6.<br />
*[[Bertell Ollman]], ed., ''Market Socialism: The Debate among Socialists'', Routledge, 1998. ISBN 0415919673<br />
*[[Leo Panitch]], ''Renewing Socialism: Democracy, Strategy, and Imagination''. ISBN 0-8133-9821-5.<br />
*Emile Perreau-Saussine, ''What remains of socialism ?'', in Patrick Riordan (dir.), Values in Public life: aspects of common goods (Berlin, LIT Verlag, 2007), pp. 11–34<br />
*[[Richard Pipes]], ''Property and Freedom'', Vintage, 2000. ISBN 0-375-70447-7.<br />
* John Barkley Rosser and Marina V. Rosser, ''Comparative Economics in a Transforming World Economy''. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2004. ISBN 9780262182348.<br />
* [[Maximilien Rubel]] and John Crump, ''Non-Market Socialism in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries''. ISBN 0-312-00524-5.<br />
* [[David Selbourne]], ''Against Socialist Illusion'', London, 1985. ISBN 0-333-37095-3.<br />
* [[James Weinstein]], ''Long Detour: The History and Future of the American Left'', [http://www.westviewpress.com/about.html Westview Press], 2003, hardcover, 272 pages. ISBN 0-8133-4104-3.<br />
* Peter Wilberg, [http://www.newgnosis.co.uk/deep.html ''Deep Socialism: A New Manifesto of Marxist Ethics and Economics''], 2003. ISBN 1-904519-02-4.<br />
* [[Edmund Wilson]], ''To the Finland Station: A Study in the Writing and Acting of History'', Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1940. {{LCCN|4|00|34338}}.<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
<br />
;Resources on socialism<br />
*[http://www.marxist.com In Defense of Marxism]<br />
* [http://www.marxists.org The Marxists Internet Archive] (online library of Marxist writers)<br />
*[http://www.marxist.com/rircontents-5.htm Reason in Revolt: Marxism and Modern Science By Alan Woods and Ted Grant]<br />
* [http://www.marxist.net/sciphil/reasoninrevolt/index.html Science, Marxism & the Big Bang: A Critical Review of Reason in Revolt by Peter Mason]<br />
* [http://www.marxist.net Marxist.net] - a resource on socialist writers<br />
* [http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/socialism.htm History of socialism at Spartacus Educational]<br />
* [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/modsbook33.html Modern History Sourcebook on socialism]<br />
* [http://www.whatnextjournal.co.uk/Pages/History/Articles.html Socialist history at ''What Next?'']<br />
* [http://www.pbs.org/heavenonearth/ PBS' "Heaven on Earth: the Rise and Fall of Socialism"]<br />
* [http://www.ecn.wfu.edu/~cottrell/socialism_book/new_socialism.pdf ''Towards a New Socialism''] by W. Paul Cockshott and Allin Cottrell<br />
* [http://www.sussex.ac.uk/Users/ssfa2/newideas.pdf "New Ideas of Socialism"] by Luke Martell<br />
* [http://web.gc.cuny.edu/Anthropology/faculty/INTL-ENC.doc Katherine Verdery: Anthropology of Socialist Societies]<br />
* [http://21stcenturysocialism.com/ 21st Century Socialism] web magazine<br />
<br />
;Introductory articles<br />
* [http://www.monthlyreview.org/598einst.htm "Why Socialism?"] by [[Albert Einstein]]<br />
* [http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1880/soc-utop/index.htm "Socialism: Utopian and Scientific"] by [[Friedrich Engels]]<br />
* [http://libcom.org/library/soul-of-man-under-socialism-oscar-wilde "The Soul of Man under Socialism"] by [[Oscar Wilde]]<br />
* [http://www.sps.cam.ac.uk/pol/staff/eperreausaussine/what_is_left_of_socialism.pdf "What remains of Socialism"] by Emile Perreau-Saussine<br />
* [http://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/shaw/works/guide2.htm "Socialism and Liberty"] by [[George Bernard Shaw]]<br />
* [http://www.anu.edu.au/polsci/marx/contemp/pamsetc/twosouls/twosouls.htm "The Two Souls of Socialsm"] by [[Hal Draper]]<br />
* [http://www.monthlyreview.org/0705magdoffs2.htm "Approaching Socialism"] by [[Harry Magdoff]] and [[Fred Magdoff]]<br />
* [http://www.socialism.com/ Socialism website]<br />
* [http://counterhegemonic.blogspot.com/ The Counterhegemonic Blogspot Socialism in Action]<br />
<br />
;Critical appraisals<br />
* [http://www.econlib.org/LIBRARY/Enc/Socialism.html "Socialism"], by [[Robert Heilbroner]]<br />
* [http://www.mises.org/etexts/ecopol.asp#_Socialism "Socialism"] ''Economic Policy'' 2nd Lecture, by [[Ludwig von Mises]]<br />
* [http://www.mises.org/etexts/hayekintellectuals.pdf "The Intellectuals and Socialism"], by [[Friedrich A. Hayek]]<br />
* [http://www.mises.org/etexts/Soc&Cap.pdf "A Theory of Socialism and Capitalism"], by [[Hans-Hermann Hoppe]]<br />
* [http://www.marxists.org/reference/subject/philosophy/works/at/freud.htm Lecture XXXV "A Philosophy of Life"] includes a critique of marxist socialism by [[Sigmund Freud]]<br />
* [http://flag.blackened.net/daver/anarchism/tucker/tucker2.html "State socialism and anarchism"] by [[Benjamin Tucker]]<br />
* [http://www.mises.org/journals/qjae/pdf/qjae7_1_6.pdf "Towards a New Socialism?"] Review Essay by Len Brewster<br />
* [http://www.polyarchy.org/essays/english/socialism.html Socialism/Antisocialism] A survey and a critical appraisal<br />
* [[:s:Soap-bubbles of Socialism|“Soap-bubbles of Socialism”]] by [[Simon Newcomb]] (1890)<br />
<br />
{{Template group<br />
|list =<br />
{{Socialism}}<br />
{{Socialism by state}}<br />
{{Political ideologies}}<br />
{{History of economic thought}}<br />
}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:Socialism| ]]<br />
[[Category:Political ideologies]]<br />
[[Category:Political movements]]<br />
[[Category:Economic ideologies]]<br />
[[Category:Economies]]<br />
<br />
[[ar:اشتراكية]]<br />
[[an:Sozialismo]]<br />
[[ast:Socialismu]]<br />
[[az:Sosializm]]<br />
[[bn:সমাজতন্ত্র]]<br />
[[zh-min-nan:Siā-hoē-chú-gī]]<br />
[[be:Сацыялізм]]<br />
[[bs:Socijalizam]]<br />
[[br:Sokialouriezh]]<br />
[[bg:Социализъм]]<br />
[[ca:Socialisme]]<br />
[[cs:Socialismus]]<br />
[[cy:Sosialaeth]]<br />
[[da:Socialisme]]<br />
[[de:Sozialismus]]<br />
[[et:Sotsialism]]<br />
[[el:Σοσιαλισμός]]<br />
[[es:Socialismo]]<br />
[[eo:Socialismo]]<br />
[[eu:Sozialismo]]<br />
[[fa:سوسیالیسم]]<br />
[[fo:Sosialisma]]<br />
[[fr:Socialisme]]<br />
[[ga:Sóisialachas]]<br />
[[gl:Socialismo]]<br />
[[ko:사회주의]]<br />
[[hi:समाजवाद]]<br />
[[hr:Socijalizam]]<br />
[[bpy:সমাজতন্ত্র]]<br />
[[id:Sosialisme]]<br />
[[is:Jafnaðarstefna]]<br />
[[it:Socialismo]]<br />
[[he:סוציאליזם]]<br />
[[ka:სოციალიზმი]]<br />
[[la:Socialismus]]<br />
[[lv:Sociālisms]]<br />
[[lt:Socializmas]]<br />
[[ln:Sosialisimɛ]]<br />
[[hu:Szocializmus]]<br />
[[mk:Социјализам]]<br />
[[mr:समाजवाद]]<br />
[[ms:Sosialisme]]<br />
[[nl:Socialisme]]<br />
[[ja:社会主義]]<br />
[[no:Sosialisme]]<br />
[[nn:Sosialisme]]<br />
[[pl:Socjalizm]]<br />
[[pt:Socialismo]]<br />
[[ro:Socialism]]<br />
[[qu:Susyalismu]]<br />
[[ru:Социализм]]<br />
[[sco:Socialism]]<br />
[[scn:Sucialismu]]<br />
[[simple:Socialism]]<br />
[[sk:Socializmus]]<br />
[[sl:Socializem]]<br />
[[sr:Социјализам]]<br />
[[sh:Socijalizam]]<br />
[[fi:Sosialismi]]<br />
[[sv:Socialism]]<br />
[[ta:சமவுடமை]]<br />
[[th:สังคมนิยม]]<br />
[[vi:Chủ nghĩa xã hội]]<br />
[[tr:Sosyalizm]]<br />
[[uk:Соціалізм]]<br />
[[ur:اشتراکیت]]<br />
[[vec:Sociałismo]]<br />
[[yi:סאציאליזם]]<br />
[[zh-yue:社會主義]]<br />
[[bat-smg:Suocēlėzmos]]<br />
[[zh:社会主义]]</div>
Leslie
https://conservapedia.com/index.php?title=Liberia&diff=553373
Liberia
2008-11-10T00:45:36Z
<p>Leslie: removing some too-obvious bias</p>
<hr />
<div>{{otheruses4|the country in Africa|the city|Liberia, Costa Rica}}<br />
{{Infobox Country<br />
|conventional_long_name = Republic of Liberia<br />
| common_name = Liberia<br />
| image_flag = Flag of Liberia.svg<br />
| image_coat = Coat of arms of Liberia.png<br />
| image_map = LocationLiberia.svg<br />
| national_motto = "The love of liberty brought us here"<br />
| national_anthem = ''[[All Hail, Liberia, Hail!]]''<br />
| official_languages = [[English language|English]]<br />
|demonym = Liberian<br />
| capital = [[Monrovia]]<br />
| latd=6 |latm=19 |latNS=N |longd=10 |longm=48 |longEW=W<br />
| largest_city = Monrovia<br />
| government_type = [[Republic]]<br />
| leader_title1 = [[President of Liberia|President]]<br />
| leader_title2 = [[Vice-President of Liberia|Vice-President]]<br />
| leader_name1 = [[Ellen Johnson-Sirleaf]]<br />
| leader_name2 = [[Joseph Boakai]]<br />
| leader_title3 = [[Supreme Court of Liberia|Chief Justice]]<br />
| leader_name3 = [[Johnnie Lewis]]<br />
| area_rank = 103rd<br />
| area_magnitude = 1 E11<br />
| area_km2 = 111,369<br />
| area_sq_mi = 43,000 <!-- Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]] --><br />
| percent_water = 13.514<br />
| population_estimate = 3,489,072<br />
| population_estimate_year = 2008 [[Liberian Census]] <br />
| population_estimate_rank = 132nd<br />
| population_census = <!-- census data n/a, more searching needs to be done --><br />
| population_census_year =<br />
| population_density_km2 = 29<br />
| population_density_sq_mi = 75 <!-- Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]] --><br />
| population_density_rank = 174th<br />
| GDP_PPP_year = 2007<br />
| GDP_PPP = $1.342 billion<ref name=imf2>{{cite web|url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2008/02/weodata/weorept.aspx?pr.x=44&pr.y=8&sy=2004&ey=2008&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=668&s=NGDPD%2CNGDPDPC%2CPPPGDP%2CPPPPC%2CLP&grp=0&a= |title=Liberia|publisher=International Monetary Fund|accessdate=2008-10-09}}</ref><br />
| GDP_PPP_per_capita = $357<ref name=imf2/><br />
|GDP_nominal = $735 million<ref name=imf2/><br />
|GDP_nominal_year = 2007<br />
|GDP_nominal_per_capita = $195<ref name=imf2/><br />
| sovereignty_type = [[History of Liberia|Formation]]<br />
| sovereignty_note = by [[African-American]]s<br />
| established_event1 = [[American Colonization Society|ACS]] colonies<br />
{{spaces|3}}consolidation<br />
| established_event2 = [[Independence]] (from the [[United States]])<br />
| established_date1 = 1821-1842<br />
| established_date2 = 26 July 1847<br />
| HDI_year = 1993<br />
| HDI = 0.311<br />
| HDI_rank = n/a<br />
| HDI_category = <font color="red">low</font><br />
|FSI = 92.9 {{decrease}} 6.1<br />
|FSI_year = 2007<br />
|FSI_rank = 27th<br />
|FSI_category = <font color="#FF0000">Alert</font> <br />
| currency = [[Liberian dollar]]<sup>1</sup><br />
| currency_code = LRD<br />
| country_code = lr<br />
| time_zone = [[Greenwich Mean Time|GMT]]<br />
| utc_offset = <!-- this entry intentionally left blank --><br />
| time_zone_DST = ''not observed''<br />
| utc_offset_DST = <!-- this entry intentionally left blank --><br />
| cctld = [[.lr]]<br />
| calling_code = 231<br />
| footnotes = <sup>1</sup> [[United States dollar]] also in common usage.<br />
}}<br />
'''Liberia''' {{Audio-IPA|en-us-Liberia.ogg|[laɪˈbɪəriə]}}, officially the '''Republic of Liberia''', is a country on the west coast of [[Africa]], bordered by [[Sierra Leone]], [[Guinea]], [[Côte d'Ivoire]], and the [[Atlantic Ocean]]. As of 2008, the nation is estimated to be home to 3,489,072 people and cover {{convert|111369|km2|sqmi}}. Liberia has a hot equatorial climate with most rainfall arriving in summer with harsh [[harmattan]] winds in the dry season. Liberia's populated [[Pepper Coast]] is composed of mostly [[mangrove]] forests while the sparse inland is forested, later opening to a plateau of drier grasslands. <br />
<br />
Founded as a colony in 1822 by freed slaves from the [[United States]], the area was already inhabited by various indigenous ethnic groups who had occupied the region for centuries. In 1847, the colony of freed slaves declared independence and founded the Republic of Liberia. In 1980, the government was overturned in a military coup, and from 1989 to 2005 Liberia was in a state of flux, witnessing two [[civil war]]s, the [[First Liberian Civil War]] (1989–1996) and the [[Second Liberian Civil War]] (1999–2003) that displaced hundreds of thousands of people and devastated the country's [[Economy of Liberia|economy]].<br />
<br />
== Etymology ==<br />
The name Liberia denotes "liberty" as [[Black Americans]] moved to Liberia in 1822, and founded the country in 1847 with the support of the [[American Colonization Society]] creating a new ethnic group called the [[Americo-Liberians]].<ref>[[Defense Language Institute]] Foreign Language Center, [http://www.lingnet.org/areaStudies/perspectives/liberia/liberia.pdf Liberia in Perspective: An Orientation Guide (2006) ], page 1</ref> However, this introduction of a new ethnic mix resulted in ethnic tensions with the sixteen other main ethnicities.<ref>Financial Times World Desk Reference (2004) Dorling Kindersley Publishing. p 368 </ref><br />
<br />
== History ==<br />
{{main|History of Liberia}}<br />
<br />
=== Indigenous peoples of West Africa ===<br />
Anthropological research shows the region of Liberia was inhabited at least as far back as the 12th century, perhaps earlier. [[Mende]]-speaking people expanded westward, forcing many smaller ethnic groups southward towards the Atlantic ocean. The Deys, [[Bassa (Liberia)|Bassa]], [[Kru]], [[Gola (ethnic group)|Gola]] and [[Kissi]] were some of the earliest recorded arrivals.<ref>Runn-Marcos, K. T. Kolleholon, B. Ngovo, p. 5 </ref> This influx was compounded during the ancient decline of the Western Sudanic [[Mali Empire]] in 1375 and later in 1591 with the [[Songhai Empire]]. Additionally, inland regions underwent [[desertification]], and inhabitants were pressured to move to the wetter [[Pepper Coast]]. These new inhabitants brought skills such as cotton spinning, cloth weaving, iron smelting, rice and [[sorghum]] cultivation, and social and political institutions from the Mali and Songhay Empires.<ref>Runn-Marcos, K. T. Kolleholon, B. Ngovo, p. 6 </ref> <br />
<br />
Shortly after the Manes conquered the region there was a migration of the [[Vai (ethnic group)|Vai]] people into the region of Grand Cape Mount. The Vai were part of the [[Mali Empire]] who were forced to migrate when the empire collapsed in the fourteenth century. The Vai chose to migrate to the coastal region. <br />
<br />
The ethnic [[Kru]] opposed the migration of the Vai into their region. An alliance of the Manes and Kru were able to stop the further migration of the Vai but the Vai remained in the Grand Cape Mount region (where the city of [[Robertsport]] is now located). <br />
<br />
[[Littoral zone|Littoral]] coast people built canoes and traded with other West Africans from [[Cap-Vert]] to the [[Gold Coast (region)|Gold Coast]]. Later European traders would barter various commodities and goods with local people, sometimes hoisting their canoes aboard. When the Kru began trading with Europeans, they initially traded in non-slave commodities but later became active participants in the [[African slave trade]].<br />
<br />
Kru laborers left their territory to work on [[plantations]] and in construction as paid laborers. Some even worked building the [[Suez Canal|Suez]] and [[Panama Canal]]s. <br />
<br />
Another tribal group in the area was the [[Grebo (ethnic group)|Glebo]]. The Glebo were driven, as a result of the Manes invasion, to migrate to the coast of what later became Liberia.<br />
<br />
=== Early European contacts ===<br />
Between 1461 and late seventeenth century, Portuguese, Dutch and British traders had contacts and trading posts in Liberia. The Portuguese had named the area ''Costa da Pimenta'', later translated as [[Grain Coast]], because of the abundance of grains of [[melegueta pepper]].<br />
<br />
=== Settlers from the United States === <br />
In 1822, the [[American Colonization Society]] established Liberia as a place to send black people who were formerly enslaved.<ref name="eowg"/> Other African Americans, who were never enslaved, chose to emigrate to Liberia as well.<ref> Merriam Webster, p.684</ref> African-Americans gradually migrated to the colony and became known as [[Americo-Liberian]]s, from whom many present day Liberians trace their <br />
ancestry. On July 26, 1847, the Americo-Liberian settlers declared the independence of the Republic of Liberia.<br />
<br />
The settlers regarded Africa as a "Promised Land," but they did not integrate into an African society. Once in Africa, they referred to themselves as "Americans" and were recognized as such by local Africans and by British colonial authorities in neighboring [[Sierra Leone]]. The symbols of their state — its flag, motto, and seal — and the form of government that they chose reflected their American background and [[diaspora]] experience. [[Lincoln University, PA|Lincoln University]] (founded as Ashmun Institute for educating young blacks in Pennsylvania in 1854) played an important role in supplying Americo-Liberians leadership for the new [[nation]]. The first graduating class of Lincoln University, James R. Amos, his brother Thomas H. Amos, and Armistead Miller sailed for Liberia on the [[brig]] ''Mary C. Stevens'' in April, 1859 after graduation.<br />
<br />
[[Image:Liberiawomen1910.jpg|thumb|right|Indigenous Liberian women in 1910.]]<br />
The religious practices, social customs and cultural standards of the Americo-Liberians had their roots in the [[antebellum]] [[American South]]. These ideals strongly influenced the attitudes of the settlers toward the indigenous African people. The new nation, as they perceived it, was coextensive with the [[settler]] community and with those Africans who were [[cultural assimilation|assimilated]] into it. Mutual mistrust and hostility between the "Americans" along the coast and the "Natives" of the interior was a recurrent theme in the country's history, along with (usually successful) attempts by the Americo-Liberian minority to dominate what they identified as savage native peoples. They named the land "Liberia," which in the Romance languages, and in Latin in particular, means "Land of the Free," as an homage to their freedom from slavery.<br />
[[Image:Joseph Jenkins Roberts.jpg|thumb|right|[[Joseph Jenkins Roberts]], First President of Liberia.]]<br />
<br />
Historically, Liberia has enjoyed the support and unofficial cooperation of the [[United States]] government.<ref>Flint, John E. ''The Cambridge history of Africa: from c.1790 to c.1870'' Cambridge University Press (1976) pg 184-199</ref> Liberia’s government, modeled after that of the United States, was democratic in structure, if not always in substance. After 1877 the [[True Whig Party]] monopolized political power in the country, and competition for office was usually contained within the party, whose nomination virtually ensured election. Two problems confronting successive administrations were pressure from neighboring colonial powers, [[United Kingdom|Britain]] and [[France]], and the threat of financial insolvency, both of which challenged the country’s sovereignty. Liberia retained its independence during the [[Scramble for Africa]], but lost its claim to extensive territories that were annexed by Britain and France. Economic development was hindered by the decline of markets for Liberian goods in the late nineteenth century and by indebtedness on a series of loans, payments on which drained the economy.<br />
[[Image:Roosevelt and Barclay.gif|thumb|left|President [[Edwin Barclay]] (right) and President [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] during World War II, 1943]]<br />
<br />
=== Significant mid-twentieth century events ===<br />
<br />
Two events were of particular importance in releasing Liberia from its self-imposed isolation. The first was the grant in 1926 of a large concession to the American-owned [[Firestone Tire and Rubber Company|Firestone]] Plantation Company; that move became a first step in the (limited) modernization of the [[Economy of Liberia|Liberian economy]]. The second occurred during [[World War II]], when the United States began providing technical and economic assistance that enabled Liberia to make economic progress and introduce social change. Both the [[Freeport of Monrovia]] and [[Roberts International Airport]] were built by U.S. personnel during World War II.<br />
<br />
In a late night raid on April 12, 1980, a successful [[military coup]] was staged by a group of noncommissioned army officers led by Master Sergeant [[Samuel Kanyon Doe]]. The soldiers were a mixture of the various ethnic groups that claimed marginalization at the hands of the minority Americo-Liberian settlers. They killed [[William R. Tolbert, Jr.]], who had been president for nine years, in his mansion. Constituting themselves the People’s Redemption Council, Doe and his associates seized control of the government and brought an end to Africa’s first republic. Significantly, Doe was the first Liberian head of state who was not a member of the Americo-Liberian elite.<br />
<br />
In the early 1980s, the [[United States]] provided Liberia more than $500 million for pushing the [[Soviet Union]] out of the country, and for providing the US exclusive rights to use Liberia's ports and land (including allowing the [[CIA]] to use Liberian territory to spy on [[Libya]]).{{Fact|date=August 2008}}<br />
<br />
Doe favored [[authoritarian]] policies, banning newspapers and outlawing various opposition parties. His tactic was to brand popular opposition parties as "socialist", and therefore illegal according to the Liberian constitution, while allowing less popular minor parties to remain as a token opposition. Unfortunately for Doe, popular support would then tend to realign behind one of these smaller parties, causing them to be labeled "socialist" in their turn.<br />
<br />
[[Image:HD-SC-98-07558.jpg|thumb|right|200px|[[Samuel Doe]] with [[Caspar Weinberger]] on a 1982 visit to the United States]]<br />
In October 1985, Liberia held the first post-coup elections, ostensibly to legitimize Doe's regime. Virtually all international observers agreed that the Liberia Action Party (LAP) led by Jackson Doe (no relation) had won the election by a clear margin. After a week of counting the votes, however, Samuel Doe fired the count officials and replaced them with his own Special Election Committee (SECOM), which announced that Samuel Doe's ruling National Democratic Party of Liberia had won with 50.9% of the vote. In response, on November 12 a counter-coup was launched by [[Thomas Quiwonkpa]], whose soldiers briefly occupied the Executive Mansion and the national radio station, with widespread support throughout the country. Three days later, Quiwonkpa's coup was overthrown. Following this failed coup, government repression intensified, as Doe's troops killed more than 2000 civilians and imprisoned more than 100 opposing politicians, including Jackson Doe, [[Ellen Johnson-Sirleaf]] and BBC journalist Isaac Bantu.<br />
<br />
=== 1989 and 2003 civil wars ===<br />
<br />
In late 1989, a [[First Liberian Civil War|civil war]] began. The harsh dictatorial atmosphere that gripped the country was due in large part to Sergeant Samuel Doe's rule. An Americo-Liberian named [[Charles Taylor (Liberia)|Charles Taylor]] with the backing of neighbouring countries such as Burkina Faso and Cote d'Ivoire entered [[Nimba County]] with around 100 men.<ref>''The Mask of Anarchy'', by Stephen Ellis, 2001, p.75 (There is also an NYU Press Updated Edition 2006, ISBN 0814722385)</ref> These fighters gained high levels of support with the local population who were disillusioned with their present government. A large section of the country came under the invaders' control as a result. By this time a new player had also emerged. Yormie Prince Johnson (former ally of Taylor) had formed his own army and had gained tremendous support from the Gio and Mano ethnic groups.<br />
<br />
In August 1990, the [[Economic Community of West African States Monitoring Group|Economic Community Monitoring Group]] under the [[Economic Community of West African States]] organized its own military task force to intervene in the crisis. The troops were largely from Nigeria, Guinea and Ghana. On his way out after a meeting, Doe, who was traveling only with his personal staff, was ambushed and captured by members of the [[Gio Tribe]] who were loyal to Prince Yormie Johnson. The soldiers took him to the headquarters of Johnson in neighboring Caldwell, tortured and killed him.<br />
<br />
By this time Taylor was a prominent warlord and leader of the [[National Patriotic Front of Liberia]]. After some prompting from Taylor that the anglophone Nigerians and Ghanaians were opposed to him, Senegalese troops were brought in with some financial support from the United States.<ref>Adekeye Adebajo, 'Liberia's Civil War: Nigeria, ECOMOG, and Regional Security in West Africa,' Lynne Rienner/International Peace Academy, 2002, p.107</ref> Their service was however shortlived, after a major confrontation with Taylor forces in [[Vahun]], [[Lofa County]] on 28 May 1992, when six were killed when a crowd of NPFL supporters surrounded their vehicle and demanded they surrender their jeep and weapons.<ref>Adekeye Adebajo, 'Liberia's Civil War: Nigeria, ECOMOG, and Regional Security in West Africa,' Lynne Rienner/International Peace Academy, 2002, p.108</ref> <br />
<br />
By September 1990 Doe's forces controlled only a small area just outside the capital of Monrovia. After his death, and as a condition for the end of the conflict, interim president [[Amos Sawyer]] resigned in 1994, handing power to the Council of State. Taylor was [[Liberia elections, 1997|elected]] as President in 1997, after leading a bloody insurgency backed by Libyan President [[Muammar al-Gaddafi]]. Taylor's brutal regime targeted several leading opposition and political activists. In 1998, the government sought to assassinate child rights activist [[Kimmie Weeks]] for a report he had published on its involvement in the training of child soldiers, which forced him into exile. Taylor's autocratic and dysfunctional government led to a [[Second Liberian Civil War|new rebellion]] in 1999. More than 200,000 people are estimated to have been killed in the civil wars. <br />
<br />
The conflict intensified in mid-2003, and the fighting moved into [[Monrovia]]. A hastily assembled force of 1000 [[Military of Nigeria|Nigerian troops]], the [[ECOWAS]] Mission In Liberia (ECOMIL) was airlifted into Liberia on August 15, 2003 to prevent the rebels from over running the capital city and committing revenge inspired [[war crime]]s. Meanwhile the U.S. [[Joint Task Force Liberia]] commanded from [[USS Iwo Jima (LHD-7)]] was offshore, though only 100 of the 2,000 U.S. Marines landed to liaise with the ECOMIL force.<br />
<br />
As the power of the government shrank and with increasing international and American pressure for him to resign, President Taylor accepted an asylum offer from [[Nigeria]], but vowed: "God willing, I will be back." Some of the ECOMIL troops were subsequently withdrawn and at least two [[battalion]]s incorporated into the 15,000 strong [[United Nations Mission in Liberia]] (UNMIL) [[peace keeping force]].<br />
<br />
=== Transitional government and elections ===<br />
<br />
After the exile of Taylor, [[Gyude Bryant]] was appointed Chairman of the transitional government in late 2003. Because of failures of the Transitional Government in curbing corruption, Liberia signed onto [[GEMAP]], a novel anti-corruption program. The primary task of the transitional government was to prepare for fair and peaceful democratic elections. With [[UNMIL]] troops safeguarding the peace, Liberia successfully conducted presidential elections in the fall of 2005. Twenty three candidates stood for the October 11, 2005 general election, with the early favorite [[George Weah]], internationally famous footballer, [[UNICEF]] Goodwill Ambassador and member of the Kru ethnic group expected to dominate the popular vote. No candidate took the required majority in the general election, so that a run-off between the top two vote getters, Weah and [[Ellen Johnson-Sirleaf]], was necessary. The November 8, 2005 presidential runoff election was won decisively by Ellen Johnson-Sirleaf, a [[Harvard]]-trained economist. Both the general election and runoff were marked by peace and order, with thousands of Liberians waiting patiently in the Liberian heat to cast their ballots.<br />
<br />
=== Ellen Johnson-Sirleaf presidency ===<br />
<br />
{{Newsrelease|date=September 2008}}<br />
<br />
Daughter of the first indigenous Liberian to be elected to the national legislature, Jahmale Carney Johnson, [[Ellen Johnson-Sirleaf]] was born in rural Liberia. As the first elected female head of state in Africa, Johnson-Sirleaf’s election focused much international attention on Liberia.<br />
A former [[Citibank]] and [[World Bank]] employee, Johnson-Sirleaf’s career also includes heading the [[UNDP|U.N. Development Programme]] for Africa [http://www.undp.org/africa/].<br />
Johnson-Sirleaf was jailed twice during the Doe administration before escaping and going into exile. As president, Johnson-Sirleaf's main focus is to enlist the help of the international community in rebuilding Liberia’s economy and infrastructure. On November 12, 2007, the [[International Monetary Fund|IMF]] agreed to begin providing debt relief to Liberia to assist in eradicating the country's external debt of $3.5 billion .<ref>IMF Survey: [http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/survey/so/2007/CAR1113A.htm "IMF to Deliver Debt Relief to Liberia"], an IMF online publication, retrieved November 20, 2007</ref><br />
She has extended an invitation to the Nigerian business community to participate in business opportunities in Liberia, in response to Nigeria’s help in securing Liberia’s peace. Exiled Liberians are also investing in the country and participating in Liberia's rebuilding efforts.<br />
<br />
On March 29, 2006 Charles Taylor was extradited from Nigeria to [[Sierra Leone]], where he had been indicted by the Special Court (a war crimes tribunal). Taylor's trial by that court is being held in the Hague, for security. He is charged with crimes against humanity, violations of the Geneva Conventions and "other serious violations of international humanitarian law".<ref>Special Court for Sierra Leone, http://www.sc-sl.org/Documents/SCSL-03-01-PT-263.pdf</ref> <br />
<br />
In addition to focusing her early efforts to restore basic services like water and electricity to the capital of Monrovia, Johnson-Sirleaf has established a [[Truth and Reconciliation Commission (Liberia)|Truth and Reconciliation Commission]] to address crimes committed during the later stages of Liberia's long civil war.<ref>{{cite web<br />
|url=http://www.irinnews.org/report.aspx?reportid=58220<br />
|accessdate=2008-05-16<br />
|work=IRIN Africa<br />
|title=LIBERIA: War-battered nation launches truth commission}}</ref> She is also working to re-establish Liberia's food independence. Johnson-Sirleaf also requested that Nigeria extradite accused war criminal and profiteer [[Charles G. Taylor|Charles Taylor]].<br />
Addressing graduating students at the 2008 commencement ceremony at [[Dartmouth College]], Johnson-Sirleaf stated that Liberia is on "a new path" and pledged to "build the institutions of justice, human rights and participatory democracy, strong systems of governance in which rights are respected and institutions serve the public good and natural resources are used for the benefit of all. [http://www.dartmouth.edu/~news/releases/2008/06/08a.html]"<br />
<br />
=== Human rights situation ===<br />
<br />
[[Amnesty International]] summarizes in its Annual Report 2006: "Sporadic outbreaks of violence continued to threaten prospects of peace. Former rebel fighters who should have been disarmed and demobilized protested violently when they did not receive benefits. Slow progress in reforming the police, judiciary and the criminal justice system resulted in systematic violations of due process and vigilante violence against criminal suspects. Laws establishing an Independent National Commission on Human Rights and a Truth and Reconciliation Commission were adopted. Over 200,000 internally displaced people and refugees returned to their homes, although disputes over land and property appropriated during the war raised ethnic tensions. UN sanctions on the trade in diamonds and timber were renewed. Those responsible for human rights abuses during the armed conflict continued to enjoy impunity. The UN Security Council gave peacekeeping forces in Liberia powers to arrest former President Taylor and transfer him to the Special Court for [[Sierra Leone]] if he should return from [[Nigeria]], where he continued to receive asylum. Liberia made a commitment to abolish [[capital punishment]]. A new law on rape, which initially proposed imposition of the death penalty for gang rape, was amended to provide a maximum penalty of life imprisonment."<ref>[[Amnesty International]], {{note|Amnesty}} [http://web.amnesty.org/report2006/lbr-summary-eng Report 2006]</ref> Former 22nd president [[Charles Taylor (Liberia)|Charles Taylor]] was later captured trying to escape across the border of Cameroon and has been sent to the [[International Criminal Court]] in [[The Hague]] for trial.<br />
<br />
== Politics and Government ==<br />
{{main|Politics of Liberia}}<br />
Liberia has a dual system of statutory law based on [[England|Anglo]]-[[United States|American]] [[common law]] for the modern sector and customary unwritten law for the native sector for exclusively rural tribes.<ref>[http://www.lingnet.org/areaStudies/perspectives/liberia/liberia.pdf Liberia in Perspective: An Orientation Guide] (2006) Defense Language Institute Foreign Language Center, page 2 </ref> Liberia's modern sector has three equal branches of government in the [[constitution]], though in practice the executive branch headed by the [[President of Liberia]] is the strongest of the three. Following the dissolution of the [[Republican Party (Liberia)|Republican Party]] in 1876, the [[True Whig Party]] dominated the Liberian government until the 1980 coup. Currently, no party has majority control of the legislature. The longest serving president in Liberian history was [[William Tubman]], serving from 1944 until his death in 1971. The shortest term was held by [[James Skivring Smith]], who controlled the government for two months. However, the political process from Liberia's founding in 1847, despite widespread corruption, was very stable until the end of the First Republic in 1980.<br />
<br />
== Geography ==<br />
[[Image:Topographic map of Liberia-en.svg|right|230px|Map of Liberia]]<br />
{{main|Geography of Liberia}}<br />
Liberia is situated in [[West Africa]], bordering the North Atlantic Ocean to the country's southwest. The landscape is characterized by mostly flat to rolling coastal plains that contain [[mangroves]] and [[swamps]], which rise to a rolling plateau and low mountains in the northeast.<ref name="eowg">{{cite book|last=Bateman|first=Graham|coauthors=Victoria Egan, Fiona Gold, and Philip Gardner|title=Encyclopedia of World Geography|publisher=Barnes & Noble Books|location=New York|date=2000|pages=161|isbn=1566192919}}</ref> Tropical [[rainforests]] cover the hills, while elephant grass and [[semi-deciduous]] forests comprise the dominant vegetation in the northern sections.<ref name="eowg"/> The equatorial climate is hot year-round with heavy rainfall from May to October with a short interlude in mid-July to August.<ref name="eowg"/> During the winter months of November to March dry dust-laden [[harmattan]] winds blow inland causing many problems for residents.<ref name="eowg"/><br />
<br />
Liberia's watershed tends to move in a southwestern pattern towards the sea as new rains move down the forested plateau off the inland mountain range of [[Guinée Forestière]], in [[Guinea]]. [[Cape Mount]] near the border with [[Sierra Leone]] receives the most precipitation in the nation.<ref name="eowg"/> The country's main northwestern boundary is traversed by the Mano River while its southeast limits are bounded by the [[Cavalla River]].<ref name="eowg"/> Liberia's three largest rivers are [[Saint Paul River|St. Paul]] exiting near [[Monrovia]], the river St. John at [[Buchanan, Liberia|Buchanan]] and the Cestos River, all of which flow into the Atlantic. The Cavalla is the longest river in the nation at {{convert|515|km|mi}}.<ref name="eowg"/><br />
<br />
Liberia's highest point is [[Mount Wuteve]] at {{convert|1380|m|ft}} above sea level in the northwestern Liberia range of the [[West Africa Mountains]] and the [[Guinea Highlands]].<ref name="eowg"/> However, [[Mount Nimba]] near [[Yekepa]], is taller at 1,752 meters (5,748 ft) above sea level but is not wholly within Liberia as Nimba shares a border with [[Guinea]] and [[Côte d'Ivoire]] (Ivory Coast) and is their tallest mountain as well.<ref> Financial Time's World Desk Reference (2004) Dorling Kindersley Publishing. p 368</ref><br />
<br />
== Counties and districts ==<br />
{{main|Counties of Liberia|Districts of Liberia|Clans of Liberia}}<br />
Liberia is divided into 15 [[Counties of Liberia|counties]], which are subdivided into [[districts]], and further subdivided into ''clans''. The counties are:<br />
<br />
<table><td><ol><br />
<li> [[Bomi County|Bomi]]<br />
<li> [[Bong County|Bong]]<br />
<li> [[Gbarpolu County|Gbarpolu]]<br />
<li> [[Grand Bassa County|Grand Bassa]]<br />
<li> [[Grand Cape Mount County|Grand Cape Mount]]<br />
</td><td><ol start=6><br />
<li> [[Grand Gedeh County|Grand Gedeh]]<br />
<li> [[Grand Kru County|Grand Kru]]<br />
<li> [[Lofa County|Lofa]]<br />
<li> [[Margibi County|Margibi]]<br />
<li> [[Maryland County, Liberia|Maryland]]<br />
</td><td><ol start=11><br />
<li> [[Montserrado County|Montserrado]]<br />
<li> [[Nimba County|Nimba]]<br />
<li> [[River Cess County|River Cess]]<br />
<li> [[River Gee County|River Gee]]<br />
<li> [[Sinoe County|Sinoe]]<br />
</ol></td></table><br />
<br />
== Economy ==<br />
{{main|Economy of Liberia}}<br />
Historically, the Liberian economy depended heavily on [[iron ore]] and [[rubber]] exports, [[foreign direct investment]], as well as the export of its other natural resources, such as timber.<ref name="eowg"/> Agricultural products include livestock (goats, pigs, cattle) and rice, the staple food.<ref name="eowg"/> Fish are raised on inland farms and caught along the coast.<ref name="eowg"/> Other foods are imported to support the population.<ref name="eowg"/> Electricity is provided by dams and oil-fired plants.<ref name="eowg"/><br />
<br />
Foreign trade was primarily conducted for the benefit of the Americo-Liberian elite, with trade between foreigners and indigenous Liberians severely restricted throughout most of its history by the 1864 Ports of Entry Act. Little foreign direct investment benefited the 95% majority population, who were often subjected to forced labor on foreign concessions. Liberian law often did not protect indigenous Liberians from the extraction of rents and arbitrary taxation, with the majority surviving on subsistence farming and low wage work on foreign concessions.<br />
<br />
While official export figures for commodities declined during the 1990’s civil war as many investors fled, Liberia’s wartime economy featured the exploitation of the region’s diamond wealth, with the country acting as a major trader in Liberian, Sierra Leonian and Angolan [[conflict diamonds]], exporting over $300 million in diamonds annually. This led to a [[United Nations]] ban on Liberian diamond exports, which was lifted on April 27, 2007. Other commodity exports continued during the war, in part due to illicit agreements struck between Liberia’s warlords and foreign concessionaires. Looting and war profiteering destroyed nearly the entire infrastructure of the country, such that the Monrovian capital was without running water and electricity (except for fuel-powered generators) by the time the first elected post-war government began to institute development and reforms in 2006. Although some official exporting and legitimate business activity resumed once the hostilities ended (for instance, Liberia signed a new deal with steel giant [[Mittal Steel Company|Mittal]] for the export of iron ore in summer 2005), as of mid-2006 Liberia was dependent on foreign aid, and carried a debt overhang of $3.5 billion. Liberia currently{{when}} has an approximate 85% unemployment rate, the second highest in the world, behind only [[Nauru]].{{Fact|date=October 2008}}<br />
<br />
[[Image:Liberiancurrency.jpg|thumb|250px|Nineteenth-century Liberian two-dollar bill.]]<br />
The Liberia dollar currently trades against the US dollar at a ratio of 57:1. Liberia used the US dollar as its currency from 1943 until it reversed dollarization in 1982. Its external debt ($3.5 billion) is huge in comparison to its GDP (approx $2.5 billion/year); it annually imports approximately $4.839 billion in goods while it exports only about $910 million. Inflation is falling, but still significant (dropping from 15% in 2003 to 4.9% in the 3rd quarter of 2005); interest rates are high, with the average lending rate listed by the Central Bank of Liberia at 17.6% for 3rd quarter 2005 (although the average time deposit rate was only .4%, and CD rate only 4.4%, barely keeping pace with inflation). It continues to suffer with poor economic performance due to a fragile security situation, the devastation wrought by its long war, its lack of infrastructure, and necessary human capital to help the country recover from the scourges of conflict and corruption.{{Fact|date=October 2008}} Liberia has one of the world's largest national registries of ships, due to its status as a "[[flag of convenience]]".<br />
<br />
== Demographics ==<br />
{{main|Demographics of Liberia}}<br />
The population of over 3 million comprises 16 indigenous ethnic groups and various foreign minorities. Indigenous peoples comprise about 95% of the population, the largest of which are the [[Kpelle people|Kpelle]] in central and western Liberia. Americo-Liberians, who are descendants of African-American [[settler]]s makeup 2.5% of the population and Congo people (descendants of repatriated [[Kongo people|Congo]] and Afro-[[Caribbean]] slaves who arrived in 1825) make up an estimated 2.5% of the population.<ref>http://www.theperspective.org/rewriting_history.html</ref><ref>https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/li.html</ref> There also is a sizable number of [[Lebanon|Lebanese]], [[India]]ns, and other West African nationals who make up a significant part of Liberia's business community. A few whites (estimated at 18,000 in 1999; probably fewer now) reside in the country.<ref>https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/li.html</ref><br />
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As of 2006, Liberia has the highest [[List of countries by population growth rate|population growth rate]] in the world (4.50%). Similar to its neighbors, it has a large youth population, with half of the population being under the age of 18.<br />
<br />
== Culture ==<br />
{{main|Culture of Liberia}}<br />
Liberia was traditionally noted for its hospitality, academic institutions, cultural skills, and arts/craft works—<br />
Liberia has a long, rich history in textile arts and quilting. The free and former US slaves who emigrated to Liberia brought with them their sewing and quilting skills. The [http://www.disc.wisc.edu/Liberia/ 1843 Liberian census] indicated a variety of occupations, including hatter, milliner, seamstress and tailor. Liberia hosted National Fairs in 1857 and 1858 in which prizes were awarded for various needle arts. One of the most well-known Liberian quilters was [http://www.npg.org.uk/live/search/portrait.asp?LinkID=mp63618&rNo=0&role=sit Martha Ann Ricks], who presented a quilt featuring the famed Liberian coffee tree to Queen Victoria in 1892.<br />
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In modern times, Liberian presidents would present quilts as official government gifts. The [http://www.jfklibrary.org/ John F. Kennedy Library and Museum] collection includes a cotton quilt by Mrs. Jemima Parker which has portraits of both Liberian president William Tubman and JFK. Zariah Wright-Titus founded the Arthington (Liberia) Women's Self-Help Quilting Club (1987). In the early 1990s, Kathleen Bishop documented examples of [http://hartcottagequilts.com/Liberia.htm appliquéd Liberian quilts.] When current Liberian President [[Ellen Johnson-Sirleaf]] moved into the Executive Mansion, she reportedly had a Liberian-made quilt installed in her presidential office.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://allafrica.com/stories/200603240593.html?page=2<br />
|accessdate=2008-05-16<br />
|title=Liberia: It's the Little Things - A Reflection on Ellen Johnson Sirleaf's Journey to the Presidency<br />
|work=allAfrica.com}}</ref><br />
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The tallest man-made structure of Africa, the mast of former [[Omega Navigation System#Paynesville_Omega_Transmitter|Paynesville Omega transmitter]] is situated in Liberia.<br />
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== Education ==<br />
{{Main|Education in Liberia}}<br />
The [[University of Liberia]] is located in [[Monrovia]]. Opened in 1862, it is one of [[Africa|Africa's]] oldest institutes of higher learning. Civil war severely damaged the university in the 1990s, but the university has begun to rebuild following the restoration of peace.<br />
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[[Cuttington University]] was established by the [[Episcopal Church of the USA]] (ECUSA) in 1889; its campus is currently located in Suakoko, [[Bong County]] (120 miles north of [[Monrovia]]).<br />
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According to statistics published by [[UNESCO]] for 2004 65% of [[Primary education|primary-school age]] and 24% of [[Secondary education|secondary-school age]] children were enrolled in school.<ref>[http://www.uis.unesco.org/profiles/EN/EDU/countryProfile_en.aspx?code=4300 UNESCO Schooling data]</ref> This is a significant increase on previous years, the statistics also show substantial numbers of older children going back to earlier school years.<br />
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== See also ==<br />
*[[List of Liberian people]]<br />
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==References==<br />
{{reflist|2}}<br />
<br />
==Bibliography==<br />
*Gilbert, Erik & Reynolds, Jonathon T (2004) ''Africa in World History, From Prehistory to the Present''. Pearson Education Canada Ltd pg 357 ISBN-13 9780130929075<br />
*Merriam Webster Inc. (1997) ''Merriam Webster's Geographical Dictionary: 3rd Edition''. Merriam Webster Inc. Springfield, Mass. ISBN 0877795460<br />
*Runn-Marcos, K. T. Kolleholon, B. Ngovo (2005)[http://www.cal.org/co/liberians/liberian_050406_1.pdf ''Liberians: An Introduction to their History and Culture'']. Center for Applied Linguistics, Washington, DC<br />
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== Further reading ==<br />
<br />
* ''Great Tales of Liberia'' by Wilton Sankawulo. Dr. Sankawulo is the compiler of these tales from Liberia and about Liberian culture. Published by Editura Universitatii "Lucian Blaga";; din Sibiu, Romania, 2004. - ISBN 973-651-838-8<br />
* ''Sundown at Dawn: A Liberian Odyssey'' by Wilton Sankawulo. Recommended by the Cultural Resource Center, Center for Applied Linguistics for its content concerning Liberian culture. ISBN 0-9763565-0-3<br />
*http://www.analystliberia.com/featurearticle_aug20_07.html<br />
*http://www.cnn.com/2004/WORLD/africa/07/23/twih.liberia/index.html<br />
* ''Mississippi in Africa: The Saga of the Slaves of Prospect Hill Plantation and Their Legacy in Liberia Today'', by Alan Huffman (Gotham Books, 2004)<br />
* ''To Liberia: Destiny's Timing'', by Victoria Lang (Publish America, Baltimore, 2004, ISBN 1-4137-1829-9). A fast-paced gripping novel of the journey of a young Black couple fleeing America to settle in the African motherland of Liberia.<br />
* '' Liberia: The Heart of Darkness'' by Gabriel I. H. Williams, Publisher: Trafford Publishing (July 6, 2006) ISBN-10: 1553692942<br />
* ''Liberia: Portrait of a Failed State'' by John-Peter Pham, ISBN-10: 1594290121<br />
*[[Godfrey Mwakikagile]], ''Military Coups in West Africa Since The Sixties'', Chapter Eight: Liberia: 'The Love of Liberty Brought Us Here,' pp. 85 - 110, Nova Science Publishers, Inc., Huntington, New York, 2001; Godfrey Mwakikagile, ''The Modern African State: Quest for Transformation'', Chapter One: The Collapse of A Modern African State: Death and Rebirth of Liberia, pp. 1 - 18, Nova Science Publishers, Inc., 2001.<br />
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== External links ==<br />
* [http://allafrica.com/liberia/ allAfrica.com - ''Liberia''] news headlines<br />
* {{wikitravel}}<br />
* [http://www.liberianobserver.com/ Liberian Observer] newspaper<br />
* [http://www.CuttingtonChronicle.com Cuttington Chronicle - ''Student Newspaper of Cuttington University in Suakoko, Liberia'']<br />
* [http://www.Cuttington.org Cuttington University - ''Liberia's oldest university'']<br />
* [http://www.c-span.org/search/basic.asp?ResultStart=1&ResultCount=10&BasicQueryText=sirleaf&image1.x=21&image1.y=14 Johnson-Sirleaf presidential speeches from CSPAN]<br />
* {{cite web<br />
|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/li.html<br />
|accessdate=2008-05-16<br />
|title=Liberia<br />
|work=CIA - The World Factbook}}<br />
* {{cite web<br />
|url=http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/6618.htm<br />
|accessdate=2008-05-16<br />
|title=Liberia <br />
|month=April<br />
|year=2008<br />
|publisher=US State Department<br />
|author=Bureau of African Affairs}}<br />
*[http://library.lawschool.cornell.edu/WhatWeHave/SpecialCollections/LiberianLaw/index.cfm Liberian Law] - Cornell Law Library - contains digitized documents dealing with the creation of the nation of Liberia and the laws enacted at its foundation, as well as extensive links for further research<br />
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{{Template group<br />
| list ={{Liberia topics}}<br />
{{Countries of Africa}}<br />
{{South Atlantic Peace and Cooperation Zone}}<br />
{{Member states of the African Union}}<br />
{{Niger-Congo-speaking}}<br />
}}<br />
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Leslie
https://conservapedia.com/index.php?title=Friedrich_Nietzsche&diff=553372
Friedrich Nietzsche
2008-11-10T00:45:05Z
<p>Leslie: removing some too-obvious bias</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Infobox Philosopher <br />
|<!-- Scroll down to edit the main text --><br />
<!-- Philosopher Category --><br />
region = Western Philosophy <br />
|era = [[19th century philosophy]] <br />
|color = #B0C4DE <br />
|<br />
<!-- Image --><br />
image_name = FWNietzscheSiebe.jpg|thumb|230px|right<br />
|<br />
<!-- Information --><br />
name = Friedrich Nietzsche <br />
|birth = October 15, 1844<br /> ([[Röcken|Röcken bei Lützen]], [[Prussia]]) <br />
|death = {{death date and age|mf=yes|1900|08|25|1844|10|15}}<br /> ([[Weimar]], [[German Empire]]) <br />
|school_tradition = [[Weimar Classicism]]; precursor to [[Continental philosophy]], [[existentialism]], [[postmodernism]], [[poststructuralism]], [[psychoanalysis]]|<br />
|main_interests = [[aesthetics]], [[ethics]], [[ontology]], [[philosophy of history]], [[psychology]], [[Goodness and value theory|value-theory]]<br />
|influences =[[Epicurus]], [[Fyodor Dostoevsky|Dostoevsky]]<!-- PLEASE DON'T REMOVE DOSTOEVSKY - SEE TALK PAGE -->, [[Ralph Waldo Emerson|Emerson]], [[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe|Goethe]], [[Heraclitus]], [[Immanuel Kant|Kant]], [[Plato]], [[François de La Rochefoucauld|La Rochefoucauld]], [[Arthur Schopenhauer|Schopenhauer]], [[Blaise Pascal|Pascal]], [[Richard Wagner|Wagner]], [[Charles Darwin|Darwin]], [[Jacob Burckhardt|Burckhardt]], [[Stendhal]], [[Baruch Spinoza|Spinoza]]<br />
|influenced = [[Theodor W. Adorno|Theodor Adorno]], [[Georges Bataille]], [[Jean Baudrillard]], [[Martin Buber]], [[Judith Butler]], [[Albert Camus]], [[Gilles Deleuze]], [[Jacques Derrida]], [[Michel Foucault]], [[Martin Heidegger]], [[Iqbal]], [[Karl Jaspers]], [[Ayn Rand]], [[George Santayana]], [[Jean-Paul Sartre]], [[Leo Strauss]], [[Oswald Spengler]], [[Bernard Williams]], [[Ludwig Wittgenstein]]<br />
|notable_ideas = [[Apollonian and Dionysian]], [[God is dead|death of God]], [[eternal recurrence]], [[herd instinct|herd-instinct]], [[Master-Slave Morality|master-slave morality]], [[Übermensch]], [[perspectivism]], [[The Will to Power|will to power]], [[ressentiment]]<br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche''' (October 15, 1844{{ndash}} August 25, 1900) ({{IPA-de|ˈfʁiːdʁɪç ˈvɪlhəlm ˈniːtʃə}}) was a [[19th century philosophy|nineteenth-century]] [[Germans|German]] [[philosophy|philosopher]] and classical [[philology|philologist]]. He wrote [[critic]]al texts on [[religion]], [[morality]], contemporary [[culture]], philosophy, and [[science]], using a distinctive [[German language]] style and displaying a fondness for [[metaphor]] and [[aphorism]]. Nietzsche's influence remains substantial within and beyond [[philosophy]], notably in [[existentialism]] and [[postmodernism]]. His style and radical questioning of the value and objectivity of truth raise considerable problems of interpretation, generating an extensive secondary literature in both [[continental philosophy|continental]] and [[analytic philosophy]]. Nevertheless, some of his key ideas include interpreting tragedy as an affirmation of life, an [[eternal recurrence]] (which numerous commentators have re-interpreted), a rejection of [[Platonism]], and a [[critique|repudiation]] of both [[Christianity]] (especially 19th-century) and [[Egalitarianism]] (especially in the form of [[Democracy]] and [[Socialism]]).<br />
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Nietzsche began his career as a classical philologist before turning to philosophy. At the age of 24 he was appointed to the Chair of Classical Philology at the [[University of Basel]] (the youngest individual ever to have held this position),<ref>{{cite book | last = Baird | first = Forrest E. | authorlink = | coauthors = Walter Kaufmann | title = From Plato to Derrida | publisher = Pearson Prentice Hall | year = 2008 | location = Upper Saddle River, New Jersey | pages =1011-1014 | url = | doi = | id = | isbn = 0-13-158591-6 }}</ref> but resigned in 1879 because of health problems, which would plague him for most of his life. In 1889 he exhibited symptoms of serious mental illness, living out his remaining years in the care of his mother and sister until his death in 1900.<br />
<br />
==Biography ==<br />
==== Youth (1844–1869)====<br />
Born on October 15, 1844, Nietzsche grew up in the small town of [[Röcken]], near [[Leipzig]], in the [[Prussia]]n [[Province of Saxony]]. He was named after King [[Frederick William IV of Prussia]], who turned 49 on the day of Nietzsche's birth. (Nietzsche later dropped his given middle name, "Wilhelm".)<ref>Kaufmann, Walter, ''Nietzsche: Philosopher, Psychologist, Antichrist'', p. 22.</ref> Nietzsche's parents, Carl Ludwig Nietzsche (1813–1849), a [[Lutheranism|Lutheran]] [[pastor]] and former teacher, and Franziska Oehler (1826–1897), married in 1843, the year before their son's birth, and had two other children: a daughter, [[Elisabeth Förster-Nietzsche]], born in 1846, and a second son, Ludwig Joseph, born in 1848. Nietzsche's father died from a brain ailment in 1849; his younger brother died in 1850. The family then moved to [[Naumburg]], where they lived with Nietzsche's paternal grandmother and his father's two unmarried sisters. After the death of Nietzsche's grandmother in 1856, the family moved into their own house.<br />
[[Image:Nietzsche1861.jpg|thumb|175px|left|Friedrich Nietzsche, 1861.]]<br />
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Nietzsche attended a boys' school and later a private school, where he became friends with Gustav Krug and Wilhelm Pinder, both of whom came from respected families. In 1854 he began to attend the ''Domgymnasium'' in Naumburg, but after he showed particular talents in [[music]] and language, the internationally-recognized [[Pforta|Schulpforta]] admitted him as a pupil, and there he continued his studies from 1858 to 1864. Here he became friends with [[Paul Deussen]] and Carl von Gersdorff. He also found time to work on [[Poetry|poems]] and musical compositions. At Schulpforta, Nietzsche received an important introduction to literature, particularly that of the ancient [[Ancient Greece|Greeks]] and [[Ancient Rome|Romans]], and for the first time experienced a distance from his family life in a small-town [[Christianity|Christian]] environment.<br />
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After graduation in 1864 Nietzsche commenced studies in [[theology]] and classical philology at the [[University of Bonn]]. For a short time he and Deussen became members of the [[Burschenschaft]] ''Frankonia''. After one semester (and to the anger of his mother) he stopped his theological studies and lost his faith.<ref name=Schaberg>Schaberg, William, ''The Nietzsche Canon'', University of Chicago Press, 1996, p. 32</ref> This may have happened in part because of his reading about this time of [[David Strauss]]' ''Life of Jesus'', which had a profound effect on the young Nietzsche,<ref name=Schaberg/> though in an essay entitled ''Fate and History'' written in 1862, Nietzsche had already argued that historical research had discredited the central teachings of Christianity.<ref>Jörg Salaquarda, "Nietzsche and the Judaeo-Christian tradition," in ''The Cambridge Companion to Nietzsche'' (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), 99.</ref> Nietzsche then concentrated on studying philology under Professor [[Friedrich Wilhelm Ritschl]], whom he followed to the [[University of Leipzig]] the next year. There he became close friends with fellow-student [[Erwin Rohde]]. Nietzsche's first philological publications appeared soon after.<br />
<!--[[Image:1868a.jpg|thumb|Friedrich Nietzsche, 1868.]]--><br />
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In 1865 Nietzsche thoroughly studied the works of [[Arthur Schopenhauer]]. In 1866 he read [[Friedrich Albert Lange|Friedrich Albert Lange's]] ''[[Geschichte des Materialismus|History of Materialism]]''. Both thinkers proved influential. Schopenhauer was especially significant in the development of Nietzsche's later thought. Lange's descriptions of Kant's anti-materialistic philosophy, the rise of European Materialism, Europe's increased concern with science, [[Charles Darwin|Darwin's]] theory, and the general rebellion against tradition and authority greatly intrigued Nietzsche. The cultural environment encouraged him to expand his horizons beyond philology and to continue his study of philosophy.<br />
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In 1867 Nietzsche signed up for one year of voluntary service with the Prussian [[artillery]] division in Naumburg. However, a bad riding accident in March 1868 left him unfit for service.<ref>For Nietzsche's account of the accident and injury see his letter to Karl Von Gersdorff: [[s:Selected_Letters_of_Friedrich_Nietzsche#To_Freiherr_Karl_Von_Gersdorff_-_June.2C_1868|Letter of Friedrich Nietzsche to Karl Von Gersdorff - June, 1868]]</ref> Consequently Nietzsche turned his attention to his studies again, completing them and first meeting with Richard Wagner later that year.<ref>[[s:Selected_Letters_of_Friedrich_Nietzsche#To_Rohde_-_November.2C_1868|A letter containing Nietzsche's description of the first meeting with Wagner.]]</ref><br />
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==== Professor at Basel (1869–1879)====<br />
[[Image:Rohde Gersdorff Nietzsche.JPG|thumb|175px|left|Mid-October, 1871. Left to right: Erwin Rohde, Carl von Gersdorff and Friedrich Nietzsche.]]<br />
<br />
In part because of Ritschl's support, Nietzsche received a remarkable offer to become professor of [[classical philology]] at the [[University of Basel]]. He was only 24 years old and had not completed his doctorate or received his teaching certificate. Despite the fact that the offer came at a time when he was considering giving up philology for science, he accepted.<ref>Kaufmann, p. 25.</ref> To this day, Nietzsche is still among the youngest of the tenured Classics professors on record.<ref>Paul Bishop, ''Nietzsche and Antiquity'', 2004, p117</ref> Before moving to Basel, Nietzsche renounced his Prussian citizenship: for the rest of his life he remained officially [[Stateless person|stateless]].<ref>Hecker, Hellmuth: "Nietzsches Staatsangehörigkeit als Rechtsfrage", ''Neue Juristische Wochenschrift'', Jg. 40, 1987, nr. 23, p. 1388-1391; and His, Eduard: "Friedrich Nietzsches Heimatlosigkeit", ''Basler Zeitschrift für Geschichte und Altertumskunde'', vol. 40, 1941, p. 159-186. Note that some authors (among them Deussen and [[Mazzino Montinari|Montinari]]) mistakenly claim that Nietzsche became a Swiss citizen.<br />
</ref><br />
<br />
Nevertheless, Nietzsche served in the Prussian forces during the [[Franco-Prussian War]] of 1870 to 1871 as a medical [[orderly]]. In his short time in the military he experienced much, and witnessed the traumatic effects of battle. He also contracted [[diphtheria]] and [[dysentery]]. [[Walter Kaufmann (philosopher)|Walter Kaufmann]] speculates that he might also have contracted [[syphilis]] along with his other infections at this time, and some biographers speculate that syphilis caused his eventual madness, though there is some dispute on this matter.<ref>Richard Schain, The Legend of Nietzsche's Syphilis (Westwood: Greenwood Press, 2001</ref> On returning to Basel in 1870 Nietzsche observed the establishment of the [[German Empire]] and the following era of [[Otto von Bismarck]] as an outsider and with a degree of skepticism regarding its genuineness. At the University, he delivered his inaugural lecture, "[[s:Homer and Classical Philology|Homer and Classical Philology]]". Nietzsche also met [[Franz Overbeck]], a professor of [[theology]], who remained his friend throughout his life. [[Afrikan Spir]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://radicalacademy.com/adiphilunclassified3.htm#Spir|title=A biography of Spir.}}</ref><br />
a little-known Russian philosopher and author of ''Thought and Reality'' (1873), and his colleague the historian [[Jacob Burckhardt]], whose lectures Nietzsche frequently attended, began to exercise significant influence on Nietzsche during this time.<br />
<br />
Nietzsche had already met Richard Wagner in Leipzig in 1868, and (some time later) Wagner's wife [[Cosima Wagner|Cosima]]. Nietzsche admired both greatly, and during his time at Basel frequently visited Wagner's house in [[Tribschen]] in the [[Canton of Lucerne]]. The Wagners brought Nietzsche into their most intimate circle, and enjoyed the attention he gave to the beginning of the [[Bayreuth Festspielhaus|Bayreuth Festival Theatre]]. In 1870 he gave Cosima Wagner the manuscript of 'The Genesis of the Tragic Idea' as a birthday gift. In 1872 Nietzsche published his first book, [[The Birth of Tragedy|''The Birth of Tragedy out of the Spirit of Music'']]. However, his colleagues in the field of classical philology, including Ritschl, expressed little enthusiasm for the work, in which Nietzsche forewent a precise philological method to employ a style of philosophical speculation. In a [[polemic]], ''Philology of the Future'', [[Ulrich von Wilamowitz-Moellendorff]] dampened the book's reception and increased its notoriety. In response, Rohde (by now a professor in [[Kiel]]) and Wagner came to Nietzsche's defense. Nietzsche remarked freely about the isolation he felt within the philological community and attempted to attain a position in philosophy at Basel, though unsuccessfully.<br />
[[Image:Nietzsche187a.jpg|thumb|Friedrich Nietzsche in Basel, ca. 1875.]]<br />
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Between 1873 and 1876, Nietzsche published separately four long essays: ''David Strauss: the Confessor and the Writer'', ''On the Use and Abuse of History for Life'', ''Schopenhauer as Educator'', and ''Richard Wagner in Bayreuth''. (These four later appeared in a collected edition under the title, ''Untimely Meditations''.) The four essays shared the orientation of a cultural critique, challenging the developing German culture along lines suggested by Schopenhauer and Wagner. Starting in 1873 Nietzsche also accumulated the notes later posthumously published as ''[[Philosophy in the Tragic Age of the Greeks]]''. During this time, in the circle of the Wagners, Nietzsche met [[Malwida von Meysenbug]] and [[Hans von Bülow]], and also began a friendship with [[Paul Rée]], who in 1876 influenced him in dismissing the pessimism in his early writings. However, his disappointment with the [[Bayreuth Festival]] of 1876, where the banality of the shows and the baseness of the public repelled him, caused him in the end to distance himself from Wagner.<br />
<br />
With the publication of ''[[Human, All Too Human]]'' in 1878, a book of [[aphorisms]] on subjects ranging from metaphysics to morality and from religion to the sexes, Nietzsche's reaction against the pessimistic philosophy of Wagner and Schopenhauer became evident. Nietzsche's friendship with Deussen and Rohde cooled as well. In 1879, after a significant decline in health, Nietzsche had to resign his position at Basel. (Since his childhood, various disruptive illnesses had plagued him — moments of shortsightedness practically to the degree of blindness, migraine headaches and violent stomach attacks. The 1868 riding accident and diseases in 1870 may have aggravated these persistent conditions, which continued to affect him through his years at Basel, forcing him to take longer and longer holidays until regular work became impractical.)<br />
<br />
====Independent philosopher (1879–1888) ====<br />
Because his illness drove him to find more compatible climates, Nietzsche traveled frequently, and lived until 1889 as an independent author in different cities. He spent many summers in [[Sils im Engadin/Segl|Sils Maria]], near [[St. Moritz]] in [[Switzerland]], and many winters in the Italian cities of [[Genoa]], [[Rapallo]], and [[Turin]], and in the French city of [[Nice]]. In 1881, when [[French occupation of Tunisia|France occupied Tunisia]], he planned to travel to [[Tunis]] in order to gain a view of Europe from the outside, but later abandoned that idea (probably for health reasons).<ref><br />
Stephan Güntzel, [http://www.hypernietzsche.org/navigate.php?sigle=sgunzel-4 "Nietzsche's Geophilosophy"], p.85 in: ''Journal of Nietzsche Studies'' 25 (Spring 2003), The Pennsylvania State University Press, University Park (Penn State), 2003-10-15; re-published on HyperNietzsche's website {{en icon}}/{{de icon}}<br />
</ref><br />
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Nietzsche occasionally returned to Naumburg to visit his family, and, especially during this time, he and his sister had repeated periods of conflict and reconciliation. He lived on his pension from Basel, but also received aid from friends. A past student of his, [[Peter Gast]] (born Heinrich Köselitz), became a sort of private secretary to Nietzsche. To the end of his life, Gast and Overbeck remained consistently faithful friends. Malwida von Meysenbug remained like a motherly patron even outside the Wagner circle. Soon Nietzsche made contact with the music-critic [[Carl Fuchs]]. Nietzsche stood at the beginning of his most productive period. Beginning with ''[[Human, All Too Human]]'' in 1878, Nietzsche would publish one book (or major section of a book) each year until 1888, his last year of writing, during which he completed five.<br />
[[Image:Nietzsche paul-ree lou-von-salome188.jpg|thumb|left|[[Lou Andreas-Salomé|Lou Salomé]], [[Paul Rée]] and Nietzsche, 1882.]]<br />
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In 1882 Nietzsche published the first part of ''[[The Gay Science]]''. That year he also met [[Lou Andreas Salomé]] through Malwida von Meysenbug and Paul Rée. Nietzsche and Salomé spent the summer together in [[Tautenburg]] in [[Thuringia]], often with Nietzsche's sister Elisabeth as chaperone. However, Nietzsche regarded Salomé less as an equal partner than as a gifted student. Salomé reports that he asked her to marry him and that she refused, though the reliability of her reports of events has come into question.<ref>Kaufmann, p.49</ref> Nietzsche's relationship with Rée and Salomé broke up in the winter of 1882/1883, partially because of intrigues conducted by Nietzsche's sister Elisabeth. In the face of renewed fits of illness, in near isolation after a falling-out with his mother and sister regarding Salomé, and plagued by suicidal thoughts, Nietzsche fled to Rapallo, where he wrote the first part of ''[[Thus Spoke Zarathustra]]'' in only ten days.<br />
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After severing his philosophical ties with Schopenhauer and his social ties with Wagner, Nietzsche had few remaining friends. Now, with the new style of ''Zarathustra'', his work became even more alienating and the market received it only to the degree required by politeness. Nietzsche recognized this and maintained his solitude, even though he often complained about it. His books remained largely unsold. In 1885 he printed only 40 copies of the fourth part of ''Zarathustra'', and distributed only a fraction of these among close friends, including [[Helene von Druskowitz]].<br />
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In 1883 he tried and failed to obtain a lecturing post at the [[University of Leipzig]]. It was made clear to him that, in view of the attitude towards Christianity and the concept of God expressed in ''Zarathustra'', he had become in effect unemployable at any German University. The subsequent "feelings of revenge and resentment", so contrary to his nature, embittered him. "And hence my rage since I have grasped in the broadest possible sense what wretched means (the depreciation of my good name, my character and my aims) ''suffice'' to take from me the trust of, and therewith the possibility of obtaining, pupils."<ref>[[s:Selected Letters of Friedrich Nietzsche#Nietzsche To Peter Gast - August 1883 2|Letter to Peter Gast - August 1883]]</ref><br />
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In 1886 Nietzsche broke with his editor, Ernst Schmeitzner, disgusted over his anti-Semitic opinions. Nietzsche saw his writings as "completely buried and unexhumeable in this anti-Semitic dump" of Schmeitzner — associating the editor with a movement that should be "utterly rejected with cold contempt by every sensible mind".<ref>[http://thenietzschechannel.fws1.com/corresp.htm The Nietzsche Channel], Correspondences</ref> He then printed ''[[Beyond Good and Evil]]'' at his own expense, and issued in 1886-87 second editions of his earlier works (''The Birth of Tragedy'', ''[[Human, All Too Human]]'', ''Daybreak'', and ''The Gay Science''), accompanied by new prefaces in which he re-read his earlier works. Hereafter, he saw his work as completed for the time and hoped that soon a readership would develop. In fact, interest in Nietzsche's thought did increase at this time, even if rather slowly and hardly perceived by him. During these years Nietzsche met [[Barbara Margaretha von Salis-Marschlins|Meta von Salis]], [[Carl Spitteler]], and also [[Gottfried Keller]]. In 1886 his sister Elisabeth married the [[Anti-Semitic|anti-Semite]] [[Bernhard Förster]] and traveled to [[Paraguay]] to found [[Nueva Germania]], a "Germanic" colony — a plan to which Nietzsche responded with laughter.<ref>Encyclopædia Britannica Online. "Förster-Nietzsche, Elisabeth." http://www.search.eb.com.librarypx.lclark.edu/eb/article-9034925 (Accessed October 10, 2008). </ref> Through correspondence, Nietzsche's relationship with Elisabeth continued on the path of conflict and reconciliation, but they would meet again only after his collapse. He continued to have frequent and painful attacks of illness, which made prolonged work impossible. In 1887 Nietzsche wrote the [[polemic]] ''[[On the Genealogy of Morality]]''.<br />
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During this year Nietzsche encountered the work of [[Fyodor Dostoevsky]], with whom he felt an immediate kinship.<ref>[[s:Selected Letters of Friedrich Nietzsche#Nietzsche_To_Peter_Gast_-_March.2C_1887|Letter to Peter Gast, March 1887.]]</ref> He also exchanged letters with [[Hippolyte Taine]], and then also with [[Georg Brandes]]. Brandes, who had started to teach the philosophy of [[Søren Kierkegaard]] in the 1870s, wrote to Nietzsche asking him to [[Kierkegaard and Nietzsche comparisons|read Kierkegaard]], to which Nietzsche replied that he would come to Copenhagen and read Kierkegaard with him. However, before fulfilling this undertaking, he slipped too far into sickness and madness. In the beginning of 1888, in Copenhagen, Brandes delivered one of the first lectures on Nietzsche's philosophy.<br />
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Although Nietzsche had in 1886 announced (at the end of ''On The Genealogy of Morality'') a new work with the title ''[[The Will to Power]]: Attempt at a [[transvaluation of all values|Revaluation of All Values]]'', he eventually seems to have abandoned this particular approach and instead used some of the draft passages to compose ''[[Twilight of the Idols]]'' and ''[[The Antichrist (book)|The Antichrist]]'' (both written in 1888).<ref>Mazzino Montinari, ''Friedrich Nietzsche'' (1974; translated into German in 1991, ''Friedrich Nietzsche. Eine Einführung.'', Berlin-New York, De Gruyter; and in French, ''Friedrich Nietzsche'', [[PUF]], 2001)</ref><br />
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His health seemed to improve, and he spent the summer in high spirits. In the fall of 1888 his writings and letters began to reveal a higher estimation of his own status and "fate." He overestimated the increasing response to his writings, especially to the recent polemic, ''[[The Case of Wagner]]''. On his 44th birthday, after completing ''Twilight of the Idols'' and ''The Antichrist'', he decided to write the autobiography ''[[Ecce Homo (Nietzsche)|Ecce Homo]]''. In the preface to this work — which suggests Nietzsche was well aware of the interpretive difficulties his work would generate — he declares, "Hear me! For I am such and such a person. Above all, do not mistake me for someone else."<ref>From the Preface, section 1 (English translation by [[Walter Kaufmann (philosopher)|Walter Kaufmann]])</ref> In December, Nietzsche began a correspondence with [[August Strindberg]], and thought that, short of an international breakthrough, he would attempt to buy back his older writings from the publisher and have them translated into other European languages. Moreover, he planned the publication of the compilation ''[[Nietzsche Contra Wagner]]'' and of the poems that composed his collection ''[[Dionysian Dithyrambs]]''.<br />
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==== Mental breakdown and death (1889–1900)====<br />
[[Image:Nietzsche Olde 02.JPG|thumb|right|A photo by Hans Olde from the photographic series "The Ill Nietzsche", summer of 1899]]<br />
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On January 3, 1889, Nietzsche first exhibited apparent signs of mental illness. Two policemen approached him after he caused a public disturbance in the streets of [[Turin, Italy|Turin]]. What actually happened remains unknown, but the often-repeated tale states that Nietzsche witnessed the whipping of a horse at the other end of the Piazza Carlo Alberto, ran to the horse, threw his arms up around the horse’s neck to protect it, and collapsed to the ground.<ref>Kaufmann, p. 67.</ref><!--The first dream-sequence from [[Fyodor Dostoevsky|Dostoyevsky's]] ''[[Crime and Punishment]]'' has just such a scene in which [[Rodion Romanovich Raskolnikov|Raskolnikov]] witnesses the whipping of a horse around the eyes.<ref>On whips, see also [[Paolo d'Iorio]]'s discussion of whipping in ''Thus Spoke Zarathustra'' and in Schopenhauer's ''[[Parerga und Paralipomena]]'', II, chap XXX: ''Über Lärm und Geräusch'': [http://www.hypernietzsche.org/navigate.php?sigle=pdiorio-1 "Genèse, parodie et modernité dans ''Ainsi parlait Zarathoustra''"], published on the ''HyperNietzsche'' website {{fr icon}}<br />
</ref><ref>[[s:Crime and Punishment/Part I/Chapter V|Crime and Punishment, I, 5.]]</ref>){{Fact|date=August 2008}} Ed. note - for restoration criteria see comment here:[http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Friedrich_Nietzsche&diff=231451308&oldid=231346346]--><br />
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In the following few days, Nietzsche sent short writings — known as the ''Wahnbriefe'' ("Madness Letters") — to a number of friends (including Cosima Wagner and Jacob Burckhardt). To his former colleague Burckhardt, Nietzsche wrote: "I have had [[Caiaphas]] put in fetters. Also, last year I was crucified by the German doctors in a very drawn-out manner. Wilhelm, [[Bismarck]], and all anti-Semites abolished."<ref>''The Portable Nietzsche'', trans. Walter Kaufmann.</ref> Additionally, he commanded the German emperor to go to Rome in order to be shot and summoned the European powers to take military action against Germany.<ref>[[Stefan Zweig|Zweig, Stefan]] (1939) ''Master Builders [trilogy], The Struggle with the Daimon'', Viking Press, p. 524.</ref><br />
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On January 6, 1889 Burckhardt showed the letter he had received from Nietzsche to Overbeck. The following day Overbeck received a similarly revealing letter, and decided that Nietzsche's friends had to bring him back to Basel. Overbeck traveled to Turin and brought Nietzsche to a psychiatric clinic in Basel. By that time Nietzsche appeared fully in the grip of insanity, and his mother Franziska decided to transfer him to a clinic in [[Jena]] under the direction of [[Otto Binswanger]]. From November 1889 to February 1890 the art historian [[Julius Langbehn]] attempted to cure Nietzsche, claiming that the methods of the medical doctors were ineffective in treating Nietzsche's condition. Langbehn assumed progressively greater control of Nietzsche until his secrecy discredited him. In March 1890 Franziska removed Nietzsche from the clinic, and in May 1890 brought him to her home in Naumburg. During this process Overbeck and Gast contemplated what to do with Nietzsche's unpublished works. In January 1889 they proceeded with the planned release of ''Twilight of the Idols'', by that time already printed and bound. In February they ordered a 50-copy private edition of ''Nietzsche contra Wagner'', but the publisher [[C. G. Naumann]] secretly printed 100. Overbeck and Gast decided to withhold publishing ''The Antichrist'' and ''Ecce Homo'' because of their more radical content. Nietzsche's reception and recognition enjoyed their first surge.<br />
[[Image:Eh-dm-27.JPG|thumb|left|[[Peter Gast]] would "correct" Nietzsche's writings even after the philosopher's breakdown and so without his approval — something heavily criticized by [[as of 2007| contemporary]] Nietzsche scholarship.]]<br />
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In 1893 Nietzsche's sister Elisabeth returned from [[Nueva Germania]] (Paraguay) following the suicide of her husband. She read and studied Nietzsche's works, and piece by piece took control of them and of their publication. Overbeck eventually suffered dismissal, and Gast finally co-operated. After the death of Franziska in 1897 Nietzsche lived in [[Weimar]], where Elisabeth cared for him and allowed people, including [[Rudolf Steiner]], to visit her uncommunicative brother. Elisabeth at one point went so far as to employ Steiner as a tutor to help her to understand her brother's philosophy. Steiner abandoned the attempt after only a few months, declaring that it was impossible to teach her anything about philosophy.<ref>Andrew Bailey, ''First Philosophy: Fundamental Problems and Readings in Philosophy'', Broadview Press, 2002, p704</ref><br />
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Commentators have frequently diagnosed a syphilitic infection as the cause of the illness. While most commentators regard Nietzsche's breakdown as unrelated to his philosophy, some, including [[Georges Bataille]] and [[René Girard]], argue that his breakdown may have been caused by a psychological maladjustment brought on by his philosophy.<ref>Georges Bataille & Annette Michelson, ''Nietzsche's Madness'', October, Vol. 36, Georges Bataille: Writings on Laughter, Sacrifice, Nietzsche, Un-Knowing. (Spring, 1986), pp. 42-45.</ref><ref>René Girard, ''Superman in the Underground: Strategies of Madness — Nietzsche, Wagner, and Dostoevsky'', ''MLN'', Vol. 91, No. 6, Comparative Literature. (December, 1976), pp. 1161-1185.</ref> At least one study has suggested that brain cancer (rather than syphilis) led to his breakdown and killed him;<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.smh.com.au/articles/2003/05/05/1051987657451.html|title="Nietzsche 'died of brain cancer'"}}</ref> others have classified Nietzsche's "madness" as [[frontotemporal dementia]].<ref><br />
[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17087793 "Friedrich Nietzsche's mental illness--general paralysis of the insane vs. frontotemporal dementia"] in ''Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica'' 2006 Dec;114(6):439-44; summarised in PubMed</ref><br />
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In 1898 and 1899 Nietzsche suffered from at least two [[stroke]]s which partially paralyzed him and left him unable to speak or walk. After contracting [[pneumonia]] in mid-August 1900 he had another stroke during the night of August 24 / August 25, and died about noon on August 25.<ref>Concurring reports in Elisabeth Förster-Nietzsche's biography (1904) and a letter by Mathilde Schenk-Nietzsche to [[Meta von Salis]], August 30, 1900, quoted in Janz (1981) p. 221. Cf. Volz (1990), p. 251.</ref> Elisabeth had him buried beside his father at the church in [[Röcken bei Lützen]]. His friend, Gast, gave his funeral oration, proclaiming: "Holy be your name to all future generations!"<ref>Schain, Richard. "Nietzsche's Visionary Values — Genius or Dementia? [http://www.philosophos.com/philosophy_article_31.html]</ref> Nietzsche had written in ''Ecce Homo'' (then unpublished) of his fear that one day his name would be regarded as "holy".<br />
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Elisabeth Förster-Nietzsche compiled ''[[The Will to Power]]'' from Nietzsche's unpublished notebooks, and published it posthumously. Because his sister arranged the book based on her own conflation of several of Nietzsche's early outlines, and took great liberties with the material, the consensus holds that it does not reflect Nietzsche's intent. Indeed, [[Mazzino Montinari]], the editor of Nietzsche's ''[[Nachlass]]'', called it a forgery in ''The 'Will to Power' does not exist''. For example, Elisabeth removed aphorism 35 of ''The Antichrist'', where Nietzsche rewrote a passage of the Bible (see ''[[The Will to Power]]'' and [[Philosophy of Friedrich Nietzsche#Nietzsche's criticisms of anti-Semitism and nationalism|Nietzsche's criticisms of anti-Semitism and nationalism]]).<br />
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====Notes on citizenship, nationality and ethnicity====<br />
Nietzsche is commonly classified as a “German” philosopher by professionals and non-specialists alike.<ref>General commentators and Nietzsche scholars, whether emphasizing his cultural background or his language, overwhelmingly label Nietzsche as a "German philosopher". For example: [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/nietzsche/ ''The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy'']; [http://www.amazon.com/Nietzsche-Very-Short-Introduction-Introductions/dp/0192854143 Source: Nietzsche: A Very Short Introduction (See Preview on Amazon)]; [http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9108765/Friedrich-Nietzsche#387226.hook ''Britannica'']; [http://books.google.com/books?id=Xeb80itrlRIC&pg=PA1&dq=%22German+philosopher%22+Nietzsche&lr=&sig=TGo0nlA9H07fxr4GbfMlDcFRgrQ ''The Cambridge Companion to Nietzsche'', page 1]. Others do not assign him a [[nationalism| nationalist]] category. For example: Edward Craid (editor): ''The Shorter Routledge Encyclopedia of philosophy''. Abingdon: Routledge, 2005, pages 726-741; Simon Blackburn: ''The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy''. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005, pages 252-253; {{cite book<br />
|editor= Jonathan Rée and J. O. Urmson<br />
|title= The Concise encyclopedia of western philosophy<br />
|origyear= 1960<br />
|edition= 3rd edition<br />
|year= 2005<br />
|publisher= Routledge<br />
|location= London<br />
|isbn= 0-415-32924-8<br />
|pages= 267-270<br />
}}</ref> The “German” classification is not entirely straightforward because the modern nation of Germany did not exist at the time of his birth. Instead, a number of German states existed, and Nietzsche was a citizen of one of these, Prussia – for a time. When he accepted his post at Basel, Nietzsche applied for the annulment of his Prussian citizenship.<ref>''Er beantragte also bei der preussischen Behörde seine Expatrierung'' [Translation:] "He accordingly applied to the Prussian authorities for expatrification". Curt Paul Janz: ''Friedrich Nietzsche: Biographie'' volume 1. Munich: Carl Hanser, 1978, page 263.</ref> The official response confirming the revocation of his citizenship came in a document dated April 17, 1869.<ref>German text available as ''Entlassungsurkunde für den Professor Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche aus Naumburg'' in Giorgio Colli and Mazzino Montinari: ''Nietzsche Briefwechsel: Kritische Gesamtausgabe''. Part I, Volume 4. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 1993. ISBN 3 11 012277 4, page 566.</ref> Thus, officially he was [[statelessness|stateless]].<br />
Nietzsche's feelings about his national identity were clearly complex. In [[Ecce Homo]], he writes: <blockquote><br />
Even by virtue of my descent, I am granted an eye beyond all merely local, merely nationally conditioned perspectives; it is not difficult for me to be a "good European." On the other hand, I am perhaps more German than present-day Germans, mere citizens of the German Reich, could possibly be—I, the last ''anti-political'' German. And yet my ancestors were Polish noblemen: I have many racial instincts in my body from that source—who knows? [...] When I consider how often I am addressed as a Pole when I travel, even by Poles themselves, and how rarely I am taken for a German, it might seem that I have been merely externally ''sprinkled'' with what is German.<ref>Friedrich Nietzsche, Ecco Homo, Why I Am So Wise, 3 (trans. by W. Kaufmann)</ref><br />
</blockquote> A later revision of the same passage was discovered in 1969 among the papers of [[Peter Gast]].<ref>Nietzsche, Friedrich Wilhelm. ''Ecce Homo: How One Becomes what One is.'' Translated by R. J. Hollingdale, Micheal Tanner. (New York: Penguin Classics, 1992), 106.</ref> In it Nietzsche is even more adamant about his Polish Identity. “I am a pure-blooded Polish nobleman, without a single drop of bad blood, certainly not German blood.”<ref>Some recently translations use this latter text. See: Nietzsche, Friedrich Wilhelm. The Anti-Christ, Ecce Homo, Twilight of the Idols, and Other Writings: And Other Writings. Translated by Judith Norman, Aaron Ridley. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005), 77.</ref><br />
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==Philosophy==<br />
[[Image:Nietzsche1882.jpg|thumb|175px|Friedrich Nietzsche, 1882]]<br />
{{main|Philosophy of Friedrich Nietzsche}}<br />
Nietzsche’s works did not reach a wide readership during his active writing career. However, in 1888 [[Georg Brandes]] (an influential Danish critic) aroused considerable excitement about Nietzsche through a series of lectures he gave at the university of Copenhagen. Then in 1894 [[Lou Andreas-Salomé]] published her book, ''Friedrich Nietzsche in seinen Werken'' [''Friedrich Nietzsche in His Works'']. Andreas-Salomé had known Nietzsche well in the early 1880s, and she returned to the subject of Nietzsche, years later, in her work ''Lebensrückblick – Grundriß einiger Lebenserinnerungen'' [''Looking Back: Memoirs''] (written in 1932), which covered her intellectual relationships with Nietzsche, [[Rainer Maria Rilke| Rilke]], and [[Sigmund Freud|Freud]]. Nietzsche himself had acquired the publication-rights for his earlier works in 1886 and began a process of editing and re-formulation that placed the body of his work in a more coherent perspective.<br />
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In the years after his death in 1900, Nietzsche's works became widely read, partly thanks to translations into other languages, including English. In the United States, extensive translations of Nietzsche's works appeared, translated by [[Walter Kaufmann (philosopher)|Walter Kaufmann]], who also wrote influential interpretations of Nietzsche’s philosophy (such as ''Nietzsche: Philosopher, Psychologist, Antichrist'' (1950), which he revised and enlarged in numerous later editions). Many other major 20th century philosophers wrote commentaries on Nietzsche’s philosophy, including [[Martin Heidegger]], who produced a four-volume study. An even greater number of major 20th century philosophers (particularly in the tradition of [[continental philosophy]]) cited him as a profound influence on their own philosophy — including [[Jean-Paul Sartre]], [[Michel Foucault|Foucault]] and [[Jacques Derrida|Derrida]].<br />
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Nietzsche’s works remain controversial, and there is widespread disagreement about their interpretation and significance. Part of the difficulty in interpreting Nietzsche arises from the uniquely provocative style of his philosophical writing. Nietzsche called himself a philosopher of the hammer, and he frequently delivered trenchant critiques of [[Christianity]] and of great philosophers like [[Plato]] and [[Kant]] in the most offensive and blasphemous terms possible given the context of 19th century Europe. His arguments often employed ''[[ad-hominem]]'' attacks and [[appeal to emotion| emotional appeals]], and, particularly in his aphoristic works, he often jumps from one grand assertion to another (leaping from mountain-top to mountain-top, as he describes it), with little sustained logical support or elucidation of the connection between his ideas. All these aspects of Nietzsche's style run counter to traditional values in philosophical writing, and they alienated Nietzsche from the academic establishment both in his time and, to a lesser extent, today (when some [[Analytic philosophy| analytic philosophers]] tend to dismiss Nietzsche as inconsistent and speculative, producing something other than "real" philosophy).<br />
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A few of the themes that Nietzsche scholars have devoted the most attention to include Nietzsche's views on [[master and slave morality|morality]], his view that "[[God is dead]]" (and along with it any sort of God's-eye view on the world thus leading to [[perspectivism]]), his notions of the [[will to power]] and [[Übermensch]], and his suggestion of [[eternal return]].<br />
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===Morality===<br />
In ''Daybreak'' Nietzsche begins his "Campaign against Morality".<ref>Kaufmann, p.187. (Ecce Homo-M I)</ref> He calls himself an "immoralist" and harshly criticizes the prominent moral schemes of his day: [[Christianity]], [[Kantianism]], and [[Utilitarianism]]. However, Nietzsche did not want to destroy morality, but rather to initiate a re-evaluation of the [[values]] of the Judeo-Christian world. He indicates his desire to bring about a new, more naturalistic source of [[value]] in the vital impulses of [[personal life| life]] itself.<br />
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In both these projects, Nietzsche's genealogical account of the development of [[master-slave morality]] occupies a central place. Nietzsche presents master-morality as the original system of morality — perhaps best associated with Homeric Greece. Here, value arises as a contrast between good and ''bad'', or between 'life-affirming' and 'life-denying': wealth, strength, health, and power (the sort of traits found in an Homeric hero) count as good; while bad is associated with the poor, weak, sick, and pathetic (the sort of traits conventionally associated with slaves in ancient times).<br />
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Slave-morality, in contrast, comes about as a reaction to master-morality. Nietzsche associates slave-morality with the Jewish and Christian traditions. Here, value emerges from the contrast between good and ''evil'': good being associated with charity, piety, restraint, meekness, and subservience; evil seen in the cruel, selfish, wealthy, indulgent, and aggressive. Nietzsche sees slave-morality as an ingenious ploy among the slaves and the weak (such as the Jews and Christians dominated by Rome) to overturn the values of their masters and to gain power for themselves: justifying their situation, and at the same time fixing the broader society into a slave-like life.<br />
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Nietzsche sees the slave-morality as a social illness that has overtaken Europe — a derivative and resentful value which can only work by condemning others as evil. In Nietzsche's eyes, Christianity exists in a hypocritical state wherein people preach love and kindness but find their joy in condemning and punishing others for pursuing those ends which the slave-morality does not allow them to act upon publicly. Nietzsche calls for the strong in the world to break their self-imposed chains and assert their own power, health, and vitality upon the world.<ref>Kaufmann, pp. 111-13, 296-7, 371-2</ref><br />
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===The death of God, nihilism, and perspectivism===<br />
{{Main|God is dead|nihilism|perspectivism}}<br />
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The statement "[[God is dead]]," occurring in several of Nietzsche's works (notably in ''[[The Gay Science]]''), has become one of his best-known remarks. On the basis of this remark, most commentators<ref>{{cite book|last=Morgan|first=George Allen|title=What Nietzsche Means|publisher=Harvard University Press|location=Cambridge, Mass.|year=1941|pages=36}}</ref> regard Nietzsche as an [[atheism|atheist]]. In Nietzsche's view, recent developments in modern science and the increasing secularization of European society had effectively 'killed' the Christian God, who had served as the basis for meaning and value in the West for more than a thousand years.<br />
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Nietzsche claimed the 'death' of God would eventually lead to the loss of any universal perspective on things, and along with it any coherent sense of objective truth.<ref>Lampert, ''Nietzsche's Teaching, 17–8; Heidegger, "The Word of Nietzsche."</ref> Instead we would retain only our own multiple, diverse, and fluid perspectives. This view has acquired the name "[[perspectivism]]".<br />
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Alternatively, the death of God may lead beyond bare perspectivism to outright [[nihilism]], the belief that nothing has any importance and that [[personal life| life]] lacks purpose. As Heidegger put the problem, "If God as the suprasensory ground and goal of all reality is dead, if the suprasensory world of the Ideas has suffered the loss of its obligatory and above it its vitalizing and upbuilding power, then nothing more remains to which man can cling and by which he can orient himself."<ref>Heidegger, "The Word of Nietzsche," 61.</ref> Developing this idea, Nietzsche wrote ''[[Thus Spoke Zarathustra]]'', therein introducing the concept of a value-creating [[Übermensch]]. According to Lampert, "the death of God must be followed by a long twilight of piety and nihilism (II. 19; III. 8). […] Zarathustra's gift of the superman is given to a mankind not aware of the problem to which the superman is the solution."<ref>Lampert, ''Nietzsche's Teaching'', 18.</ref><br />
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===The Will to Power===<br />
{{Main|Will to power}}<br />
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An important element of Nietzsche's philosophical outlook is the "will to power" (die Wille zur Macht), which provides a basis for understanding motivation in human behavior. But this concept may have wider application, as Nietzsche, in a number of places, also suggests that the will to power is a more important element than pressure for adaptation or survival.<ref>Beyond Good & Evil 13, Gay Science 349 & Genealogy of Morality II:12</ref> In its later forms Nietzsche's concept of the will to power applies to all living things, suggesting that adaptation and the struggle to survive is a secondary drive in the evolution of animals, less important than the desire to expand one’s power. Nietzsche eventually took this concept further still, and transformed the idea of matter as centers of force into matter as centers of will to power. Nietzsche wanted to dispense with the theory of matter, which he viewed as a relic of the metaphysics of substance.<ref>Nietzsche comments in many notes about matter being a hypothesis drawn from the metaphysics of substance, see G. Whitlock, "Roger Boscovich, Benedict de Spinoza and Friedrich Nietzsche: The Untold Story," ''Nietzsche-Studien'' 25, 1996 p207</ref> One study of Nietzsche defines his fully-developed concept of the will to power as "the element from which derive both the quantitative difference of related forces and the quality that devolves into each force in this relation" revealing the will to power as "the principle of the synthesis of forces."<ref>Gilles Deleuze, Nietzsche ad Philosophy, translated by Hugh Tomlinson, 2006, p46</ref><br />
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Nietzsche's notion of the will to power can also be viewed as a response to [[Schopenhauer]]'s "will to live." Writing a generation before Nietzsche, Schopenhauer had regarded the entire universe and everything in it as driven by a primordial will to live, thus resulting in all creatures' desire to avoid death and to procreate. Nietzsche, however, challenges Schopenhauer's account and suggests that people and animals really want power; living in itself appears only as a subsidiary aim — something necessary to promote one's power. In defense of his view, Nietzsche appeals to many instances in which people and animals willingly risk their lives in order to promote their power, most notably in instances like competitive fighting and warfare. Once again, Nietzsche seems to take part of his inspiration from the ancient Homeric Greek texts he knew well: Greek heroes and aristocrats or "masters" did not desire mere living (they often died quite young and risked their lives in battle) but wanted power, glory, and greatness. In this regard he often mentions the common Greek theme of ''agon'' or contest. <br />
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In addition to Schopenhauer's psychological views, Nietzsche contrasts his notion of the will to power with many of the other most popular psychological views of his day, such as [[utilitarianism]], which claims that all people fundamentally want to be happy (Nietzsche responds that only the Englishman wants that), and Platonism, which claims that people ultimately want to achieve unity with the good or in Christian neo-Platonism, with God. In each case, Nietzsche argues that the "will to power" provides a more useful and general explanation of human behavior.<br />
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===Übermensch===<br />
{{main|Übermensch}}<br />
<br />
Another concept important to an understanding of Nietzsche's thought is the ''[[Übermensch]]'' (variously translated – often without regard to the gender-neutrality of the German word ''Mensch'', which means "[[person]]" – as ''superman'', ''superhuman'', or ''overman''). Nietzsche contrasts the ''Übermensch'' with the Last Man, who appears as an exaggerated version of the degraded "goal" that unified the [[liberal democracy|liberal democratic]], [[bourgeois]], [[socialism|socialist]], and [[communism|communist]] social and political programs.<ref>Lampert, ''Nietzsche's Teaching'', 18–27.</ref> The plural ''Übermenschen'' never appears in Nietzsche's writings, which sharply contrasts with Nazi interpretations of his corpus. Michael Tanner suggests ''Übermensch'' means the man who lives above and beyond pleasure and suffering, treating both circumstances equally "because joy and suffering are&nbsp;... inseparable."<ref>Tanner, ''Nietzsche'', 50.</ref><br />
<br />
===The principle of Eternal Return===<br />
{{main|Eternal return}}<br />
<br />
Another of Nietzsche's ideas has become frequently cited, his notion of "eternal recurrence" or [[eternal return]]. Scholars disagree about the proper interpretation of this idea. In one view, Nietzsche proposes a thought-experiment to determine who actually leads their [[personal life|life]] in a strong and vital way: we need to imagine that this life which we lead does not simply end at our deaths, but will repeat over and over again for all eternity, each moment recurring in exactly the same way, without end. Those who recoil from this idea with horror have not yet learned to love and value life in the way that Nietzsche would admire; those who would embrace the idea cheerfully, ''ipso facto'', lead the right sort of life.<br />
<br />
The idea occurs in a parable in Sec. 341 of ''[[The Gay Science]]'', and also in the chapter "Of the Vision and the Riddle" in ''[[Thus Spoke Zarathustra]]'', among other places.<br />
<br />
==Works==<br />
{{main|List of works by Friedrich Nietzsche}}<br />
<br />
*[[The Birth of Tragedy]] 1872<br />
*[[On Truth and Lies in a Nonmoral Sense]] 1873<br />
*[[The Untimely Meditations|Untimely Meditations]] 1876<br />
*[[Human, All Too Human]] 1878 (additions: 1879 & 1880)<br />
*[[The Dawn (book)|Daybreak]] 1881<br />
*[[The Gay Science]] 1882<br />
*[[Thus Spoke Zarathustra]] 1883 - 1885<br />
*[[Beyond Good and Evil (book)|Beyond Good and Evil]] 1886<br />
*[[On the Genealogy of Morality]] 1887<br />
*[[The Case of Wagner]] 1888<br />
*[[Twilight of the Idols]] 1888<br />
*[[The Antichrist (book)|The Anti-christ]] 1888<br />
*[[Ecce Homo (book)|Ecce Homo]] 1888<br />
*[[Nietzsche contra Wagner]] 1888<br />
*[[The Will to Power (manuscript)|The Will to Power]] (unpublished manuscripts edited together by his sister)<br />
<br />
==Nietzsche's reading==<br />
[[Image:IMG 4118.JPG|thumb|240px|right|The Nietzsche Archiv in [[Weimar]], Germany, which holds many of Nietzsche's papers.]]<br />
{{main|Library of Friedrich Nietzsche}}<br />
<!--- Nietzsche Archiv is not a typo: Do not change to Nietzsche Archive ---><br />
As a [[philologist]], Nietzsche had a thorough knowledge of [[Greek philosophy]]. He read [[Immanuel Kant|Kant]], [[John Stuart Mill|Mill]] and [[Schopenhauer]],<ref>Brobjer, Thomas. ''Nietzsche's Reading and Private Library, 1885-1889.'' Published in ''Journal of History of Ideas.'' Accessed via JSTOR on May 18, 2007.</ref> who became his main opponents in his philosophy, and later [[Spinoza]], whom he saw as his "precursor" in some respects<ref>Letter to Franz Overbeck, July 30, 1881</ref> but as a personification of the "ascetic ideal" in others. Nietzsche expressed admiration for [[French literature of the 17th century|17th century French moralists]] such as [[François de La Rochefoucauld (writer)|La Rochefoucauld]], [[Jean de La Bruyère|La Bruyère]] and [[Vauvenargues (writer)|Vauvenargues]],<ref>Brendan Donnellan, [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0016-8831%28197905%2952%3A3%3C303%3ANALR%3E2.0.CO%3B2-6&size=LARGE "Nietzsche and La Rochefoucauld"] in ''[[The German Quarterly]]'', Vol. 52, No. 3 (May, 1979), pp. 303-318 {{en icon}}</ref> as well as for [[Stendhal]].<ref name=EHC3> See for example ''[[Ecce Homo (book)|Ecce Homo]]'', "Why I am So Clever", §3 </ref> <br />
<br />
The [[organicism]] of [[Paul Bourget]] influenced Nietzsche,<ref>Johan Grzelczyk, [http://www.hypernietzsche.org/navigate.php?sigle=jgrzelczyk-4 "Féré et Nietzsche : au sujet de la décadence"], ''HyperNietzsche'', 2005-11-01 {{fr icon}}. Grzelczyk quotes Jacques Le Rider, ''Nietzsche en France. De la fin du XIXe siècle au temps présent'', Paris, PUF, 1999, pp.8-9</ref><br />
as did that of [[Rudolf Virchow]] and [[Alfred Espinas]].<ref>Johan Grzelczyk, [http://www.hypernietzsche.org/navigate.php?sigle=jgrzelczyk-4 "Féré et Nietzsche : au sujet de la décadence"], ''HyperNietzsche'', 2005-11-01 {{fr icon}}. Grzelczyk quotes B. Wahrig-Schmidt, "Irgendwie, jedenfalls physiologisch. Friedrich Nietzsche, Alexandre Herzen (fils) und Charles Féré 1888" in ''Nietzsche Studien'', Band 17, Berlin: [[Walter de Gruyter]], 1988, p.439<br />
</ref> Nietzsche early learned of [[Darwinism]] through [[Friedrich Lange]].<ref name=Fouillee><br />
[http://fr.wikisource.org/wiki/Note_sur_Nietzsche_et_Lange_:_%C2%AB_le_retour_%C3%A9ternel_%C2%BB Note sur Nietzsche et Lange : « le retour éternel »], [[Albert Fouillée]], ''Revue philosophique de la France et de l'étranger''. An. 34. Paris 1909. T. 67, S. 519-525 (on French Wikisource)<br />
</ref> Notably, he also read some of the posthumous works of [[Charles Baudelaire]],<ref>Mazzino Montinari, ''"La Volonté de puissance" n'existe pas'', Éditions de l'Éclat, 1996, §13</ref> [[Tolstoy]]'s ''My Religion'', [[Ernest Renan]]'s ''Life of Jesus'' and [[Fyodor Dostoevsky|Dostoevsky's]] ''The Possessed''.<ref>Mazzino Montinari, ''"La Volonté de puissance" n'existe pas'', Éditions de l'Éclat, 1996, §13</ref><ref>Walter Kaufmann, ''Nietzsche: Philosopher, Psychologist, Antichrist'', pp. 306-340.</ref> Nietzsche called Dostoevsky "the only psychologist from whom I have anything to learn."<ref>''Twilight of the Idols'', Friedrich Nietzsche, 1889, §45).</ref> Comments in several passages suggest that he responded strongly and favorably to the work of [[Ralph Waldo Emerson]]. While Nietzsche never mentions [[Max Stirner]], [[Nietzsche and Max Stirner|similarities in their ideas]] have prompted a minority of interpreters to suggest he both read and was influenced by him.<ref>K. Löwith, ''From Hegel To Nietzsche'', New York, 1964, p187; S. Taylor, ''Left Wing Nietzscheans, The Politics of German Expressionism 1910-1920'', p144, 1990, Walter de Gruyter, Berlin/New York; G. Deleuze, ''Nietzsche and Philosophy'', (translated by Hugh Tomlinson), 2006, pp153-154; R. C. Solomon & K. M. Higgins, ''The Age of German Idealism'', p300, Routledge, 1993; R. A. Samek, ''The Meta Phenomenon'', p70, New York, 1981; T. Goyens, ''Beer and Revolution: The German Anarchist Movement In New York City'', p197, Illinois, 2007.</ref><br />
<br />
==Nietzsche's influence and reception==<br />
{{main|Influence and reception of Friedrich Nietzsche}}<br />
Philosophers and popular culture have responded to Nietzsche's work in complex and sometimes controversial ways. Many Germans eventually discovered his appeals for greater [[individualism]] and personality development in ''Thus Spoke Zarathustra'', but responded to those appeals divergently. He had some following among left-wing Germans in the 1890s; in 1894–95 German conservatives wanted to ban his work as [[subversive]]. During the late 19th century Nietzsche's ideas were commonly associated with anarchist movements and appear to have had influence within them, particularly in France and the United States.<ref>O. Ewald, "German Philosophy in 1907", in The Philosophical Review, Vol. 17, No. 4, Jul., 1908, pp. 400-426; T. A. Riley, "Anti-Statism in German Literature, as Exemplified by the Work of John Henry Mackay", in PMLA, Vol. 62, No. 3, Sep., 1947, pp. 828-843; C. E. Forth, "Nietzsche, Decadence, and Regeneration in France, 1891-95", in Journal of the History of Ideas, Vol. 54, No. 1, Jan., 1993, pp. 97-117</ref><br />
<br />
By the [[First World War]], however, he had acquired a reputation as an inspiration for right-wing German [[militarism]]. German soldiers even received copies of ''Thus Spoke Zarathustra'' as gifts during World War I.<ref>Kaufmann, p.8</ref> The [[Dreyfus Affair]] provides another example of his reception: the French anti-semitic Right labelled the Jewish and Leftist intellectuals who defended [[Alfred Dreyfus]] as "Nietzscheans".<ref><br />
Schrift, A.D. (1995). ''Nietzsche's French Legacy: A Genealogy of Poststructuralism''. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-91147-8.<br />
</ref><br />
<br />
Political dictators of the twentieth century, including [[Stalin]],<ref>D. Volkogonov: ''Stalin'', part I, near the end of its introduction (2006).</ref> [[Hitler]],<ref>See e.g. A. Kubizek: ''The Young Hitler I Knew'', c. 17, p. 181, Greenhill Books, 2006.</ref> and [[Mussolini]]<ref>See e.g. D. Irving: ''Hitler's War'', part I, c. 3, near the beginning (2005).</ref> read Nietzsche. The [[Nazi]]s made use of Nietzsche's philosophy, but did so selectively; this association with National Socialism caused Nietzsche's reputation to suffer following the [[Second World War]].<br />
<br />
Nevertheless, Nietzschean ideas exercised a major influence on several prominent European philosophers, including [[Michel Foucault]], [[Gilles Deleuze]], [[Jacques Derrida]], [[Martin Heidegger]], [[Albert Camus]], and [[Jean-Paul Sartre]]. In the Anglo-American tradition, the scholarship of [[Walter Kaufmann (philosopher)|Walter Kaufmann]] and [[R. J. Hollingdale]] rehabilitated Nietzsche as a philosopher, and [[analytic philosophy|analytic philosophers]] such as [[Alexander Nehamas]] and [[Brian Leiter]] continue to study him today. A vocal minority of recent Nietzschean interpreters (Bruce Detwiler, Fredrick Appel, Domenico Losurdo, Abir Taha) have contested what they consider the popular but erroneous [[egalitarian]] misrepresentation of Nietzsche's "aristocratic radicalism".<br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
*[[List of works about Friedrich Nietzsche]]<br />
<br />
==Notes==<br />
<!-- Some browsers scramble long URLs in multi-columnar formats --><br />
{{reflist|2}}<br />
<br />
== References==<br />
*{{cite book|last=Deleuze|first=Gilles|title=Nietzsche and Philosophy|publisher=Athlone Press|year=1983|others=trans. Hugh Tomlinson|isbn=0485112337}}<br />
*{{cite book|last=Kaufmann|first=Walter|title=Nietzsche: Philosopher, Psychologist, Antichrist|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=1974|isbn=0691019835}}<br />
*{{cite book|last=Lampert|first=Laurence|title=Nietzsche's Teaching: An Interpretation of "Thus Spoke Zarathustra"|publisher=New Haven: Yale University Press|year=1986|isbn=0300044305}}<br />
*Magnus and Higgins, "Nietzsche's works and their themes", in ''The Cambridge Companion to Nietzsche'', Magnus and Higgins (ed.), University of Cambridge Press, 1996, pp.21-58. ISBN 0521367670<br />
*O'Flaherty, James C., Sellner, Timothy F., Helm, Robert M., "Studies in Nietzsche and the Classical Tradition" (University of North Carolina Press)1979 ISBN 0-08078-8085-X<br />
*O'Flaherty, James C., Sellner, Timothy F., Helm, Robert M., ""Studies in Nietzsche and the Judaeo-Christian Tradition" (University of North Carolina Press)1985 ISBN 0-8078-8104-X<br />
*Seung, T.K. ''Nietzsche's Epic of the Soul: Thus Spoke Zarathustra''. Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2005. ISBN 0739111302<br />
*{{citebook|author=Tanner, Michael|title=Nietzsche|location=Oxford|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1994|isbn=0192876805}}<br />
*{{cite encyclopedia|author=Wicks, Robert|title=Friedrich Nietzsche|encyclopedia=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy|edition=Fall 2004 Edition|editor=Edward N. Zalta|url=http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2004/entries/nietzsche/}}<br />
*{{cite book | last = Baird | first = Forrest E. | authorlink = | coauthors = Walter Kaufmann | title = From Plato to Derrida | publisher = Pearson Prentice Hall | year = 2008 | location = Upper Saddle River, New Jersey | pages =1011-1038 | url = | doi = | id = | isbn = 0-13-158591-6 }}<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
{{sisterlinks|commons=Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche}}<br />
<br />
====Full texts====<br />
*[http://www.nietzsche.at/gedichte.htm Poems] {{De icon}}<br />
*{{gutenberg author |id=Friedrich_Nietzsche | name=Friedrich Nietzsche}}<br />
*[http://librivox.org/newcatalog/search.php?title=&author=Friedrich+Nietzsche&action=Search Works by Friedrich Nietzsche] in audio format from [[LibriVox]]<br />
<br />
====Media====<br />
*[http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=4164520914185017719 ''Nietzsche on Hardship'']: a documentary about Nietzsche and his philosophy<br />
*[http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=-184240591461103528 ''Human, All Too Human : Nietzsche'']: a documentary by the BBC (1999)<br />
*[http://www.nietzschelieder.de Nietzschelieder]: the written songs by Nietzsche, set to music by [http://www.independentartmusic.com/nietzschelieder_deutsch.html independent artists]{{De icon}}<br />
*[http://www.intratext.com/Catalogo/Autori/AUT275.HTM Friedrich Nietzsche]: text with concordances and frequency-list<br />
<br />
====Other sources====<br />
*[[Open Directory Project]]: [http://dmoz.org/Society/Philosophy/Philosophers/N/Nietzsche,_Friedrich/ Friedrich Nietzsche]<br />
*{{sep entry|nietzsche|Friedrich Nietzsche|Robert Wicks|2007-11-14}}<br />
*[http://www.fns.org.uk/ Friedrich Nietzsche Society]<br />
*[http://www.dartmouth.edu/~fnchron/index.html Nietzsche Chronicle] (Detailed Chronology and Biography)<br />
*[http://www.nietzscheforum.com/ Nietzsche Forum]<br />
*{{sep entry|nietzsche-moral-political|Nietzsche's Moral and Political Philosophy|[[Brian Leiter]]|2007-07-27}}<br />
*[http://www.ru.nl/pracphil/nietzsche/Home.html Nietzsche Research Group: Radboud University Nijmegen] {{Nl icon}}{{De icon}}{{En icon}}<br />
*[http://nypl.org/research/chss/grd/resguides/nietzsche/ Nietzsche Research Guide]<br />
*[http://www.f-nietzsche.de/start_e.htm Nietzsche: Works of Youth - Music - Lou Salomé]<br />
*[http://www.readingnietzsche.com/ Seattle Nietzsche Reading Group: Nietzsche memorabilia and bibliography]<br />
*[http://www.nietzschecircle.com/ The Nietzsche Circle]<br />
*[http://friedrichnietzschesociety.wordpress.com/ The Friedrich Nietzsche Society official Blog] <br />
*[http://www.konvergencias.net/vasquezrocca188.pdf '''Nietzsche y Sloterdijk'''; '''Nihilism''']<br />
*[http://query.nytimes.com/mem/archive-free/pdf?_r=1&res=9C02EEDD1530E233A25754C0A9639C946196D6CF&oref=slogin Dr. Joseph Jacobs, ''A Critical Consideration of the German Philosopher, if Philosopher He Can be Called, Based Upon the New English Translation of His Works'' - May 7, 1910, The New York Times, Page BR8.]<br />
*[http://www.nietzsche-news.org Nietzsche News Center: conferences, seminars, publications and events]<br />
{{Philosophy topics}}<br />
{{Nietzsche}}<br />
<br />
{{Persondata<br />
|NAME=Nietzsche, Friedrich<br />
|ALTERNATIVE NAMES=Nietzsche, Friedrich Wilhelm<br />
|SHORT DESCRIPTION=19th century philosopher<br />
|DATE OF BIRTH={{birth date|1844|10|15|mf=y}}<br />
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|DATE OF DEATH={{death date|1900|8|25|mf=y}}<br />
|PLACE OF DEATH=[[Weimar]]<br />
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{{Lifetime|1844|1900|Nietzsche, Friedrich}}<br />
[[Category:19th century philosophers]]<br />
[[Category:Aphorists]]<br />
[[Category:Atheist philosophers]]<br />
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[[Category:Continental philosophers]]<br />
[[Category:Deaths from pneumonia]]<br />
[[Category:Determinists]]<br />
[[Category:Friedrich Nietzsche]]<br />
[[Category:German philosophers]]<br />
[[Category:German anti-communists]]<br />
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[[Category:People from the Province of Saxony]]<br />
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[[Category:University of Bonn alumni]]<br />
[[Category:University of Leipzig alumni]]<br />
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Leslie
https://conservapedia.com/index.php?title=Terrorism&diff=553371
Terrorism
2008-11-10T00:44:42Z
<p>Leslie: removing some too-obvious bias</p>
<hr />
<div>{{redirect|Terrorist}}<br />
{{terrorism}}<br />
[[Image:Number of Terrorist Incidents.png|thumb|left|Number of Terrorist Incidents 2000–2008|{{ifdc|1=Image:Number of Terrorist Incidents.png|log=2008 October 15}}]]<br />
<br />
'''[[Terrorism]]''' is the systematic use of [[fear|terror]] especially as a means of coercion.<ref>{{cite web |title=Terrorism<br />
|url=http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/terrorism<br />
|publisher=Merriam-Webster's Dictionary<br />
|year=1795}}</ref> There is no internationally agreed [[definition of terrorism]].<ref>Angus Martyn, [http://www.aph.gov.au/library/Pubs/CIB/2001-02/02cib08.htm The Right of Self-Defence under International Law-the Response to the Terrorist Attacks of 11 September], Australian Law and Bills Digest Group, Parliament of Australia Web Site, 12 February 2002</ref><ref>Thalif Deen. [http://ipsnews.net/news.asp?idnews=29633 POLITICS: U.N. Member States Struggle to Define Terrorism], [[Inter Press Service]], 25 July 2005</ref> Most common definitions of terrorism include only those acts which are intended to create fear (terror), are perpetrated for an ideological goal (as opposed to a lone attack), and deliberately target or disregard the safety of [[non-combatant]]s. <br />
<br />
Some definitions also include acts of [[Law|unlawful]] violence and war. The history of such conflicts indicates that regardless of any stated position, however extreme that may be, organizations do not select "terrorism" for its political effectiveness;<ref>{{cite journal<br />
| last = Abrahms<br />
| first = Max<br />
| authorlink =<br />
| coauthors =<br />
| title = What Terrorists Really Want: Terrorist Motives and Couterterrorism Strategy<br />
| journal = [[International Security]]<br />
| volume = 32<br />
| issue = 4<br />
| pages = 86-89<br />
| publisher = [[MIT Press]]<br />
| location = Cambridge, MA<br />
| date = [[March 2008]]<br />
| url = http://maxabrahms.com/pdfs/DC_250-1846.pdf<br />
| format = [[PDF]] 1933 [[KB]]<br />
| issn = 0162-2889<br />
| accessdate = 2008-11-04 }}</ref> and so, terrorism can also be seen as a form of [[unconventional warfare]] or [[psychological warfare]]. The word is politically and emotionally charged,<ref name="Hoffman-1998-p31">Hoffman, Bruce "''Inside Terrorism''" Columbia University Press 1998 ISBN 0-231-11468-0. Page 32. See review in The [[New York Times]][http://www.nytimes.com/books/first/h/hoffman-terrorism.html Inside Terrorism]</ref> and this greatly compounds the difficulty of providing a precise definition. One 1988 study by the [[United States Army|US Army]] found that over 100 definitions of the word "terrorism" have been used.<ref name="DJR">Dr. Jeffrey Record, [http://carlisle-www.army.mil/ssi/pubs/2003/bounding/bounding.pdf Bounding the Global War on Terrorism](PDF)</ref> A person who practices terrorism is a '''terrorist'''. The concept of terrorism is itself controversial because it is often used by states to delegitimize political opponents, and thus legitimize the state's own use of terror against those opponents.<br />
<br />
Terrorism has been used by a broad array of political organizations in furthering their objectives; both right-wing and left-wing political parties, [[nationalism|nationalistic]], and religious groups, revolutionaries and ruling governments.<ref name="britannica">{{cite web|url= http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9071797 |title=Terrorism |accessdate= 2006-08-11 |publisher= Encyclopædia Britannica|pages=3}}</ref> The presence of non-state actors in widespread armed conflict has created controversy regarding the application of the [[laws of war]].<br />
<br />
While acts of terrorism are criminal acts as per the [[United Nations Security Council Resolution 1373]] and [[Anti-terrorism legislation|domestic jurisprudence]] of almost all countries in the world, terrorism refers to a phenomenon including the actual acts, the perpetrators of acts of terrorism themselves and their motives. There is disagreement on definitions of terrorism.<br />
<br />
==Origin of term==<br />
{{main|Definition of terrorism}}<br />
{{seealso|State terrorism}}<br />
In many countries, acts of terrorism are legally distinguished from criminal acts done for other purposes, and "terrorism" is defined by statute; see ''[[definition of terrorism]]'' for particular definitions. Common principles among legal definitions of terrorism provide an emerging consensus as to meaning and also foster cooperation between law enforcement personnel in different countries. Among these definitions there are several that do not recognize the possibility of [[Right to resist occupation|legitimate use of violence]] by civilians against an invader in an [[Occupied territories|occupied country]] and would, thus label all [[resistance movement]]s as terrorist groups. Others make a distinction between lawful and unlawful use of violence. Ultimately, the distinction is a [[Politics|political]] judgment.<ref>{{cite web|last=Khan|first=Ali|title=A Theory of International Terrorism|publisher=Social Science Research Network|year=1987|url=http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=935347|format=PDF|accessdate=2008-07-11}}</ref><br />
In November 2004, a [[United Nations Security Council]] report described terrorism as any act "intended to cause death or serious bodily harm to civilians or non-combatants with the purpose of intimidating a population or compelling a government or an international organization to do or abstain from doing any act." (Note that this report does not constitute [[international law]].)<ref>{{cite web|title=UN Reform|publisher=United Nations|date=[[2005-03-21]]|url=http://www.un.org/unifeed/script.asp?scriptId=73|archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20070427012107/http://www.un.org/unifeed/script.asp?scriptId=73|archivedate=2007-04-27|accessdate=2008-07-11|quote=The second part of the report, entitled "Freedom from Fear backs the definition of terrorism - an issue so divisive agreement on it has long eluded the world community - as any action "intended to cause death or serious bodily harm to civilians or non-combatants with the purpose of intimidating a population or compelling a government or an international organization to do or abstain from doing any act."}}</ref><br />
[[U.S. Department of Defense]] (DoD) defined terrorism as: “The calculated use of unlawful violence or threat of unlawful violence to inculcate fear; intended to coerce or to intimidate governments or societies in the pursuit of goals that are generally political,<br />
religious, or ideological.” <ref>FM 100-20, Military Operations in Low Intensity Conflict, 5 December 1990; and Joint Pub 1-02, Department of Defense Dictionary of Military and Associated Terms, 12 April 2001, as amended through 9 June 2004. </ref><br />
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==Key criteria==<br />
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Official definitions determine counter-terrorism policy and are often developed to serve it. Most government definitions outline the following key criteria: target, objective, motive, perpetrator, and legitimacy or legality of the act. Terrorism is also often recognizable by a following statement from the perpetrators.<br />
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'''Violence''' &ndash; According to Walter Laqueur of the [[Center for Strategic and International Studies]], "the only general characteristic of terrorism generally agreed upon is that terrorism involves violence and the threat of violence." However, the criterion of violence alone does not produce a useful definition, as it includes many acts not usually considered terrorism: [[war]], [[riot]], [[organized crime]], or even a simple [[assault]]. Property destruction that does not endanger life is not usually considered a [[violent crime]], but some have described property destruction by the [[Earth Liberation Front]] and [[Animal Liberation Front]] as violence and terrorism; see [[eco-terrorism]].<br />
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'''Psychological impact and fear''' &ndash; The attack was carried out in such a way as to maximize the severity and length of the psychological impact. Each act of terrorism is a “performance,” devised to have an impact on many large audiences. Terrorists also attack national symbols to show their power and to shake the foundation of the country or society they are opposed to. This may negatively affect a government's legitimacy, while increasing the legitimacy of the given [[terrorist organization]] and/or [[ideology]] behind a terrorist act.<ref>{{cite book|last=Juergensmeyer|first=Mark|title=Terror in the Mind of God|publisher=University of California Press|year=2000|pages=125-135}}</ref><br />
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'''Perpetrated for a political goal''' &ndash; Something all terrorist attacks have in common is their perpetration for a political purpose. Terrorism is a political tactic, not unlike letter writing or protesting, that is used by activists when they believe no other means will effect the kind of change they desire. The change is desired so badly that failure is seen as a worse outcome than the deaths of civilians. This is often where the interrelationship between [[religious terrorism|terrorism and religion]] occurs. When a political struggle is integrated into the framework of a religious or "cosmic"<ref>{{cite book|last=Juergensmeyer|first=Mark|title=Terror in the Mind of God|publisher=University of California Press|year=2000}}</ref> struggle, such as over the control of an ancestral homeland or holy site such as Israel and Jerusalem, failing in the political goal (nationalism) becomes equated with spiritual failure, which, for the highly committed, is worse than their own death or the deaths of innocent civilians.<br />
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'''Deliberate targeting of non-combatants''' &ndash; It is commonly held that the distinctive nature of terrorism lies in its intentional and specific selection of [[civilian]]s as direct targets. Specifically, the criminal intent is shown when babies, children, mothers, and the elderly are murdered, or injured, and put in harm's way. Much of the time, the victims of terrorism are targeted not because they are threats, but because they are specific "symbols, tools, animals or corrupt beings" that tie into a specific view of the world that the terrorist possess. Their suffering accomplishes the terrorists' goals of instilling fear, getting a message out to an audience, or otherwise accomplishing their often radical religious and political ends.<ref>{{cite book|last=Juergensmeyer|first=Mark|title=Terror in the Mind of God|publisher=University of California Press|year=2000|pages=127-128}}</ref><br />
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'''Disguise''' &ndash; Terrorists almost invariably pretend to be non-combatants, hide among non-combatants, fight from in the midst of non-combatants, and when they can, strive to mislead and provoke the government soldiers into attacking the wrong people, that the government may be blamed for it. When an enemy is identifiable as a combatant, the word terrorism is rarely used. {{Fact|date=August 2008}}<br />
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'''Unlawfulness or illegitimacy''' &ndash; Some official (notably government) definitions of terrorism add a criterion of illegitimacy or unlawfulness<ref>{{cite web|title=Terrorism in the United States 1999|publisher=Federal Bureau of Investigation|url=http://www.fbi.gov/publications/terror/terror99.pdf|format=PDF|accessdate=2008-07-11}}</ref> to distinguish between actions authorized by a government (and thus "lawful") and those of other actors, including individuals and small groups. Using this criterion, actions that would otherwise qualify as terrorism would not be considered terrorism if they were government sanctioned. For example, firebombing a city, which is designed to affect civilian support for a cause, would not be considered terrorism if it were authorized by a government. This criterion is inherently problematic and is not universally accepted, because: it denies the existence of [[state terrorism]]; the same act may or may not be classed as terrorism depending on whether its sponsorship is traced to a "legitimate" government; "legitimacy" and "lawfulness" are subjective, depending on the perspective of one government or another; and it diverges from the historically accepted meaning and origin of the term.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|title=AskOxford Search Results - terrorist|encyclopedia=AskOxford|publisher=AskOxford|accessdate=2008-07-11|url=http://www.askoxford.com/results/?view=dev_dict&field-12668446=terrorism&branch=13842570&textsearchtype=exact&sortorder=score%2Cname}}</ref><ref> [http://dictionary.cambridge.org/define.asp?key=82104&dict=CALD Cambridge International Dictionary of English]</ref><ref>[http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/terrorism Dictionary.com]</ref><ref> [http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=terrorism Online Etymology Dictionary]</ref> For these reasons this criterion is not universally accepted. Most dictionary definitions of the term do not include this criterion.<br />
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==Pejorative use==<br />
The term "terrorism" and '''"terrorist"''' (someone who engages in terrorism) carry a strong negative connotation. These terms are often used as political labels to condemn violence or threat of violence by certain actors as immoral, indiscriminate, unjustified or to condemn an entire segment of a population.<ref>[http://www.btselem.org/english/Special/20080113_Response_to_Head_of_GSS_Statement.asp B'Tselem] Head of ISA defines a terrorist as any Palestinian killed by Israel</ref> Those labeled "terrorists" rarely identify themselves as such, and typically use other euphemistic terms or terms specific to their situation, such as: [[separatist]], [[freedom fighter]], liberator, [[revolutionary]], [[vigilante]], [[militant]], [[paramilitary]], [[guerrilla warfare|guerrilla]], [[rebellion|rebel]], or any similar-meaning word in other languages and cultures. [[Jihad]]i, [[mujaheddin]], and [[fedayeen]] are similar Arabic words that have entered the English lexicon.<br />
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This is further complicated by the moral ambiguity that surrounds terrorism. On the question of whether particular terrorist acts, such as murder, can be justified as the lesser evil in a particular circumstance, philosophers have expressed different views: While, according to David Rodin, [[utilitarian]] philosophers can in theory conceive of cases in which evil of terrorism is outweighed by important goods that can be achieved in no morally less costly way, in practice utilitarians often universally reject terrorism because it is very dubious that acts of terrorism achieve important goods in a utility efficient manner, or that the "harmful effects of undermining the convention of non-combatant immunity is thought to outweigh the goods that may be achieved by particular acts of terrorism." <ref name="Robin"> Rodin, David (2006). Terrorism. In E. Craig (Ed.), Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy. London: Routledge </ref> Among the non-utilitarian philosophers, [[Michael Walzer]] argued that terrorism is always morally wrong but at the same time those who engaged in terrorism can be morally justified in one specific case: when "a nation or community faces the extreme threat of complete destruction and the only way it can preserve itself is by intentionally targeting non-combatants, then it is morally entitled to do so." <ref name="Robin"/> <br />
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In his book "''Inside Terrorism''" Bruce Hoffman wrote in ''Chapter One: Defining Terrorism'' that<br />
:"On one point, at least, everyone agrees: terrorism is a pejorative term. It is a word with intrinsically negative connotations that is generally applied to one's enemies and opponents, or to those with whom one disagrees and would otherwise prefer to ignore. 'What is called terrorism,' Brian Jenkins has written, `'thus seems to depend on one's point of view. Use of the term implies a moral judgment; and if one party can successfully attach the label terrorist to its opponent, then it has indirectly persuaded others to adopt its moral viewpoint.' Hence the decision to call someone or label some organization `terrorist' becomes almost unavoidably subjective, depending largely on whether one sympathizes with or opposes the person/group/cause concerned. If one identifies with the victim of the violence, for example, then the act is terrorism. If, however, one identifies with the perpetrator, the violent act is regarded in a more sympathetic, if not positive (or, at the worst, an ambivalent) light; and it is not terrorism."<ref name="Hoffman-1998-p31">Hoffman, Bruce "''Inside Terrorism''" Columbia University Press 1998 ISBN 0-231-11468-0. Page 32. See review in The [[New York Times]][http://www.nytimes.com/books/first/h/hoffman-terrorism.html Inside Terrorism] [http://66.102.9.104/search?q=cache:RPT6zpTtE08J:www.nytimes.com/books/first/h/hoffman-terrorism.html+%22everyone+agrees:+terrorism+is+a+pejorative+term%22&hl=en&gl=uk&ct=clnk&cd=1&lr=lang_en Google cached copy]</ref><br />
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The pejorative connotations of the word can be summed up in the [[aphorism]], "One man's terrorist is another man's freedom fighter." This is exemplified when a group that uses [[irregular military]] methods is an ally of a [[State]] against a mutual enemy, but later falls out with the State and starts to use the same methods against its former ally. During [[World War II]], the [[Malayan People’s Anti-Japanese Army]] was allied with the British, but during the [[Malayan Emergency]], members of its successor, the [[Malayan Races Liberation Army]], were branded terrorists by the British.<ref>[http://concise.britannica.com/ebc/article-9371060/Malayan-People's-Anti-Japanese-Army Malayan People's Anti-Japanese Army] Britannica Concise</ref><ref>Dr Chris Clark ''{{cite web |url=http://www.awm.gov.au/atwar/remembering1942/malaya/index.htm |title= Malayan Emergency, 16 June 1948 |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20070608150502/http://awm.gov.au/atwar/remembering1942/malaya/index.htm |archivedate=2007-06-08}}'', 16 June 2003</ref> More recently, [[Ronald Reagan]] and others in the American administration frequently called the [[mujaheddin#Afghan Mujahideen|Afghan Mujahideen]] freedom fighters during [[Soviet invasion of Afghanistan|their war]] against the [[Soviet Union]],<ref>[http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/USAreagan.htm Ronald Reagan, speech to National Conservative Political Action Conference] 8 March, 1985. On the [[Spartacus Educational]] web site</ref> yet twenty years later when a new generation of Afghan men are fighting against what they perceive to be a regime installed by foreign powers, their attacks are labelled terrorism by [[George W. Bush]].<ref>[http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2002/01/20020128-13.html President Meets with Afghan Interim Authority Chairman]</ref><ref>[http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2006/02/20060209-2.html President Discusses Progress in War on Terrorism to National Guard] [[White House]] web site February 9, 2006</ref> Groups accused of terrorism usually prefer terms that reflect legitimate military or ideological action.<ref>Sudha Ramachandran ''[http://www.atimes.com/atimes/Middle_East/FK12Ak01.html Death behind the wheel in Iraq]'' [[Asian Times]], November 12, 2004, "Insurgent groups that use suicide attacks therefore do not like their attacks to be described as suicide terrorism. They prefer to use terms like "martyrdom ..."</ref><ref> Alex Perry [http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,1109554,00.html How Much to Tip the Terrorist?] [[Time Magazine]], September 26, 2005. "The Tamil Tigers would dispute that tag, of course. Like other guerrillas and suicide bombers, they prefer the term “freedom fighters.”</ref><ref name="TCCACR">[http://www.au.af.mil/au/awc/awcgate/dtra/terrorism_concepts.doc TERRORISM: CONCEPTS, CAUSES, AND CONFLICT RESOLUTION] [[George Mason University]] [[Institute for Conflict Analysis and Resolution]], Printed by the Defense Threat Reduction Agency, Fort Belvoir, Virginia, January 2003</ref> Leading terrorism researcher Professor Martin Rudner, director of the Canadian Centre of Intelligence and Security Studies at Ottawa's [[Carleton University]], defines "terrorist acts" as attacks against civilians for political or other ideological goals, and goes on to say: <br />
:"There is the famous statement: 'One man's terrorist is another man's freedom fighter.' But that is grossly misleading. It assesses the validity of the cause when terrorism is an act. One can have a perfectly beautiful cause and yet if one commits terrorist acts, it is terrorism regardless."<ref>Humphreys, Adrian. [http://www.canada.com/nationalpost/news/story.html?id=a64f73d2-f672-4bd0-abb3-2584029db496 "One official's 'refugee' is another's 'terrorist'"], ''[[National Post]]'', January 17, 2006.</ref><br />
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Some groups, when involved in a "liberation" struggle, have been called terrorists by the Western governments or media. Later, these same persons, as leaders of the liberated nations, are called statesmen by similar organizations. Two examples of this phenomenon are the [[Nobel Peace Prize]] laureates [[Menachem Begin]] and [[Nelson Mandela]].<ref>Theodore P. Seto ''[http://llr.lls.edu/volumes/v35-issue4/seto.pdf The Morality of Terrorism]'' Includes a list in the [[Times]] published on July 23, 1946 which were described as Jewish terrorist actions, including those launched by Irgun which Begin was a leading member</ref><ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/events/israel_at_50/profiles/81305.stm BBC News: PROFILES: Menachem Begin] BBC website "Under Begin's command, the underground terrorist group Irgun carried out numerous acts of violence."</ref><ref>Eqbal Ahmad ''"[http://goliath.ecnext.com/coms2/gi_0199-1328039/Straight-talk-on-terrorism.html Straight talk on terrorism]"'' [[Monthly Review]], January, 2002. "including Menachem Begin, appearing in "Wanted" posters saying, "Terrorists, reward this much." The highest reward I have seen offered was 100,000 British pounds for the head of Menachem Begin"</ref><ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/4583684.stmBBC NEWS: World: Middle East: Sharon's legacy does not include peace]{{Dead link|date=July 2008}}BBC website "Ariel Sharon will be compared to Menachem Begin, another warrior turned statesman, who gave up the Sinai and made peace with Egypt."</ref><ref>Lord Desai [http://www.parliament.the-stationery-office.co.uk/pa/ld199798/ldhansrd/vo980903/text/80903-04.htm Hansard, House of Lords] 3 September 1998 : Column 72, "''However, Jomo Kenyatta, Nelson Mandela and Menachem Begin &mdash; to give just three examples &mdash; were all denounced as terrorists but all proved to be successful political leaders of their countries and good friends of the United Kingdom.''"</ref><ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/4255106.stm BBC NEWS:World: Americas: UN reforms receive mixed response] BBC website "Of all groups active in recent times, the ANC perhaps represents best the traditional dichotomous view of armed struggle. Once regarded by western governments as a terrorist group, it now forms the legitimate, elected government of South Africa, with Nelson Mandela one of the world's genuinely iconic figures."</ref><ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/1454208.stm BBC NEWS: World: Africa: Profile: Nelson Mandela] BBC website "Nelson Mandela remains one of the world's most revered statesman"</ref><br />
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Sometimes states that are close allies, for reasons of history, culture and politics, can disagree over whether members of a certain organization are terrorists. For example for many years some branches of the United States government refused to label members of the [[Provisional Irish Republican Army|Irish Republican Army]] (IRA) as terrorists, while it was using methods against one of the United States' closest allies (Britain) that Britain branded as terrorist attacks. This was highlighted by the [[Quinn v. Robinson]] case.<ref>[http://www.law.syr.edu/faculty/arzt/icl/quinn.pdf Quinn v. Robinson (pdf), 783 F2d. 776 (9th Cir. 1986)](PDF), web site of the [[Syracuse University College of Law]]</ref><ref>Page 17, [http://www.law.du.edu/ilj/online_issues_folder/mccabe.final.4.26.03.pdf NORTHERN IRELAND: TP , T , S 11] (PDF) [[Queen's University Belfast]] School of Law</ref><br />
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Many times the term "terrorism" and "[[extremism]]" are interchangeably used. However, there is a significant difference between the two. Terrorism essentially threat or act of physical [[violence]]. Extremism involves using non-physical instruments to mobilise minds to achieve political or ideological ends. For instance, [[Al Qaeda]] is involved in terrorism. The [[Iranian revolution]] of 1979 is a case of extremism. A global research report [http://www.strategicforesight.com/AnInclusiveWorld.pdf An Inclusive World (2007)] asserts that extremism poses a more serious threat than terrorism in the decades to come.<br />
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For these and other reasons, media outlets wishing to preserve a reputation for impartiality are extremely careful in their use of the term.<ref name="GUSG">{{cite web|url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/styleguide/page/0,5817,184833,00.html|title=Guardian Unlimited style guide}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/guidelines/editorialguidelines/assets/advice/guidanceontheuseoflanguagewhenreportingterrorism.doc|title=BBC editorial guidelines on the use of language when reporting terrorism|format=DOC}}</ref><br />
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==Definition in international law==<br />
There are several [[International conventions on terrorism]] with somewhat different definitions.<ref name = "un"/> The United Nations sees this lack of agreement as a serious problem.<ref name="un">{{cite web<br />
|url=http://www.unodc.org/unodc/terrorism_definitions.html<br />
|archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20070129121539/http://www.unodc.org/unodc/terrorism_definitions.html<br />
|archivedate=2007-01-29<br />
|title=Definitions of Terrorism<br />
|publisher=[[United Nations]]<br />
|accessdate=2008-07-11<br />
}}</ref><br />
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==Causes and remedies==<br />
It is believed that the leading causes of terrorism worldwide are<ref>http://www.polyarchy.org/essays/english/terrorism.html</ref>:<br />
* world [[overpopulation]] and resulting [[corruption]] and [[poverty]] in many nations<br />
*[[fundamentalism]] and [[intolerance]] (towards any [[religion]] whatsoever)<br />
*atrocities committed by specific government(s) against its/their own people or against other peoples<ref>peoples here means nations</ref>. <br />
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The remedies might be to:<br />
* strictly implement a [[China]]-like [[one-child policy]] globally by the [[United Nations]]<ref>http://www.ajc.com/metro/content/news/stories/2008/04/03/turner_0404.html</ref><ref>http://www.jonesreport.com/article/04_08/28turner_911.html</ref> (so that more attention, higher [[education]], and more opportunities for [[employment]] can be provided worldwide for the remaining people); <br />
*more [[employment]] opportunities for people worldwide through deployment of [[industries]] and aid to poor countries;<br />
*the encouragement of [[education]], [[secularism]], [[tolerance]], [[transparency]], and [[democracy]] worldwide would help curb terrorism.<br />
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==Types of terrorism==<br />
In the spring of 1975, the [[National Institute of Justice|Law Enforcement Assistant Administration]] in the [[United States]] formed the National Advisory Committee on Criminal Justice Standards and Goals. One of the five volumes that the committee was entitled ''Disorders and Terrorism'', produced by the Task Force on Disorders and Terrorism under the direction H.H.A. Cooper, Director of the Task Force staff.<ref>Disorders and Terrorism, National Advisory Committee on Criminal Justice Standards and Goals (Washington D.C.:1976)</ref><br />
The Task Force classified terrorism into six categories.<br />
* '''[[Civil disorder|Civil Disorders]]''' – A form of collective violence interfering with the [[peace]], [[security]], and normal functioning of the community.<br />
* '''Political Terrorism''' – [[Violence|Violent]] criminal behaviour designed primarily to generate [[fear]] in the community, or substantial segment of it, for political purposes.<br />
* '''Non-Political Terrorism''' – Terrorism that is not aimed at [[Politics|political]] purposes but which exhibits “conscious design to create and maintain high degree of fear for [[Coercion|coercive]] purposes, but the end is individual or collective gain rather than the achievement of a political objective.”<br />
* '''Quasi-Terrorism''' – The activities incidental to the commission of [[crime]]s of [[violence]] that are similar in form and method to genuine terrorism but which nevertheless lack its essential ingredient. It is not the main purpose of the quasi-terrorists to induce terror in the immediate [[victim]] as in the case of genuine terrorism, but the quasi-terrorist uses the modalities and techniques of the genuine terrorist and produces similar consequences and reaction. For example, the fleeing [[felon]] who takes [[hostage]]s is a quasi-terrorist, whose methods are similar to those of the genuine terrorist but whose purposes are quite different.<br />
* '''Limited Political Terrorism''' – Genuine political terrorism is characterized by a [[revolutionary]] approach; limited political terrorism refers to “acts of terrorism which are committed for [[Ideology|ideological]] or [[Politics|political]] motives but which are not part of a concerted [[Strategic campaign|campaign]] to capture control of the [[State]].<br />
* '''Official or [[State Terrorism]]''' –"referring to nations whose rule is based upon [[fear]] and [[oppression]] that reach similar to terrorism or such proportions.” It may also be referred to as '''Structural Terrorism''' defined broadly as terrorist acts carried out by governments in pursuit of political objectives, often as part of their foreign policy.<br />
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In an analysis prepared for U.S. Intelligence<ref>Hudson, Rex A. Who Becomes a Terrorist and Why: The 1999 Government Report on Profiling Terrorists, Federal Research Division, The Lyons Press,2002 </ref> four typologies are mentioned.<br />
* Nationalist-Separatist<br />
* Religious Fundamentalist<br />
* New Religious <br />
* Social Revolutionary<br />
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==Politics and terrorism==<br />
Terrorism is currently, and has been historically, an important issue in politics around the world. Parties on the right of the political spectrum are usually more security focused then parties on the left. It is therefore perceived that terrorist threats or acts are beneficial to the electoral results of the right wing parties.<ref name='Black'>{{cite news | first= | last= | coauthors= | title=McCain adviser says terrorist attack would boost campaign | date=[[2008-06-24]] | publisher= | url =http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2008/jun/24/johnmccain.uselections2008?gusrc=rss&feed=networkfront | work =[[The Guardian]] | pages = | accessdate = 2008-06-24 | language = }}</ref><br />
===Democracy and domestic terrorism===<br />
The relationship between domestic terrorism and democracy is complex. Such terrorism is most common in nations with intermediate political freedom and that the nations with the least terrorism are the most democratic nations.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.news.harvard.edu/gazette/2004/11.04/05-terror.html|title=Freedom squelches terrorist violence: Harvard Gazette Archives}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://ksghome.harvard.edu/~.aabadie.academic.ksg/povterr.pdf|title=www.news.harvard.edu/gazette/2004/11.04/05-terror.html|title=Freedom squelches terrorist violence: Harvard Gazette Archives|format=PDF}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://ksghome.harvard.edu/~.aabadie.academic.ksg/povterr.pdf| title=Poverty, Political Freedom, and the Roots of Terrorism|year=2004|format=PDF}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://titan.iwu.edu/~econ/uer/articles/kevin_goldstein.pdf|title=Unemployment, Inequality and Terrorism: Another Look at the Relationship between Economics and Terrorism|year=2005|format=PDF}}</ref><br />
However, one study suggests that suicide terrorism may be an exception to this general rule. Evidence regarding this particular method of terrorism reveals that every modern suicide campaign has targeted a democracy- a state with a considerable degree of political freedom. The study suggests that concessions awarded to terrorists during the 1980s and 1990s for suicide attacks increased their frequency.<ref>Pape, Robert A. "The Strategic Logic of Suicide Terrorism," American Political Science Review, 2003. 97 (3): pp. 1-19.</ref><br />
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Some examples of "terrorism" in non-democracies include [[ETA]] in Spain under [[Francisco Franco]], the [[Shining Path]] in Peru under [[Alberto Fujimori]], the [[Kurdistan Workers Party]] when [[Turkey]] was ruled by military leaders and the [[African National Congress|ANC]] in [[South Africa]]. Democracies, such as the [[United States]], [[Israel]], and the [[Philippines]], also have experienced domestic terrorism.<br />
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While a democratic nation espousing civil liberties may claim a sense of higher moral ground than other regimes, an act of terrorism within such a state may cause a perceived dilemma: whether to maintain its civil liberties and thus risk being perceived as ineffective in dealing with the problem; or alternatively to restrict its civil liberties and thus risk delegitimizing its claim of supporting civil liberties. This dilemma, some social theorists would conclude, may very well play into the initial plans of the acting terrorist(s); namely, to delegitimize the state.<ref>shabad, goldie and francisco jose llera ramo. "Political Violence in a Democratic State," Terrorism in Context. Ed. Martha Crenshaw. University Park: Pennsylvania State University, 1995. pp467.</ref><br />
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== Perpetrators ==<br />
Acts of terrorism can be carried out by individuals, groups, or states. According to some definitions, clandestine or semi-clandestine state actors may also carry out terrorist acts outside the framework of a state of war. However, the most common image of terrorism is that it is carried out by small and secretive [[Covert cell|cells]], highly motivated to serve a particular cause and many of the most deadly operations in recent times, such as [[9/11]], the [[7 July 2005 London bombings|London underground bombing]], and the [[2002 Bali bombing]] were planned and carried out by a close clique, composed of close friends, family members and other strong social networks. These groups benefited from the free flow of information and efficient [[Telecommunications]] to succeed where others had failed. <ref>Sageman, Mark. 2004. "Social Networks and the Jihad". Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. Ch. 5 pp. 166-167 </ref><br />
Over the years, many people have attempted to come up with a [[terrorist profile]] to attempt to explain these individuals' actions through their psychology and social circumstances. Others, like Roderick Hindery, have sought to discern profiles in the propaganda tactics used by terrorists.<br />
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It has been found that a "terrorist" will look, dress, and behave like a normal person, such as a university student, until he or she executes the assigned mission. Terrorist profiling based on personality, physical, or sociological traits would not appear to be particularly useful. The physical and behavioral description of the terrorist could describe almost any normal young person.<ref>[http://www.loc.gov/rr/frd/pdf-files/Soc_Psych_of_Terrorism.pdf Library of Congress] – Federal Research Division The Sociology and Psychology of Terrorism</ref> <br />
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=== Terrorist groups ===<br />
{{main|List of designated terrorist organizations|Lone wolf (terrorism)}}<br />
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=== State sponsors ===<br />
{{main|State-sponsored terrorism}}<br />
A state can sponsor terrorism by funding or harboring a terrorist organization. Opinions as to which acts of violence by states consist of state-sponsored terrorism or not vary widely. When states provide funding for groups considered by some to be terrorist, they rarely acknowledge them as such.<br />
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=== State terrorism ===<br />
{{main|State terrorism}}<br />
{{Cquote2|Civilization is based on a clearly defined and widely accepted yet often unarticulated hierarchy. Violence done by those higher on the hierarchy to those lower is nearly always invisible, that is, unnoticed. When it is noticed, it is fully rationalized. Violence done by those lower on the hierarchy to those higher is unthinkable, and when it does occur is regarded with shock, horror, and the fetishization of the victims.|[[Derrick Jensen]] <ref>''Endgame: Resistance'', by Derrick Jensen, Seven Stories Press, 2006, ISBN 158322730X, pg IX</ref>}}<br />
<br />
The concept of state terrorism is controversial. <ref>[http://eprints.unimelb.edu.au/archive/00000137/01/Primorat.pdf Pds Sso]</ref> Military actions by states during [[war]] are usually not considered terrorism, even when they involve significant civilian casualties.{{Fact|date=October 2008}} The Chairman of the United Nations Counter-Terrorism Committee has stated that the Committee was conscious of the 12 international Conventions on the subject, and none of them referred to State terrorism, which was not an international legal concept. If States abused their power, they should be judged against international conventions dealing with [[war crimes]], international [[human rights]] and [[international humanitarian law]].[http://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2002/SC7276.doc.htm] Former [[United Nations]] [[Secretary-General]] [[Kofi Annan]] has said that it is "time to set aside debates on so-called 'state terrorism'. The [[use of force by states]] is already thoroughly regulated under international law"<ref>[http://newamerica.net/publications/articles/2005/the_legal_debate_is_over_terrorism_is_a_war_crime The Legal Debate is Over: Terrorism is a War Crime | The New America Foundation<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> However, he also made clear that, "...regardless of the differences between governments on the question of definition of terrorism, what is clear and what we can all agree on is any deliberate attack on innocent civilians, regardless of one's cause, is unacceptable and fits into the definition of terrorism."<ref>[http://www.un.org/News/dh/latest/afghan/sg-teheran26.htm Press conference with Kofi Annan &amp; FM Kamal Kharrazi]</ref><br />
<br />
State terrorism has been used to refer to terrorist acts by governmental agents or forces. This involve the use of state resources employed by a state's foreign policies, such as the using its military to directly perform acts of considered to be state terrorism. Professor of Political Science, Michael Stohl cites the examples that include Germany’s bombing of London and the U.S. atomic destruction of [[Hiroshima]] during World War II. He argues that “the use of terror tactics is common in international relations and the state has been and remains a more likely employer of terrorism within the international system than insurgents." They also cite the [[First strike]] option as an example of the "terror of coercive dipolomacy" as a form of this, which holds the world "hostage,' with the implied threat of using nuclear weapons in "crisis management." They argue that the institutionalized form of terrorism has occurred as a result of changes that took place following World War ll. In this analysis, state terrorism exhibited as a form of foreign policy was shaped by the presence and use of weapons of mass destruction, and that the legitimizing of such violent behavior led to an increasingly accepted form of this state behavior. (Michael Stohl, “The Superpowers and International Terror” Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the International Studies Association, Atlanta, March 27-April 1, 1984;"Terrible beyond Endurance? The Foreign Policy of State Terrorism." 1988;The State as Terrorist: The Dynamics of Governmental Violence and Repression, 1984<br />
P49).<br />
<br />
State terrorism is has also been used to describe peace time actions by governmental agents or forces, such as the bombing of [[Pan Am Flight 103|Pan Am Flight 103 flight]]. [[Charles Stewart Parnell]] described [[William Gladstone]]s [[Irish Coercion Act]] as Terrorism in his "no-Rent manifesto" in 1881, during the [[Irish Land War]].[http://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=9C04E6DF113CEE3ABC4951DFB667838A699FDE] The concept is also used to describe [[political repression]]s by governments against their own civilian population with the purpose to incite fear. For example, taking and executing civilian [[hostage]]s or [[extrajudicial killing|extrjuducial elimination]] campaigns are commonly considered "terror" or terrorism, for example during [[Red Terror]] or [[Great Terror]] <ref name="Black">Nicolas Werth, Karel Bartošek, Jean-Louis Panné, Jean-Louis Margolin, Andrzej Paczkowski, [[Stéphane Courtois]], ''The [[Black Book of Communism]]: Crimes, Terror, Repression'', [[Harvard University Press]], 1999, hardcover, 858 pages, ISBN 0-674-07608-7 </ref>. Such actions are often also described as [[democide]] which has been argued to be equivalent to state terrorism<ref name=Kisangani2007>{{cite journal | author = Kisangani, E. | year = 2007 | title = The Political Economy Of State Terror | volume = 18 | issue = 5 | pages = 405–414 | url = http://www.informaworld.com/index/781318312.pdf | accessdate = 2008-04-02 | journal = Defence and Peace Economics | doi = 10.1080/10242690701455433|format=PDF}}</ref> Empirical studies on this have found that democracies have little democide.<ref> DEATH BY GOVERNMENT By R.J. Rummel New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction Publishers, 1994. Online links: [http://www.hawaii.edu/powerkills/NOTE1.HTM][http://www.hawaii.edu/powerkills/SOD.FIG23.4.GIF][http://www.hawaii.edu/powerkills/POWER.FIG2.GIF]</ref><ref>''[http://www.cidcm.umd.edu/inscr/genocide/ No Lessons Learned from the Holocaust?]{{Dead link|date=July 2008}}'', Barbara Harff, 2003.</ref><br />
<br />
==Tactics==<br />
{{main|Tactics of terrorism}}<br />
Terrorism is a form of [[asymmetric warfare]], and is more common when direct [[conventional warfare]] either cannot be (due to differentials in available forces) or is not being used to resolve the underlying conflict.<br />
<br />
The context in which terrorist tactics are used is often a large-scale, unresolved political [[conflict]]. The type of conflict varies widely; historical examples include:<br />
* [[Secession]] of a territory to form a new sovereign state<br />
* Dominance of territory or resources by various [[ethnic groups]]<br />
* Imposition of a particular form of government<br />
* Economic deprivation of a population<br />
* Opposition to a domestic government or occupying army<br />
<br />
Terrorist attacks are often targeted to maximize fear and publicity. They usually use [[explosives]] or [[poison]], but there is also concern about terrorist attacks using [[weapons of mass destruction]]. Terrorist organizations usually methodically plan attacks in advance, and may train participants, plant "undercover" agents, and raise money from supporters or through [[organized crime]]. Communication may occur through modern [[telecommunications]], or through old-fashioned methods such as [[courier]]s.<br />
<br />
==Responses to terrorism==<br />
{{main|Responses to terrorism}}<br />
Responses to terrorism are broad in scope. They can include re-alignments of the [[political spectrum]] and reassessments of [[value system|fundamental values]]. The term '''counter-terrorism''' has a narrower connotation, implying that it is directed at terrorist actors.<br />
<br />
Specific types of responses include:<br />
* Targeted laws, criminal procedures, deportations, and enhanced police powers<br />
* Target hardening, such as locking doors or adding traffic barriers<br />
* Pre-emptive or reactive military action<br />
* Increased intelligence and surveillance activities<br />
* Pre-emptive humanitarian activities<br />
* More permissive interrogation and detention policies<br />
* Official acceptance of torture as a valid tool<br />
<br />
== Mass media ==<br />
Media exposure may be a primary goal of those carrying out terrorism, to expose issues that would otherwise be ignored by the media. Some consider this to be manipulation and exploitation of the media.<ref>The Media and Terrorism: A Reassessment [[Paul Wilkinson (professor)|Paul Wilkinson]]. Terrorism and Political Violence, Vol.9, No.2 (Summer 1997), pp.51-64 Published by Frank Cass, London. </ref> Others consider terrorism itself to be a symptom of a highly controlled mass media, which does not otherwise give voice to alternative viewpoints, a view expressed by [[Paul Watson]] who has stated that controlled media is responsible for terrorism, because "you cannot get your information across any other way". Paul Watson's organization [[Sea Shepherd]] has itself been branded "[[eco-terrorist]]", although it claims to have not caused any casualties.<br />
<br />
The mass media will often censor organizations involved in terrorism (through self-restraint or regulation) to discourage further terrorism. However, this may encourage organisations to perform more extreme acts of terrorism to be shown in the mass media.<br />
<br />
{{epigraph<br />
| quote =There is always a point at which the terrorist ceases to manipulate the media [[gestalt]]. A point at which the violence may well escalate, but beyond which the terrorist has become symptomatic of the media gestalt itself. Terrorism as we ordinarily understand it is innately media-related.<br />
| cite =Novelist [[William Gibson]]<ref>[http://www.williamgibsonbooks.com/blog/2004_10_01_archive.asp his blog William Gibson's blog], October 31, 2004, retrieved April 26, 2007.</ref><br />
}}<br />
<br />
== History ==<br />
{{main|History of terrorism}}<br />
<br />
The modern English term "terrorism" dates back to 1795 when it was used to describe the actions of the [[Jacobin Club]] in their rule of post-Revolutionary France, the so-called "[[Reign of Terror]]".<br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
* [[List of terrorist incidents]]<br />
* [[List of terrorist organisations]]<br />
* [[9/11]]<br />
* [[7/7]]<br />
* [[Abortion bombing|Abortion clinic bombers]]<br />
* [[Agent provocateur]]<br />
* [[Christian Terrorism]]<br />
* [[Colombian Armed Conflict (1960s–present)]]<br />
* [[Communist terrorism|Communist Terrorism]]<br />
* [[Conspiracy theory]]<br />
* [[Counter-terrorism]]<br />
* [[Cyber-terrorism]]<br />
* [[Destructive_cult#Terrorism|Destructive cult]] <br />
* [[Domestic terrorist (United States)]]<br />
* [[Eco-terrorism]]<br />
* [[False flag]] operations<br />
* [[Hate crime]]<br />
* [[Hate group]]<br />
* [[Hirabah]]<br />
* [[Indoctrination]]<br />
* [[Islamic Terrorism]]<br />
* [[Middle east]]<br />
* [[Narcoterrorism]]<br />
* [[Northern Ireland]]<br />
* [[Nuclear 9/11]]<br />
* [[Propaganda]]<br />
* [[Strategy of tension]]<br />
* [[Suicide attack]]<br />
* [[Symbionese Liberation Army]]<br />
* [[Ten Threats]] identified by the [[United Nations]]<br />
* [[Terror bombing]]<br />
* [[Terrorism insurance]]<br />
* [[Terrorist Screening Center]]<br />
* [[Unconventional warfare]]<br />
* [[Weatherman (organization)|Weather Underground]]<br />
* [[World Trade Center]]<br />
<br />
==Further reading==<br />
{{wikiquote}}<br />
* [[Hans Köchler|Köchler, Hans]] (ed.), ''Terrorism and National Liberation. Proceedings of the International Conference on the Question of Terrorism.'' Frankfurt a. M./Bern/New York: Peter Lang, 1988, ISBN 3-8204-1217-4<br />
* Köchler, Hans. ''Manila Lectures 2002. Terrorism and the Quest for a Just World Order''. Quezon City (Manila): FSJ Book World, 2002, ISBN 0-9710791-2-9<br />
* Laqueur, Walter. ''No End to War - Terrorism in the 21st century'', New York, 2003, ISBN 0-8264-1435-4<br />
* Lerner, Brenda Wilmoth & K. Lee Lerner, eds. ''Terrorism : essential primary sources.'' Thomson Gale, 2006. ISBN 9781414406213 Library of Congress. Jefferson or Adams Bldg General or Area Studies Reading Rms LC Control Number: 2005024002.<br />
* Lewis, Jeff, Language Wars: The Role of Media and Culture in Global Terror and Political Violence, Pluto Books, London, 2005.<br />
*Lieberman, David M. [http://www.stanford.edu/group/lawreview/content/vol59/issue1/lieberman.pdf Sorting the revolutionary from the terrorist: The delicate application of the "Political Offense" exception in U.S. extradition case], Stanford Law Review, Volume 59, Issue 1, 2006, pp. 181-211<br />
* [[Lyal Sunga|Sunga, Lyal S.]], <cite> US Anti-Terrorism Policy and Asia’s Options, in Johannen, Smith and Gomez, (eds.) September 11 & Political Freedoms: Asian Perspectives (Select) (2002) 242-264.</cite><br />
* [[Charles Tilly]], ''Terror, Terrorism, Terrorists'' in Sociological Theory (2004) 22, 5-13 [http://professor-murmann.info/tilly/2004_Terror.pdf online]<br />
* Christian Buder, "''Die Todesstrafe, Tabu und Terror''", VDM-Verlag, Saarbrücken, 2008, ISBN 978-3-8364-5163-5<br />
* [[Arno Tausch]] 'Against Islamophobia. Quantitative analyses of global terrorism, world political cycles and center periphery structures' Hauppauge, N.Y.: Nova Science Publishers (for info: https://www.novapublishers.com/catalog/), 2007<br />
<br />
===UN conventions===<br />
* United Nations: [http://untreaty.un.org/English/Terrorism.asp Conventions on Terrorism]<br />
* [[United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime]]: {{cite web |url=http://www.unodc.org/unodc/terrorism_conventions.html |title= Conventions against terrorism |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20070805001945/http://www.unodc.org/unodc/terrorism_conventions.html |archivedate=2007-08-05}} "There are 12 major multilateral conventions and protocols related to states' responsibilities for combating terrorism. But many states are not yet party to these legal instruments, or are not yet implementing them."<br />
===News monitoring websites specializing on articles on terrorism===<br />
*[http://insurgencyresearchgroup.wordpress.com/ Insurgency Research Group] - Multi-expert blog dedicated to the study of terrorism, insurgency and the development of counter-insurgency policy.<br />
* [http://osint.isria.com/ A reliable and daily updated Open Sources Center that includes a "Terrorism" section.] by ISRIA.<br />
* [http://diplomacymonitor.com/stu/dm.nsf/issued?openform&cat=Terrorism Diplomacy Monitor - Terrorism]<br />
* [http://www.jihadmonitor.org/ Jihad Monitor]<br />
<br />
===Papers and articles on global terrorism===<br />
* Audrey Kurth Cronin, "Behind the Curve: Globalization and International Terrorism," ''International Security'', Vol. 27, No. 3 (Winter 2002/03), pp. 30-58.<br />
* Stathis N. Kalyvas, [http://research.yale.edu/stathis/files/Paradox.pdf ''The Paradox of Terrorism in Civil Wars''] (2004) in ''Journal of Ethics'' 8:1, 97-138.<br />
* [http://www.hereinstead.com/sys-tmpl/htmlpage13/ Prof. Troy Duster "From Theatre of War to Terrorism"] <br />
* [http://www.khabrein.info/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=14574&Itemid=88/ Syed Ubaidur Rahman "Thousands of Muslims gather to denounce terrorism"] <br />
* [[Hans Köchler]], [http://hanskoechler.com/koechler-un-law-terrorism.pdf The United Nations, the International Rule of Law and Terrorism]. Supreme Court of the Philippines, Centenary Lecture (2002)<br />
* [[Hans Köchler]], [http://i-p-o.org/koechler-terrorism-collective-security.htm The United Nations and International Terrorism. Challenges to Collective Security] (2002)<br />
* [http://www.start.umd.edu/data/gtd/ GTD, successor to the Terrorism Knowledge Base]<br />
* [http://www.strategicstudiesinstitute.army.mil/global-war-on-terrorism/ Global War on Terrorism / Strategic Studies Institute]<br />
* [http://www.terrorism.com/ Terrorism Research Center] - Terrorism research site started in 1996.<br />
* [http://terrorfinance.org/ Terror Finance Blog] - Multi-expert website dealing with terrorism finance issues.<br />
* [http://www.terrorism-research.com/ Terrorism Research] - International Terrorism and Security Research<br />
* [http://arxiv.org/abs/physics/0502014/ Scale invariance in global terrorism]<br />
* [http://www.debriefed.org/ Security News Line: Global Terrorism and Counter-terrorism www.debriefed.org]<br />
* [http://statbel.fgov.be/studies/thesis_nl.asp?n=424 The Evolution of Terrorism in 2005. A statistical assessment] An article by Rik Coolsaet and Teun Van de Voorde, University of Ghent<br />
* [http://www.polyarchy.org/essays/english/terrorism.html Terrorism/Anti-terrorism] - An analysis on the causes and uses of terrorism<br />
* <ref>[http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/front/ frontline: al qaeda's new front | PBS]</ref> "Al Qaeda's New Front," PBS "Frontline" January 2005. In the aftermath of the 9/11 attacks, the locus of the investigation quickly shifted to Europe and the network of radical Islamic jihadis who are part of "Eurabia," the continent's expanding Muslim communities. Since 9/11 America has been spared what authorities feared and expected: a second wave of attacks. Instead Europe, once a logistical base for Islamic radicals and a safe haven, has itself become the target.<br />
* [http://www.teachingterror.com/ ''Teaching Terrorism and Counterterrorism'' with lesson plans, bibliographies, resources; from US Military Academy]<br />
* {{cite web |url=http://www.analyzingeu.eu/konrad/2007/european-union-security-after-september-2001/ |title= European Union’s Security With Regard to the International Situation After September 2001 |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20070514163519/http://www.analyzingeu.eu/konrad/2007/european-union-security-after-september-2001/ |archivedate=2007-05-14}} - Special Report on Terrorism in the European Union on 'Analyzing EU'<br />
* [http://www.germany.info/relaunch/info/publications/infocus/terror/index.html Germany's contribution to the fight against global terrorism]<br />
* "Al Qaeda Today: The New Face of the Global Jihad," by Marlena Telvick, PBS ''Frontline'', January 2005.<ref>[http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/front/etc/today.html frontline: al qaeda's new front: al qaeda today | PBS]</ref> Former CIA caseworker Dr. Marc Sageman explains how Al Qaeda has evolved from an operational organization into a larger social movement, and the implications for U.S. counterterror efforts.<br />
The Intelligence & Terrorism Information Center- www.terrorism-info.org.il<br />
* Quantitative World System Studies Contradict Current Islamophobia: World Political Cycles, Global Terrorism, and World Development. Arno Tausch, Innsbruck University - Faculty of Political Science and Sociology - Department of Political Science, Turkish Journal of International Relations, Vol. 6, No. 1 & 2, Spring-Summer 2007, available at: http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=976864<br />
<br />
===Papers and articles on terrorism and the United States===<br />
*[http://www.loc.gov/rr/frd/pdf-files/Soc_Psych_of_Terrorism.pdf Library of Congress] – Federal Research Division The Sociology and Psychology of Terrorism. by Robert L. Worden, Ph.D.<br />
* [http://www.aynrand.org/site/News2?page=NewsArticle&id=5207&news_iv_ctrl=1021 Leonard Peikoff on Terrorism] This article was published in the New York Times on October 2, 2001.<br />
* Ivan Arreguín-Toft, "Tunnel at the End of the Light: A Critique of U.S. Counter-terrorist Grand Strategy,"''Cambridge Review of International Affairs'', Vol. 15, No. 3 (2002), pp. 549-563.<br />
* [http://web1.foreignpolicy.com/issue_julyaug_2006/TI-index/index.html The Terrorism Index] - Terrorism "scorecard" from ''Foreign Policy Magazine'' and the Center for American Progress<br />
* [http://lightonthings.blogspot.com#fight/ The reality show: the Watch, the Fight]<br />
* [http://www.rewardsforjustice.net/ Most Wanted Terrorists]- Rewards for Justice<br />
* [http://www.lawandterrorism.com/ Law, Terrorism and Homeland Security]. A collection of articles.<br />
* [http://ssrn.com/abstract=880076 "The Security Constitution," UCLA Law Review, Vol. 53, No. 29, 2005]<br />
* [http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/enemywithin/ The Enemy Within, PBS ''Frontline'' October 2006]<br />
* "The Man Turned Away" by Charlotte Buchen and Marlena Telvick, PBS ''Frontline'', October 2006.<ref>[http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/enemywithin/reality/al-banna.html FRONTLINE: the enemy within: new reality: the man turned away | PBS]</ref> To his family in Jordan, Raed Mansour al-Banna was a beloved son who wanted to make it in America. To his American friends, he was a sweet guy with a charming smile who loved to party. To the families of the 166 people he killed in Hilla, Iraq, he was a murderer.<br />
<br />
===Papers and articles on terrorism and Israel===<br />
* Ariel Merari, "Terrorism as a Strategy in Insurgency," ''Terrorism and Political Violence'', Vol. 5, No. 4 (Winter 1993), pp. 213-251.<br />
* [http://www.ynetnews.com/home/0,7340,L-4176,00.html Israel Global Terror desk]<br />
* [http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/Terrorism-+Obstacle+to+Peace/Palestinian+terror+since+2000/Victims+of+Palestinian+Violence+and+Terrorism+sinc.htm Victims of Palestinian Violence and Terrorism since September 2000]<br />
<br />
===Global Muslim public opinion on terrorism and political violence from the [[World Values Survey]]===<br />
*[http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1277915 Arno Tausch (2008) “Muslim Values, Global Values: Empirical Data from the 'World Values Survey” Social Science Research Network, New York]<br />
<br />
===Other===<br />
*[http://www.sderotmedia.com/ About the Qassam-sderot media center]<br />
* [http://www.paradisepoisoned.com/ Paradise Poisoned: Learning About Conflict, Development and Terrorism from Sri Lanka's Civil Wars] by [[John Richardson (professor and author)|John Richardson]]<br />
* [http://ontology.teknowledge.com/ Ontologies of ''Weapons of Mass Destruction'' and ''Terrorism'']<br />
* The '''[[Supreme Court of India]]''' adopted [[Alex P. Schmid|Alex P. Schmid's]] definition of terrorism in a 2003 ruling (Madan Singh vs. State of Bihar), "defin&#91;ing&#93; acts of terrorism veritably as 'peacetime equivalents of war crimes.'"<ref>http://www.sacw.net/hrights/judgementjehanabad.doc</ref><br />
* [[Jack Goody]] ''[http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/content~content=a713717641~db=all What is a terrorist?]'' Published in: journal History and Anthropology, Volume 13, Issue 2 2002 , pages 139 - 142 DOI: 10.1080/0275720022000001219<br />
* '''[[Alex P. Schmid|Schmid]] and Jongman (1988)''': "Terrorism is an anxiety-inspiring method of repeated violent action, employed by (semi-)clandestine individual, group, or state actors, for idiosyncratic, criminal, or political reasons, whereby — in contrast to assassination — the direct targets of violence are not the main targets. The immediate human victims of violence are generally chosen randomly (targets of opportunity) or selectively (representative or symbolic targets) from a target population, and serve as message generators. Threat- and violence-based communication processes between terrorist (organization), (imperiled) victims, and main targets are use to manipulate the main target (audience(s), turning it into a target of terror, a target of demands, or a target of attention, depending on whether intimidation, coercion, or propaganda is primarily sought".<ref name = "Schmid Terrorism Definition">{{cite web |url=http://www.unodc.org/unodc/terrorism_definitions.html |title= Academic Consensus Definition of "Terrorism," Schmid 1988, United Nations website |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20070627231104/http://www.unodc.org/unodc/terrorism_definitions.html |archivedate=2007-06-27}}. '''For more detailed information, see:''' Schmid, Jongman et al. ''Political terrorism: a new guide to actors, authors, concepts, data bases, theories, and literature''. Amsterdam: North Holland, Transaction Books, 1988. ISBN 1412804698</ref><br />
* Staff. [http://www.terrorfileonline.org/en/index.php/Main_Page ''U.S. Terrorism in the Americas''] an Encyclopedia "on violence promoted, supported and carried out by both the U.S. government and its servants in Latin America<br />
<br />
==Footnotes==<br />
{{reflist|2}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:Terrorism]]<br />
[[Category:Crises]]<br />
[[Category:Fear]]<br />
<br />
[[ar:إرهاب]]<br />
[[an:Terrorismo]]<br />
[[zh-min-nan:Khióng-pò͘-chú-gī]]<br />
[[be-x-old:Тэрарызм]]<br />
[[bs:Terorizam]]<br />
[[br:Sponterezh]]<br />
[[bg:Тероризъм]]<br />
[[ca:Terrorisme]]<br />
[[ceb:Terorismo]]<br />
[[cs:Terorismus]]<br />
[[cy:Terfysgaeth]]<br />
[[da:Terrorisme]]<br />
[[de:Terrorismus]]<br />
[[el:Τρομοκρατία]]<br />
[[es:Terrorismo]]<br />
[[eo:Terorismo]]<br />
[[fa:تروریسم]]<br />
[[fr:Terrorisme]]<br />
[[gl:Terrorismo]]<br />
[[ko:테러리즘]]<br />
[[hy:Ահաբեկչություն]]<br />
[[hi:आतंकवाद]]<br />
[[hr:Terorizam]]<br />
[[io:Terorismo]]<br />
[[id:Terorisme]]<br />
[[is:Hryðjuverk]]<br />
[[it:Terrorismo]]<br />
[[he:טרור]]<br />
[[kn:ಭಯೋತ್ಪಾದನೆ]]<br />
[[ka:ტერორიზმი]]<br />
[[sw:Ugaidi]]<br />
[[ku:Terorîzm]]<br />
[[la:Tromocratia]]<br />
[[lv:Terorisms]]<br />
[[lt:Terorizmas]]<br />
[[jbo:tadjycolnunte'a]]<br />
[[hu:Terror]]<br />
[[ms:Pengganasan]]<br />
[[nl:Terrorisme]]<br />
[[new:आतङ्कवाद]]<br />
[[ja:テロリズム]]<br />
[[no:Terrorisme]]<br />
[[nn:Terrorisme]]<br />
[[oc:Terrorisme]]<br />
[[nds:Terror]]<br />
[[pl:Terroryzm]]<br />
[[pt:Terrorismo]]<br />
[[ro:Terorism]]<br />
[[ru:Терроризм]]<br />
[[sq:Terrorizmi]]<br />
[[scn:Tirrurìsimu]]<br />
[[simple:Terrorism]]<br />
[[sk:Terorizmus]]<br />
[[sl:Terorizem]]<br />
[[sr:Тероризам]]<br />
[[sh:Terorizam]]<br />
[[fi:Terrorismi]]<br />
[[sv:Terrorism]]<br />
[[ta:பயங்கரவாதம்]]<br />
[[te:ఉగ్రవాదులు]]<br />
[[th:การก่อการร้าย]]<br />
[[vi:Khủng bố]]<br />
[[tr:Terörizm]]<br />
[[uk:Тероризм]]<br />
[[ur:دہشت گردی]]<br />
[[wa:Terorisse]]<br />
[[yi:טעראריזם]]<br />
[[zh:恐怖主义]]</div>
Leslie
https://conservapedia.com/index.php?title=Daily_Mail&diff=553370
Daily Mail
2008-11-10T00:43:12Z
<p>Leslie: removing some too-obvious bias</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Refimprove|date=October 2008}}<br />
{{about|the British national daily newspaper|the Charleston Daily Mail|Charleston Daily Mail}}<br />
{{Infobox Newspaper<br />
|name = Daily Mail<br />
|image = [[Image:DailyMailFrontPage.jpg|225px|centre|A Daily Mail front page from August 2007]]<br />
|caption = A ''Daily Mail'' front page.<br />
|type = Daily [[newspaper]]<br />
|format = [[Tabloid]]<br />
|foundation = 1896<br />
|ceased publication = <br />
|price = [[Pound sterling|£]]0.50 <small>(Monday-Friday)</small><br/>[[Pound sterling|£]]0.70 <small>(Saturday)</small><br />
|owners = [[Daily Mail and General Trust]]<br />
|publisher = [[Associated Newspapers Ltd]]<br />
|editor = [[Paul Dacre]]<br />
|chiefeditor = <br />
|assoceditor = <br />
|staff = <br />
|language = English<br />
|political = [[Conservative]]/[[Right Wing]]<br />
|circulation = 2,241,788<ref name="Circulation">{{cite web|year=2007|url=http://abcpdfcerts.abc.org.uk/pdf/certificates/15487582.pdf | title=ABC Circulation Figures – 25 August 2008 to 28 September 2008|publisher=Audit Bureau of Circulations (ABC)|accessdate=2008-10-20}}</ref><br /><small>(September 2008)</small><br />
|headquarters = 2 [[Northcliffe House]], [[London]]<br />
|oclc = <br />
|ISSN = 0307-7578<br />
|website = [http://www.dailymail.co.uk/ Daily Mail online]<br />
}}<br />
<br />
The '''''Daily Mail''''' is a [[United Kingdom|British]] newspaper, currently published in a [[tabloid newspaper|tabloid]] format. First published in 1896 by [[Alfred Harmsworth, 1st Viscount Northcliffe|Lord Northcliffe]], it is the United Kingdom's second biggest-selling daily newspaper after ''[[The Sun (newspaper)|The Sun]]''. Its sister paper, '''''[[The Mail on Sunday]]''''' was launched in 1982. An [[Irish Daily Mail|Irish edition of the paper]] was launched in 2006. The ''Daily Mail'' was Britain's first daily newspaper aimed at what is now considered the [[middle-market newspaper|middle-market]] and the first to sell 1 million copies a day.<ref name="1millionaday">{{cite web|year= |url=http://www.eurocosm.com/Application/Products/Original-newspapers/newspaper-history-GB.asp|title=Milestones in 20th Century Newspaper history in Britain|publisher=Eurocosm UK|accessdate=2008-04-12}}</ref><br />
<br />
The ''Mail'' was originally a [[broadsheet]], but switched to its current compact format<ref>[http://www.associatednewspapers.com/dailymail.htm Associated Newspapers Ltd - Daily Mail<!--Bot-generated title-->]</ref> on 3 May 1971, the 75th anniversary of its founding. On this date it also absorbed the ''[[Daily Sketch]]'', which had previously been published as a tabloid by the same company. Its long-standing rival, the ''[[Daily Express]]'', has a broadly similar political stance and target readership, but nowadays sells one-third the number of copies. The publisher of the ''Mail'', the [[Daily Mail and General Trust]] is currently a [[FTSE 100]] company, and the paper has a circulation of more than two million, giving it one of the largest [[Newspaper circulation|circulation]]s of any [[English language]] daily newspaper, and the twelfth highest of any newspaper in the world.<ref name="12inworld">{{cite web|year=2005|url=http://www.wan-press.org/article2825.html|title=World’s 100 Largest Newspapers|publisher=World Association of Newspapers|accessdate=2008-04-12}}</ref><br />
<br />
Circulation figures according to the [[Audit Bureau of Circulations]], in October 2007 show gross sales of 2,400,143 for the ''Daily Mail'', compared with 789,867 for the ''[[Daily Express]]''. Twenty-five years ago the circulation was 1.87 million copies a day compared to over 2 million copies per day by the ''Daily Express'' at the same time period.{{Fact|date=September 2008}} According to a December 2004 survey, 53% of ''Daily Mail'' readers voted for the Conservative party, compared to 21% for Labour and 17% for the Liberal Democrats.<ref name="MORI survey">{{cite web|url=http://www.ipsos-mori.com/polls/2004/voting-by-readership.shtml|title=MORI survey of newspaper readers|accessdate=2007-12-21}}</ref><br />
<br />
==History==<br />
===Early history===<br />
The ''Daily Mail'', devised by [[Alfred Harmsworth]] (later Lord Northcliffe) and his brother Harold (later [[Harold Sidney Harmsworth, 1st Viscount Rothermere|Lord Rothermere]]), was first published on 4 May 1896 and was an immediate success. It cost a halfpenny at a time when other London dailies cost one penny, and was more populist in tone and more concise in its coverage than its rivals. Soon after its launch it had more than half a million readers.<br />
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Controlled editorially by Alfred, with Harold running the business side of the operation, the ''Mail'' from the start adopted a [[Imperialism|imperialist]] political stance, taking a strongly patriotic line in the [[Second Boer War]], leading to claims that it was not reporting the issues of the day objectively.{{Who|date=March 2008}} From the beginning, the ''Mail'' also set out to entertain its readers with human interest stories, serials, features and competitions (which were also the main means by which the Harmsworths promoted the paper).<br />
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In 1906, the paper offered £1,000 for the first flight across the [[English Channel]], and £10,000 for the first flight from [[London]] to [[Manchester]]. ''[[Punch (magazine)|Punch]]'' magazine thought the idea preposterous and offered £10,000 for the first flight to [[Mars (planet)|Mars]], but by 1910 both the ''Mail'''s prizes had been won. (For full list see [[Daily Mail aviation prizes]].)<br />
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In 1908, the ''Daily Mail'' began the [[Ideal Home Exhibition]], which it still runs today.<br />
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The paper was accused of warmongering before the outbreak of [[World War I]], when it reported that Germany was planning to crush the [[British Empire]]. Northcliffe created controversy by advocating [[conscription]] when the war broke out.{{Clarifyme|date=March 2008}} On 21 May 1915, Northcliffe wrote a blistering attack on [[Horatio Kitchener|Lord Kitchener]], the [[Secretary of State for War]]. Kitchener was considered a national hero, and overnight the paper's circulation dropped from 1,386,000 to 238,000. 1,500 members of the [[London Stock Exchange]] ceremonially burned the unsold copies and launched a boycott against the Harmsworth Press. Prime Minister [[H. H. Asquith]] accused the paper of being disloyal to the country.<br />
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When Kitchener died, the ''Mail'' reported it as a great stroke of luck for the British Empire. The paper then campaigned against Asquith, who resigned on 5 December 1916. His successor, [[David Lloyd George]], asked Northcliffe to be in his cabinet, hoping it would prevent him from criticising the government. Northcliffe declined.<br />
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===Inter-war period===<br />
In 1922, when Lord Northcliffe died, [[Harold Harmsworth, 1st Viscount Rothermere|Lord Rothermere]] took full control of the paper.<br />
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In 1924 the ''Daily Mail'' published the forged [[Zinoviev Letter]] which indicated that British [[Communists]] were planning violent [[revolution]]. It was widely believed that this was a significant factor in the defeat of [[Ramsay MacDonald]]'s [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour Party]] in the [[United Kingdom general election, 1924|1924 general election]], held four days later. (In some Labour circles, e.g. by former Labour leader [[Michael Foot]], the paper is often referred to as "The Forgers' Gazette").<br />
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====Support for Nazism and Fascism====<br />
In early 1934, Rothermere and the ''Mail'' were sympathetic to [[Oswald Mosley]] and the [[British Union of Fascists]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.britishpapers.co.uk/midmarket/daily-mail/| title=Daily Mail| publisher=British Newspapers Online|date =}}</ref>. Rothermere wrote an article, "Hurrah for the Blackshirts", in January 1934, in which he praised Mosley for his "sound, commonsense, Conservative doctrine"<ref>[http://www.voiceoftheturtle.org/dictionary/dict_h1.php#hurrah "Hurrah for the Blackshirts"]</ref>, though after the violence of the 1934 Olympia meeting involving the BUF, the ''Mail'' withdrew its support for Mosley.<br />
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Rothermere was a friend and supporter of both [[Benito Mussolini]] and [[Adolf Hitler]], which influenced the ''Mail'''s political stance towards them up to 1939. During this period, it was the only British newspaper consistently to support the German [[Nazism|Nazi]] Party.<ref>{{cite book|last=Griffiths|first=Richard|title=Fellow Travellers of the Right: British Enthusiasts for Nazi Germany, 1933-9|year=1980|publisher=Constable|location=London|id=ISBN 0-09-463460-2}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Taylor|first=S. J.|title=The Great Outsiders: Northcliffe, Rothermere and the Daily Mail|year=1996|publisher=Weidenfeld & Nicolson|location=London|id=ISBN 0-297-81653-5}}</ref> Rothermere visited and corresponded with Hitler on many occasions. On 1 October 1938, Rothermere sent Hitler a telegram in support of Germany's invasion of the Sudetenland, and expressing the hope that 'Adolf the Great' would become a popular figure in Britain.<br />
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In 1937, the ''Mail'''s chief war correspondent, George Ward Price, to whom Mussolini once personally wrote in support of him and the newspaper, published a book, ''I Know These Dictators'', in defence of Hitler and Mussolini. [[Evelyn Waugh]] was sent as a reporter for the ''Mail'' to cover the anticipated [[Second Italo-Ethiopian War|Italian invasion of Ethiopia]].<br />
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Rothermere and the ''Mail'' supported [[Neville Chamberlain]]'s policy of [[appeasement]], particularly during the events leading up to the [[Munich Agreement]]. However, after the Nazi invasion of [[Prague]] in 1939, the ''Mail'' changed position and urged Chamberlain to prepare for war, not least, perhaps, because on account of its stance it had been threatened with closure by the British Government.{{Fact|date=October 2007}}<br />
<br />
In 2001 at the 27th G8 Summit held in Genoa, Italy; 93 peaceful anti-globalisation protesters were brutally beaten by the Italian police, falsely imprisoned and made to chant fascist slogans. Posing as a British Embassy official, a woman from the Daily Mail took pictures of some of the prisoners including journalist Mark Covell. The next day the Daily Mail ran a front page story including an entirely false report describing Covell as having helped mastermind the riots. It took 4 years for the newspaper to apologise and pay Covell damages for invasion of privacy.[http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2008/jul/17/italy.g8]<br />
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The paper continues to be referred to on occasion by critics as the ''Daily Heil'', referring to its right-wing stance and its past support for Mosley.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://blogs.guardian.co.uk/sport/2006/12/03/where_have_all_the_goals_gone.html|title=Where Have All The Goals Gone?|publisher=[[The Guardian]]|work=The Guardian Sport|accessdate=2007-01-09}}</ref><br />
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===Recent history===<br />
The ''Daily Mail'' was transformed by its editor of the seventies and eighties, Sir [[David English (journalist)|David English]]. Sir David began his Fleet Street career in 1951, joining ''[[Daily Mirror|The Daily Mirror]]'' before moving to ''The Daily Sketch'', where he became features editor. It was the ''Sketch'' which brought him his first editorship, from 1969 to 1971. That year the ''Sketch'' was closed and he moved to take over the top job at the ''Mail'', where he was to remain for more than 20 years. English transformed it from a struggling rival selling two million copies fewer than the ''Daily Express'' to a formidable journalistic powerhouse, which soared dramatically in popularity.<br />
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After 20 years perfecting the ''Mail'', Sir David English became editor-in-chief and chairman of Associated Newspapers in 1992.<br />
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The paper enjoyed a period of journalistic success in the 1980s, employing some of the most inventive writers in old [[Fleet Street]] including the gossip columnist [[Nigel Dempster]], Lynda Lee Potter and sportswriter [[Ian Wooldridge]] (who unlike some of his colleagues - the paper generally did not support sporting boycotts of white-minority-ruled South Africa - strongly opposed [[Apartheid]]). In 1982, a Sunday title, the '''''Mail on Sunday''''' was launched (the ''[[Sunday Mail (Scotland)|Sunday Mail]]'' was already the name of a newspaper in Scotland, owned by the Mirror Group.) There are Scottish editions of both the ''Daily Mail'' and ''Mail on Sunday'', with different articles and columnists. In 1992, the current editor, [[Paul Dacre]], was appointed.<br />
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===Foreign editions===<br />
The ''Daily Mail'' officially entered the [[Republic of Ireland|Irish]] market with the launch of a [[Irish Daily Mail|local version of the paper]] on 6 February 2006; free copies of the paper were distributed on that day in some locations to publicise the launch. Its masthead differs from that of UK versions by having a green rectangle with the word "IRISH", instead of the [[Coat of Arms of the United Kingdom|Royal Arms]]. The Irish version includes stories of Irish interest alongside content from the UK version. According to the Audit Bureau of Circulations, the Irish edition had a circulation of 63,511 for July 2007 and is steadily increasing on each survey.<ref>[http://www.abc-ireland.ie/ Audit Bureau of Circulations]</ref> Since 24 September 2006 ''[[Ireland on Sunday]]'', the Irish Sunday newspaper acquired by Associated in 2001, was replaced by an Irish edition of the ''Mail on Sunday'' (the ''Irish Mail on Sunday''), to tie in with the weekday newspaper. The newspaper entered India on 16 November 2007 with the launch of ''Mail Today'',<ref>[http://www.mailtoday.in/ ''Mail Today'']</ref> a 48-page compact size newspaper printed in Delhi, Gurgaon and Noida with a print run of 110,000 copies. Based around a subscription model, the newspaper has the same fonts and feel as the Daily Mail and was set up with investment from Associated Newspapers and editorial assistance from the ''Daily Mail'' newsroom.<ref>[http://www.thomascrampton.com/media/thomas-jacob-mail-todays-india-newspaper-ifra/ Associated Newspapers launches Mail Today in India]</ref><br />
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===Libel lawsuits===<br />
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On 27 April 2007, film star [[Hugh Grant]] accepted damages over claims made about his relationships with his former girlfriends in three separate tabloid articles published in the ''Daily Mail'' and ''The Mail on Sunday'' on 18, 21 and 24 February. His lawyer stated that all of the articles' "allegations and factual assertions are false."<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/entertainment/6598937.stm |title=Hugh Grant accepts libel damages |publisher=[[BBC]] |date=2007-04-27 |accessdate=2007-02-24}}</ref> Grant said, in a written statement, that he took the action because: "I was tired of the ''Daily Mail'' and ''Mail on Sunday'' papers publishing almost entirely fictional articles about my private life for their own financial gain. I'm also hoping that this statement in court might remind people that the so-called 'close friends' or 'close sources' on which these stories claim to be based almost never exist."<ref>{{cite news |url=http://media.guardian.co.uk/presspublishing/story/0,,2066970,00.html |title=Associated pays Grant damages |last=Tryhorn |first=Chris |publisher=''[[Guardian Unlimited]]'' |date=2007-04-27 |accessdate=2007-02-17}}</ref> <br />
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World soccer's governing body, [[FIFA]], also filed a lawsuit against the ''Daily Mail'' due to libellous comments made by sportswriter Andrew Jennings against the organisation and its president Sepp Blatter.<ref>[http://www.rediff.com/sports/2003/mar/19fifa.htm FIFA files lawsuit against Daily Mail]</ref> On 31 May 2008, fans of [[emo]] music, many of them followers of the band [[My Chemical Romance]], marched through London's Hyde Park to the offices of the ''Daily Mail'', accusing the newspaper of attacking emo music by referring to it as "suicide cult".<ref>[http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=90981575 N Emo Fans March on London's 'Daily Mail']</ref> The '' Daily Mail'' responded by stating, "The Daily Mail's coverage of the 'Emo' movement has been balanced, restrained and above all, in the public interest."<ref>[http://www.guardian.co.uk/media/2008/jun/02/dailymail.pressandpublishing?gusrc=rss&feed=media EDaily Mail: statement on 'Emo' protest]</ref><br />
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==Editorial stance==<br />
{{Refimprove|section|date=December 2007}}<br />
<div class="infobox" style="width: 20em;"><br />
'''Current columnists'''<br />
*[[Peter Allen (journalist)|Peter Allen]]<br />
*[[Charlie Bain]]<br />
*[[Alex Brummer]]<br />
*[[Rebecca Camber]]<br />
*[[Nick Craven]]<br />
*[[Rebecca English]]<br />
*[[Charlotte Gill]]<br />
*[[Sam Greenhill]]<br />
*[[Christian Gysin]]<br />
*[[Beth Hale]]<br />
*[[Roy Hattersley]]<br />
*[[Liz Jones]]<br />
*[[Richard Kay]]<br />
*[[Des Kelly]]<br />
*[[Tom Kelly (Journalist)|Tom Kelly]]<br />
*[[Olinka Koster]]<br />
*[[Ann Leslie]]<br />
*[[Edward Lucas]]<br />
*[[Richard Littlejohn]]<br />
*[[James Mills (journalist)|James Mills]]<br />
*[[Bill Mouland]]<br />
*[[Dan Newling]]<br />
*[[Graham Poll]]<br />
*[[Melanie Phillips]]<br />
*[[Gordon Rayner]]<br />
*[[Gwyneth Rees]]<br />
*[[Tom Utley]]<br />
*[[Michael Seamark]]<br />
*[[Neil Sears]]<br />
*[[Paul Sheehan (entertainment journalist)|Paul Sheehan]]<br />
*[[Chris Tookey]]<br />
*[[Keith Waterhouse]]<br />
*[[David Williams (UK journalist)|David Williams]]<br />
*[[Michael Winner]]<br />
*[[Stephen Wright]]<br />
*[[Tahira Yaqoob]]<br />
<br />
</div><br />
The ''Daily Mail'' considers itself to be the voice of [[Middle England]] speaking up for "small-c" conservative<ref>"small c" referring to [[conservatism]] as a [[political philosophy]]. Capitalising the C would imply the [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative Party]], as "Conservative" is a [[Proper noun#Proper_nouns_and_common_nouns|proper noun]].</ref> values against what it sees as a liberal establishment. It generally takes an [[Euroscepticism|anti-EU]], anti-mass immigration, anti-abortion view, based around what it describes as "traditional values", and is correspondingly [[family values|pro-family]], pro-capitalism (though not always supportive of its aftereffects), and pro-monarchy, as well as, in some cases, advocating stricter punishments for crime. It also often calls for lower levels of taxation. The paper is generally critical of the [[BBC]], which it argues is biased to the [[left-wing politics|left]]. However, it is less supportive of deregulated [[commercial television]] than ''[[The Sun (newspaper)|The Sun]]'' (a tabloid owned by [[Rupert Murdoch]]), and unlike ''The Sun'' it seems to be broadly nostalgic for what it believes the BBC once was.<br />
<br />
In the late 1960s the paper went through a phase of being liberal on social issues like corporal punishment, but this proved short-lived and it soon reverted to its traditional right-wing conservative line.<br />
<br />
It has [[Richard Littlejohn]], who returned in 2005 from ''[[The Sun (newspaper)|The Sun]]'', alongside [[Peter Hitchens]], who joined its sister title the ''Mail on Sunday'' in 2001, when his former newspaper, the ''Daily Express'', was purchased by [[Richard Desmond]], the owner of a number of pornographic titles. The editorial stance was highly critical of [[Tony Blair]], when he was still Prime Minister, and endorsed the [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative Party]] in the [[UK general election, 2005|2005 general election]]<ref>[http://www.dailymail.co.uk/pages/live/articles/news/newscomment.html?in_article_id=347259&in_page_id=1787&in_a_source= ''However you vote, give Mr Blair a bloody nose'', Daily Mail, 5th May 2005]</ref> However, in Blair's earlier years as [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour]] leader and then Prime Minister the paper often wrote positively about him and his reforms of the party. Opponents of Littlejohn have accused the columnist of being preoccupied with homosexuality (which he frequently calls 'poovery') and lying about asylum seekers being 'hosed down in benefits'<ref>{{cite web |publisher=The New Statesman |author=[[Johann Hari]] |url=http://www.newstatesman.com/200705210048 |title=On Fantasy Island}}</ref>.<br />
<br />
The ''Mail'' championed the case of [[Stephen Lawrence]], a black teenager who was murdered in a racially motivated attack in [[Eltham, London]] in April 1993. In February 1997, the ''Mail'' led its front page with a picture of the five men accused of Lawrence's murder and the headline "MURDERERS", stating that it believed that the men had murdered Lawrence and adding "if we are wrong, let them sue us". In a 2002 interview, editor Paul Dacre described the Lawrence story as a "pivotal moment" and stated that "the old ''Daily Mail'', I'd be the first to admit, was slightly racist... but we are not now and Stephen Lawrence was the turning point on that".<ref>{{cite web |publisher=British Journalism Review |author=Bill Hagerty |url=http://www.bjr.org.uk/data/2002/no3_hagerty2.htm |title=Paul Dacre: the zeal thing}}</ref><br />
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The ''Mail'' has also opposed the growing of [[genetically-modified crops]] in the United Kingdom, a stance it shares with many of its left-wing critics.<br />
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On international affairs, the ''Mail'' broke with the establishment media consensus over the [[2008 South Ossetia war]] between Russia and [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]]. The ''Mail'' accused the British government of dragging Britain into an unnecessary confrontation with Russia and of hypocrisy regarding its protests over Russian recognition of [[Abkhazia]] and [[South Ossetia]]'s independence, citing the British government's own recognition of [[Kosovo]]'s independence from Russia's ally [[Serbia]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-1050075/MAIL-COMMENT-Is-Miliband-talking-war.html|title=MAIL COMMENT: Is Miliband talking us into another war?|publisher=Daily Mail|date=2008-08-28|accessdate=2008-08-29}}</ref><br />
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===Immigration===<br />
Generally, its journalists argue emphatically in favour of ''managed'' migration whilst criticising what it calls Labour's "open door" immigration policy which, as is often quoted, has reportedly seen the UK's population increase by around 1.2 million.<ref name="population/immigration">{{cite web|url=http://www.workpermit.com/news/2005_09_02/uk/immigration_1mln.htm|publisher=Work Permit|title=Immigration increases UK population by over 1 million|author= |accessdate=2007-11-23}}</ref> However, its fervent treatment of issues such as [[Refugee|asylum seekers]] has prompted opponents (including ex-[[Mayor of London]] [[Ken Livingstone]] in a well-publicised argument)<ref>{{cite web|title=Ken Livingstone's statement in full|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/london/4287171.stm|publisher=BBC Online|date=2005-02-22|accessdate=2008-03-27}}</ref> to accuse the Mail of engendering [[racism]].<br />
<br />
The paper has also been accused of misquoting information about immigration in order to support its anti-immigrant line, a move criticised by the [[Association of Chief Police Officers]] (ACPO), who warned that media campaigns against immigrants could lead to a risk of "significant public disorder". However, the paper chose to interpret this as meaning that the disorder would be caused by immigrants, and failed to mention the media's role when reporting ACPO's statement.<ref>Nick Davies, "None deadlier than the Mail" [http://www.newstatesman.com/200801240030]</ref><br />
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The newspaper is sometimes accused by its critics of having an anti-semitic past, being described by Ken Livingstone as having campaigned not to admit Jewish refugees from Nazi Germany, that it described Jews as infiltrating and undermining the pre-Hitler German government, supporting the Nazis, and blaming the Jews for having caused bad feeling against them in Germany.<ref name="eveningstandard">{{cite web|url=http://www.london.gov.uk/mayor/mayor_letter_220205.jsp|publisher=Mayor of London|title=The Mayor's response to the London Assembly|author=Ken Livingstone|accessdate=2007-11-23}}</ref><br />
<br />
== Supplements and features ==<br />
{|<br />
|-valign=top<br />
|width=50%|<br />
'''''Daily Mail'''''<br />
*''City & Finance'' - City & Finance is the business part of the Daily Mail, and the Financial Mail is the business paper free with the Mail on Sunday. City & Finance features City News and the results from the [[London Stock Exchange]], and also has its own website called ''This is Money''.<ref> [http://www.thisismoney.co.uk This is Money]</ref><br />
*''Travelmail'' - Contains travel articles, advertisements etc.<br />
*''Femail'' - Femail is an extensive part of the ''Daily Mail'''s newspaper and website, being one of four main features on [[Mail Online]] others being News, TV & Showbiz and Sport. It is designed for women and is similar to magazines with life stories such as ''Bella Magazine'' and ''Take A Break''.<br />
*''Weekend'' - The ''Daily Mail Weekend'' is a TV guide published by the ''Daily Mail'', included free with the ''Mail'' every Saturday. Weekend magazine, launched in October 1993, is issued free with the Saturday ''Daily Mail'' and has more ABC1 readers than any other national magazine. Weekend was originally launched with the intention of raising the Saturday circulation up to around 1.8 million copies. Today, the ''Daily Mail'' on a Saturday circulates over 3.2 million copies and is read by over 6.4 million adults. The guide does not use a magazine-type layout but chooses a newspaper style similar to the ''Daily Mail'' itself. In April 2007, the "Weekend" had a major revamp which included new articles and the end of other ones, such as the popular ''Nigel Andrew's View'' next to the guide every day. A feature changed during the revamp was a dedicated [[Freeview (United Kingdom)|Freeview]] channel page to ensure that the guide was more "user-friendly" for people with the most used digital box in [[Great Britain]].<br />
|width=50%|<br />
[[Image:This is Money.JPG|240px|right|thumb|The Financial Mail on Sunday]]<br />
<br />
'''''Mail on Sunday'''''<br />
*''Financial Mail on Sunday'' - now part of the main paper, this section includes the award winning Financial Mail Enterprise, focusing on small business.<br />
*''You'' - ''You'' magazine is a women's magazine featured in the ''Mail on Sunday''. Its mix of in-depth features plus fashion, beauty advice, practical insights on health and relationships, food recipes and interiors pages make it a regular read for over 3 million women (and 2.3 million men) every week. The ''Mail'' markets it, with ''Live'' magazine, as the only paper to have a magazine for him (''Live'') and for her (''You''). The ''Mail on Sunday'' is read by over six million a week<ref>[http://www.anladvertising.co.uk/mailonsunday.html Advertising for the Daily Mail]</ref>.<br />
*''Live'' - this is the magazine is aimed at men. The main features are columms by well-known people such as [[Piers Morgan]], has a particular stance towards iPod style equipment, and as such has been criticised for brand favouritism.<br />
*''Mail on Sunday 2'' This pullout includes review, featuring articles on the arts, books and culture and it consists of reviews of all media and entertainment forms and interviews with sector personalities, property, travel and health.<br />
*''Sportsmail'' - on the back pages of the ''Mail''. It features different sports including an emphasis on alternative sports such as darts and snooker.<br />
*''Football Mail on Sunday'' - this reviews [[Premier League]], [[Football League Championship|Championship]] and [[The Football League|Football League]] games from Saturday as well as any important international games.<br />
|}<br />
=== Regular cartoon strips ===<br />
* ''[[Garfield]]''<br />
* ''[[I Don't Believe It]]''<br />
* ''[[Odd Streak]]''<br />
* ''The Strip Show''<br />
* ''[[Up and Running]]'' (by Knight Features)<br />
* ''[[The Gambols]]'' (Sunday, in the Cartoons section)<br />
* ''[[Fred Basset]]''<br />
* ''[[The Middletons]]'' (Sunday, in the Cartoons section)<br />
* ''[[Peanuts]]'' (Sunday, in the Cartoons section)<br />
<br />
Current cartoon strips that are in the ''Daily Mail'' include ''[[Garfield]]'' which moved from the ''[[Daily Express]]'' in 2006 and is also included in ''The Mail on Sunday''. It is usually written by Jim Davis. ''I Don't Believe It'' is another 3/4 part strip, written by Dick Millington. ''Odd Streak'' and ''The Strip Show'', which is shown in 3D are one part strips. ''Up and Running'' is a strip distributed by Knight Features and ''[[Fred Basset]]'' follows the life of the dog of the same name in a two part strip in the ''Daily Mail'' since 8 July 1963.<ref name="c2med">{{cite web |url=http://www.c21media.net/news/detail.asp?area=1&article=21463 |publisher=C21 Media |title=Fred Basset is back |author=Maria Esposito |accessdate=2007-03-27}}</ref> ''The Gambols'' are another feature in the ''Mail on Sunday''.<br />
<br />
The long-running ''Teddy Tail'' cartoon strip, was first published on 5 April 1915 was the first ever cartoon strip in a British newspaper. It ran for over 40 years to 1960, spawning the popular ''Teddy Tail League'' Children's Club and many annuals from 1934 to 1942 and again from 1949 to 1962. ''Teddy Tail'' was a Mouse, with friends Kitty Puss (a cat), Douglas Duck and Dr. Beetle. Teddy Tail is always shown with a knot in his tail, the reason why is explained in one of his stories.<ref name="tt1">{{cite web |url=http://www.bl.uk/collections/brit20th.html |title=Teddy Tail of the Daily Mail}}</ref><ref name="tt2">{{cite web |url=http://www.gatewaymonthly.com/513teddy.html |title=Concise History of the British Newspaper in the Twentieth Century}}</ref><br />
<br />
=== Online media ===<br />
{{main|Mail Online}}<br />
The ''Daily Mail'' and ''The Mail on Sunday'' publish most of their news online in a service called the Mail Online. Most of the site can be viewed for free and without registration, though some services require users to register.<br />
<br />
==Contributors==<br />
===Notable regular contributors (past and present)===<br />
{|width=100%<br />
|-valign=top<br />
|width=25%|<br />
'''Journalists'''<br />
*[[Alex Brummer]]<br />
*[[Sam Greenhill]]<br />
*[[Roy Hattersley]]<br />
*[[Liz Jones]]<br />
*[[Des Kelly]]<br />
*[[Tom Kelly]]<br />
|width=25%|<br />
*[[Ann Leslie]]<br />
*[[Edward Lucas (journalist)|Edward Lucas]]<br />
*[[Richard Littlejohn]]<br />
*[[Graham Poll]]<br />
*[[Melanie Phillips]]<br />
*[[David Mellor]]<br />
*[[Idiot|Julie Moult]]<br />
*[[Paul Sheehan (entertainment journalist)|Paul Sheehan]]<br />
|width=25%|<br />
*[[Michael Winner]]<br />
*[[Stephen Wright]]<br />
*[[Craig Brown (satirist)|Craig Brown]]<br />
*[[Patrick Collins]]<br />
*[[Derek Draper]]<br />
*[[Peter Hitchens]]<br />
*[[Keith Waterhouse]]<br />
*[[Julie Burchill]]<br />
*[[John Junor]]<br />
*[[Norman Tebbit]]<br />
|width=25%|<br />
<br />
'''Cartoonists'''<br />
* [[Alex Graham]]<br />
* [[Jim Davis (cartoonist)|Jim Davis]]<br />
* [[Stanley McMurtry]]<br />
<br />
'''Photographers/Picture editors'''<br />
<br />
*[[Dave Parker]]<br />
*[[Mark Richards]]<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Past writers===<br />
*[[Paul Callan (journalist)|Paul Callan]]<br />
*[[William Comyns Beaumont]] (left in 1903 to create ''[[The Bystander]]'')<br />
*[[Anthony Cave Brown]] (worked from mid-1950s through mid-1960s, won "Reporter of the Year" award in 1958)<br />
*[[Nigel Dempster]]<br />
*[[Simon Heffer]] (left in 2005 to join the ''Daily Telegraph'')<br />
*[[Paul Johnson (writer)|Paul Johnson]] (left the ''Mail'' in 2001; now writes for the ''[[Daily Telegraph]]'' and ''The Spectator'')<br />
*[[Lynda Lee Potter]] (wrote for the ''Mail'' from 1967 until her death in 2004)<br />
*[[William Le Queux]]{{ndash}} A prolific writer of [[invasion literature]] in the pre-First World War period.<br />
*[[Valentine Williams]] (1883&ndash;1946) General news correspondent and, during the [[First World War]], chief of the ''Daily Mail'' war service. Later a popular mystery novelist.<ref>Source: Williams' memoir, ''The World of Action'' (London: Hamish Hamilton, 1938), which describes his career and journalistic adventures.</ref><br />
*[[Ian Wooldridge]], a sportswriter on the paper from 1961 until his death in 2007<br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
*''[[Daily Chronicle]]'', a newspaper which merged with the ''Daily News'' to become the ''News-Chronicle'' and was finally absorbed by the ''Daily Mail''<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{reflist|2}}<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
* ''[http://www.dailymail.co.uk/ Mail Online]''<br />
<br />
<br />
{{Daily Mail and General Trust}}<br />
{{UK newspapers}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:Daily Mail and General Trust]]<br />
[[Category:Publications established in 1896]]<br />
[[Category:Newspapers published in the United Kingdom]]<br />
<br />
[[cy:Daily Mail]]<br />
[[de:Daily Mail]]<br />
[[es:Daily Mail]]<br />
[[fr:Daily Mail]]<br />
[[it:Daily Mail]]<br />
[[nl:Daily Mail]]<br />
[[ja:デイリー・メール]]<br />
[[no:Daily Mail]]<br />
[[pms:Daily Mail]]<br />
[[pl:Daily Mail]]<br />
[[pt:Daily Mail]]<br />
[[ro:Daily Mail]]<br />
[[simple:Daily Mail]]<br />
[[fi:Daily Mail]]<br />
[[sv:Daily Mail]]</div>
Leslie
https://conservapedia.com/index.php?title=Maine&diff=553369
Maine
2008-11-10T00:42:55Z
<p>Leslie: removing some too-obvious bias</p>
<hr />
<div>{{pp-semi-vandalism|small=yes}}<br />
{{Otheruses1|the U.S. State}}<br />
{{US state<br />
| Name = Maine<br />
| Fullname = State of Maine<br />
| Flag = Flag of Maine.svg<br />
| Flaglink = [[Flag of Maine]]<br />
| Seal = Seal of Maine.svg<br />
| Map = Map of USA ME.svg<br />
| Nickname = The Pine Tree State<br />
| Demonym = Mainer<br />
| Motto = "[[Dirigo]]" ("I lead")<br />
| State number = 23rd state<br />
| Capital = [[Augusta, Maine|Augusta]]<br />
| LargestCity = [[Portland, Maine|Portland]]<br />
| LargestMetro = [[Portland-South Portland-Biddeford metropolitan area|Portland-South Portland-Biddeford]]<br />
| Governor = [[John Baldacci]] (D)<br />
| Lieutenant Governor = None<ref>In the event of a vacancy in the office of Governor, the President of the [[Maine Senate|State Senate]] is first in line for succession.</ref><br />
| Senate President = [[Beth Edmonds]]<br />
| Senators = [[Olympia Snowe]] (R)<br />[[Susan Collins]] (R)<br />
| Representatives = [[Tom Allen]] (D)<br />[[Michael Michaud]] (D)<br />
| PostalAbbreviation = ME<br />
| OfficialLang = None<br>(English de facto)<br />
| AreaRank = 39<sup>th</sup><br />
| TotalAreaUS = 33,414<br />
| TotalArea = 86,542<br />
| LandAreaUS = 30,890<br />
| LandArea = 80,005<br />
| WaterAreaUS = 4,527<br />
| WaterArea = 11,724<br />
| PCWater = 13.5<br />
| PopRank = 40<sup>th</sup><br />
| 2000Pop (old) = 1,274,923<br />
| 2000Pop = 1,317,207 (2007 est.)<ref>http://www.census.gov/popest/states/NST-ann-est.html 2007 Population Estimates</ref><br />
| DensityRank = 38<sup>th</sup><br />
| 2000DensityUS = 41.3<br />
| 2000Density = 15.95<br />
| AdmittanceOrder = 23<sup>rd</sup><br />
| AdmittanceDate = March 15, 1820<br />
| TimeZone = [[Eastern Standard Time Zone|Eastern]]: [[UTC]]-5/[[Daylight saving time|-4]]<br />
| Longitude = 66° 57′ W to 71° 5′ W<br />
| Latitude = 42° 58′ N to 47° 28′ N<br />
| WidthUS = 210<br />
| Width = 338<br />
| LengthUS = 320<br />
| Length = 515<br />
| HighestPoint = [[Mount Katahdin]]<ref name="usgs">{{cite web| date =29 April 2005 | url =http://erg.usgs.gov/isb/pubs/booklets/elvadist/elvadist.html#Highest| title =Elevations and Distances in the United States| publisher =U.S Geological Survey| accessmonthday = November 6 | accessyear = 2006}}</ref><br />
| HighestElevUS = 5,268<br />
| HighestElev = 1,606<br />
| MeanElevUS = 591<br />
| MeanElev = 180<br />
| LowestPoint = Atlantic Ocean<ref name="usgs"/><br />
| LowestElevUS = 0<br />
| LowestElev = 0<br />
| ISOCode = US-ME<br />
| Website = www.maine.gov<br />
}}<br />
The '''State of Maine''' ({{Audio-IPA|en-us-Maine.ogg|/ˈmeɪn/}}) is a [[U.S. state|state]] in the [[New England]] region of the [[Northeastern United States|northeastern]] United States of America, bordering the Atlantic Ocean to the southeast, [[New Hampshire]] to the southwest, the Canadian provinces of [[Quebec]] to the northwest and [[New Brunswick]] to the northeast. Maine is the northernmost portion of New England and is the easternmost state in the [[Continental U.S.|contiguous United States]]. It is known for its scenery—its jagged, mostly rocky coastline; its low, rolling mountains; and its heavily forested interior — as well as for its seafood cuisine, especially [[American lobster|lobsters]] and [[clam]]s.<br />
<br />
The original inhabitants of the territory that is now Maine were [[Algonquian]]-speaking peoples. The first European settlement in Maine was in 1604 by a French party. The first English settlement in Maine, the short-lived [[Popham Colony]], was established by the [[Plymouth Company]] in 1607. A number of English settlements were established along the coast of Maine in the 1620s, although the rugged climate, deprivations, and Indian attacks wiped out many of them over the years. As Maine entered the 18th century, only a half dozen settlements still survived. American and British forces contended for Maine's territory during the [[American Revolution]] and the [[War of 1812]]. Maine was an [[exclave]] of Massachusetts until 1820 as a result of a growing in population, becoming the 23rd state on March 15, as per the [[Missouri Compromise]].<br />
<br />
==Origin of the name==<br />
There is no definitive answer for the origin of the name Maine. The state legislature in 2001 adopted a resolution establishing Franco-American Day, which stated that the state was named after the ancient French [[Maine (province)|province of Maine]].<ref><br />
{{cite web<br />
| url = http://www.maine.gov/legis/senate/Records/2nd120th/03-06-02R2.doc<br />
| format = doc<br />
| accessdate = 2007-09-20<br />
| title = Journal of the Senate<br />
| publisher = State of Maine<br />
| date = 2002-03-06<br />
| quote = "WHEREAS, the State of Maine is named after the Province of [[Maine]] in France..."<br />
}}</ref> Other theories mention earlier places with similar names, or claim it is a nautical reference to the mainland.<ref><br />
{{cite web<br />
| first = Emily A. <br />
| last = Schroeder<br />
| url = http://www.maine.gov/msl/services/reference/meorigin.htm<br />
| accessdate = 2007-09-20<br />
| title = Origin of Maine's Name<br />
| publisher = Maine State Library<br />
}}</ref> Whatever the origin, the name was fixed in 1665 when the King's Commissioners ordered that the "Province of Maine" be entered from then on in official records.<ref><br />
{{cite book<br />
| last = Stuart<br />
| first = George R.<br />
| title = Names on the Land<br />
| publisher = Houghton Mifflin<br />
| year = 1958<br />
| isbn = 978-0938530022<br />
}}</ref><br />
<br />
==Geography== <br />
{{see also|List of counties in Maine|List of Maine rivers}} <br />
<br />
To the south and east is the Atlantic Ocean and to the north and northeast is [[New Brunswick]], a province of Canada. The Canadian province of [[Quebec]] is to the northwest. Maine is both the northernmost state in [[New England]] and the largest, accounting for nearly half the region's entire land area. Maine also has the distinction of being the only state to border just one other state ([[New Hampshire]] to the west). The municipalities of [[Eastport, Maine|Eastport]] and [[Lubec, Maine|Lubec]] are, respectively, the easternmost city and town in the United States. [[Estcourt Station, Maine|Estcourt Station]] is Maine's northernmost point and also the northernmost point in the New England region of the United States. (For more information see [[extreme points of the United States]]). <br />
<br />
[[Image:National-atlas-maine.png|thumb|320px|left|Maine]] <br />
Maine's [[Moosehead Lake]] is the largest lake wholly in New England ([[Lake Champlain]] being located between [[Vermont]] and New York). A number of other Maine lakes, such as [[South Twin Lake (Maine)|South Twin Lake]], are described by [[Thoreau]]. [[Mount Katahdin]] is both the northern terminus of the [[Appalachian Trail]], which extends to [[Springer Mountain]], [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]], and the southern terminus of the new [[International Appalachian Trail]] which, when complete, will run to [[Belle Isle (Newfoundland and Labrador)|Belle Isle]], [[Newfoundland and Labrador]].<br />
<br />
Maine also has several unique geographical features. [[Machias Seal Island]] and [[North Rock]], off its easternmost point, are claimed by both the U.S. and Canada and are within one of [[List of areas disputed by Canada and the United States|four areas between the two countries whose sovereignty is still in dispute]], but is the only one of the disputed areas containing land. Also in this easternmost area is the [[Old Sow]], the largest [[tidal]] [[whirlpool]] in the [[Western Hemisphere]]. <br />
<br />
Maine is the most sparsely populated state east of the [[Mississippi River]]. It is called the [[List of U.S. state nicknames|Pine Tree State]]; ninety percent of its land is forested. In the forested areas of the interior lies much uninhabited land, some of which does not have formal political organization into local units (a rarity in New England). The [[Northwest Aroostook, Maine]] [[unorganized territory]] in the northern part of the state, for example, has an area of 2,668 square miles (6,910 km²) and a population of 27, or one person for every 100 square miles (255 km²). <br />
<br />
Maine is equally well known for its ocean scenery, with almost {{convert|3500|mi|km|-2}} of shoreline[http://apollo.ogis.state.me.us/faq/faq.asp?fn=194#q194]. [[West Quoddy Head]] is the easternmost piece of land in the contiguous 48 United States. Along the famous rock-bound coast of Maine are lighthouses, beaches, fishing villages, and thousands of offshore islands, including the [[Isles of Shoals]], which straddle the New Hampshire border. Jagged rocks and cliffs and thousands of bays and inlets add to the rugged beauty of Maine's coast. Just inland, by contrast, are lakes, rivers, forests, and mountains. This visual contrast of forested slopes sweeping down to the sea has been aptly summed up by American poet [[Edna St. Vincent Millay]] of [[Rockland, Maine|Rockland]] and [[Camden, Maine|Camden]], Maine in "Renascence": <br />
[[Image:mainecoast.jpg|thumbnail|right|225px|The rocky coast around [[Kennebunk River]].]]<br />
:"All I could see from where I stood <br />
:was three long mountains and a wood <br />
:I turned and looked the other way <br />
:and saw three islands in a bay" <br />
<br />
More prosaic geologists describe this type of landscape as a ''drowned coast,'' where a rising sea level has invaded former land features, creating bays out of valleys and islands out of mountain tops.<ref>[http://www.answers.com/topic/drowned-coast?cat=technology drowned coast: Definition and Much More from Answers.com<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> A rise in the elevation of the land due to the melting of heavy glacier ice caused a slight rebounding effect of underlying rock; this land rise, however, was not strong enough to eliminate all the effect of the rising sea level and its invasion of former land features.<br />
<br />
The noted American ecologist [[Rachel Carson]] did much of her research at one of the Maine seacoast's most characteristic features, a [[tide pool]] for her classic "The Edge of the Sea." The spot where she conducted observations is now preserved as the Rachel Carson Salt Pond Reserve at Pemaquid Point.<br />
<br />
[[George Lorenzo Noyes]], known as the thoreauvian of Maine is a noted state [[natural history|naturalist]], [[mineralogist]], [[development criticism|development critic]], writer and landscape artist. He lived a devout wilderness lifestyle in the mountains of Norway, Maine, expressing in his paintings his spiritual reverence for nature and writing of the values of a simple life of [[sustainable living]]. Harvard Quarry at the summit of [[Noyes Mountain]], named in his honor, in [[Greenwood, Maine|Greenwood]], provides an excellent panoramic view and is a popular destination for rock and mineral collectors.<br />
<br />
Much of Maine's geography was created by heavy glacial activity at the end of the last [[ice age]]. Prominent glacial features include Somes Sound and Bubble Rock. Carved by glaciers, [[Somes Sound]] is considered to be the only fjord on the eastern seaboard and reaches depths of {{convert|175|ft|m}}. The extreme depth and steep drop-off allow large ships to navigate almost the entire length of the sound. These features also have made it attractive for boat builders, such as the prestigious Hinkley Yachts. Bubble Rock is what is known as a "glacial erratic" and is a large boulder perched on the edge of Bubble Mountain in Acadia National Park. By analyzing the type of granite, geologists were able to discover that glaciers carried Bubble Rock to its present location from the town of Lucerne, Maine--30 miles away. <br />
<br />
[[Image:52402a.jpg|thumb|right|225px||Boothbay Harbor]]<br />
[[Acadia National Park]] is the only national park in New England. <br />
<br />
Areas under the protection and management of the [[National Park Service]] include:<ref>{{cite web | title = Maine | publisher = National Park Service | accessdate = 2008-07-16 | url = http://www.nps.gov/state/me}}</ref><br />
<br />
*[[Acadia National Park]] near [[Bar Harbor (town), Maine|Bar Harbor]]<br />
*[[Appalachian National Scenic Trail]]<br />
*Maine Acadian Culture in St. John Valley<br />
*[[Roosevelt Campobello International Park]] near Lubec<br />
*[[Saint Croix Island International Historic Site]] at [[Calais, Maine|Calais]]<br />
<br />
===Climate===<br />
Maine experiences a [[humid continental climate]] ([[Köppen climate classification]] ''Dfb''), with warm (although generally not hot), humid summers. Winters are cold and snowy throughout the state, and are especially severe in the northern parts of Maine. Coastal areas are moderated somewhat by the Atlantic Ocean. Daytime highs are generally in the 75-80 °F (24-27 °C) range throughout the state in July, with overnight lows in the high 50s°F (around 15 °C). January temperatures range from highs near 32 °F (0 °C) on the southern coast to overnight lows below 0 °F (-18 °C) in the far north.<br />
<br />
Maine is generally safe from [[hurricane]]s and tropical storms. By the time they reach the state, many have become [[extratropical]] and few hurricanes have made landfall in Maine. Maine has fewer days of thunderstorms than any other state east of the [[Rockies]], with most of the state averaging less than 20 days of [[thunderstorm]]s a year. [[Tornado]]es are rare in Maine with the state averaging fewer than two per year, mostly occurring in the southern part of the state.<ref name="Annual average number of tornadoes"> [http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/img/climate/research/tornado/small/avgt5304.gif] NOAA National Climatic Data Center. Retrieved on October 24, 2006. </ref><br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" "text-align:center;font-size:90%;"|<br />
| colspan = "13" style="text-align:center;font-size:120%;background:#E8EAFA;" | Monthly Normal High and Low Temperatures ([[°F]]) For Various Maine Cities<br />
|- <br />
! style="background: #E5AFAA; color: #000000" height="17" | City<br />
! style="background: #E5AFAA; color:#000000;" | Jan<br />
! style="background: #E5AFAA; color:#000000;" | Feb<br />
! style="background: #E5AFAA; color:#000000;" | Mar<br />
! style="background: #E5AFAA; color:#000000;" | Apr<br />
! style="background: #E5AFAA; color:#000000;" | May<br />
! style="background: #E5AFAA; color:#000000;" | Jun<br />
! style="background: #E5AFAA; color:#000000;" | Jul<br />
! style="background: #E5AFAA; color:#000000;" | Aug<br />
! style="background: #E5AFAA; color:#000000;" | Sep<br />
! style="background: #E5AFAA; color:#000000;" | Oct<br />
! style="background: #E5AFAA; color:#000000;" | Nov<br />
! style="background: #E5AFAA; color:#000000;" | Dec<br />
|-<br />
! style="background: #F8F3CA; color:#000000;" height="16;" | Caribou<br />
| style="text-align:center; background: #F8F3CA; color:#000000;" | 19/0<br />
| style="text-align:center; background: #F8F3CA; color:#000000;" | 23/3<br />
| style="text-align:center; background: #F8F3CA; color:#000000;" | 34/15<br />
| style="text-align:center; background: #F8F3CA; color:#000000;" | 47/29<br />
| style="text-align:center; background: #F8F3CA; color:#000000;" | 63/41<br />
| style="text-align:center; background: #F8F3CA; color:#000000;" | 72/50<br />
| style="text-align:center; background: #F8F3CA; color:#000000;" | 76/55<br />
| style="text-align:center; background: #F8F3CA; color:#000000;" | 74/53<br />
| style="text-align:center; background: #F8F3CA; color:#000000;" | 64/44<br />
| style="text-align:center; background: #F8F3CA; color:#000000;" | 51/34<br />
| style="text-align:center; background: #F8F3CA; color:#000000;" | 37/24<br />
| style="text-align:center; background: #F8F3CA; color:#000000;" | 25/8<br />
|-<br />
! style="background: #C5DFE1; color:#000000;" height="16;" | Portland<br />
| style="text-align:center; background: #C5DFE1; color:#000000;" | 31/12<br />
| style="text-align:center; background: #C5DFE1; color:#000000;" | 34/16<br />
| style="text-align:center; background: #C5DFE1; color:#000000;" | 42/25<br />
| style="text-align:center; background: #C5DFE1; color:#000000;" | 53/35<br />
| style="text-align:center; background: #C5DFE1; color:#000000;" | 63/44<br />
| style="text-align:center; background: #C5DFE1; color:#000000;" | 73/53<br />
| style="text-align:center; background: #C5DFE1; color:#000000;" | 79/59<br />
| style="text-align:center; background: #C5DFE1; color:#000000;" | 77/57<br />
| style="text-align:center; background: #C5DFE1; color:#000000;" | 69/48<br />
| style="text-align:center; background: #C5DFE1; color:#000000;" | 58/37<br />
| style="text-align:center; background: #C5DFE1; color:#000000;" | 47/30<br />
| style="text-align:center; background: #C5DFE1; color:#000000;" | 36/19<br />
|-<br />
| colspan = "13" style="text-align:center;font-size:90%;background:#E8EAFA;"|''[http://www.ustravelweather.com/weather-maine/]''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==History==<br />
{{main|History of Maine}}<br />
<br />
[[Image:Maine state capitol.jpg|200px|thumb|right|Maine State House, designed by [[Charles Bulfinch]], built 1829–1832]]<br />
The original inhabitants of the territory that is now Maine were Algonquian-speaking [[Wabanaki]] peoples including the [[Abenaki]], [[Passamaquoddy]], and [[Penobscot]]s. The first European settlement in Maine was in 1604 by a French party that included [[Samuel de Champlain]], the noted explorer. The French named the entire area, including the portion that later became the State of Maine, [[Acadia]]. The first English settlement in Maine was established by the [[Plymouth Company]] at Popham in 1607, the same year as the settlement at [[Jamestown, Virginia]]. Both colonies were predated by the [[Roanoke Colony]] by 22 years. Because the [[Popham Colony]] did not survive the harsh Maine winters and the Roanoke Colony was lost, Jamestown enjoys the distinction of being regarded as America's first permanent English-speaking settlement. The coastal areas of western Maine first became the [[Province of Maine]] in a 1622 land patent. Eastern Maine north of the [[Kennebec River]] was more sparsely settled and was known in the 17th century as the [[Territory of Sagadahock]].<br />
<br />
The province within its current boundaries became part of [[Massachusetts Bay Colony]] in 1652. Maine was much fought over by the French and English during the 17th and early 18th centuries. After the defeat of the French in the 1740s, the territory from the [[Penobscot River]] east fell under the nominal authority of the Province of [[Nova Scotia]], and together with present day New Brunswick formed the [[Nova Scotia]] county of [[Sunbury County, Nova Scotia|Sunbury]], with its court of general sessions at Campobello. American and British forces contended for Maine's territory during the American Revolution and the War of 1812. The treaty concluding revolution was ambiguous about Maine's boundary with [[British North America]]. The territory of Maine was confirmed as part of Massachusetts when the United States was formed, although the final border with British territory was not established until the [[Webster-Ashburton Treaty]] of 1842. (Indeed, in 1839 Governor Fairfield declared war on Britain over a boundary dispute between New Brunswick and northern Maine{{Fact|date=October 2007}}. Known as the [[Aroostook War]], this is the only time a state has declared war on a foreign power{{Fact|date=October 2007}}. The dispute was settled, however, before any blood was shed.<br />
<br />
Because it was physically separated from the rest of Massachusetts and was growing in population at a rapid rate, Maine became the 23rd state on March 15, 1820 through the Missouri Compromise. This compromise allowed admitting both Maine and Missouri (in 1821) into the union while keeping a balance between [[slave state|slave]] and free states.<ref>{{cite web| year = | url =http://www.maine.gov/legis/senate/statehouse/history/hstry5.htm | title =Maine History (Statehood)| publisher =www.maine.gov| accessdate = April 13| accessyear = 2008}}</ref> Maine's original [[Capital (political)|capital]] was Portland, the largest city in Maine, until it was moved to Augusta in 1832 to make it more central within the state. <br />
<br />
==Demographics==<br />
{{USCensusPop<br />
| 1790 = 96540<br />
| 1800 = 151719<br />
| 1810 = 228705<br />
| 1820 = 298335<br />
| 1830 = 399455<br />
| 1840 = 501793<br />
| 1850 = 583169<br />
| 1860 = 628279<br />
| 1870 = 626915<br />
| 1880 = 648936<br />
| 1890 = 661086<br />
| 1900 = 694466<br />
| 1910 = 742371<br />
| 1920 = 768014<br />
| 1930 = 797423<br />
| 1940 = 847226<br />
| 1950 = 913774<br />
| 1960 = 969265<br />
| 1970 = 992048<br />
| 1980 = 1124660<br />
| 1990 = 1227928<br />
| 2000 = 1274923<br />
| estyear = 2006<br />
| estimate = 1321574<br />
}}<br />
As of 2008, Maine has an estimated population of 1,321,504, which is an increase of 6,520, or 0.5%, from the prior year and an increase of 46,582, or 3.7%, since the year 2000. This includes a natural increase since the last census of 6,413 people (that is 71,276 births minus 64,863 deaths) and an increase due to net migration of 41,808 people into the state. [[Immigration to the United States|Immigration]] from outside the United States resulted in a net increase of 5,004 people, and migration within the country produced a net increase of 36,804 people. The population density of the state is 41.3 people per square mile. <br />
<br />
[[Image:Maine population map.png|thumb|left|200px|Maine Population Density Map]]<br />
Maine is a very popular tourist destination, but it also experiences harsh winters, and consequently, the great temporary influx of visitors occurs during the warmer months. Many of these visitors establish an alternate secondary residence in Maine during the warm months and then depart for their primary residence in the off-season. These are the ''summer people'' of Maine lore. Official census figures normally count a person as a resident only once, at the place of the primary home. Therefore, there are some situations in which official census figures could be misleading for Maine.{{Fact|date=November 2007}} For example, some communities may have a much larger seasonal retail sector than their official, small population figure would imply.<br />
<br />
The mean population center of Maine is located in [[Kennebec County, Maine|Kennebec County]], in or near the town of [[Mount Vernon, Maine|Mount Vernon]].<ref name="mean population center">{{cite web |url=http://www.census.gov/geo/www/cenpop/statecenters.txt|title=Population and Population Centers by State: 2000 (US Census Bureau)|accessdate=2007-05-01}}</ref> The Greater Portland metropolitan area is the most densely populated with nearly 20% of Maine's population.<ref name="Portland city">{{cite web |url=http://www.ci.portland.me.us|title=City of Portland|accessdate=2007-05-01}}</ref><br />
As explained in detail under "Geography", there are large tracts of uninhabited land in some remote parts of the interior.<br />
<br />
===Race, ancestry, and language===<br />
{{US Demographics}}<br />
The largest ancestries in the state are: [[English American]] (21.5%), [[Irish American|Irish]] (15.1%), [[French American|French or French Canadian]] (14.2%), [[American ancestry|American]] (9.4%), and [[German American|German]] (6.7%).<br />
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Maine is second only to New Hampshire in the percentage of French Americans among U.S. states. It also has the largest percentage of non-Hispanic [[White American|whites]] of any state and the highest percentage of current French-speakers who come from Quebec. Franco-Mainers tended to settle in rural northern Maine (particularly Aroostook County) and the industrial cities of inland Maine (especially Lewiston), whereas much of the midcoast and downeast sections remain mostly of British heritage. Smaller numbers of various other groups, including [[Italian American|Italian]] and [[Polish American|Polish]] have settled throughout the state since the early 20th c. immigration waves.<br />
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The 2000 Census reported 92.25% of Maine residents age 5 and older speak English at home. Census figures show Maine has a greater proportion of people speaking French at home than any other state in the nation, a result of Maine's large French-Canadian community, who migrated from adjacent [[Quebec]] and [[New Brunswick]]. 5.28% of Maine households are French-speaking, compared with 4.68% in [[Louisiana]]. Spanish is the third most spoken language at 0.79%, followed by German at 0.33% and Italian at 0.12% [http://www.mla.org/map_data_results&state_id=23&mode=state_tops].<br />
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===Religion===<br />
The religious affiliations of the people of Maine are shown below:<br />
*[[Christianity|Christian]] – 82%<br />
**[[Protestantism|Protestant]] – 45%<br />
***[[Baptist]] (mostly [[American Baptist Churches USA|American Baptist]]) – 16%<br />
***[[Methodism|Methodist]] (mostly [[United Methodist Church]] with 31.689 members)<ref>http://www.thearda.com/mapsReports/reports/state/23_2000.asp</ref> – 9%<br />
***[[Episcopal Church in the United States of America|Episcopal]]ian – 8%<br />
***[[United Church of Christ]] (29,122 members)<ref>http://www.thearda.com/mapsReports/reports/state/23_2000.asp</ref> / Congregational – 8%<br />
***[[Pentecostalism|Pentecostal]] – 6%<br />
***[[Lutheranism|Lutheran]] – 3%<br />
***Other Protestant or general Protestant – 10%<br />
**[[Roman Catholicism in the United States|Roman Catholic]] (283.024 members)<ref>http://www.thearda.com/mapsReports/reports/state/23_2000.asp</ref> – 37%<br />
**Other Christian – 1%<br />
*Other Religions – 1%<br />
*Non-Religious – 17%<br />
<br />
==Economy==<br />
[[Image:Maine quarter, reverse side, 2003.jpg|thumb|left|150px|Maine [[50 State Quarters|State Quarter]]]]<br />
[[Image:Craft Breweries Per Capita (US).png|thumb|left|150px|Maine is ranked 2nd nationally in craft breweries per capita.<ref>[http://www.beertown.org/craftbrewing/statistics.html Craft Brewing Industry Statistics<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>]]<br />
The [[Bureau of Economic Analysis]] estimates that Maine's total gross state product for 2003 was US$41 billion. Its per capita personal income for 2003 was US$29,164, 29th in the nation.<br />
<br />
Maine's [[agriculture|agricultural]] outputs include poultry, eggs, dairy products, cattle, wild blueberries (the state produces 25% of all blueberries in North America, making it the largest [[blueberry]] producer in the world), apples, [[maple syrup]] and [[maple sugar]]. [[Aroostook County, Maine|Aroostook County]] is known for its [[potato]] crops. [[Commercial fishing]], once a mainstay of the state's economy, maintains a presence, particularly lobstering and groundfishing. Western Maine aquifers and springs are a major source of bottled water. Maine's industrial outputs consist chiefly of paper, lumber and wood products, electronic equipment, leather products, food products, textiles, and bio-technology. Naval shipbuilding and construction remain key as well, with [[Bath Iron Works]] in Bath and [[Portsmouth Naval Shipyard]] in Kittery. [[Naval Air Station Brunswick]] is also in Maine, and serves as a large support base for the U.S. Navy. However, the [[Base Realignment and Closure|BRAC]] campaign recommended Brunswick's closing, despite a recent government-funded effort to upgrade its facilities.<br />
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Tourism and outdoor recreation play a major and increasingly important role in Maine's economy. The state is a popular destination for sport [[hunting]] (particularly deer, moose and bear), [[sport fishing]], [[snowmobile|snowmobiling]], [[skiing]], boating, [[camping]] and [[hiking]], among other activities. Maine's unemployment rate is 4.8%<br />
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Maine ports play a key role in national transportation. Beginning around 1880, Portland's rail link and [[ice-free port]] made it Canada's principal winter port, until the aggressive development of [[Halifax Regional Municipality, Nova Scotia|Halifax]], Nova Scotia, in the mid-1900s. In 2001, Maine's largest city of Portland surpassed [[Boston, Massachusetts|Boston]] as New England's busiest port (by tonnage), due to its ability to handle large tankers. Maine's [[Portland International Jetport]] was recently expanded, providing the state with increased air traffic from carriers such as [[JetBlue]].<br />
<br />
Maine has very few large companies that maintain headquarters in the state, and fewer than before due to consolidations and mergers, particularly in the pulp and paper industry. Some of the larger companies that do maintain headquarters in Maine include [[Fairchild Semiconductor]] in South Portland; [[IDEXX Laboratories]], in Westbrook; [[Unum]], in Portland; [[TD Banknorth]], in Portland; [[L.L. Bean]] in Freeport; [[Cole Haan]] and [[Delorme]], both located in Yarmouth. Maine is also the home of [[Jackson Laboratory|The Jackson Laboratory]], the world's largest non-profit mammalian genetic research facility and the world's largest supplier of genetically purebred mice.<br />
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Maine has an [[income tax]] structure containing 4 brackets, which range from 2% to 8.5% of personal income. Maine's general [[sales tax]] rate is 5%. The state also levies charges of 7% on lodging and prepared food and 10% on short-term auto rentals. Commercial sellers of blueberries, a Maine staple, must keep records of their transactions and pay the state 1.5 cents per pound ($1.50 per 100 pounds) of the fruit sold each season. All [[Real property|real]] and tangible [[personal property]] located in the state of Maine is taxable unless specifically exempted by statute. The administration of property taxes is handled by the local assessor in incorporated cities and towns, while property taxes in the unorganized territories are handled by the State Tax Assessor.<br />
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===Shipbuilding===<br />
Maine has a longstanding tradition of being home to many shipbuilding companies. In the 18th and 19th centuries, Maine was home to many shipyards that produced wooden sailing ships. The main function of these ships was to transport either cargoes or passengers overseas. One of these yards was located in [[Pennellville Historic District]] in what is now Brunswick, Maine. This yard, owned by the Pennell family, was typical of the many family-owned shipbuilding companies of the time period. Other such examples of shipbuilding families were the Skofields and the Morses. During the 18th and 19th ceunturies, wooden shipbuilding of this sort made up a sizable portion of the economy.<br />
<br />
==Transportation==<br />
===Airports===<br />
Maine receives [[Jet airliner|passenger jet]] service at its two largest airports, the [[Portland International Jetport]] in Portland, and the [[Bangor International Airport]] in Bangor. Both are served daily by many major [[airline]]s to destinations such as New York, [[Atlanta, Georgia|Atlanta]], and [[Orlando, Florida|Orlando]]. [[Essential Air Service]] also subsidizes service to a number of smaller airports in Maine, bringing small [[turboprop]] aircraft to regional airports such as the [[Augusta State Airport]], [[Hancock County-Bar Harbor Airport]], [[Knox County Regional Airport]], and the [[Northern Maine Regional Airport at Presque Isle]]. These airports are served by [[US Airways Express]] with small 19 to 30 seat planes. Many smaller airports are scattered throughout Maine, only serving [[general aviation]] traffic.<br />
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===Highways===<br />
[[Image:PenobscotNarrowsBridgeBucksport.jpg|thumb|right|200px|The [[Penobscot Narrows Bridge]], carrying [[U.S. Route 1]] and [[Maine State Route 3]] over the [[Penobscot River]].]]<br />
[[Image:Amtrak downeaster ocean park 2005.jpg|200px|thumb|right|A southbound ''Downeaster'' passenger train at [[Ocean Park, Maine]], as viewed from the cab of a northbound train.]]<br />
[[Interstate 95 in Maine|Interstate 95]] runs through Maine, as well as its easterly branch [[Interstate 295 (Maine)|I-295]]. In addition, [[U.S. Route 1]] starts in [[Fort Kent, Maine|Fort Kent]] and runs to [[Florida]]. The eastern terminus of the eastern section of [[U.S. Route 2]] starts in Houlton, near the New Brunswick, Canada border to [[Rouses Point, New York|Rouses Point]], New York, at [[U.S. Route 11|US 11]] . There is also another US 2A connecting Old Town and Orono, Maine, primarily serving the [[University of Maine]] campus. U.S. Route 2, [[Maine State Route 6|Route 6]] and [[Maine State Route 9|Route 9]] are often used by truckers and other motorists of the [[Maritime Provinces]] ''en route'' to other destinations in the United States or as a short cut to [[Central Canada]].<br />
<br />
===Rail===<br />
====Passenger====<br />
The [[Downeaster]] passenger train, operated by [[Amtrak]], provides passenger service between Portland and Boston's [[North Station]], with stops in Old Orchard Beach, Saco, and Wells. The Downeaster makes five southbound trips and five northbound trips every day.<br />
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Seasonal passenger excursions between Brunswick and Rockland are operated by the Maine Eastern Railroad, which leases the state-owned Rockland Branch rail corridor.<br />
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====Freight====<br />
Freight service throughout the state is provided by a handful of regional and shortline carriers: [[Pan Am Railways]] (formerly known as Guilford Rail System), which operates the former [[Boston and Maine Railroad|Boston & Maine]] and [[Maine Central Railroad|Maine Central]] railroads; [[St. Lawrence and Atlantic Railroad]]; Maine Eastern Railroad; [[Montreal, Maine and Atlantic Railway]]; and [[New Brunswick Southern Railway]].<br />
<br />
''See also: [[List of Maine railroads]]''<br />
<br />
==Law and government==<br />
{{see also|List of Governors of Maine|U.S. Senators from Maine|List of Maine State Senators|As Maine goes, so goes the nation}}<br />
The [[Maine Constitution]] structures Maine's state government, composed of three co-equal branches - the executive, legislative, and judicial branches. The state of Maine also has three Constitutional Officers (the Secretary of State, the State Treasurer, and the State Attorney General) and one Statutory Officer (the State Auditor).<br />
<br />
The [[legislative branch]] is the [[Maine Legislature]], a bicameral body composed of the [[Maine House of Representatives]], with 151 members, and the [[Maine Senate]], with 35 members. The Legislature is charged with introducing and passing laws. <br />
<br />
The [[executive branch]] is responsible for the execution of the laws created by the Legislature and is headed by the [[Governor of Maine]] (currently John Baldacci, a [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democrat]]). The Governor is elected every four years; no individual may serve more than two consecutive terms in this office. The current [[attorney general]] of Maine is [[G. Steven Rowe]]. As with other [[State legislature (United States)|state legislature]]s, the Maine Legislature can by a two-thirds majority vote from both the House and Senate override a gubernatorial veto. <br />
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The [[judicial branch]] is responsible for interpreting state laws. The highest court of the state is the [[Maine Supreme Judicial Court]]. The lower courts are the District Court, [[Maine Superior Court|Superior Court]] and Probate Court. All judges except for probate judges serve full-time; are nominated by the Governor and confirmed by the Legislature for terms of seven years. Probate judges serve part-time and are elected by the voters of each county for four-year terms.<br />
<br />
===State and local politics===<br />
In state [[general elections]], Maine voters tend to accept [[Independent (politician)|independent]] and third-party candidates more frequently than most states. Maine has had two independent governors recently ([[James B. Longley]], 1975–1979 and [[Angus King]], 1995–2003). The [[United States Green Party|Green Party]] candidate won nine percent of the vote in the 2002 gubernatorial election, more than in any election for a statewide office for that party until the 2006 Illinois gubernatorial election. The locally organized [[Maine Green Independent Party]] also elected [[John Eder]] to the office of State Representative in the Maine House of Representatives, the highest elected Green official nationwide. [[Pat LaMarche]], 2004 Green Party [[United States presidential election, 2004|vice-presidential candidate]], resides in the southern coastal town of [[Yarmouth, ME|Yarmouth]]. Maine state politicians, Republicans and Democrats alike, are noted for having more moderate views than many in the national wings of their respective parties.<br />
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Maine is an [[Alcoholic beverage control state]].<br />
<br />
{{see also|Maine gubernatorial election, 2006}}<br />
<br />
===Federal politics===<br />
Maine's federal politics are notable and are dramatic for several reasons. In the 1930s, it was one of very few states which remained dominated by the [[United States Republican Party|Republican Party]]. In the [[U.S. presidential election, 1936|1936 Presidential election]], [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] received the [[U.S. Electoral College|electoral votes]] of every state other than Maine and [[Vermont]]. In the 1960s, Maine began to lean toward the [[United States Democratic Party|Democrats]], especially in [[President of the United States|Presidential]] elections. In [[U.S. presidential election, 1968|1968]], [[Hubert Humphrey]] became just the second Democrat in half a century to carry Maine thanks to the presence of his running mate, Maine Senator [[Edmund Muskie]], although the state voted Republican in every Presidential election in the 1970s and 1980s. Maine has since become a left-leaning [[swing state]] and has voted Democratic in five successive Presidential elections, casting its votes for [[Bill Clinton]] twice, [[Al Gore]] in [[U.S. presidential election, 2000|2000]], [[John Kerry]] (with 53.6% of the vote) in [[U.S. presidential election, 2004|2004]], and [[Barack Obama]] in [[U.S. presidential election, 2008|2008]]. Republican strength is greatest in Washington and Piscataquis counties. Though Democrats have carried the state in presidential elections in recent years, Republicans have largely maintained their control of the state's [[United States Senate|U.S. Senate]] seats, with [[Edmund S. Muskie|Ed Muskie]], [[William Hathaway]] and [[George Mitchell]] being the only Maine Democrats serving in the U.S. Senate in the past fifty years.<br />
<br />
[[Ross Perot]] achieved a great deal of success in Maine in the presidential elections of [[U.S. presidential election, 1992|1992]] and [[U.S. presidential election, 1996|1996]]. In 1992 as an [[Independent_(politician)|independent candidate]], Perot came in second to Bill Clinton, despite the longtime presence of the Bush family summer home in [[Kennebunkport, Maine|Kennebunkport]]. In 1996, as the nominee of the [[United States Reform Party|Reform Party]], Maine was again Perot's best state.<br />
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Since 1969, two of Maine's four electoral votes are awarded based on the winner of the statewide election. The other two go to the highest vote-winner in each of the state's two congressional districts. 2004's presidential race saw reports that the campaign of President George W. Bush had made the calculation to devote attention to one of Maine's two Congressional Districts with the possibility of carrying the district's vote for an Electoral Vote in a close national race.<br />
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Famous politicians from Maine include [[Percival Baxter]], [[James Blaine]], [[Owen Brewster]], [[William Cohen]], [[Susan Collins]], [[Hannibal Hamlin]], [[George J. Mitchell]], [[Edmund Muskie]], [[Thomas Brackett Reed]], [[Margaret Chase Smith]], [[Olympia Snowe]], and [[Wallace H. White, Jr.]].<br />
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Maine's [[U.S. Senate|U.S. senators]] are Republicans [[Olympia Snowe]] and [[Susan Collins]]. The state's two members of the [[U.S. House of Representatives]] are Democrats [[Tom Allen]] and [[Mike Michaud]].<br />
<br />
==Municipalities==<br />
===Organized municipalities===<br />
An organized municipality has a form of elected local government which administers and provides local services, keeps records, collects licensing fees, and can pass locally binding ordinances among other responsibilities of self-government. The governmental format of most organized towns and [[Plantation (Maine)|plantations]] is the Town Meeting while the format of most cities is the Council-Manager form. As of 2007 the organized municipalities of Maine consists of 22 [[List of cities in Maine|''cities,'']] 432 [[List of towns in Maine|''towns,'']] and 34 [[List of plantations in Maine|''plantations''.]] Collectively these 488 organized municipalities cover less than half of the state's territory. Maine also has 3 Reservations: [[Penobscot Indian Island Reservation|Indian Island]], Indian Township Reservation, and Pleasant Point Indian Reservation.<ref>[http://www.maine.gov/local/ Maine City and Town Index]</ref> <br />
<br />
*The largest municipality in Maine, by population, is the ''city'' of [[Portland, Maine|Portland]] (pop. 64,249).<br />
*The smallest ''city'' by population is [[Eastport, Maine|Eastport]] (pop. 1,640).<br />
*The largest ''town'' by population is [[Brunswick, Maine|Brunswick]] (pop. 21,172).<br />
*The smallest ''town'' by population is [[Frye Island, Maine|Frye Island]], a resort town which reported zero year-round population in the 2000 Census; one ''plantation'', [[Glenwood Plantation, Maine]], also reported a permanent population of zero.<br />
*In the 2000 Census, the smallest ''town'' aside from Frye Island was [[Centerville, Maine|Centerville]] with a population of 26, but since that Census, Centerville voted to disincorporate and therefore is no longer a ''town''. The next smallest ''town'' with a population listed in that Census is Beddington, (pop. 29).<br />
*The largest municipality by land area is the ''town'' of [[Allagash, Maine|Allagash]] (128 square miles).<br />
*The smallest municipality by land area is the ''plantation'' of [[Monhegan, Maine|Monhegan Island]] (0.86 square miles).<br />
<br />
===Unorganized territory=== <br />
Unorganized territory has no local government. Administration, services, licensing, and ordinances are handled by the State Government. The Unorganized Territory of Maine consists of over 400 townships (towns are incorporated, townships are unincorporated), plus many coastal islands that do not lie within any municipal bounds. The UT land area is slightly over one half the entire area of the State of Maine. Year round residents in the UT number approximately 9,000, about 1.3% of the state's total population, with many more people residing only seasonally within the UT. Only four of [[List of counties in Maine|Maine's sixteen counties]] are entirely incorporated, although a few others are nearly so, and most of the unincorporated area is in the vast and sparsely populated [[Maine North Woods|Great North Woods of Maine]].<ref>[http://www.maine.gov/revenue/propertytax/unorganizedterritory/unorganized.htm Maine Township Listing (Unorganized Territories)]</ref><br />
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=== Most populous cities and towns === <br />
[http://factfinder.census.gov/servlet/SAFFFacts?_event=&geo_id=16000US2360545&_geoContext=01000US%7C04000US23%7C16000US2360545&_street=&_county=portland&_cityTown=portland&_state=04000US23&_zip=&_lang=en&_sse=on&ActiveGeoDiv=geoSelect&_useEV=&pctxt=fph&pgsl=040| Fact Finder US Census Maine Portland]:<br />
{| class="wikitable" <br />
|+ The 49 most populous cities and towns as of the year 2000 US Census [2006 Estimate in brackets]<br />
|- align="center" <br />
| width = "125pt"| [[Portland, Maine|Portland]]<br> (64,249)<br> [63,011]<br />
| width = "125pt"| [[Lewiston, Maine|Lewiston]]<br> (35,690)<br> [35,734]<br />
| width = "125pt"| [[Bangor, Maine|Bangor]]<br> (31,473) <br> [31,008]<br />
| width = "125pt"| [[South Portland, Maine|South&nbsp;Portland]]<br> (23,324)<br> [23,784]<br />
| width = "125pt"| [[Auburn, Maine|Auburn]]<br> (23,203) <br> [23,156]<br />
| width = "125pt"| [[Biddeford, Maine|Biddeford]]<br> (20,942)<br>[22,092]<br />
| width = "125pt"| [[Brunswick (town), Maine|Brunswick]]<br> (21,172)<br> [21,915]<br />
<br />
|- align="center" <br />
| [[Sanford, Maine|Sanford]]<br> (20,806) <br> [21,534]<br />
| [[Augusta, Maine|Augusta]]<br> (18,560)<br> [18,560]<br />
| [[Scarborough (town), Maine|Scarborough]]<br> (16,970) <br> [18,880]<br />
| [[Saco, Maine|Saco]]<br> (16,822)<br> [18,289]<br />
| [[Westbrook, Maine|Westbrook]]<br> (16,142) <br> [16,201]<br />
| [[Waterville, Maine|Waterville]]<br> (15,605) <br> [15,639]<br />
| [[Windham, Maine|Windham]]<br> (14,904)<br> [16,546]<br />
|- align="center" <br />
| [[Gorham, Maine|Gorham]]<br> (14,141) <br> [15,402]<br />
| [[York, Maine|York]]<br> (12,854) <br> [13,302]<br />
| [[Kennebunk, Maine|Kennebunk]]<br> (10,476) <br> [11,505]<br />
| [[Falmouth, Maine|Falmouth]]<br> (10,310)<br> [10,557]<br />
| [[Kittery, Maine|Kittery]]<br> (9,543) <br> [10,495]<br />
| [[Presque Isle, Maine|Presque&nbsp;Isle]]<br> (9,511)<br> [9,253]<br />
| [[Wells, Maine|Wells]]<br> (9,400)<br> [10,038]<br />
|- align="center" <br />
| [[Standish, Maine|Standish]]<br> (9,285)<br> [9,832]<br />
| [[Bath, Maine|Bath]]<br> (9,266)<br> [9,184]<br />
| [[Orono, Maine|Orono]]<br> (9,112)<br> [9,712]<br />
| [[Topsham, Maine|Topsham]]<br> (9,100) <br> [9,940]<br />
| [[Lisbon, Maine|Lisbon]]<br> (9,077) <br> [9,419]<br />
| [[Cape Elizabeth, Maine|Cape&nbsp;Elizabeth]]<br> (9,068) <br> [8,826]<br />
| [[Brewer, Maine|Brewer]]<br> (8,987) <br> [9,079]<br />
|- align="center" <br />
| [[Old Orchard Beach, Maine|Old&nbsp;Orchard&nbsp;Beach]]<br> (8,856) <br> [9,349]<br />
| [[Skowhegan, Maine|Skowhegan]]<br> (8,824)<br> [8,876]<br />
| [[Yarmouth, Maine|Yarmouth]]<br> (8,360) <br> [8,132]<br />
| [[Caribou, Maine|Caribou]]<br> (8,312) <br> [8,283]<br />
| [[Old Town, Maine|Old Town]]<br> (8,130) <br> [7,723]<br />
| [[Freeport, Maine|Freeport]]<br> (7,800) <br> [8,151]<br />
| [[Winslow, Maine|Winslow]]<br> (7,743) <br> [7,944]<br />
|- align="center" <br />
| [[Rockland, Maine|Rockland]]<br> (7,609) <br> [7,578]<br />
| [[Buxton, Maine|Buxton]]<br> (7,452) <br> [8,171]<br />
| [[Farmington, Maine|Farmington]]<br> (7,410) <br> [7,580]<br />
| [[Cumberland, Maine|Cumberland]]<br> (7,159) <br> [7,653]<br />
| [[Gray, Maine|Gray]]<br> (6,820) <br> [7,420]<br />
| [[South Berwick, Maine|South&nbsp;Berwick]]<br> (6,671) <br> [7,252]<br />
| [[Fairfield, Maine|Fairfield]]<br> (6,573) <br> [6,787]<br />
|- align="center" <br />
| [[Houlton, Maine|Houlton]]<br> (6,476)<br> [6,283]<br />
| [[Rumford, Maine|Rumford]]<br> (6,472)<br> [6,409]<br />
| [[Ellsworth, Maine|Ellsworth]]<br> (6,456) <br> [7,075]<br />
| [[Belfast, Maine|Belfast]]<br> (6,381)<br> [6,803]<br />
| [[Berwick, Maine|Berwick]]<br> (6,353)<br> [7,403]<br />
| [[Hampden, Maine|Hampden]]<br> (6,327)<br> [6,771]<br />
| [[Winthrop, Maine|Winthrop]]<br> (6,232)<br> [6,475]<br />
|}<br />
<center><gallery><br />
Image:Augusta, Maine 2.jpg|[[Augusta, Maine|Augusta]]<br />
Image:BangorSkyline.jpg|[[Bangor, Maine|Bangor]]<br />
Image:DSCN4043 bathcityhall e.jpg|[[Bath, Maine|Bath]]<br />
Image:City Hall Biddeford, ME 2005.JPG|[[Biddeford, Maine|Biddeford]]<br />
Image:Lew2maine.jpg|[[Lewiston, Maine|Lewiston]]<br />
Image:Oldtown1.jpg|[[Old Town, Maine|Old Town]]<br />
Image:DowntownPortlandMe1.jpg|[[Portland, Maine|Portland]]<br />
Image:Saco_Maine_Street.jpg|[[Saco, Maine|Saco]]<br />
</gallery></center><br />
<br />
Throughout Maine, many municipalities, although each separate governmental entities, nevertheless form portions of a much larger population base. There are many such population clusters throughout Maine, but some examples from the municipalities appearing in the above listing are:<br />
<br />
*Portland, South Portland, Cape Elizabeth, Westbrook, Scarborough, and Falmouth</li><br />
*Lewiston and Auburn</li><br />
*Bangor, Orono, Brewer, Old Town, and Hampden</li><br />
*Biddeford and Saco</li><br />
*Brunswick and Topsham</li><br />
*Waterville and Winslow</li><ref>[http://factfinder.census.gov/servlet/SAFFFacts?_event=&geo_id=16000US2360545&_geoContext=01000US%7C04000US23%7C16000US2360545&_street=&_county=portland&_cityTown=portland&_state=04000US23&_zip=&_lang=en&_sse=on&ActiveGeoDiv=geoSelect&_useEV=&pctxt=fph&pgsl=040| Fact Finder US Census Maine Portland]</ref><br />
<br />
==Education==<br />
{{Unreferencedsection|date=January 2008}}<br />
<br />
===Public schools===<br />
{{see also|List of school districts in Maine}}<br />
Maine has four types of school departments: the first is a local school, one which serves only one municipality, and is headed by a superintendent. Usually, it serves kindergarten through grade 12, although some only go to grade 8. Usually, independent school districts which do not have a high school are not totally independent; they are part of a school union, the second type of school district. <br />
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A school union is two or more school departments that share a superintendent but nothing else; each town has an independent school board. Usually, only one of the schools in the school union has a high school, but unlike MSADs (discussed below), students in the whole school union are not compelled to attend that school. School union students are given a choice of neighboring school districts, and the school union pays for the student's tuition. <br />
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The third type is a MSAD (Maine School Administrative District). This is a regional school district that incorporates two or more towns into one school department with one high school and middle school. These towns do not have independent school boards, but instead have one central board governing the entire district. Students are obligated to attend the central high school. Usually, a MSAD comprises one larger town and one or more smaller towns. The larger town is equipped with a high school and middle school, while the surrounding towns have elementary schools as well, but no secondary schools. The elementary schools usually cut off after grade 5 or grade 6. Sometimes, towns in a MSAD do not have an elementary school but possess a high school and/or middle school, whereas the surrounding towns have the elementary schools. <br />
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The last type of school district is a CSD (Community School District, sometimes called a Consolidated School District). This usually (but not always) exists in school districts with such a small student population between several towns that the school district cannot justify an elementary school outside the largest town in the district. In rare cases a CSD refers to only a high school of a school union. Sometimes, in towns geographically isolated (such as island towns) the entire student population attends one school grades PK-12.<br />
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Students can choose to attend a school in another district if the parents agree to pay the school tuition. Vocational centers are usually regional, so one school department will administer a technical center but other school districts will transport their students there to take classes.<br />
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===Private schools===<br />
Private schools are less common than public schools. A large number of private elementary schools with under 20 students exist, but most private high schools in Maine are actually semi-private high schools. This means that while it costs money to send children there, towns will make a contract with a school to take children from a town or MSAD at a slightly reduced rate. Often this is done when it is deemed cheaper to subsidize private tuition than build a whole new school when a private one already exists. <br />
<br />
===Magnet schools===<br />
Maine has one major magnet school: The [[Maine School of Science and Mathematics]] in Limestone. Another specialty public school exists in Portland: the Maine School of Performing Arts.<br />
<br />
===Colleges and universities===<br />
{{col-begin}}<br />
{{col-break}}<br />
*[[Bangor Theological Seminary]]<br />
*[[Bates College]]<br />
*[[Beal College]]<br />
*[[Bowdoin College]]<br />
*[[Colby College]]<br />
*[[College of the Atlantic]]<br />
*[[Husson College]]<br />
*[[Maine College of Art]]<br />
*[[Maine Community College System]]<br />
**[[Central Maine Community College]]<br />
**[[Kennebec Valley Community College]]<br />
**[[Eastern Maine Community College]]<br />
**[[Northern Maine Community College]]<br />
**[[Southern Maine Community College]]<br />
**Boat School at Eastport (a branch of Husson College)<br />
**[[Washington County Community College]]<br />
**[[York County Community College]]<br />
{{col-break}}<br />
*[[Maine Maritime Academy]]<br />
*[[Saint Joseph's College of Maine|St. Joseph's College]]<br />
*[[Thomas College]]<br />
*[[Unity College (Maine)|Unity College]]<br />
*[[University of Maine System]]<br />
**[[University of Maine at Augusta]]<br />
**[[University of Maine at Farmington]]<br />
**[[University of Maine at Fort Kent]]<br />
**[[University of Maine at Machias]]<br />
**[[University of Maine|University of Maine at Orono]], the flagship campus<br />
**[[University of Maine at Rockland]]<br />
**[[University of Maine at Presque Isle]]<br />
**[[University of Maine School of Law]]<br />
**[[University of Southern Maine]]<br />
*[[University of New England, Maine|University of New England]]<br />
**[[Brigton Academy]]<br />
{{col-end}}<br />
<br />
==Professional sports teams==<br />
*[[Portland Sea Dogs]], [[minor league baseball]], [[Eastern League (U.S. baseball)]]<br />
*[[Portland Pirates]], [[minor league hockey]], [[American Hockey League]]<br />
*[[Lewiston MAINEiacs]], [[junior hockey]], [[Quebec Major Junior Hockey League]]<br />
<br />
==Miscellany==<br />
*Four [[United States Navy|U.S. Navy]] ships have been named [[USS Maine|USS ''Maine'']] in honor of the state.<br />
*Maine is the only U.S. state to have a name one [[syllable]] long; all other 49 states have at least two syllables. It also is the only state within the 48 contiguous states to border only one other state.<br />
*Maine is the number one exporter of [[blueberry|blueberries]] and [[toothpick]]s. The largest toothpick manufacturing plant in the United States is located in [[Strong, Maine]]. The Strong Wood Products Incorporated plant produces twenty million toothpicks a day.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://ludb.clui.org/ex/i/ME3145/ | title=Toothpick Capital of the World | publisher=The Center For Land Use Interpretation | accessdate=2007-04-21}}</ref><br />
*[[Cadillac Mountain]] in Bar Harbor, [[Mt. Katahdin]] in [[Baxter State Park]], and [[Mars Hill Mountain]] in the town of [[Mars Hill, Maine|Mars Hill]] each battle to be the first site in the contiguous United States to see the morning's sunlight. [http://aa.usno.navy.mil/faq/docs/first_sunrise.html#US]Maine's first light depends on the time of year, as the sunrise moves from South to North. From October 7 to March 6, Cadillac Mountain is first. From March 7 to March 24, [[West Quoddy Head]] is first in the country. Warmer months, March 25 to September 18, Mars Hill sees first light. Then, when the sun starts getting lower in the sky, The country's day begins between September 19 to October 6 back at West Quoddy Head.<br />
*Maine has 62 [[lighthouses]], of which more than 50 are still in use.<br />
*Maine has traditionally been a source for [[Maine Salmon]], however economic considerations and environmental activism have caused some of the industry to move to Canada.<br />
<br />
===State symbols===<br />
*[[List of U.S. state fruit|State berry]]: Wild [[Blueberry]] <br />
*[[List of U.S. state birds|State bird]]: [[Black-capped Chickadee]]<br />
*[[List of U.S. state cats|State cat]]: [http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Maine_Coon Maine Coon]<br />
*[[State fish]]: [[Land-locked salmon]]<br />
*[[List of U.S. state flowers|State flower]]: [[Eastern White Pine|White Pinecone and Tassel]]<br />
*[[State fossil]]: ''[[Pertica Quadrifaria]]''<br />
*[[State gemstone]]: [[Tourmaline]]<br />
*[[State herb]]: [[Pyrolaceae|Wintergreen]]<br />
*[[State insect]]: [[Western honey bee|European honey bee]]<br />
*[[List of U.S. state mammals|State mammal]]: [[Moose]]<br />
*[[State animal]]: [[Moose]]<br />
*[[State beverage]]: [[Moxie]]<br />
*[[Soils|State soil]]: [[Chesuncook soil series]]<br />
*[[State song]]: [[State of Maine Song]]<br />
*[[State tree]]: [[Eastern white pine|Eastern White Pine]]<br />
*[[State vessel]]: Arctic exploration schooner ''Bowdoin''<br />
*[[State motto]]: Dirigo ("I lead" or "I direct")<br />
(See also: [http://www.maine.gov/portal/facts_history/facts.html#symbols www.maine.gov portal].)<br />
<br />
===Maine in fiction===<br />
*[http://www.waterborolibrary.org/maineaut/index.htm List of Maine writers] each with a short biography and list of works.<br />
*[http://www.waterborolibrary.org/maineaut/mystery.htm List of Maine mystery writers] with short biography and works.<br />
*[http://www.waterborolibrary.org/maineaut/setinmaine.htm List of books set in Maine.]<br />
<br />
====Literature====<br />
*[[Charlotte Agell]] lives in Maine and has several books set in Maine.<br />
*''[[The Cider House Rules]]'', a novel by [[John Irving]] (and later a [[The Cider House Rules (film)|motion picture]]) is set in several fictional Maine towns.<br />
*[[Robert P. T. Coffin]] (1892–1955) — Iconic Maine writer.<br />
*[http://www.waterborolibrary.org/maineaut/km.htm#kellogg Elijah Kellogg Jr] (1813–1901) — Popular author of [[Horatio Alger, Jr.]]-style boy's books. Many of these out-of-copyright books are available online at [http://books.google.com/books?as_q=&num=50&btnG=Google+Search&as_epq=&as_oq=&as_eq=&as_libcat=0&as_brr=0&lr=&as_vt=&as_auth=Elijah+Kellogg&as_pub=&as_sub=&as_drrb=c&as_miny=&as_maxy=&as_isbn= books.google.com].<br />
*[[Stephen King]] bases much of his fiction in Maine.<br />
*[[H. P. Lovecraft]], who set almost all of his stories in New England, occasionally mentions Maine.<br />
*[[Robert McCloskey]] (1914–2003 ) — Beloved children's author.<br />
*''[[The Moosepath League]]'' series of books by [[Van Reid]] are humorous adventures set in 19th century Maine.<br />
*''[[Night Chills]]'', a horror/suspense novel by [[Dean Koontz]] takes place in the fictional town of Black River, Maine.<br />
*Maine is mentioned in a chapter of Henry David Thoreau's [[Walden]], who visited the Maine woods during his stay at [[Walden Pond]].<br />
<br />
====Film====<br />
*''[[Casper]]'', a 1996 children's film set in the town of Friendship, Maine.<br />
*''[[Darkness Falls]]'', a 2003 horror film, is set in the fictional Maine town of Darkness Falls but was filmed mostly in Australia.<br />
*''[[Empire Falls (miniseries)|Empire Falls]]'', a motion picture based on the [[Pulitzer Prize]]-winning [[Empire Falls|novel of the same name]], was filmed almost entirely in Waterville and Skowhegan.<br />
*''[[In the Bedroom]]'', a 2001 Academy Award-nominated film, takes place in Camden, Maine.<br />
*''[[The Iron Giant]]'', based on the novel ''[[The Iron Man (novel)|The Iron Man]]'' by [[Ted Hughes]], is an award-winning animated film that takes place in the fictional town of Rockwell, Maine in the 1950s.<br />
*''[[The Man Without a Face]]'', a 1993 film starring Mel Gibson, shot throughout midcoast Maine.<br />
*''[[The Shawshank Redemption]]'', an award-winning 1993 movie set in Maine.<br />
*''[[Storm of the Century]]'', a miniseries based on the Stephen King novel, takes place in Maine along with many other adaptations of his books.<br />
*''[[Welcome to Mooseport]]'', a 2004 movie set in the fictional city of Mooseport, Maine.<br />
*"[[The Mist]]", a Stephen King movie set in Maine.<br />
<br />
====Television====<br />
*''[[Dark Shadows]]'' is set in the fictional coastal town of Collinsport, Maine.<br />
*Hawkeye Pierce, a central character of the television sitcom ''[[M*A*S*H]]'', is a resident of the fictional town of Crabapple Cove, Maine. The role of Pierce was played by [[Alan Alda]]. The series was based upon the writings of [[H. Richard Hornberger|Dr. H. Richard Hornberger]], who following the war resided in [[Pittsfield, Maine|Pittsfield]].<br />
*''[[Murder, She Wrote]]'', a television series starring [[Angela Lansbury]], is set in the fictional Maine village of [[Cabot Cove]].<br />
<br />
===Famous Mainers===<br />
A citizen of Maine is known as a "Mainer," though the term "Downeaster" may be applied to residents of the northeast coast of the state. <br />
{{col-begin}}<br />
{{col-break}}<br />
*'''Business'''<br />
**[[L. L. Bean|Leon Leonwood (L.L.) Bean]], clothing maker and retailer<br />
**[[Milton Bradley]], board game inventor<br />
**[[Reuben Colburn]], shipbuilder from Pittston, and guide for [[Benedict Arnold]]'s March to Quebec, part of the [[Invasion of Canada (1775)]]<br />
**[[Francis Edgar Stanley]] and [[Freelan O. Stanley]], inventors, [[Stanley Steamer]]<br />
*''' Entertainment and media'''<br />
**[[Christopher Daniel Barnes]], actor<br />
**[[Corey Beaulieu]], Band member/songwriter of Trivium<br />
**[[Anna Belknap]], actress<br />
**[[Gordon Bok]], folksinger/songwriter<br />
**[[John Cariani]], actor <br />
**[[Ernie Coombs]], actor ([[Mr. Dressup]])<br />
**[[Howie Day]], singer/songwriter<br />
**[[Patrick Dempsey]], actor<br />
**[[Richard Dysart]], actor<br />
**[[Kevin Eastman]], co-creator of the [[Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles]]<br />
**[[James Flavin]], actor<br />
**[[Jonathan Frakes]], actor<br />
**[[Dan Fogelberg]], singer/songwriter<br />
**[[John Ford]], director, actor<br />
**[[Frank Fixaris]], sports broadcaster<br />
**[[Patty Griffin]], singer/songwriter <br />
**[[Juliana Hatfield]], musician<br />
**[[David E. Kelley]], producer<br />
**[[Ray Lamontagne]], singer/songwriter<br />
**[[Linda Lavin]], actress<br />
**[[David Mallett]], singer/songwriter<br />
**[[Bob Marley (comedian)|Bob Marley]], comedian<br />
**[[Andrea Martin]], actress, comedienne<br />
**[[Judd Nelson]], actor (member of the [[Brat Pack (movies)|Brat Pack]])<br />
**[[Rachel Nichols (actress)|Rachel Nichols]], actress<br />
**[[Shirley Povich]], [[Washington Post]] sports columnist<br />
**[[Victoria Rowell]], actress<br />
**[[Tim Sample]], humorist<br />
**[[Andrew St. John]], actor<br />
**[[Noel Paul Stookey]], singer/songwriter<br />
**[[Phyllis Thaxter]], actress<br />
**[[Gary Thorne]], sports broadcaster<br />
**[[Liv Tyler]], actress (daughter of singer Steven Tyler)<br />
**[[Steven Zirnkilton]], voiceover actor, best known for the opening narration of the [[NBC]] television drama series ''[[Law & Order]]''.<br />
**[[Bob Ludwig]], Owner and founder of Gateway Mastering and DVD, a resident of Maine.<br />
*'''Literature and the Arts'''<br />
**[[Artemus Ward]], writer<br />
**[[Walter Van Tilburg Clark]], writer<br />
**[[Thomas A. Desjardin]], writer<br />
**[[Nancy A. Henry]], poet<br />
**[[Winslow Homer]], artist (27 year resident)<br />
**[[Sarah Orne Jewett]], writer<br />
**[[Stephen King]], writer<br />
**[[Henry Wadsworth Longfellow]], poet<br />
**[[Robert McCloskey]] writer<br />
**[[Edna St. Vincent Millay]], poet<br />
**[[Ruth Moore]], writer<br />
**[[George Lorenzo Noyes]], writer and artist<br />
**[[Lincoln Peirce]], cartoonist<br />
**[[Walter Piston]], composer<br />
**[[Van Reid]], novelist<br />
**[[Phineas Quimby]], 19th century philosopher, writer<br />
**[[Kenneth Roberts]], historical novelist<br />
**[[Edwin Arlington Robinson]], poet<br />
**[[Harriet Beecher Stowe]], novelist & abolitionist<br />
**[[E.B. White]], writer (28 year resident)<br />
**[[Andrew Wyeth]], artist<br />
**[[Marguerite Yourcenar]], writer and first female chosen for the [[French Academy]] (Resident in [[Mount Desert Island]], from 1950 to 1987)<br />
{{col-break}}<br />
*'''Government and Politics'''<br />
**[[Myron Avery]], creator of the [[Appalachian trail]]<br />
**[[Percival P. Baxter]], governor, creator of Baxter State Park<br />
**[[James G. Blaine]], politician, presidential candidate<br />
**[[Owen Brewster]], politician<br />
**[[William S. Cohen]], politician (former [[United States Senator]] and [[Secretary of Defense]])<br />
**[[Dorothea Dix]], civil rights reformer<br />
**[[Hannibal Hamlin]], politician ([[Abraham Lincoln]]'s first Vice President)<br />
**[[George J. Mitchell]], politician (former [[United States Senate Majority Leader|U.S. Senate Majority Leader]])<br />
**[[Edmund Muskie]], politician, US Senator, and Secretary of State to [[Jimmy Carter]], 1980<br />
**[[Thomas Brackett Reed]], politician<br />
**[[Margaret Chase Smith]], politician, first woman elected to both houses of the [[United States Congress]]<br />
**[[Samantha Smith]], "America's Youngest Ambassador"<br />
**[[Olympia Snowe]], Senior Republican Senator from Maine<br />
**[[Sam Webb]], politician, Communist Party USA Leader<br />
**[[John H. Reed]], governor, former Chairman of the National Governor's Assiocation<br />
*'''Military'''<br />
**[[Joshua Chamberlain]], governor, [[American Civil War|Civil War]] General and hero, [[Medal of Honor]] recipient<br />
**[[Ronald Speirs]], famous from the HBO series Band of Brothers, [[World War II|WW2]]<br />
**[[Gary Gordon]], Medal of Honor recipient (3 October 1993, [[Battle of Mogadishu (1993)|Mogadishu]], Somalia)<br />
**[[Oliver Otis Howard]], Civil War General, founder of [[Howard University]]<br />
**[[Henry Knox]], first U.S. [[United States Secretary of War|Secretary of War]]<br />
<br />
*'''Sports'''<br />
**[[Cindy Blodgett]], former [[WNBA]] [[basketball]] player and current head women's basketball coach at the [[University of Maine]]<br />
**[[Mike Brown]], a [[mixed martial arts]], [[WEC]] , [[UFC]] fighter and featherweight belt contender. <br />
**[[Amanda Buckner]], [[Mixed martial arts|MMA]] fighter in [[Mixed Fighting Championship]] 7 and was a contestant on MMA reality show [[Bodogfight]] TV.<br />
**[[Ricky Craven]], NASCAR driver<br />
**[[Ian Crocker]], Olympic swimmer<br />
**[[Marcus Davis]], MMA fighter in the [[UFC]] and was a contestant on the [[Ultimate Fighter 2]] on [[Spike TV]].<br />
**[[Scotty 2 Hotty|Scott Garland]], professional wrestler formerly employed by [[World Wrestling Entertainment]] under the ring name of 'Scotty 2 Hotty.'<br />
**[[James "Chico" Hernandez]], featured on a box of [[Wheaties]] and is a [[FIAS]] World [[Sombo]] [[Wrestling]] Champion<br />
**[[Paul Kariya]], NHL Hockey Player<br />
**[[Matt Kinney]], MLB Baseball Player | SF Giants (minor leagues)<br />
**[[Dick MacPherson]], former head coach of the [[New England Patriots]] and [[Syracuse University]] Orangemen<br />
**[[Stump Merrill]], baseball coach and former manager of the [[New York Yankees]]<br />
**[[Les Otten]], [[Boston Red Sox]] owner<br />
**[[Joan Benoit|Joan Benoit Samuelson]], [[marathon (sport)|marathon]] runner<br />
**[[Louis Sockalexis]], first American Indian ([[Penobscot]]) MLB baseball player<br />
**[[Matt Stairs]], MLB Baseball Player | [[Toronto Blue Jays]]<br />
**[[Tim Sylvia]], former [[Ultimate Fighting Championship]] Heavyweight Champion<br />
**[[Seth Wescott]], 2006 Olympic Gold Medalist - Snowboard Cross<br />
**[[Mike Bordick]], Baseball Player for the [[Baltimore Orioles]]. Attended Highschool and college in Maine.<br />
**[[Roger Levesque]], Professional Soccer Player, Seattle Sounders. Played in MLS for San Jose Earthquakes. Led Sounders in scoring.<br />
**[[Eric Weinrich]] Former NHL Player<br />
{{col-end}}<br />
<br />
==Gallery==<br />
<center><gallery><br />
Image:Portland_Headlight_2000_3.jpg|Portland Head Light<br />
Image:Maine_shack_winter.jpg|Maine winter<br />
Image:Maine_snowplows.jpg|Snowplows for sale<br />
Image:Maine_snow_3.jpg|Maine winter<br />
</gallery></center><br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
*[[List of Maine-related topics]]<br />
<!-- {{portal|Maine|Flag of Maine.svg|left=yes}} --><br />
{{clear}}<br />
<!-- Please place links to all topics directly related to the State of Maine in the [[List of Maine-related topics]] --><br />
<br />
==Notes==<br />
{{reflist|2}}<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
{{sisterlinks|Maine}}<br />
<br />
*Official state web-sites<br />
**[http://www.maine.gov Maine government]<br />
**[http://www.visitmaine.com Maine Office of Tourism] Search for tourism-related businesses<br />
**[http://www.getrealmaine.com/visit Visit Maine (agriculture)] Maine fairs, festivals, etc. - Agricultural Dept.<br />
<br />
*Other governmental web-sites:<br />
*[http://tonto.eia.doe.gov/state/state_energy_profiles.cfm?sid=ME Energy Profile for Maine- Economic, environmental, and energy data]<br />
**[http://www.usgs.gov/state/state.asp?State=ME U.S. Geological Survey] Real-time, geographic, and other scientific resources of Maine<br />
**[http://www.ers.usda.gov/StateFacts/ME.htm U.S. Dept. of Agriculture] Maine State Facts - agricultural<br />
**[http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/states/23000.html U.S. Census Bureau] Quick facts on Maine<br />
<br />
*History web-sites<br />
**[http://www.usastatesdates.com/maine.htm] History topics timeline of Maine<br />
<br />
*Non-profit web-sites<br />
**[http://www.mainehistory.org Maine Historical Society]<br />
**[http://docs.unh.edu/towns/MaineTownList.htm Old USGS maps of Maine.]<br />
**[http://www.portlandstage.com Portland Stage Company]<br />
<br />
*Maine Media Websites<br />
**[http://www.maine.info/media.php Comprehensive compilation of media sources in Maine.]<br />
{{-}}<br />
{{Maine|expand}}<br />
{{New England}}<br />
{{US Northeast}}<br />
{{United States}}<br />
<br />
{{succession<br />
| preceded = [[Alabama]]<br />
| office = [[List of U.S. states by date of statehood]]<br />
| years = Admitted on March 15, 1820 (23rd)<br />
| succeeded = [[Missouri]]<br />
}}<br />
<br />
{{coord|display=title|45.5|N|69|W|region:US-ME_type:adm1st_scale:3000000}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:Maine|*]]<br />
[[Category:States of the United States]]<br />
[[Category:New England]]<br />
[[Category:Northeastern United States]]<br />
[[Category:1820 establishments]]<br />
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[[af:Maine]]<br />
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[[ang:Maine]]<br />
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[[lt:Meinas]]<br />
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Leslie
https://conservapedia.com/index.php?title=Peter_Hitchens&diff=553365
Peter Hitchens
2008-11-10T00:40:48Z
<p>Leslie: removing some too-obvious bias</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Infobox writer <!-- for more information see [[:Template:Infobox writer]] --><br />
| name = Peter Hitchens<br />
| image = Peterhitchens.jpg<br />
| caption = Peter Hitchens<br />
| pseudonym = <br />
| birthname = Peter Jonathan Hitchens<br />
| birthdate = {{birth date and age|1951|10|28}}<br />
| birthplace = [[Sliema]], [[Malta]]<br />
| occupation = [[Author]], [[Journalist]], [[Pundit (expert)|Pundit]]<br />
| nationality = {{flagcountry|United Kingdom}}<br />
| period = <br />
| genre = <br />
| subject = <br />
| movement = <br />
| notableworks = <br />
| spouse =<br />
| children =<br />
| relatives =<br />
| influences = <br />
| influenced = <br />
| signature = <br />
| website = <br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''Peter Jonathan Hitchens''' (born [[28 October]] [[1951]] in [[Sliema]], [[Malta]]) is a [[United Kingdom|British]] [[journalist]] and [[author]], noted for his [[traditionalist conservatism]] ([[paleoconservatism]]). A reporter for the ''[[Daily Express]]'' for most of his career, he left the paper in 2001 and currently writes for the ''[[The Mail on Sunday]]''.<br />
<br />
== Early life ==<br />
Peter Hitchens was educated at [[The Leys School]], the Oxford College of Further Education, and the [[University of York]]. He married Eve Ross in 1983; they have three children. Although raised as an [[Anglicanism|Anglican]], Hitchens learned soon after his marriage that his mother, who had committed [[suicide]] when he was in his twenties, was of partly [[Jew]]ish ancestry<ref name="talking">{{cite news | last = Barber | first = Lynn | title = Look who's talking | work = [[The Observer]] | url = http://books.guardian.co.uk/departments/politicsphilosophyandsociety/story/0,,683900,00.html| date=2002-04-12}}</ref>. Hitchens is a confirmed and communicant member of the [[Church of England]]. His older brother is [[Christopher Hitchens]], also a prominent journalist.<br />
<br />
==Career in journalism==<br />
Hitchens worked for the ''[[Daily Express]]'' between 1977 and late 2000, initially as a reporter specialising successively in education, industrial and labour affairs, before his appointment as deputy [[political editor]]. Leaving [[Westminster]] to cover defence and diplomatic affairs, he reported on the decay and ultimate collapse of the [[Communist regime]]s in several [[Warsaw Pact]] countries, culminating in a stint as [[Moscow]] correspondent during the conclusion of the Communist era in 1990 and 1991.<br />
<br />
After an interval as a roving foreign reporter, he became the ''Express's'' [[Washington, D.C.|Washington]] correspondent, returning to London in 1995 to become a commentator and, eventually, a regular columnist. He continued as a conservative voice despite the paper's general move to the Left and its decision in 1997 to support the [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour Party]] under [[Tony Blair]]. <br />
<br />
In 2001, when the ''Express'' was bought by [[Richard Desmond]], a publisher of [[pornography|pornographic]] magazines, Hitchens joined ''[[The Mail on Sunday]]''; his strong [[anti-pornography]] views had, he argued, made his previous affiliation untenable.<ref>{{cite web | title=BBC News Online report: "Veteran columnist quits Express" | url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/1061015.stm | date=2000-12-09 | accessdate= 2006-11-02}}</ref> He currently writes a ''Mail on Sunday'' column, in addition to occasional reportage, including from China, Cuba, India, Iran, Iraq, Israel, Norway, North Korea, Pakistan, Russia, and the USA. He has also written for "[[The Oxford Forum]]", a termly magazine distributed to members of the University of Oxford, ''[[The Spectator]]'', a conservative British magazine, and on occasions for ''[[The Guardian]]'' and the ''[[New Statesman]]'', despite these publications being broadly left-wing.<br />
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Hitchens is featured in the British broadcast media, often sparring with his opponents, though he has also authored [[Documentary film|documentaries]] on [[Channel 4]] and [[BBC Four]]. In the past, he co-presented a programme on [[Talk Radio UK|Talk Radio]] with Labour pundits including [[Derek Draper]] and [[Austin Mitchell]]. He says he was offered the chance to present the programme on his own by the station's boss, [[Kelvin MacKenzie]], but preferred, and suggested, an adversarial programme with a left-wing co-presenter, believing that this was the best way to achieve broadcast fairness and balance.<ref>Peter Hitchens [http://www.guardian.co.uk/media/2000/apr/03/bbc.mondaymediasection1 "Hear me roar",] ''The Guardian'', 3 April 2000. Retrieved on 17 March 2008.</ref><br />
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==Personal political history==<br />
Hitchens studied politics at [[University of York|York University]] from 1970 to 1973. He dismisses as untrue a story that he arrived late at a lecture with the excuse that he had been "too busy starting the revolution", on the grounds that he seldom attended any lectures at all.{{Fact|date=September 2007}} He was then a [[Trotskyism|Trotskyist]] who was a member of the [[Socialist Workers Party (Britain)#Labour Worker and renaming to International Socialists|International Socialists]] from 1969 to 1975, and joined the British [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour Party]] in 1977, campaigning for [[Ken Livingstone]]'s parliamentary candidature for Hampstead in the [[United Kingdom general election, 1979|1979 general election]] "with some reluctance". Hitchens left the Labour Party in 1983 when he became a political reporter at the ''Daily Express'' and thought it "no longer appropriate to carry a party card".<ref name="anger">{{cite news | last = Silver | first = James | title = Look forward in anger | work = [[The Guardian]] | url = http://www.guardian.co.uk/media/2005/nov/14/mailonsunday.mondaymediasection | date=2005-11-14}}</ref> <br />
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He joined the [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative Party ]] in 1997, but concluded that the Party had no idea what it was facing and would never be able to challenge New Labour, and subsequently left in 2003. Hitchens challenged [[Michael Portillo]] for the Conservative Party nomination in the [[Kensington and Chelsea (UK Parliament constituency)|Kensington and Chelsea]] seat in 1999. Some critics suggest that his failure to secure the nomination explains much of his antipathy towards the Conservative Party, a claim Hitchens rejects on the basis of his having had no serious expectation of being chosen: He maintains that he put himself forward only to criticise Portillo and his plan to 'modernise' the Party. By now often referred to as 'Bonkers' by critics and opponents, he rejects the nickname: "I don't like being called 'bonkers' and I think to some extent it demeans people who use phrases like that. But I take comfort from the fact that most totalitarian regimes tend to classify their opponents as mentally disordered."<ref name="anger"/><br />
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He is now politically independent, and believes that no party he could support will be created until the Conservative Party disintegrates. He also dismisses the [[United Kingdom Independence Party]] (UKIP) as "amateurish" with "a blazer-and-cravat feel to it which limits its appeal to the same sort of areas where the Tory Party still stumbles about in its prolonged death throes, the Southern English middle classes."<ref>Peter Hitchens [http://hitchensblog.mailonsunday.co.uk/2007/02/tories_ukip_and.html "Tories, UKIP, and other debating matters",] ''Daily Mail'' blog, posted 20 February 2007. Retrieved on 7 January 2008.</ref><br />
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==Core beliefs==<br />
Hitchens' political views are not easily classified according to conventional categories, and he rejects the standard divisions between [[political left|Left]] and [[political right|Right]], maintaining that old divisions - over state control of the economy - are obsolete and that the most significant divisions nowadays concern cultural and moral issues, and the importance of national sovereignty. Some of his views resemble the [[paleoconservatism|paleoconservative]] tradition in the [[United States]].<br />
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Unlike the conventional right, Hitchens is critical of [[neoconservatism]], and for this reason was opposed to the [[Kosovo]] and [[war in Iraq|Iraq wars]]. He argues that a dogmatic allegiance to unfettered [[free-market liberalism]] is no substitute for [[Christian]] morality, and that the [[free market]], pursued dogmatically, can often damage institutions which [[conservative]]s should value. He points out that state ownership and control are not invariably bad, giving the [[Royal Navy]] as an example of an excellent state-owned and controlled institution. He also supports railway renationalisation, and mocks Tories for their belief that road transport, heavily state subsidised, is in some way more conservative than railways. He has said that he wishes the motor car had never been invented because of the damage it has done to society. He has frequently criticised [[Thatcherism]] for ignoring the value of institutions and traditions, and has said the left are not entirely wrong when they accuse the Thatcher government of having damaged British society. <br />
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In propounding his [[social conservative]] views, Hitchens frequently criticises [[political correctness]], which he considers to be a manifestation of [[Cultural Marxism]]. He says it is important to acknowledge that the Left has been correct in its long opposition to [[racism]] and describes the use of the word "[[nigger]]" as immoral and obscene. He argues, however, in opposition to the Left, that genuine good manners, tolerance and decency are impossible, in the long term, without the foundation of traditional morality and religious faith. But he argues that opponents of political correctness will fail unless they accept that it has some good elements and that it is attractive to many because of its promotion of simple good manners.<br />
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===On liberty, security, and crime===<br />
Hitchens advocates a society governed by [[conscience]] and the rule of law, which he sees as the best guarantee of [[liberty]]. He believes that [[capital punishment]] is a key element of a strong justice system.<br />
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He warns that the decline of [[conscience]] and morality will inevitably lead to a strong state. He is especially critical of the use of "[[security]]" as a pretext for diluting and eroding [[individual liberty]]. He argues that increased "security" destroys freedom without necessarily increasing safety, and says that there is no contradiction between maintaining liberty and protecting the realm.<br />
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Hitchens is critical of moves towards [[authoritarian]] government and the erosion of [[civil liberties]], whether they come from the Right or the Left of the political spectrum. Accordingly, he has been highly critical of the British government's desire for [[British national identity card|identity cards]], its attempts to abolish [[jury trial]], to centralise the police, and its creation of a national law enforcement body in the form of the [[Serious Organised Crime Agency]] (SOCA). He describes these things as facets of governmental desire for permanent, irreversible constitutional revolution, and an "attack on English liberty" in general. In his newspaper columns, Hitchens referred to [[David Blunkett]], British [[Home Office|Home Secretary]] between 2001 and 2004, as "Minister of the Interior", on the grounds that the title, reminiscent of [[police state]]s, better reflected Blunkett's policies than the traditional British title of "Home Secretary". <br />
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Hitchens is opposed to the relaxation of laws against the possession of [[illegal drug trade|illegal]] [[recreational drug use|recreational drugs]]. He argues that the law's active disapproval of drug taking is an essential counterweight to the "pro-drug [[propaganda]]" of [[popular culture]]. He has said that attempts to combat drug use by restricting supply and persecuting dealers are futile, if possession and use are not punished as well. He answers claims that the "[[War on Drugs]]" has failed by suggesting that there has been no serious war on drugs for many years. Hitchens has said that the approach, known as "harm reduction", is defeatist and counter-productive. He was among the earliest commentators to argue that [[cannabis]] was a major mental health danger to some users.<br />
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===On foreign policy===<br />
Hitchens opposed the [[2003 invasion of Iraq|Iraq War]] on the grounds that it was not in the interests of either Britain or of the United States, but he does not associate himself with [[anti-war]] campaigns, and he remains a strong supporter of the [[Israel|State of Israel]]. He is critical of [[neoconservatism]], which he considers to be [[globalism|globalist]], destructively [[interventionism|interventionist]] and [[utopian]], and adopts a view of foreign policy similar to the American [[paleoconservatism]] movement. <br />
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Hitchens condemned the 1998 [[Belfast Agreement]] as a surrender to the [[Provisional Irish Republican Army|Provisional IRA]] and a violation of the rule of law. He believes that the best approach to solving [[Northern Ireland]]'s problems would have been the full integration of Northern Ireland into the United Kingdom, arguing that creating a Northern Irish Parliament at [[Parliament of Northern Ireland|Stormont]] was mistaken because it prevented the integration of the six counties of Northern Ireland into the [[United Kingdom]]. He believes that the achievements of direct rule over Northern Ireland, in removing discrimination against [[Roman Catholic]]s, have been greatly underestimated. He maintains that Northern Ireland is now only a provisional part of the UK, since, under the 1998 Belfast Agreement, it can be transferred to Irish [[sovereignty]] by a single irreversible referendum.<br />
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On Europe, Hitchens argues that the [[United Kingdom]] should negotiate an amicable departure from the [[European Union]], whose laws and traditions he regards as incompatible with the laws and liberties of England, and with the national independence of the United Kingdom as a whole. He also believes that the interests of the European Union are often different from &mdash; and in many cases hostile to &mdash; those of the United Kingdom. Hitchens also opposes [[devolution]] in [[Scotland]] and [[Wales]], regarding these changes not as steps towards real independence, but as part of a European Union-inspired strategy to dissolve Great Britain into statelets and regions, a preliminary to its complete absorption in a European state. For the same reason, he opposes plans to divide England itself into regions.<br />
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===On morality, culture, and religion===<br />
Hitchens is an advocate of absolute moral virtues founded on religious (particularly Christian) faith. He argues that these have been undermined and eroded by [[Social liberalism|social liberals]] and by those he calls [[Cultural Marxism|cultural Marxists]] since the 1960s, a theory he explores in the book ''[[The Abolition of Britain]]''. <br />
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In support of this [[thesis]], Hitchens cites, among other things, what he describes as serial attacks on the institution of marriage by the State. He identifies these attacks as the introduction of [[no-fault divorce]], the removal or redistribution of what were formerly the exclusive privileges of marriage, and its resultant loss of status and regard, the abolition of the Christian Sunday and the growing economic and cultural pressure on wives and mothers to go out to work. He believes that without faith and without strong families, the development of conscience is stunted, private life is diminished, and the power of the state increased.<br />
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He believes that many of the measures which created the "[[permissive society]]" were mistaken or excessive and need to be re-examined, and he believes that [[homosexuality|homosexual]] relationships should not be granted [[same-sex marriage|legal parity]] with [[heterosexual]] marriage. However, Hitchens maintains that he has nothing against homosexuals, and rejects the term "[[homophobia]]" in this context as an [[epithet]] which he argues is increasingly used to stifle legitimate debate on social policy.<br />
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Hitchens opposes the compulsory [[metrication in the United Kingdom|metrication]] of Britain's weights and measures, which he believes are both beautiful and practical, rooted in experience and an important part of the English language. He is an [[Anglicanism|Anglican]], and he defends the use of the [[Church of England]]'s 1662 ''[[Book of Common Prayer]]'' and the Authorised or [[King James Version of the Bible]], not only because he believes they are beautiful and memorable, but also because he feels that they are the indispensable foundations of Anglicanism's "powerful combination of scripture, tradition and reason". He is also sceptical of human-caused [[global warming]].<br />
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===On education===<br />
Hitchens condemns [[comprehensive school|comprehensive education]], the [[Plowden Report|Plowden]] reforms of primary schooling, and modern child-centred teaching methods, seeing them as [[egalitarianism|egalitarian]] political projects with no educational justification and many educational disadvantages. Hitchens asserts that comprehensive education has brought about a general dilution of education and of examination standards. He believes this has done grave damage to the national culture. He also fears that lowered standards in technical, scientific and mathematical education, combined with poor teaching of English and the resulting decline of literacy, threaten to leave Britain lagging behind emerging giants like [[China]] and [[India]]. As a means of improving standards in the UK, Hitchens supports a return to the [[grammar school]] system which has been gradually dismantled by successive British governments since the issuing of [[Circular 10/65]] by [[Anthony Crosland]] in 1965. <br />
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As a supporter of [[orthodoxy|orthodox]] Christian morality, Hitchens opposes [[sex education]] in schools. He points out that the general introduction of sex education in schools has been accompanied by an increase in sexual activity among the young, with a resultant rise in [[pregnancy|pregnancies]], [[abortion]]s and instances of [[sexually transmitted disease]]s, the very things that sex education is intended to discourage. He suggests that the two may be connected, and that in any case the argument that sex education protects the young against early pregnancy or disease is false.<br />
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He regards the well known children's television programme [[Teletubbies]] as another sign of the degradation of modern Britain, claiming that "our obsession with television is highlighted by the curious creatures having TV sets built into their stomachs". <ref>Peter Hitchens, The Abolition of Britain</ref><br />
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===On evolution===<br />
Hitchens sees [[evolution]] as a speculative and [[Falsifiability|unfalsifiable]] theory which cannot be observed in progress. He reasons that if it took place in the past it did so before there were any human witnesses, and that if it is taking place now it is operating so slowly that our civilization is likely to perish long before it has been able to record it in action. He maintains that enthusiasts for [[Darwinism]] often mistake adaptation of existing species for a far more ambitious process required for evolution. He therefore contends that the theory of evolution is wholly unlike other scientific [[theory|theories]] with which it is often compared. He regularly likens belief in evolution to belief in a [[religion]], on the basis that religious claims also cannot be tested and similarly have their origins not in certain knowledge but in the preferences of the believer. In support of his scepticism he cites Karl Popper's remarks on the scientific status of evolution, in which Popper confesses to being disturbed by the apparent tautology of the theory of natural selection. (See, among other locations, "Natural Selection and the Emergence of Mind" in Dialectica, vol 32 No 3-4, 1978 pp 339-355)<br />
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Hitchens argues that neither he nor anyone else knows how life began or how the realm of nature assumed its present form. He says he is willing to accept the possibility that evolutionists may be right, and asks that they will extend the same courtesy to [[theism|theists]]. He agrees with evolutionary biologist [[Richard Dawkins]] that a belief in the truth of evolutionary theory, properly understood, is incompatible with a theist position. He maintains that the question remains a matter of choice, and that intelligent people should be free to decide for themselves which explanation they prefer. He does not criticise evolutionary theory, believing it to be an ingenious possible explanation of the origins of species, but one which he himself prefers not to embrace.<ref>Peter Hitchens, ''[http://hitchensblog.mailonsunday.co.uk/2006/12/intelligence_an.html Intelligence and design]'', Mail online, 2006-12-05.</ref><br />
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Like many other sceptics on this subject, Hitchens does not subscribe to a literal interpretation of the [[Book of Genesis]]. In a review of ''[[God Is Not Great: How Religion Poisons Everything]]'' by his brother, he stated that, "many decades have passed since I fancied the story of [[Adam and Eve]] was literal truth, if I ever did."<ref>[http://www.dailymail.co.uk/pages/live/articles/news/newscomment.html?in_article_id=459427&in_page_id=1787&in_a_source Hitchens vs Hitchens | the Daily Mail<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref><br />
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===On Tony Blair and the Labour Party===<br />
Hitchens has described [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom|Prime Minister]] [[Tony Blair]]'s constitutional reforms as a "slow-motion [[coup d'état]]". He is critical of the [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour Party]] for what he describes as "attacks on the constitution", and critical of the previous Conservative government for its perceived role in facilitating these changes through "rash and unconstitutional acts". The huge expansion of the role of "special advisers", which Hitchens describes as "political commissars" in the civil service, was based, in his view, on similar but smaller-scale appointments by the Conservatives.<br />
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Hitchens contends that the most profound changes brought about by the Labour Party have been designed to concentrate power in the hands of the [[executive (government)|executive]], to debauch [[civil service]] neutrality, and to turn Parliament into a tool of [[Downing Street]]. In Hitchens' view, the most significant single action in this programme was the passing of Orders in Council allowing [[Alastair Campbell]] and [[Jonathan Powell (chief of staff to Tony Blair)|Jonathan Powell]], both political appointees, to give orders to civil servants. It signalled, in his view, a general attempt to politicise Whitehall which has continued ever since. He claims to have detected a parallel effort to appropriate some of the trappings of monarchy and to diminish the Crown's significance and standing, which he sees as embryonic [[presidential system|presidentialism]].<br />
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Hitchens has also often caricatured Blair as "Princess Tony". This is a reference to Blair's use of the expression "The People's Princess" to euologise [[Diana, Princess of Wales]], after her death. Hitchens is also heavily critical of Blair's successor [[Gordon Brown]], describing him as a "boring, dismal [[Marxism|Marxoid]]."<ref>Peter Hitchens [http://hitchensblog.mailonsunday.co.uk/2007/03/ "Is this war?",] ''Daily Mail'' blog, posted 27 March 2007. Retrieved on 22 August 2008.</ref>, though he has criticised what he sees as a "boring" attempt to destroy Brown by the media since he became Prime Minister<ref> Peter Hitchens [http://hitchensblog.mailonsunday.co.uk/2008/08/80m-britons-and.html ''Mail on Sunday'' column, 31 August 2008].</ref><br />
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===On the Conservative Party===<br />
Hitchens is dismissive of the modern [[Conservative Party (UK)|British Conservative Party]], frequently deriding the party's leadership as the "useless Tories". He has often been at odds with fellow conservatives, and argues that the Conservative Party has a consistent record of ill-considered parliamentary acts and policies that cannot be dismissed as accidents or mistakes. He cites as examples: the [[Local Government Act 1972|reorganisation of local government in 1974]]; the [[Police and Criminal Evidence Act 1984|Police and Criminal Evidence Act of 1984]]; the introduction of the [[General Certificate of Secondary Education|GCSE]] exam; the [[Criminal Justice Act 1991|Criminal Justice Act of 1991]]; the agreement to the [[Single European Act]]; and the signing of the [[Treaty of Maastricht|Maastricht Treaty]] ; the severe reduction in defence spending at the end of the Cold War; the [[privatisation of British Rail|privatisation]] of the [[Rail transport in the United Kingdom|UK's railways]]; the Iraq War and the abandonment of re-introducing [[Grammar schools in the United Kingdom|grammar schools]],<ref>Peter Hitchens [http://www.dailymail.co.uk/pages/live/articles/columnists/mailonsunday.html?in_page_id=1791&in_article_id=456453&in_author_id=224 "What Tory could back shameless Dave now?",] ''Mail on Sunday'', 20 May 2007. Retrieved on 20 May 2007.</ref> though Hitchens prefers the German system of selection<ref>Peter Hitchens [http://hitchensblog.mailonsunday.co.uk/2007/01/ripostes_retort.html "Ripostes, retorts and responses",] ''Daily Mail'' blog, posted 17 January 2007. Retrieved on 20 May 2007.</ref> to the [[Eleven plus exam|Eleven Plus examination]].<br />
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He is also critical of what he considers to be a continuing [[idolatry]] of [[Margaret Thatcher]], who, in his view, weakened Britain's institutions and failed to address moral or cultural questions. Hitchens has expressed contempt for [[David Cameron]], the current Conservative Party leader, regarding him as a member of the "[[liberal elite]]" with little conception of the challenges facing modern Britain. He argues that the Conservatives have, indiscriminately, adopted the policies of their opponents over the last century out of an unprincipled desire for office at all costs.<br />
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In March 2007 Hitchens wrote and presented a television programme for [[Channel 4]], ''Toff at the Top'', in which he argued this view. Hitchens views Cameron's social, educational, and foreign policies as being indistinguishable from Blair's. To further emphasize this point, he often refers to the two men in tandem as "Mr. Clair and Mr. Blameron". Cameron, having declined previous interview requests from Hitchens, also declined to be interviewed for this programme, and has since described Hitchens (at a public meeting) as a "maniac". [[James Walton (journalist)|James Walton]] in a ''[[Daily Telegraph]]'' review was largely unimpressed by Hitchens' television programme: "Hitchens...stuck firmly to the Tory equivalent of a Bennite line: that winning power matters less than ideological correctness. His analysis was far more thought-provoking than the straightforward rant I expected. Even so, it did create the sense that (like [[Tony Benn|Benn]] before him) Hitchens is fighting a battle which has already been comprehensively lost".<ref>James Walton [http://www.telegraph.co.uk/arts/main.jhtml?xml=/arts/2007/03/22/nosplit4/bvtv22last.xml "Last night on television",] ''Daily Telegraph'', 27 March 2007. Retrieved on 17 March 2008.</ref><br />
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Hitchens has called for the establishment of a new [[political party]] in the UK, representing the traditionalist conservative strand of opinion that he espouses, and which would, in his own words, be "neither bigoted nor politically correct". He believes that such a movement cannot come into being until the Conservative Party collapses, arguing that many millions of Britons habitually vote for this and other political parties out of tribal loyalty, from which they cannot be detached by reasoned argument.<br />
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==Controversy==<br />
In 2006, while a guest of the TV programme 'This Week' presented by [[Andrew Neil]], and featuring regular guests [[Michael Portillo]] and [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour]] MP [[Diane Abbott]], the latter accused Hitchens of "being greatly admired by the [[British National Party|BNP]]". Hitchens, who has condemned the BNP on numerous occasions,<ref>[http://hitchensblog.mailonsunday.co.uk/2006/04/labour_panics_a.html For example, see this entry in Hitchens's online blog] in which Hitchens, as well as describing the BNP as 'nasty', 'repugnant', 'disreputable' and 'sinister', goes into some detail in outlining his overall attitude towards them.</ref> responded by dismissively asking "Where did that garbage come from?".<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/programmes/this_week/5412812.stm BBC article detailing Hitchens's appearance] (Hitchens presented a piece on [[David Cameron]] before being interviewed by Portillo, Neil, and Abbott in the studio afterwards)</ref><br />
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==Publications==<br />
Hitchens is the author of ''[[The Abolition of Britain]]'' (1999, ISBN 0-7043-8140-0) and ''A Brief History of Crime'' (2003, ISBN 1-84354-148-3), both critical of changes in British society since the 1960s. A compendium of his ''Daily Express'' columns was published under the title ''[[Monday Morning Blues]]'' in 2000. An updated edition of ''A Brief History of Crime'', re-titled ''The Abolition of Liberty'' (ISBN 1-84354-149-1) and featuring a new chapter on [[British national identity card|identity cards]], was published in April 2004.<br />
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==Relationship with elder brother Christopher==<br />
Hitchens' older brother, [[Christopher Hitchens]], is also a prominent journalist, author and critic. Christopher is an [[atheist]] whose views are to the left of Peter's. Christopher is a strong defender of the intervention in Iraq, asserting that it is an inherently moral endeavor. Peter has described it as a 'left-wing war' motivated by liberal idealism, whereas Christopher views it as a radical enterprise, and not a conservative [[imperialism|imperialist]] one. Christopher has said that "The real difference between Peter and myself is the belief in the [[supernatural]]. I'm a [[materialism|materialist]] and he attributes his presence here to a divine plan. I can't stand anyone who believes in [[God]], who invokes the divinity or who is a person of faith."<ref name="meet">{{cite news | last = Katz | first = Ian | title = When Christopher met Peter | work = [[The Guardian]] | url = http://books.guardian.co.uk/hay2005/story/0,15880,1495897,00.html | date=2005-05-31}}</ref><br />
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The brothers were estranged for several years, following a 2001 article in ''[[The Spectator]]'' in which Peter alleged his brother had said he "didn't care if the [[Red Army]] watered its horses at [[Hendon]]", which Christopher said was used "in the reactionary press in the US" to imply that he was a "[[fellow traveller|communist sympathiser]]".<ref name="meet"/> However, after the birth of Peter's third child, Christopher expressed a willingness to reconcile and to meet his new nephew. Shortly thereafter the brothers gave several interviews together in which they said their personal disagreements had been resolved, the most notable being their meeting at the [[Hay Festival]] in 2005<ref name="meet"/>. Christopher clarified this in an interview the following year: "There is no longer any official froideur", he says of their relationship. "But there's no official &mdash; what's the word? &mdash; chaleur, either."<ref name="warofwords">{{cite news | last = Katz | first = Ian | title = War of Words | work = [[The Guardian]] | url = http://books.guardian.co.uk/review/story/0,,1933179,00.html | date=2006-10-28}}</ref> Peter's recent review of Christopher's book ''[[God Is Not Great]]: How Religion Poisons Everything'' led to public argument between the brothers but not to any renewed estrangement. <ref>James Macintyre, [http://news.independent.co.uk/media/article2640860.ece The Hitchens brothers: Anatomy of a row], ''The Independent'', [[11 June]], 2007, accessed [[11 June]] 2007</ref> On [[21 June]], 2007, both Hitchens brothers appeared on [[BBC]] TV's ''[[Question Time (TV series)|Question Time]]'', where they clashed over the intervention in [[Afghanistan]] (and other issues), with Christopher remarking that he was "ashamed to hear a member of the Hitchens family sounding like [[Harold Pinter]] on a bad day".<br />
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In April 2008 the brothers held a long debate before a large audience at the [[Fountain Street Church]] in [[Grand Rapids, Michigan]]. The debate was divided into two parts, dealing with the invasion of Iraq and the existence of God, respectively.<ref>[http://www.gvsu.edu/hauenstein/index.cfm?id=3425B4C3-DA0C-48A1-FDE23503A04A3318] <br />
Hitchens v. Hitchens: Faith, Politics & War</ref> Peter Hitchens said both before and during the debate that it would be the last time he would participate in such an event with his brother.<br />
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==References==<br />
<div style=font-size:90%><br />
<references/><br />
<br />
;Referencing articles<br />
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/474100.stm "Brothers at war over Britain"] Article on a debate about Britain's future with brother [[Christopher Hitchens]], [[15 October]] [[1999]]. Includes some short, selected audio clips from the event.<br />
* [http://www.thetruthseeker.co.uk/print.asp?ID=146"Cool Britannia"] - [[4 November]] [[2002]]. Geoff Metcalf interviews Peter Hitchens on ''The Abolition of Britain''.<br />
* [http://www.taemag.com/issues/articleid.17392/article_detail.asp"Peter Hitchens on the European Union"] - December 2002. Karl Zinsmeister interviews Peter Hitchens at his home in Oxford.<br />
* [http://www.guardian.co.uk/g2/story/0,,265770,00.html"Raging Bulldog"] - Guardian interview, [[20 September]] [[1999]].<br />
* [http://www.dailymail.co.uk/debate/article-1045954/PETER-HITCHENS-How-Left-censored-blindingly-obvious-truth-rape.html] - August 2008. Peter Hitchens writes about rape.<br />
</div><br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
* [[Conservatism]]<br />
* [[Paleoconservatism]]<br />
* [[Pro-life]]<br />
* [[Social conservatism]]<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
;Regular features<br />
* [http://www.mailonsunday.co.uk/pages/live/columnists/mailonsunday.html?in_page_id=1791 Weekly column in the ''Mail on Sunday'' newspaper]<br />
* [http://hitchensblog.mailonsunday.co.uk Peter Hitchens's ''Mail on Sunday'' blog]<br />
<br />
;Book Reviews<br />
*Reviews of ''A Brief History of Crime'' in the: [http://www.telegraph.co.uk/arts/main.jhtml?xml=%2Farts%2F2003%2F04%2F20%2Fbohit20.xml&secureRefresh=true&_requestid=123189 The Daily Telegraph], and [http://books.guardian.co.uk/reviews/politicsphilosophyandsociety/0,6121,935384,00.html The Observer]<br />
<br />
;TV Reviews<br />
''Reviews of ''Toff at the Top'' in:'' <br />
* [http://www.telegraph.co.uk/arts/main.jhtml?xml=/arts/2007/03/22/nosplit4/bvtv22last.xml The Daily Telegraph],<br />
* [http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qn4158/is_20070327/ai_n18759594 The Independent] and <br />
* [http://entertainment.timesonline.co.uk/tol/arts_and_entertainment/tv_and_radio/article1570888.ece The Times].<br />
*[http://www.channel4.com/news/articles/dispatches/cameron+toff+at+the+top/328047 Description of ''Toff at the Top'' on the Channel 4 website]<br />
*[http://www.channel4.com/news/microsites/S/stealing_freedom/ Description of ''Stealing Freedom'' on the Channel 4 website]<br />
<br />
;Video<br />
*[http://booknotes.virage.com/vss-bin/vss_SR/cspan_booknotes/search/?template=search.tmpl&access=Private&ShowID=1594&_query4=Entire%20Program Interview about the ''The Abolition of Britain'' for the Booknotes series] ''Pop-up window with embedded [[RealPlayer]] plugin''<br />
<br />
;Debates<br />
*[http://www.dbskeptic.com/2008/04/04/christopher-hitchens-debates-peter-hitchens/ Christopher Hitchens debates Peter Hitchens]<br />
<br />
{{Persondata<br />
|NAME=Hitchens, Peter<br />
|ALTERNATIVE NAMES=Hitchens, Peter Jonathan (full name)<br />
|SHORT DESCRIPTION=Author, journalist<br />
|DATE OF BIRTH=[[October 28]], [[1951]]<br />
|PLACE OF BIRTH=[[Sliema]], [[Malta]]<br />
}}<br />
{{DEFAULTSORT:Hitchens, Peter}}<br />
[[Category:1951 births]]<br />
[[Category:Alumni of the University of York]]<br />
[[Category:British journalists]]<br />
[[Category:British conservatives]]<br />
[[Category:Daily Mail journalists]]<br />
[[Category:English bloggers]]<br />
[[Category:English Anglicans]]<br />
[[Category:English columnists]]<br />
[[Category:Euroscepticism]]<br />
[[Category:Former leftists]]<br />
[[Category:Former Trotskyists]]<br />
<br />
[[Category:Living people]]<br />
[[Category:Old Leysians]]<br />
[[Category:Socialist Workers Party members (UK)]]<br />
<br />
[[es:Peter Hitchens]]<br />
<br />
;Sermon<br />
* [http://st-michaels.org.uk/Sermons%202005/Peter%20Hitchens%20-%20City%20New%20Year%20service.pdf Peter Hitchens' address to City New Year Service, The Parish Church of St. Michael's Cornhill, London, January 2005]</div>
Leslie
https://conservapedia.com/index.php?title=Alexander_Hamilton&diff=553364
Alexander Hamilton
2008-11-10T00:39:35Z
<p>Leslie: removing some too-obvious bias</p>
<hr />
<div>{{pp-semi|small=yes}}<br />
{{Infobox US Cabinet official<br />
|name=Alexander Hamilton<br />
|image=Alexander Hamilton portrait by John Trumbull 1806.jpg<br />
|order=1st<br />
|title=[[United States Secretary of the Treasury]]<br />
|term_start=September 11, 1789<br />
|term_end=January 31, 1795<br />
|president=[[George Washington]]<br />
|predecessor=None (New office)<br />
|successor=[[Oliver Wolcott, Jr.]]<br />
|order2=[[Delegate]] from [[New York]] to the [[Congress of the Confederation]]<br />
|term_start2=1788<br />
|term_end2=1789<br />
|order3=[[Delegate]] from [[New York]] to the [[Constitutional Convention (United States)|Constitutional Convention]]<br />
|term_start3=1787<br />
|term_end3=1787<br />
|order4=[[Delegate]] from [[New York County]] to the [[New York State Legislature]]<br />
|term_start4=1787<br />
|term_end4=1788<br />
|order5=[[Delegate]] from [[New York]] to the [[Annapolis Convention (1786)|Annapolis Convention]]<br />
|term_start5=1786<br />
|term_end5=1786<br />
|order6=[[Delegate]] from [[New York]] to the [[Congress of the Confederation]]<br />
|term_start6=1782<br />
|term_end6=1783<br />
|birth_date=January 11, 1755 or 1757<br />
|birth_place=[[Nevis]], [[Caribbean]] (now [[Saint Kitts and Nevis]])<br />
|death_date=July 12, 1804 (aged 49 or 47)<br />
|death_place=[[New York City]], [[New York]]<br />
|cause_of_death=[[Duel]]<br />
|party=[[Federalist Party (United States)|Federalist]]<br />
|religion=[[ECUSA|Episcopalian]] at his death<br />
|spouse=[[Elizabeth Schuyler Hamilton]]<br />
|profession=[[military officer]], [[lawyer]], [[financier]], [[political theorist]]<br />
|allegiance=[[Province of New York]] (began 1775)<br />[[State of New York]] (began 1776)<br />[[United States of America]] (began 1777)<br />
|branch=[[New York Provincial Company of Artillery]]<br />[[Continental Army]]<br />[[United States Army]]<br />
|serviceyears=1775–1776 ([[Militia (United States)|Militia]])<br />1776–1781<br />1798–1800<br />
|rank=Beginning:<br />[[Image:US-OF1A.svg|05px]] [[Lieutenant]] ([[Artillery]])<br />Highest:<br /> [[Image:US-O8 insignia.svg|20px]] [[Major general (United States)|Major General]] ([[Commanding General of the United States Army|Senior Officer of the United States Army]])<br />
|battles='''[[American Revolutionary War]]'''<br />[[Battle of White Plains]]<br />[[Battle of Trenton]]<br />[[Battle of Princeton]]<br />[[Battle of Monmouth]]<br />[[Battle of Yorktown]]<br />'''[[Quasi-War]]'''}}<br />
<!--Before editing this lead section, please review WP:MOSBIO and WP:LEAD, and search the talk page for recent discussion. Please do not change birthdate or titles without reviewing the evidence and discussing at talk.--><br />
{{otherpersons|Alexander Hamilton}}<br />
'''Alexander Hamilton''' (January 11, 1755 or 1757 – July 12, 1804) was the first [[United States Secretary of the Treasury]], a [[Founding Fathers of the United States|Founding Father]], [[economist]], and [[political philosopher]]. He led calls for the [[Philadelphia Convention]], was one of America's first [[Constitutional law]]yers, and cowrote the ''[[Federalist Papers]]'', a primary source for [[Constitutional interpretation]].<br />
<br />
Born on the [[British West Indian]] island of [[Nevis]], Hamilton was educated in the [[Thirteen Colonies]]. During the [[American Revolutionary War]], he joined the New York militia and was chosen artillery captain. Hamilton became senior<ref name="chernow90">Chernow, p. 90.</ref> [[aide-de-camp]] and confidant to General [[George Washington]], and led three battalions at the [[Siege of Yorktown]]. He was elected to the [[Continental Congress]], but resigned to practice law and to found the [[Bank of New York]]. He served in the [[New York Legislature]], and was the only New Yorker who signed the Constitution. As Washington's Treasury Secretary, he influenced formative government policy widely. An admirer of British political systems, Hamilton emphasized strong central government and [[implied powers]], under which the new [[U.S. Congress]] funded the [[national debt]], assumed state debts, created a [[First Bank of the United States|national bank]], and established an import [[tariff in American history|tariff]] and [[whiskey tax]].<br />
<br />
By 1792, a Hamilton coalition and a [[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson]]–[[James Madison|Madison]] coalition had arisen (the formative [[Federalist Party (United States)|Federalist]] and [[Democratic-Republican]] Parties), which differed strongly over Hamilton's domestic fiscal goals and his foreign policy of extensive trade and friendly relations with Britain. Exposed in an affair with [[Maria Reynolds]], Hamilton resigned from the Treasury in 1795 to return to Constitutional law and advocacy of strong federalism. In 1798, the [[Quasi-War]] with France led Hamilton to argue for, organize, and become ''de facto'' commander of a national army.<br />
<br />
Hamilton's opposition to fellow Federalist [[John Adams]] contributed to the success of Democratic-Republicans [[Thomas Jefferson]] and [[Aaron Burr]] in the uniquely deadlocked [[election of 1800]]. With his party's defeat, Hamilton's [[nationalist]] and [[industrializing]] ideas lost their former national prominence. In 1801, Hamilton founded the ''[[New York Post]]'' as the Federalist [[broadsheet]] ''New-York Evening Post''.<ref>Nevins, Allan, ''The Evening Post: Century of Journalism'', Boni and Liveright, 1922, p. 17.</ref> His intense rivalry with Vice President Burr eventually resulted in a [[Burr-Hamilton duel|duel]], in which Hamilton was mortally wounded, dying the following day.<br />
<br />
==Early years==<br />
By his own account, Hamilton was born in [[Charlestown, Nevis|Charlestown]], the capital of [[Nevis]] in the [[British West Indies]], out of wedlock to Rachel Faucett Lavien, of part French [[Huguenot]] descent, and James A. Hamilton, fourth son of [[Scotland|Scottish]] [[laird]] Alexander Hamilton of Grange, [[Ayrshire]]. He was born on January 11 in either 1755 or 1757; most historians now say 1755, although disagreement remains. A young Hamilton claimed 1757 as his birth year when he first arrived in the [[Thirteen Colonies]]; but he is also recorded in probate papers, shortly after his mother's death, as being 13 years old,<ref>From St. Croix records. Ramsing's 1930 Danish publication entered late among Hamilton literature.</ref> indicating 1755. Explanations for this discrepancy include that he may have been trying to appear younger than his college classmates or to avoid standing out as older, that the probate document may have misreported, or that he may have been passing as 13 to be more employable after his mother's death.<ref>Chernow; Flexner; Mitchell's ''Concise Life''. McDonald, p. 366, n. 8, favors 1757 but acknowledges its minority status, saying the probate clerk's alternate spelling of "Lavien" suggests unreliability.</ref> He was often approximate about his age in later life. <br />
<br />
Hamilton's mother had been separated previously from Johann Michael Lavien of [[St. Croix]];<ref>Chernow, p. 10; Hamilton's spelling "Lavien" may be a [[Sephardic]] version of "Levine". The couple may have lived apart from one another under an order of legal separation, with Rachel as the guilty party, meaning remarriage was not permitted on St. Croix.</ref> to escape an unhappy marriage, Rachel left her husband and first son for [[St. Kitts]] in 1750, where she met James.<ref>Chernow, p. 12.</ref> They moved together to Rachel's birthplace of Nevis, where she had inherited property from her father.<ref name=c17>Chernow, p. 17.</ref> Their two sons were James, Jr., and Alexander. Because Hamilton's parents were not legally married, the [[Church of England]] denied him membership or education in the church school. Instead, he received "individual tutoring"<ref name=c17/> and classes in a private [[Jewish]] school.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jewishpress.com/content.cfm?contentid=21464|author=Levine, Yitzchok|title=The Jews Of Nevis And Alexander Hamilton|publisher=Jewish Press|date=2007-05-02|accessdate=2008-10-18}}</ref> Hamilton supplemented his education with a family library of thirty-four books,<ref>Chernow, p. 24.</ref> including Greek and Roman classics.<br />
[[Image:Young alexander hamilton.jpg|thumb|Hamilton in his youth]]<br />
A 1765 business assignment led Hamilton's father to move the family to [[Christiansted]], St. Croix; he then abandoned Rachel and the two sons. Rachel supported the family by keeping a small store in Christiansted. She contracted a severe fever and died on February 19, 1768, leaving Hamilton effectively orphaned. This may have had severe emotional consequences for him, even by the standards of an eighteenth-century childhood.<ref>E.g., Flexner, ''passim''.</ref> In probate court, Hamilton's half-brother obtained the few valuables Rachel had owned, including some household silver. Many items were auctioned off, but a friend purchased the family books and returned them to the studious young Hamilton.<ref>Chernow, p. 25.</ref> (Years later Hamilton received his half-brother's death notice and a small amount of money.)<ref>Flexner; McDonald.</ref><br />
<br />
Hamilton then became a clerk at a local import-export firm, Beekman and Cruger, which traded with New England; he was left in charge of the firm for five months in 1771, while the owner was at sea. He and his older brother James were adopted briefly by a cousin, Peter Lytton, but when Lytton committed suicide, Hamilton was split from his brother.<ref>Chernow, p. 26.</ref> James apprenticed with a local carpenter, while Hamilton was adopted by Nevis merchant Thomas Stevens. Some evidence suggests Stevens may have been Hamilton's biological father: his son, Edward Stevens, became a close friend of Hamilton; the two boys looked much alike, were both fluent in French, and shared similar interests.<ref>Chernow, pp. 27–30.</ref><br />
<br />
Hamilton continued clerking, remained an avid reader, developed an interest in writing, and began to long for a life off his small island. A letter of Hamilton's was first published in the ''Royal Danish-American Gazette'', describing a hurricane that had devastated Christiansted on August 30, 1772. The impressed community began a collection for a subscription fund to educate the young Hamilton on the mainland of North America.<br />
<br />
==Education==<br />
Hamilton arrived, by way of Boston, at a [[grammar school]] in [[Elizabethtown, New Jersey]], in the autumn of 1772. In 1773, he attended a college-preparatory program with Francis Barber at Elizabethtown. There he came under the influence of a leading intellectual and revolutionary, [[William Livingston]].<ref>Adair and Harvey.</ref> Hamilton may have applied to the College of New Jersey (now [[Princeton University]]) but been refused admission;<ref>The earliest source for this anecdote is a posthumous collection of anecdotes about Hamilton by an acquaintance of his, one Hercules Mulligan, who wrote that [[John Witherspoon]] refused Hamilton's demand to advance from class to class at his own speed. Mulligan's collection has been found unreliable by some biographers, including Mitchell and Flexner. Elkins and McKitrick comment that Witherspoon had just overseen similar programs for [[James Madison]], who collapsed from overwork, and Joseph Ross, who died young.</ref> he decided to attend King's College in [[New York City]] (now [[Columbia University]]). While studying there, Hamilton and several classmates were members of a campus literary group that foreran Columbia's [[Philolexian Society]].<ref>Chernow, p. 53.</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.columbia.edu/cu/philo/content/about.htm|title=Philolexian History|accessdate=2008-06-30|publisher=[[Philolexian Society]]}}</ref><br />
<br />
When Church of England clergyman [[Samuel Seabury]] published a series of pamphlets promoting the [[Tory]] cause the following year, Hamilton struck back with his first political writings, ''A Full Vindication of the measures of Congress'' and ''The Farmer Refuted''. He published two additional pieces attacking the [[Quebec Act]]<ref>Morison and Commager, p. 160; Miller, p. 19.</ref> as well as fourteen anonymous installments of "The Monitor" for Holt's ''New York Journal''. Although Hamilton was a supporter of the Revolutionary cause at this prewar stage, he did not approve of mob reprisals against loyalists. One generally accepted account details how Hamilton saved his college president, Tory sympathizer [[Myles Cooper]], from an [[angry mob]], by speaking to the crowd long enough for Cooper to escape the danger.<ref>McDonald, p. 14; Mitchell, p. I:75; Chernow, p. 63. Flexner, p. 78, noting that Cooper's poem about the incident did not mention Hamilton, suggests that Hamilton was on a side of the building invisible to Cooper.</ref><br />
<br />
==During the Revolutionary War==<br />
[[Image:Alexander hamilton 1757 1804 hi.jpg|thumb|upright|''Alexander Hamilton in the Uniform of the New York Artillery'' by Alonzo Chappel (1828–1887)]]<br />
<br />
===Early military career===<br />
In 1775, after the first engagement of American troops with the [[Kingdom of Great Britain|British]] in [[Siege of Boston|Boston]], Hamilton joined a New York volunteer [[militia]] company called the [[Hearts of Oak (New York militia)|Hearts of Oak]], which included other King's College students. He drilled with the [[Company (military unit)|company]] before classes, in the graveyard of nearby [[St. Paul's Chapel]]. Hamilton studied [[military history]] and [[Military tactics|tactics]] on his own, and achieved the rank of [[lieutenant]]. Under fire from the [[HMS Asia (1764)|HMS ''Asia'']], he led a successful [[Raid (military)|raid]] for British cannon in [[Battery Park|the Battery]], the capture of which resulted in the Hearts of Oak becoming an [[artillery]] company thereafter. Through his connections with influential [[Province of New York|New York]] patriots like [[Alexander McDougall]] and [[John Jay]], he raised the [[New York Provincial Company of Artillery]] of sixty men in 1776, and was elected [[Captain (United States)|captain]]. It took part in the [[New York Campaign|campaign of 1776]] around New York City, particularly at the [[Battle of White Plains]]; at the [[Battle of Trenton]], it was stationed at the high point of town, the meeting of the present Warren and Broad Streets, to keep the [[Hessian (soldiers)|Hessians]] pinned in the Trenton Barracks.<ref>Stryker, p. 158.</ref><br />
<br />
===Washington's staff===<br />
Hamilton was invited to become an aide to [[Nathaniel Greene]] and other generals; however, he declined these invitations in the hopes of obtaining a place on Washington's staff. Hamilton did receive such an invitation, and joined as Washington's aide in late 1776 {{Fact|date=October 2008}} with the rank of [[Lieutenant Colonel]]. Hamilton served for four years, in effect, as Washington's [[Chief of staff (military)|Chief of Staff]]; he handled the "letters to Congress, state governors, and the most powerful generals in the Continental Army"; he drafted many of Washington's orders and letters at the latter's direction, and was eventually allowed to "issue orders from Washington over his own signature".<ref name="chernow90"/> Hamilton was involved in a wide variety of high-level duties, including [[military intelligence|intelligence]], [[diplomacy]], and negotiation with [[general officers]] as Washington's [[emissary]].<ref>Lodge, pp. 1:15–20; Miller, pp. 23–6.</ref> The important duties with which he was entrusted attest to Washington's deep confidence in his abilities and character, then and afterward. At the points in their relationship where there was little personal attachment, there was still always a reciprocal confidence and respect.<br />
<br />
During the war Hamilton became close friends with several fellow officers. His letters to the [[Marquis de Lafayette]]<ref>Flexner, ''Young Hamilton'', p. 316.</ref> and to [[John Laurens]], employing the [[sentimental novel|sentimental]] literary conventions of the late eighteenth century and alluding to Greek history and mythology,<ref>Trees, Andrew S., "The Importance of Being Alexander Hamilton", ''Reviews in American History'' 2005, pp. 33(1):8–14, finding Chernow's inferences to be overreading the contemporary style.</ref> have also been read as revealing a homosocial or perhaps homosexual relationship.<ref>Katz, Jonathan Ned, ''Gay American History: Lesbians and Gay Men in the U.S.A.'', Thomas Y. Crowell Company, 1976, ISBN 978-0690011647, p. 445.</ref><br />
<br />
===Marriage===<br />
[[Image:Elizabeth Schuyler Hamilton.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Elizabeth Schuyler Hamilton, 1781]]<br />
In spring 1779, Hamilton asked his friend John Laurens to find him a wife in South Carolina:<ref>Mitchell, p. I:199.</ref><br />
<br />
<blockquote>''"She must be young—handsome (I lay most stress upon a good shape) Sensible (a little learning will do) —well bred... chaste and tender (I am an enthusiast in my notions of fidelity and fondness); of some good nature—a great deal of generosity (she must neither love money nor scolding, for I dislike equally a [[Wikt:termagant|termagant]] and an economist)—In politics, I am indifferent what side she may be of—I think I have arguments that will safely convert her to mine—As to religion a moderate stock will satisfy me—She must believe in God and hate a saint. But as to fortune, the larger stock of that the better."''</blockquote><br />
<br />
Hamilton found his own bride on December 14, 1780 when he married [[Elizabeth Schuyler Hamilton|Elizabeth Schuyler]], daughter of General [[Philip Schuyler]], and thus joined one of the richest and most political families in the state of New York. The marriage took place at [[Schuyler Mansion]] in [[Albany, New York]].<br />
<br />
Hamilton grew extremely close to Eliza's sister, Angelica Church, who was married to John Barker Church, a [[Member of Parliament]] in Great Britain; some historians argue that the two may have had an affair, although, due to extensive editing of much Hamilton–Church correspondence by Hamilton's later descendants, it is impossible to know for sure.<ref>Chernow, p. 133–4.</ref><br />
<br />
===Command and the Battle of Yorktown===<br />
[[Image:Surrender of Lord Cornwallis.jpg|thumb|''Surrender of Cornwallis at Yorktown'' by [[John Trumbull]], oil on canvas, 1820]]<br />
While on Washington's staff, Hamilton had long been seeking a command position in an active combat situation. As the war drew ever nearer to a close, he knew that opportunities for military glory were slipping away. In February 1781, Hamilton was mildly reprimanded by Washington, and used this as an excuse for resigning his staff position. Immediately following his resignation from Washington's staff, Hamilton began to ask Washington and others incessantly for a field command. This continued until early July of 1781, when Hamilton submitted a letter to Washington with his [[Officer (armed forces)|commission]] enclosed, "thus tacitly threatening to resign if he didn't get his desired command".<ref>Chernow, p. 159.</ref><br />
<br />
On July 31, 1781, Washington relented, and Hamilton was given command of a New York [[light infantry]] battalion. In the planning for the assault on [[Siege of Yorktown|Yorktown]], Hamilton was given command of three [[battalion]]s which were to fight in conjunction with French troops in taking [[Redoubt]]s #9 and #10 of the British fortifications at Yorktown. Hamilton and his battalions fought bravely and took Redoubt #10 with [[bayonets]], as planned. The French also fought bravely, took heavy casualties, and successfully took Redoubt #9. This action forced the British surrender at Yorktown of an entire army, effectively ending the British effort to reclaim the Thirteen Colonies.<ref>Mitchell, pp. I:254–60; Morison and Commager, p. 160.</ref><br />
<br />
==Under the Confederation==<br />
===Hamilton enters Congress===<br />
While on Washington's staff, Hamilton became frustrated with the decentralized nature of the wartime Continental Congress, particularly its dependence upon the states for financial support: it had no power to collect taxes, or to demand money from the states; this had caused serious problems in Army supplies and pay. Congress had given up printing unsupported paper money back in September 1779; it obtained what money it had from subsidies from the King of France, aid requested from the several states (which were often unable or unwilling to contribute), and loans from Europe against these uncertain revenues.<ref>Kohn; Brant, p. 45; Rakove, p. 324.</ref> After Yorktown, Hamilton resigned his commission. He was elected to the [[Congress of the Confederation]] as a New York representative beginning in November 1782;<ref>Syrett, p. III:117; he was elected in July 1782 for a one-year term beginning the "first Monday in November next", arrived in Philadelphia between the 18th and 25th of November, and resigned July 1783.</ref> he supported such Congressmen as superintendent of finance [[Robert Morris (financier)|Robert Morris]], his assistant [[Gouverneur Morris]] (no relation), [[James Wilson]], and [[James Madison]], who had already been trying to provide the Congress with an independent source of revenue it lacked under the [[Articles of Confederation]].<br />
<br />
An amendment to the Articles had been proposed by [[Thomas Burke]], in February 1781, to give Congress the power to collect a 5% impost or duty on all imports, but this required ratification by all states; securing its passage as law proved impossible after it was rejected by Rhode Island in November 1782. Madison joined Hamilton in convincing Congress to send a delegation to persuade Rhode Island to change its mind. Their report recommending the delegation also argued that the federal government needed not just some level of financial autonomy, but also the ability to make laws that supersede those of the individual states. Hamilton transmitted a letter arguing that Congress already had the power to tax, since it had the power to fix the sums due from the several states; but Virginia's rescission of its own ratification ended Rhode Island negotiations.<ref>Brant, p. 100; Chernow, p. 176.</ref><br />
<br />
===Congress and the Army===<br />
While Hamilton was in Congress, discontented soldiers began to be a danger to the young United States. Most of the army was then posted at [[Newburgh, New York]]. The army was paying for much of their own supplies, and they had not been paid in eight months. Furthermore, the Continental officers had been promised, in May 1778, after [[Valley Forge]], a pension of half their pay when they were discharged.<ref>Martin and Lender, pp. 109, 160: at first for seven years, increased to life after Arnold's treason.</ref> It was at this time that a group of officers organized under the leadership of General [[Henry Knox]] sent a delegation to lobby Congress, led by Capt. Alexander MacDougall (see [[#Early military career|above]]). The officers had three demands: the Army's pay, their own pensions, and [[commutation]] of those pensions into a lump-sum payment. <br />
<br />
Several Congressmen, including Hamilton and the Morrises, attempted to use this [[Newburgh conspiracy]] as leverage to secure independent support for funding for the federal government in Congress and from the states. They encouraged MacDougall to continue his aggressive approach, threatening unknown consequences if their demands were not granted, and defeated proposals which would have resolved the crisis without establishing general federal taxation: that the states assume the debt to the army, or that an impost be established dedicated to the sole purpose of paying that debt.<ref name=ellis141>Kohn; Ellis 2004, pp. 141–4.</ref> Hamilton suggested using the Army's claims to prevail upon the states for the proposed national funding system.<ref>Kohn, p. 196; Congressional minutes of January 28, 1783.</ref> The Morrises and Hamilton contacted Knox to suggest he and the officers defy civil authority, at least by not disbanding if the army were not satisfied; Hamilton wrote Washington to suggest that he covertly "take direction" of the officers' efforts to secure redress, to secure continental funding but keep the army within the limits of moderation.<ref>Hamilton's letter of February 13, 1783; Syrett, pp. III:253–5. For interpretation, see Chernow, p. 177; cf. Martin and Lender, pp. 189–90.</ref> Washington wrote Hamilton back, declining to introduce the army;<ref>Washington to Hamilton, March 4 and March 12, 1783; Kohn; Martin and Lender, pp. 189–90.</ref> after the crisis was over, he warned of the dangers of using the army as leverage to gain support for the national funding plan.<ref>Chernow, pp. 177–80, citing [http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/etcbin/ot2www-washington?specfile=/texts/english/washington/fitzpatrick/search/gw.o2w&act=surround&offset=32820924&tag=Writings+of+Washington,+Vol.+26:+*To+ALEXANDER+HAMILTON&id=gw260334 Washington to Hamilton], April 4, 1783. Retrieved on May 20, 2008.</ref> On March 15, Washington defused the Newburgh situation by giving a speech to the officers.<ref name=ellis141/> Congress ordered the Army officially disbanded in April 1783. In the same month, Congress passed a new measure for a twenty-five-year impost, which Hamilton voted against,<ref>Rakove, pp. 322, 325.</ref> and which again required the consent of all the states; it also approved a commutation of the officers' pensions to five years of full pay. Rhode Island again opposed these provisions, and Hamilton's robust assertions of national prerogatives in his previous letter offended many.{{Vague|date=September 2008}}<ref>Brant, p. 108.</ref> The Continental Congress was never able to secure full ratification for back pay, pensions, or their own independent sources of funding.<br />
<br />
In June 1783, a different group of disgruntled soldiers from Lancaster, Pennsylvania sent Congress a petition demanding their back pay. When they began to march toward Philadelphia, Congress charged Hamilton and two others to intercept the mob.<ref>Chernow, p. 180.</ref> Hamilton requested militia from Pennsylvania's Supreme Executive Council, but was turned down. Hamilton instructed Assistant Secretary of War William Jackson to intercept the men. Jackson was unsuccessful. The mob arrived in Philadelphia, and proceeded to harangue Congress for their pay. The President of Congress, John Dickinson, feared the Pennsylvania state militia was unreliable, and refused their help. Hamilton argued that Congress ought to adjourn to Princeton, New Jersey. Congress agreed, and relocated there.<ref>Chernow, p. 182.</ref><br />
<br />
Frustrated with the weakness of the central government, Hamilton drafted a call to revise the Articles of Confederation while in Princeton. This resolution contained many features of the future U.S. Constitution, including a strong federal government with the ability to collect taxes and raise an army. It also included the separation of powers into the Executive, Legislative and Judicial branches.<ref>Chernow, p. 183.</ref><br />
<br />
===Return to New York===<br />
Hamilton resigned from Congress, and in July 1783 was admitted to the New York Bar after several months of self-directed education.<ref>Chernow, p. 160.</ref> He soon began a law practice in New York City. He specialized in defending Tories and British subjects, as in ''[[Rutgers v. Waddington]]'', in which he defeated a claim for damages done to a brewery by the Englishmen who held it during the military occupation of New York. He pleaded that the Mayor's Court should interpret state law to be consistent with the [[Treaty of Paris (1783)|1783 Treaty of Paris]], which had ended the Revolutionary War.<ref>Chernow, pp. 197–9; McDonald, pp. 64–9.</ref><br />
<br />
In 1784, he founded the [[Bank of New York]], now the oldest ongoing banking organization in the United States. Hamilton was one of the men who restored King's College, which had been suspended since the [[Battle of Long Island]] in 1776 and severely damaged during the War, as [[Columbia College of Columbia University|Columbia College]]. His public career resumed when he attended the [[Annapolis Convention (1786)|Annapolis Convention]] as a delegate in 1786. While there, he drafted its resolution for a Constitutional convention, and in doing so brought his longtime desire to have a more powerful, more financially independent federal government one step closer to reality.<br />
<br />
==Constitution and Federalist Papers==<br />
[[Image:Hamilton-Alexander-LOC.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Hamilton shortly after the American Revolution]] <br />
In 1787, Hamilton served as assemblyman from [[New York County]] in the [[New York State Legislature]] and was the first delegate chosen to the [[Constitutional Convention (United States)|Constitutional Convention]]. In spite of the fact that Hamilton had been a leader in calling for a new Constitutional Convention, his direct influence at the Convention itself was quite limited. Governor [[George Clinton (vice president)|George Clinton]]'s faction in the New York legislature had chosen New York's other two delegates, [[John Lansing, Jr.|John Lansing]] and [[Robert Yates]], and both of them opposed Hamilton's goal of a strong national government. Thus, while the other two members of the New York delegation were present, they decided New York's vote; and when they left the convention in protest, Hamilton remained with no vote (two representatives were required for any state to cast a vote).<br />
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Early in the Convention he made a speech proposing what many considered a very [[monarchical]] government for the United States. Though regarded as one of his most eloquent speeches, it had little effect upon the deliberations of the convention. [[Constitutional Convention %28United States%29#Hamilton.27s Plan|He proposed]] to have an elected President and elected [[Senators]] who would serve for life contingent upon "good behavior", and subject to removal for corruption or abuse; Hamilton's plan attempted to incorporate the "liberties of a republic" while "guarding against both anarchy and tyranny",<ref>Chernow, p. 232.</ref> yet his plan was probably the least trusting in the wisdom of the people. The deliberations of the convention were intended to be secret, so as to promote a free and vigorous flow of ideas during the Convention. However, some notes were kept, and due to Hamilton's argument for lifelong terms, and his proposal of measures that some contemporaries saw as too similar to previous monarchist forms of government, Hamilton acquired the reputation in some circles of a monarchist sympathizer. <br />
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During the convention, Hamilton constructed a draft for the Constitution on the basis of the convention debates, but he never actually presented it. This draft had most of the features of the actual Constitution, including such details as the [[three-fifths clause]]. In this draft, the Senate was to be elected in proportion to population, being two-fifths the size of the House, and the President and Senators were to be elected through complex multistage elections, in which chosen [[elector]]s would elect smaller bodies of electors; they would hold office for life, but were removable for misconduct. The President would have an absolute [[veto]]. The [[Supreme Court of the United States|Supreme Court]] was to have immediate jurisdiction over all [[law suits]] involving the United States, and State governors were to be appointed by the federal government.<ref>Mitchell, pp. I:397 ff.</ref><br />
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At the end of the Convention, Hamilton was still not content with the final form of the Constitution, but signed off on it anyway as a vast improvement over the Articles of Confederation, and urged his fellow delegates to do so also.<ref>Brant, p. 195.</ref> Since the other two members of the New York delegation, Lansing and Yates, had already withdrawn, Hamilton was the only New York signatory to the United States Constitution. He then took a highly active part in the successful campaign for the document's ratification in New York in 1788, which was a crucial step in its national ratification. Hamilton recruited John Jay and James Madison to write a defense of the proposed Constitution, now known as the ''[[Federalist Papers]]'', and made the largest contribution to that effort, writing 51 of 85 essays published (Madison wrote 29, Jay only five). Hamilton's essays and arguments were influential in New York state, and elsewhere, during the debates over ratification. The ''Federalist Papers'' are more often cited than any other primary source by jurists, lawyers, historians and political scientists as the major contemporary interpretation of the Constitution.<ref>Lupu, Ira C., "The Most-Cited Federalist Papers", ''Constitutional Commentary'' 1998, pp. 403 ff.; using Supreme Court citations, the five most cited were [[Federalist No. 42]] (Madison, 33 decisions), [[Federalist No. 78]] (Hamilton, 30 decisions), [[Federalist No. 81]] (Hamilton, 27 decisions), [[Federalist No. 51]] (Madison, 26 decisions), [[Federalist No. 32]] (Hamilton, 25 decisions).</ref><br />
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In 1788, Hamilton served yet another term in what proved to be the last time the [[Continental Congress]] met under the [[Articles of Confederation]]. He remained involved in the politics of New York: the ratification of the Constitution had been a success for two of the family cliques which constituted New York State politics, against a third, that led by [[George Clinton (vice president)|George Clinton]]; the Legislature of 1789 had a majority of those two factions, one led by Hamilton's father-in-law, the other by the Livingston family. They had agreed to each select one of New York's first Senators: [[Phillip Schuyler]] was to be one, and [[James Duane]], whose wife was a Livingston, was to be the other. Hamilton, however, persuaded the Legislature to elect Schuyler and his friend [[Rufus King]], instead. The Livingstons responded by breaking the alliance and supporting the Clintons instead; this new coalition was to be the basis for the Democratic-Republican Party in New York. When Phillip Schuyler's term ended in 1791, they began by electing, in his place, the attorney-general of New York, one [[Aaron Burr]]. Hamilton blamed Burr for this result, and ill characterizations of Burr appear in his correspondence thereafter, although they did work together from time to time on various projects, including Hamilton's army of 1798 and the [[Manhattan Water Company]].<ref>Lomask, pp. 139–40, 216–7, 220.</ref><br />
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==Secretary of the Treasury==<br />
President George Washington appointed Hamilton as the first [[Secretary of the Treasury]] on September 11, 1789. He left office on the last day of January 1795; much of the structure of the Government of the United States was worked out in those five years, beginning with the structure and function of the Cabinet itself. [[Forrest McDonald]] argues that Hamilton saw his office, like the British [[Chancellor of the Exchequer]], as that of a Prime Minister; Hamilton would oversee his colleagues under the elective reign of George Washington. Washington did request Hamilton's advice and assistance on matters outside the purview of the [[Treasury Department]]. <br />
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Within one year, Hamilton submitted five reports:<br />
*[[First Report on the Public Credit]]: Communicated to the House of Representatives, January 14, 1790. <br />
*[[Operations of the Act Laying Duties on Imports]]: Communicated to the House of Representatives, April 23, 1790. <br />
*[[Second Report on Public Credit]]: Report on a National Bank. Communicated to the House of Representatives, December 14, 1790. <br />
*[[Report on the Establishment of a Mint]]: Communicated to the House of Representatives, January 28, 1791. <br />
*[[Report on Manufactures]]: Communicated to the House of Representatives, December 5, 1791.<br />
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===Report on Public Credit===<br />
In the Report on Public Credit, the Secretary made a controversial proposal that would have the federal government assume state debts incurred during the Revolution. This would, in effect, give the federal government much more power by placing the country's most serious financial obligation in the hands of the federal, rather than the state governments.<br />
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The primary criticism of the plan was spearheaded by [[United States Secretary of State|Secretary of State]] Thomas Jefferson and [[United States House of Representatives|Representative]] [[James Madison]]. Some states, like Jefferson's Virginia, had paid almost half of their debts, and felt that their taxpayers should not be assessed again to bail out the less provident. They further argued that the plan passed beyond the scope of the new Constitutional government.<br />
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Madison objected to Hamilton's proposal to cut the rate of interest and postpone payments on federal debt, as not being payment in full; he also objected to the speculative profits being made. Much of the national debt had been bonds issued to Continental veterans, in place of wages which the Continental Congress did not have the money to pay; as these continued to go unpaid, many of these bonds had been pawned for a small fraction of their value. Madison proposed to pay in full, but to divide payment between the original recipient and the present possessor. Others, like [[Samuel Livermore]] of New Hampshire, wished to curb speculation, and save taxation, by paying only part of the bond. The disagreements between Madison and Hamilton extended to other proposals Hamilton made to Congress, and drew in Jefferson when he returned from France. Hamilton's supporters became known as Federalists and Jefferson's as Republicans. As Madison put it: <br />
:"I deserted Colonel Hamilton, or rather Colonel H. deserted me; in a word, the divergence between us took place from his wishing to administration, or rather to administer the Government into what he thought it ought to be..."<ref>Farrand, Max, ed., ''The Records of the Federal Convention of 1787'', 4 vols. (New Haven, CT, 1937), 3:533–4.</ref><br />
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Hamilton eventually secured passage of his assumption plan by striking a deal with Jefferson and Madison. According to the terms, Hamilton was to use his influence to place the permanent national capital on the [[Potomac River]], and Jefferson and Madison were to encourage their friends to back Hamilton's assumption plan. In the end, Hamilton's assumption, together with his proposals for funding the debt, overcame legislative opposition and narrowly passed the House on July 26, 1790.<ref>{{cite book|title=Alexander Hamilton and the Growth of the New Nation|author=Miller, John|year=2003|publisher=Transaction Publishers|location=New Brunswick, USA, and London, UK|isbn=0765805510|page=251}}</ref><br />
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===Founding the U.S. Mint===<br />
Hamilton helped found the [[United States Mint]]; the [[First Bank of the United States|first national bank]]; a "System of Cutters", forming the [[Revenue Cutter Service]], (now the [[United States Coast Guard]]) and an elaborate system of duties, tariffs, and excises. The complete Hamiltonian program replaced the chaotic financial system of the confederation era, in five years, with a modern apparatus which gave the new government financial stability, and gave investors sufficient confidence to invest in government bonds.<br />
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===Sources of revenue===<br />
One of the principal sources of revenue Hamilton prevailed upon Congress to approve was an [[excise tax]] on [[whiskey]]. Strong opposition to the whiskey tax by [[cottage industry|cottage producers]] in remote, rural regions erupted into the [[Whiskey Rebellion]] in 1794; in [[Western Pennsylvania]] and western [[Virginia]], whiskey was commonly made (and used as a form of currency) by most of the community. In response to the rebellion, believing compliance with the laws was vital to the establishment of federal authority, he accompanied to the rebellion's site President Washington, General [[Henry Lee III|Henry "Light Horse Harry" Lee]], and more federal troops than were ever assembled in one place during the War for Independence. This overwhelming display of force intimidated the leaders of the insurrection, ending the rebellion virtually without bloodshed.<ref>Morison and Commager, pp. I:309–11.</ref><br />
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===Manufacturing and industry===<br />
[[Image:DSCN2897 hamilton statue.jpg|thumb|Statue of Hamilton by Franklin Simmons, overlooking the [[Great Falls of the Passaic River]] in [[Paterson, New Jersey]], where Hamilton envisioned using the falls to power new factories]]<br />
Hamilton's next report was his "Report on Manufactures". Congress shelved the report without much debate, except for Madison's objection to Hamilton's formulation of the General Welfare clause, which Hamilton construed liberally as a legal basis for his extensive programs. It has been often quoted by [[protectionist]]s since.<ref>Morison and Commager, p. I:290.</ref><br />
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In 1791, while still Secretary of the Treasury, Hamilton worked in a private capacity to help found the [[Society for the Establishment of Useful Manufactures]], a private corporation that would use the power of the [[Great Falls of the Passaic River]] to operate mills. Although the company did not succeed in its original purpose, it leased the land around the falls to other mill ventures and continued to operate for over a century and a half.<br />
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===Emergence of parties===<br />
During Hamilton's tenure as Treasury Secretary, political factions began to emerge. A Congressional caucus, led by James Madison and [[William Giles]], began as an opposition group to Hamilton's financial programs; Jefferson joined this group when he returned from France. Hamilton and his allies began to call themselves ''Federalists''. The opposition group, now referred to as the [[Democratic-Republican Party]], was then known by several names, including ''Republicans'',<ref>{{cite web|title=Madison to Jefferson|date=1794-03-02|url=http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/ampage?collId=mjm&fileName=05/mjm05.db&recNum=591|accessdate=2006-10-14|quote=I see by a paper of last evening that even in New York a meeting of the people has taken place, at the instance of the Republican party, and that a committee is appointed for the like purpose.}} See also Smith, p. 832.</ref> ''republicans'',<ref>{{cite web|url=http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?ammem/mtj:@field%28DOCID+@lit%28tj060237%29%29|title=Jefferson to Washington|date=1792-05-23|quote=The republican party, who wish to preserve the government in its present form, are fewer in number. They are fewer even when joined by the two, three, or half dozen anti-federalists....}}</ref> ''Jeffersonians'', and ''Democrats''.<br />
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The Federalists assembled a nationwide coalition in order to garner support for the Administration, including the expansive financial programs Hamilton had made Administration policy; the Democratic-Republicans built their own national coalition to oppose these Federalist programs. Both sides gained the support of local political factions; each side developed its own partisan newspapers. [[Noah Webster]], [[John Fenno]], and eventually [[William Cobbett]] were prominent editors for the Federalists. [[Benjamin Franklin Bache]] and [[Philip Freneau]] edited major publications for the Democratic-Republicans. Newspapers of both parties were characterized by frequent personal attacks and information of questionable veracity.<br />
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In 1801, Hamilton established a daily newspaper the ''New-York Evening Post'' under editor [[William Coleman]]. It is the oldest continually-published daily newspaper in the U.S., and is now known as the ''[[New York Post]]''.<ref>Emery, Michael, and Emery, Edward, ''The Press and America'', 7th ed., Simon & Schuster, 1992, p. 74.</ref><br />
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==Revolutionary wars==<br />
When France and Britain went to war in January 1793, all four members of the Cabinet were consulted on what to do (they unanimously agreed to remain neutral); and both Hamilton and Jefferson were major architects in working out the specific provisions which maintained and enforced that neutrality.<ref>Thomas, Charles Marion, ''American neutrality in 1793; a study in cabinet government'', Columbia, 1931, a survey of the process before Jefferson resigned at the end of 1793.</ref> <br />
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During Hamilton's last year in office, policy toward Britain became a major point of contention between the two parties. Hamilton and the Federalists wished for more trade with Britain, which would provide more revenue from tariffs; the Democratic-Republicans preferred an embargo to compel Britain to respect the rights of the United States and give up the forts which they still held on American soil, contrary to the [[Treaty of Paris (1783)|Treaty of Paris]].<ref>Combs, Jerald A., "[http://www.anb.org/articles/02/02-00195.html John Jay]", ''American National Biography'' (ANB), February 2000. Retrieved on May 14, 2008.</ref><br />
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In order to avoid war, Washington sent Chief Justice [[John Jay]], late in 1794, to negotiate with the British; Hamilton helped to draw up his instructions. The result was [[Jay's Treaty]], which, as the State Department says, "addressed few U.S. interests, and ultimately granted Britain additional rights".<ref>[http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ho/time/nr/14318.htm John Jay’s Treaty, 1794–95], U.S. State Department.</ref> The treaty was extremely unpopular, and the Democratic-Republicans opposed it for its failure to redress previous grievances, and for its failure to address British violations of American neutrality during the war.<br />
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Several European nations had formed a [[League of Armed Neutrality]] against incursions on their neutral rights; the Cabinet was also consulted on whether the United States should join it, and decided not to, but kept that decision secret. Jay, in London, threatened to join the League if U.S. rights were not respected, but this was ignored because Hamilton had revealed this decision in private to George Hammond, the British Minister to the United States, without telling Jay—or anyone else; it was unknown until Hammond's dispatches were read in the 1920s. This "amazing revelation" may have had limited effect on the negotiations; Jay did threaten to join the League at one point, but the British had other reasons not to view the League as a serious threat.<ref>Bemis, Samuel Flagg, ''Jay's Treaty'' (quoted); Elkins and McKitrick, pp. 411 ff.</ref><br />
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==Retirement from federal service==<br />
Hamilton's conduct as Secretary was repeatedly investigated in Congress; some of the most serious charges emerged in the spring of 1794. In addition to the Reynolds affair, mentioned below, an incident from 1790 then came to light: Congress had appropriated money to pay the European creditors of the United States, and Hamilton had diverted part of the sum to domestic expenditure. Hamilton claimed that he had been authorized to act by Washington, but could provide no evidence. When Washington was consulted, he could not remember the transaction, but was certain that he would have made the condition that the change be consistent with legislation. Hamilton wrote an irate letter to Washington; he was very angry not to trusted unconditionally.<ref>Flexner, ''Washington'', pp. IV:153–4.</ref> Hamilton resigned as Secretary of the Treasury on December 1, 1794, immediately before Congress met again; his resignation was effective on January 31, 1795.<ref>Chernow, p. 479; ANB, "Alexander Hamilton".</ref><br />
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===Affair===<br />
In 1791, Hamilton became involved in an affair with [[Maria Reynolds]] that badly damaged his reputation. Reynolds' husband, James, [[blackmailed]] Hamilton for money, threatening to inform Hamilton's wife. When James Reynolds was arrested for counterfeiting, he contacted several prominent members of the Democratic-Republican Party, most notably [[James Monroe]] and [[Aaron Burr]], touting that he could expose a top level official for corruption. When they interviewed Hamilton with their suspicions (presuming that James Reynolds could implicate Hamilton in an abuse of his position in Washington's Cabinet), Hamilton insisted he was innocent of any misconduct in public office and admitted to an affair with Maria Reynolds. Since this was not germane to Hamilton's conduct in office, Hamilton's interviewers did not publish about Reynolds. When rumors began spreading after his retirement, Hamilton published a confession of his affair, shocking his family and supporters by not merely confessing but also by narrating the affair in detail, thus injuring Hamilton's reputation for the rest of his life. <br />
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At first Hamilton accused Monroe of making his affair public, and challenged him to a duel. Aaron Burr stepped in and persuaded Hamilton that Monroe was innocent of the accusation. His well-known vitriolic temper led Hamilton to challenge several others to duels in his career.<br />
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===1796 presidential election===<br />
Hamilton's resignation as Secretary of the Treasury in 1795 did not remove him from public life. With the resumption of his law practice, he remained close to Washington as an adviser and friend. Hamilton influenced Washington in the composition of his [[George Washington's Farewell Address|Farewell Address]]; Washington and members of his Cabinet often consulted with him.<br />
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In the election of 1796, under the Constitution as it stood then, each of the presidential [[Electoral College|Electors]] had two votes, which they were to cast for different men. The one with most votes would be President, the second, Vice President. This system was not designed for parties, which had been thought disreputable and factious. The Federalists planned to deal with this by having all their Electors vote for [[John Adams]], the Vice President, and all but a few for [[Thomas Pinckney]] of [[South Carolina]], then on his way home from a successful embassage to Spain. Jefferson chose Aaron Burr as his vice presidential running mate. <br />
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Hamilton, however, disliked Adams and saw an opportunity. He urged all the Northern Electors to vote for Adams and Pinckney, lest Jefferson get in. He cooperated with [[Edward Rutledge]] to have South Carolina's Electors vote for Jefferson and Pinckney. If all this worked, Pinckney would have more votes than Adams; Pinckney would be President, and Adams would remain Vice President. It did not work. The Federalists found out about it (even the French minister to the United States knew), and Northern Federalists voted for Adams but ''not'' for Pinckney, in sufficient numbers that Pinckney came in third and Jefferson became Vice President.<ref>Elkins and McKitrick; ''Age of Federalism'', pp. 523–8, 859. Rutledge had his own plan, to have Pinckney win with Jefferson as Vice President.</ref> Adams resented this, since he felt his service to the nation was much more extensive than Pinckney's.<ref>Elkins and McKitrick, p. 515.</ref> Adams also resented Hamilton's influence with Washington and considered him overambitious and scandalous in his private life; Hamilton compared Adams unfavorably with Washington and thought him too emotionally unstable to be President.<br />
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===Quasi-War===<br />
During the [[Quasi-War]] of 1798–1800, and with Washington's strong endorsement, Adams reluctantly appointed Hamilton a [[major general]] of the army (essentially placing him in command since Washington could not leave Mt. Vernon). If full scale war broke out with France, Hamilton argued that the army should conquer the [[Spanish colonization of the Americas#North America|North American colonies]] of France's ally, Spain, bordering the United States.<ref name=mc327/><br />
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To fund this army, Hamilton had been writing incessantly to [[Oliver Wolcott]], his successor at the Treasury; [[William Loughton Smith]], of the House Ways and Means Committee; and Senator [[Theodore Sedgwick]] of Massachusetts. He directed them to pass a direct tax to fund the war. Smith was to resign in July of 1797, as Hamilton scolded him for slowness, and told Wolcott to tax houses instead of land.<ref>Newman, pp. 72–3.</ref> <br />
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The eventual program included a [[Stamp Act]], like that of the British before the Revolution, and an array of taxes on land, houses, and slaves, calculated at different rates in different states, and requiring difficult and intricate assessment of houses. This provoked resistance in southeastern Pennsylania, led primarily by men who had marched with Washington against the Whiskey Rebellion, such as [[John Fries]].<ref>Newman, pp. 44, 76–8.</ref><br />
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Hamilton aided in all areas of the Army's development, and officially served as the [[Commanding General of the United States Army|Senior Officer of the United States Army]] as a Major General from December 14, 1799 to June 15, 1800. The army was to guard against invasion from France. Hamilton also suggested that its strategy should involve marching into the possessions of Spain, then allied with France, and potentially even taking [[Louisiana Territory|Louisiana]] and Mexico. His correspondence further suggests that when he returned in military glory, he dreamed of setting up a properly energetic government, without any Jeffersonians. Adams, however, derailed all plans for war by opening negotiations with France.<ref name=mc327>Morison and Commager, p. 327.</ref> Adams had also held it right to retain Washington's cabinet, except for cause; he found, in 1800 (after Washington's death), that they were obeying Hamilton rather than himself, and fired several of them.<ref>ANB, "[[James McHenry]]"; he also fired [[Timothy Pickering]].</ref><br />
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===1800 presidential election===<br />
[[Image:AlexanderHamiltonUSCapStat.jpg|thumb|upright|Statue of Hamilton in the [[United States Capitol rotunda]]]]<br />
In the 1800 election, Hamilton worked to defeat not only the rival Democratic-Republican candidates, but also his party's own nominee, John Adams. In New York, which Burr had won for Jefferson in May, Hamilton proposed a rerun of the election under different rules, with carefully drawn districts, each choosing an elector,<ref>The May 1800 election chose the New York legislature, which would in turn choose electors; Burr had won this by making it a referendum on the presidency, and by persuading better-qualified candidates to run, who declared their candidacy only after the Federalists had announced their ticket. Hamilton asked Jay and the lame-duck legislature to pass a law declaring a special federal election, in which each district would choose an elector. He also supplied a map, with as many Federalist districts as possible.</ref> so that the Federalists would split the electoral vote of New York. John Jay, a Federalist, who had given up the Supreme Court to be Governor of New York, wrote on the back of the letter the words, "Proposing a measure for party purposes which it would not become me to adopt," and declined to reply.<ref>Monaghan, pp. 419–421.</ref><br />
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John Adams was running this time with Pinckney's elder brother [[Charles Cotesworth Pinckney]]. On the other hand, Hamilton toured [[New England]], again urging Northern Electors to hold firm for this Pinckney, in the renewed hope to make Pinckney President; and he again intrigued in South Carolina. This time, the important reaction was from the Jeffersonian Electors, all of whom voted both for Jefferson and Burr to ensure that no such deal would result in electing a Federalist. (Burr had received only one vote from Virginia in 1796.)<br />
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In September, Hamilton wrote a pamphlet (''Letter from Alexander Hamilton, Concerning the Public Conduct and Character of John Adams, Esq. President of the United States'') which was highly critical of Adams, although it closed with a tepid endorsement. He mailed this to two hundred leading Federalists; when a copy fell into Democratic-Republican hands, they printed it. This hurt Adams's 1800 reelection campaign and split the Federalist Party, virtually assuring the victory of the Democratic-Republican Party, led by Jefferson, in the [[U.S. presidential election, 1800|election of 1800]]; it destroyed Hamilton's position among the Federalists.<ref>Elkins and McKitrick, like other historians, speak of Hamilton's self-destructive tendencies in this connection.</ref><br />
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On the Federalist side, Governor [[Arthur Fenner]] of Rhode Island denounced these "jockeying tricks" to make Pinckney President, and one Rhode Island Elector voted for Adams and Jay. Jefferson and Burr tied for first and second; and Pinckney came in fourth.<ref>Elkins and McKitrick, pp. 734–40.</ref><br />
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Jefferson had beaten Adams, but both he and his running mate, Aaron Burr, received 73 votes in the Electoral College. With Jefferson and Burr tied, the United States House of Representatives had to choose between the two men. (As a result of this election, the [[Twelfth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Twelfth Amendment]] was proposed and ratified, adopting the method under which presidential elections are held today.) Several Federalists who opposed Jefferson supported Burr, and for the first 35 ballots, Jefferson was denied a majority. Before the 36th ballot, Hamilton threw his weight behind Jefferson, supporting the arrangement reached by [[James A. Bayard (elder)|James A. Bayard]] of Delaware, in which five Federalist Representatives from Maryland and Vermont abstained from voting, allowing those states' delegations to go for Jefferson, ending the impasse and electing Jefferson [[President]] rather than Burr. Even though Hamilton did not like Jefferson and disagreed with him on many issues, he was quoted as saying, "At least Jefferson was honest." Hamilton felt that Burr was dangerous. Burr then became [[Vice President of the United States]]. When it became clear that he would not be asked to run again with Jefferson, Burr sought the New York governorship in 1804 with Federalist support, against the Jeffersonian [[Morgan Lewis]], but was defeated by forces including Hamilton.<ref>ANB, "Aaron Burr".</ref><br />
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==Duel with Aaron Burr and death==<br />
[[Image:Hamilton-burr-duel.jpg|thumb|Hamilton fighting his fatal [[duel]] with [[Vice President of the United States|Vice President]] [[Aaron Burr]] (the depiction is inaccurate: only the two seconds actually witnessed the duel)]]<br />
{{main|Burr-Hamilton duel}}<br />
Soon after the gubernatorial election in New York—in which [[Morgan Lewis (governor)|Morgan Lewis]], greatly assisted by Hamilton, defeated [[Aaron Burr]]—the ''Albany Register'' published Charles D. Cooper's letter, citing Hamilton's opposition to Burr and alleging that Hamilton expressed "a still more despicable opinion" of the Vice President at an upstate New York dinner party.<ref name=jbf/><ref>Kennedy, ''Burr, Hamilton, and Jefferson'', p. 72.</ref> Burr, sensing an attack on his honor, and surely still stung by the political defeat, demanded an apology. Hamilton refused on the grounds that he could not recall the instance.<br />
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Following an exchange of three testy letters, and despite the attempts of friends to avert a confrontation, a duel was nevertheless scheduled for July 11, 1804, along the west bank of the [[Hudson River]] on a rocky ledge in [[Weehawken, New Jersey]], a common dueling site at which Hamilton's eldest son, Philip, had been killed three years earlier.<br />
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[[Image:Alexander Hamilton Grave.JPG|thumb|Hamilton's tomb in the graveyard of [[Trinity Church, New York]]]]<br />
At dawn, the duel began, and Vice President Aaron Burr shot Hamilton. Hamilton's shot broke a tree branch directly above Burr's head. A letter that he wrote the night before the duel states, "I have resolved, if our interview [duel] is conducted in the usual manner, and it pleases God to give me the opportunity, to reserve and throw away my first fire, and I have thoughts even of reserving my second fire", thus asserting an intention to miss Burr. The circumstances of the duel, and Hamilton's actual intentions, are still disputed. Neither of the seconds, Pendleton or Van Ness, could determine who fired first. Soon after, they measured and triangulated the shooting, but could not determine from which angle Hamilton fired. Burr's shot, however, hit Hamilton in the lower abdomen above the right hip. The bullet ricocheted off Hamilton's second or third [[False ribs|false rib]], fracturing it and caused considerable damage to his internal organs, particularly his [[liver]] and [[Thoracic diaphragm|diaphragm]] before becoming lodged in his first or second [[Lumbar vertebrae|lumbar vertebra]]. Chernow considers the circumstances to have indicated Burr to have fired second, and taken deliberate aim.<br />
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If a duelist decided not to aim at his opponent there was a well-known procedure, available to everyone involved, for doing so. According to Freeman, Hamilton apparently did not follow this procedure; if he had, Burr might have followed suit, and Hamilton's death may have been avoided. It was a matter of honor among gentlemen to follow these rules. Because of the high incidence of [[septicemia]] and death resulting from torso wounds, a high percentage of duels employed this procedure of throwing away fire.<ref name=jbf>{{cite journal|author=Freeman, Joanne B|url=http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0043-5597%28199604%293%3A53%3A2%3C289%3ADAPRTB%3E2.0.CO%3B2-S|title=Dueling as Politics: Reinterpreting the Burr–Hamilton Duel|journal=The William and Mary Quarterly, Third Series|volume=53|issue=2|month=April 1996|pages=289–318|format=subscription|publisher=Omohundro Institute of Early American History and Culture}}</ref> Years later, when told that Hamilton may have misled him at the duel, the ever-laconic Burr replied, "Contemptible, if true."<ref>Wheelan, Joseph, ''Jefferson's Vendetta: The Pursuit of Aaron Burr and the Judiciary'', New York, Carroll & Graf Publishers, 2005, ISBN 0786714379, p. 90.</ref><br />
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Hamilton was ferried back to New York. After final visits from his family and friends and considerable suffering, Hamilton died on the following afternoon, July 12, 1804. [[Gouverneur Morris]], a political ally of Hamilton's, gave the eulogy at his funeral and secretly established a fund to support his widow and children. Hamilton was buried in the [[Trinity Churchyard Cemetery]] in [[Manhattan]].<br />
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==Legacy==<br />
[[Image:US10dollarbill-Series 2004A.jpg|left|thumb|350px|Alexander Hamilton on the Series 2004A [[U.S. ten dollar bill|$10 Federal Reserve Note]], based on an 1805 portrait by [[John Trumbull]]]]<br />
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From the start, Hamilton set a precedent as a Cabinet member by formulating federal programs, writing them in the form of reports, pushing for their approval by appearing in person to argue them on the floor of the United States Congress, and then implementing them. Hamilton and the other Cabinet members were vital to Washington, as there was no president before him (under the Constitution) to set precedents for him to follow in national situations such as seditions and foreign affairs.<br />
<br />
Another of Hamilton's legacies was his pro-federal interpretation of the U.S. Constitution. Though the Constitution was drafted in a way that was somewhat ambiguous as to the balance of power between national and state governments, Hamilton consistently took the side of greater federal power at the expense of states. As Secretary of the Treasury, he established—against the intense opposition of Secretary of State Thomas Jefferson—the country's first national bank. Hamilton justified the creation of this bank, and other increased federal powers, with Congress's constitutional powers to issue currency, to regulate interstate commerce, and anything else that would be "necessary and proper". Jefferson, on the other hand, took a stricter view of the Constitution: parsing the text carefully, he found no specific authorization for a national bank. This controversy was eventually settled by the [[Supreme Court of the United States]] in ''[[McCulloch v. Maryland]]'', which in essence adopted Hamilton's view, granting the federal government broad freedom to select the best means to execute its constitutionally enumerated powers, specifically the doctrine of [[implied powers]].<br />
<br />
Hamilton's policies as Secretary of the Treasury have had an immeasurable effect on the United States Government and still continue to influence it. In 1962 during the [[Cuban Missile Crisis]], the [[U.S. Navy]] was still using intership communication protocols written by Hamilton for the original U.S. Coast Guard. His constitutional interpretation, specifically of the [[necessary-and-proper clause]], set precedents for federal authority that are still used by the courts and are considered an authority on constitutional interpretation. The prominent French diplomat [[Charles Maurice de Talleyrand-Périgord|Charles Maurice de Talleyrand]], who spent 1794 in the United States, wrote "I consider [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon]], [[Henry Vassall-Fox, 3rd Baron Holland|Fox]], and Hamilton the three greatest men of our epoch, and if I were forced to decide between the three, I would give without hesitation the first place to Hamilton", adding that Hamilton had intuited the problems of European conservatives. Talleyrand, who helped demolish the [[First French Republic]], would have preferred to have a coalition of European monarchies curtail the solitary republicanism of the United States, which would permit the peaceful recreation of the French colonial empire of Louis XIV; he found himself and Hamilton in general agreement.<ref>Adams, pp. 238–43, quoting Talleyrand from ''Études sur la République'': ''Je considère Napoleon, Fox, et Hamilton comme les trois plus grands hommes de notre époque, et si je devais me prononcer entre les trois, je donnerais sans hesiter la première place à Hamilton. Il avait deviné l'Europe.''</ref><br />
<br />
Opinions of Hamilton have run the gamut: both John Adams and Thomas Jefferson viewed him as unprincipled and dangerously [[aristocracy|aristocratic]]. He was sufficiently admired by the time of the [[American Civil War]] that his portrait began to appear on [[United States currency|U.S. currency]], and now appears on the [[US ten dollar bill|$10 bill]]; after the Civil War, a time of high tariffs, he was highly praised.<ref>The word "apotheosis" in Brant, p. 201, may in context refer to historians, such as [[James Ford Rhodes]].</ref> [[Herbert Croly]], [[Henry Cabot Lodge]], and [[Theodore Roosevelt]] directed attention to him at the end of the nineteenth century in the interest of an active federal government, whether or not supported by tariffs. Several nineteenth and twentieth century [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]]s entered politics by writing laudatory biographies of Hamilton.<ref>Flexner, Introduction; [[Henry Cabot Lodge|Lodge, Henry Cabot]], ''Alexander Hamilton'', written while a junior professor; [[Arthur H. Vandenburg|Vandenburg, Arthur H.]], ''The Greatest American'', 1922, while still a newspaper editor; for the effect on his career of his "advocacy of his party's views", see ANB, "[http://www.anb.org/articles/06/06-00671.html?a=1&n=Vandenberg&ia=-at&ib=-bib&d=10&ss=0&q=2 Arthur H. Vandenburg]".</ref><br />
<br />
Hamilton's portrait began to appear during the [[American Civil War]] on the $2, $5, $10, and $50 notes. His face continues to appear on the front of the ten dollar bill. Hamilton also appears on the $500 Series EE Savings Bond. The source of the face on the $10 bill is [[John Trumbull]]'s 1805 portrait of Hamilton, in the portrait collection of [[New York City Hall]].<ref>''[[The New York Times]]'', "[http://www.nytimes.com/2006/12/06/nyregion/06portraits.html?ref=nyregion In New York, Taking Years Off the Old, Famous Faces Adorning City Hall]", December 6, 2006.</ref> On the south side of the Treasury Building in [[Washington, D.C.]] is a statue of Hamilton.<br />
<br />
Hamilton's upper [[Manhattan]] home is preserved as [[Hamilton Grange National Memorial]], with a statue of Hamilton at the entrance. The historic structure, already removed from its original location many years ago, is being moved again—from its current position, sandwiched between two masonry buildings, to a spot in a nearby park on land that was once part of the Hamilton estate.<ref>[http://www.nps.gov/hagr/ Hamilton Grange National Memorial (U.S. National Park Service)]</ref> It is expected to reopen to the public in 2009.<br />
<br />
Multiple towns throughout the United States have been named after Hamilton.<br />
<br />
===Family===<br />
Hamilton's widow, Elizabeth (known as Eliza or Betsy), survived him for fifty years, until 1854; Hamilton had referred to her as "best of wives and best of women". An extremely religious woman, Eliza spent much of her life working to help widows and orphans. After Hamilton's death, Eliza sold the country house, [[Hamilton Grange National Memorial|the Grange]], that she and Hamilton had built together from 1800 to 1802. She cofounded New York's first private orphanage, the New York Orphan Asylum Society. Despite the Reynolds affair, Alexander and Eliza were very close, and as a widow she always strove to guard his reputation and enhance his standing in American history.<br />
<br />
Hamilton and Elizabeth had eight children, including two named Phillip. The elder Philip, Hamilton's first child (born January 22, 1782), was killed in 1801 in a duel with George I. Eacker, whom he had publicly insulted in a Manhattan theater. The second Philip, Hamilton's last child, was born on June 2, 1802, after the first Philip was killed. Their other children were Angelica, born September 25, 1784; Alexander, born May 16, 1796; [[James Alexander Hamilton|James Alexander]] (April 14, 1788 – September 1878);<ref>[http://query.nytimes.com/mem/archive-free/pdf?res=9E05E2DE123CE03BBC4E51DFBF668383669FDE James Alexander Hamilton obituary], ''[[The New York Times]]'', September 26, 1878.</ref> John Church, born August 22, 1792; [[William S. Hamilton|William Stephen]], born August 4, 1797; and Eliza, born November 26, 1799.{{Fact|date=March 2008}}<br />
<br />
===On slavery===<br />
Rob Weston has described modern scholarly views on Hamilton's attitude to slavery as viewing Hamilton as anything from a "steadfast abolitionist" to a "hypocrite"; Weston's view is that he was deeply ambivalent.<br />
<br />
Hamilton's first polemic against King George's ministers contains a paragraph which speaks of the evils which "slavery" to the British would bring upon the Americans. McDonald sees this as an attack on actual slavery; such hostility was quite common in 1776.<ref>McManus; "Many national leaders including Washington, Franklin, Jefferson, Madison, Hamilton, John Adams, John Jay, Gouverneur Morris, and Rufus King, saw slavery as an immense problem, a curse, a blight, or a national disease"; David Brion Davis, ''Inhuman Bondage'', p. 156; Morison and Commager quote Patrick Henry's regrets at being unable to give up the comforts of slaveowning.</ref><br />
<br />
During the Revolutionary War, there was a series of proposals to arm slaves, free them, and compensate their masters. The first of these projects was performed in August 1776, by [[Jonathan Dickinson Sargeant]];<ref>''Arming Slaves'', pp. 192–3, 206.</ref> Rhode Island had formed the First Rhode Island regiment in 1777, which fought the [[Battle of Rhode Island]]; and there were other black units.<ref>Kaplan, Sidney, ''The Black Presence in the Era of the American Revolution'', pp. 64 ff.</ref> Freeing any enlisted slaves had also become customary by then both for the British, who did not compensate their American masters, and for the Continental Army; some states were to require it before the end of the war.<ref>McManus, pp. 153–8.</ref> In 1779, Hamilton's friend [[John Laurens]] suggested such a unit be formed under his command, to relieve besieged [[Charleston, South Carolina]]; Hamilton wrote a letter to the Continental Congress to create up to four battalions of slaves for combat duty, and free them. Congress recommended that South Carolina (and Georgia) acquire up to three thousand slaves, if they saw fit; they did not, even though the South Carolina governor and Congressional delegation had supported the plan in Philadelphia.<ref>Mitchell, pp. I:175–7, I:550 n. 92, citing the [http://rs6.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?ammem/hlaw:@field(DOCID+@lit(jc01380)) Journals of the Continental Congress], March 29, 1779; Wallace, p. 455. Congress offered to compensate the masters after the war.</ref><br />
<br />
Hamilton argued that blacks' natural faculties were as good as those of free whites, and he forestalled objections by citing [[Frederick the Great]] and others as praising obedience and lack of cultivation in soldiers; he also argued that if the Americans did not do this, the British would (as they had elsewhere). One of his biographers has cited this incident as evidence that Hamilton and Laurens saw the Revolution and the struggle against slavery as inseparable.<ref>[http://press-pubs.uchicago.edu/founders/documents/v1ch15s24.html Hamilton to Jay], March 14, 1779; Chernow, p. 121; McManus, pp. 154–7.</ref> <br />
Hamilton later attacked his political opponents as demanding freedom for themselves and refusing to allow it to blacks.<ref>McDonald, p. 34; Flexner, pp. 257–8.</ref> <br />
<br />
In January 1785, he attended the second meeting of the [[New York Manumission Society]] (NYMS). [[John Jay]] was president and Hamilton was secretary; he later became president.<ref>McManus, p. 168.</ref> He was also a member of the committee of the society which put a bill through the New York Legislature banning the ''export'' of slaves from New York;<ref>Chernow, p. 216.</ref> three months later, Hamilton returned a fugitive slave to [[Henry Laurens]] of South Carolina.<ref>Littlefield, p. 126, citing Syrett, pp. 3:605–8. Mention in Wills, p. 209, that as Treasury Secretary Hamilton arranged to recapture one of Washington's slaves a decade later, is a chronological error; it was his successor, [[Oliver Wolcott, Jr.|Oliver Wolcott]] of Connecticut.</ref> <br />
<br />
Hamilton never supported forced emigration for freed slaves; it has been argued from this that he would be comfortable with a multiracial society, and this distinguished him from his contemporaries.<ref>Horton, p. 22.</ref> In international affairs, he supported [[Toussaint L'Ouverture]]'s black government in [[Haiti]] after the revolt that overthrew French control, as he had supported aid to the slaveowners in 1791—both measures hurt France.<ref>Horton; Kennedy, pp. 97–8; Littlefield; Wills, pp. 35, 40.</ref><br />
<br />
He may have owned household slaves himself (the evidence for this is indirect; McDonald interprets it as referring to paid employees), and he did buy and sell them on behalf of others. He supported a [[gag rule]] to keep divisive discussions of slavery out of Congress, and he supported the compromise by which the United States could not abolish the slave trade for twenty years.<ref>Flexner, p. 39.</ref> When the Quakers of New York petitioned the [[1st United States Congress|First Congress]] (under the Constitution) for the abolition of the slave trade, and Benjamin Franklin and the Pennsylvania Abolition Society petitioned for the abolition of slavery, the NYMS did not act.<ref>McDonald, p. 177.</ref><br />
<br />
===On economics===<br />
Alexander Hamilton is sometimes considered the "[[patron saint]]" of the [[American School (economics)|American School]] of economic philosophy that, according to one historian, dominated economic policy after 1861.<ref>Lind, Michael, ''Hamilton's Republic'', 1997, pp. xiv–xv, 229–30.</ref> He firmly supported government intervention in favor of business, after the manner of [[Jean-Baptiste Colbert]], as early as the fall of 1781.<ref>Chernow, p. 170, citing ''Continentalist'' V, published April 1782, but written in fall 1781; Syrett, p. 3:77.</ref> <br />
<br />
Hamilton opposed the British ideas of [[free trade]] which he believed skewed benefits to colonial/imperial powers, in favor of U.S. [[protectionism]] which he believed would help develop the fledgling nation's emerging economy. <br />
[[Henry C. Carey]] was inspired by his writings. Some say{{Who|date=September 2008}} he influenced the ideas and work of German [[Friedrich List]].<br />
<br />
===Hamilton's religion===<br />
In his early life, he was an orthodox and conventional, though not deeply pious, Presbyterian. From 1777 to 1792, he appears to have been completely indifferent, and made jokes about God at the Constitutional Convention. During the French Revolution, he had an "opportunistic religiosity", using Christianity for political ends and insisting that Christianity and Jefferson's democracy were incompatible. After his misfortunes of 1801, he asserted the truth of the Christian revelation. He proposed a Christian Constitutional Society in 1802, to take hold of "some strong feeling of the mind" to elect "''fit'' men" to office; but Hamilton wrote also of "Christian welfare societies" for the poor. He was not a member of any denomination, but led his family in the Episcopal service the Sunday before the duel. After he was shot, Hamilton requested communion first from [[Benjamin Moore]], the Episcopal [[Episcopal Diocese of New York|Bishop of New York]], who initially declined to administer the Sacrament chiefly because he did not wish to sanction the practice of dueling. Hamilton then requested communion from Presbyterian pastor [[John Mason]], who declined on the grounds that Presbyterians did not [[Reserved sacrament|reserve the Sacrament]]. After Hamilton spoke of his belief in God's mercy, and of his desire to renounce dueling, Bishop Moore reversed his decision, and administered communion to Hamilton.<ref>Adair and Harvey, "[http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0043-5597%28195504%293%3A12%3A2%3C308%3AWAHACS%3E2.0.CO%3B2-4 Christian Statesman?]", ''passim''. Hamilton's early faith is a deduction: Livingstone and Knox would have chosen to sponsor only an orthodox young man. Quotes on the Christian Constitutional Society are from Hamilton's letter to James A. Bayard of April 1802, quoted by Adair and Harvey, who see this as a great change from the military preparations and Sedition Act of 1798. For Bishop Moore, see also Chernow, p. 707. See McDonald, p. 3, on Hamilton's secular ambition, who adds, p. 356, that Hamilton's faith "had not entirely departed" him before the crisis of 1801.</ref><br />
<br />
===Memorial at colleges===<br />
Alexander Hamilton served as one of the first trustees of the [[Hamilton-Oneida Academy]] when the school opened in 1793. When the academy received a college charter in 1812 the school was formally renamed [[Hamilton College]]. There is a prominent statue of Alexander Hamilton in front of the school's chapel (commonly referred to as the "Al-Ham" statue) and the [[Burke Library]] has an extensive collection of Hamilton's personal documents.<br />
<br />
[[Columbia University|Columbia College]], Hamilton's alma mater, whose students formed his militia artillery company and fired some of the first shots against the British, has official memorials to Hamilton. The college's main classroom building for the humanities is Hamilton Hall, and a large statue of Hamilton stands in front of it. The university press has published his complete works in a multivolume [[letterpress]] edition.<br />
<br />
The main administration building of the [[Coast Guard Academy]] is named Hamilton Hall to commemorate Hamilton's creation of the [[United States Revenue Cutter Service]], one of the entities that was combined to form the [[United States Coast Guard]].<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
:''"The long tradition of Hamilton biography has, almost without exception, been laudatory in the extreme. Facts have been exaggerated, moved around, omitted, misunderstood and imaginatively created. The effect has been to produce a spotless champion...Those little satisfied with this reading of American history have struck back by depicting Hamilton as a devil devoted to undermining all that was most characteristic and noble in American life."'' James Thomas Flexner, ''The Young Hamilton'', pp. 3–4.<br />
<br />
===Secondary sources===<br />
*[[Henry Adams]], ''History of the United States of America under the Administrations of Thomas Jefferson'', Library of America 1986, ISBN 0521324831<br />
*Stanley Elkins and Eric McKitrick: ''Age of Federalism'' (New York, Oxford University Press, 1993). [http://www.questia.com/library/book/the-age-of-federalism-by-stanley-elkins-eric-mckitrick.jsp online edition]<br />
*[[Samuel Eliot Morison]] and [[Henry Steele Commager]]: ''Growth of the American Republic'' (New York, Oxford University Press, 1969; other eds as cited).<br />
<br />
===Biographies===<br />
*Brookhiser, Richard. ''Alexander Hamilton, American''. Free Press, (1999) (ISBN 0-684-83919-9).<br />
*Chernow, Ron. ''Alexander Hamilton''. Penguin Books, (2004) (ISBN 1-59420-009-2). full length detailed biography<br />
*Ellis, Joseph J. ''[[Founding Brothers: The Revolutionary Generation]]'' (2002), won Pulitzer Prize.<br />
*Ellis, Joseph J. ''His Excellency: George Washington''. (2004).<br />
*Flexner, James Thomas. ''The Young Hamilton: A Biography''. Fordham University Press, (1997) (ISBN 0-8232-1790-6).<br />
*Fleming, Thomas. ''Duel: Alexander Hamilton, Aaron Burr, and the Future of America''. (2000) (ISBN 0-465-01737-1).<br />
*McDonald, Forrest. ''Alexander Hamilton: A Biography''(1982) (ISBN 0-393-30048-X), biography focused on intellectual history esp on AH's republicanism. <br />
*Miller, John C. ''Alexander Hamilton: Portrait in Paradox'' (1959), full-length scholarly biography; [http://www.questia.com/library/book/alexander-hamilton-portrait-in-paradox-by-john-c-miller.jsp online edition]<br />
*Mitchell, Broadus. ''Alexander Hamilton'' (2 vols., 1957–62), the most detailed scholarly biography; also published in abridged edition<br />
*Randall, Willard Sterne. ''Alexander Hamilton: A Life''. HarperCollins, (2003) (ISBN 0-06-019549-5). Popular.<br />
*[[Don Winslow]] ''Alexander Hamilton: In Worlds Unknown'' (Script and Film New York Historical Society).<br />
<br />
===Specialized studies===<br />
*Douglass Adair and Marvin Harvey: "[http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0043-5597%28195504%293%3A12%3A2%3C308%3AWAHACS%3E2.0.CO%3B2-4 Was Alexander Hamilton a Christian Statesman?]" ''The William and Mary Quarterly'', 3rd Ser., Vol. 12, No. 2, Alexander Hamilton: 1755–1804. (Apr., 1955), pp. 308–29. [[JSTOR]] URL.<br />
*''Arming slaves: from classical times to the modern age'', Christopher Leslie Brown and Philip D. Morgan, eds. esp. 180–208 on the American Revolution, by Morgan and A. J. O'Shaubhnessy.<br />
*Douglas Ambrose and Robert W. T. Martin, eds. ''The Many Faces of Alexander Hamilton: The Life & Legacy of America's Most Elusive Founding Father '' (2006).<br />
*Brant, Irving: ''The Fourth President: a Life of James Madison''. Bobbs-Merill, 1970. A one-volume recasting of Brant's six-volume life. <br />
*Burns, Eric. ''Infamous Scribblers: The Founding Fathers and the Rowdy Beginnings of American Journalism.'' (2007).<br />
*Chan, Michael D. "Alexander Hamilton on Slavery." ''Review of Politics'' 66 (Spring 2004): 207–31.<br />
*Fatovic, Clement. "Constitutionalism and Presidential Prerogative: Jeffersonian and Hamiltonian Perspectives." ''American Journal of Political Science'' 2004 48(3): 429–44. Issn: 0092-5853 Fulltext in Swetswise, Ingenta, Jstor, Ebsco .<br />
*Flaumenhaft; Harvey. ''The Effective Republic: Administration and Constitution in the Thought of Alexander Hamilton'' Duke University Press, 1992.<br />
*Flexner, James Thomas. ''George Washington.'' Little Brown, 1965–72. Four volumes, with various subtitles, cited as "Flexner, ''Washington''". Vol. IV. ISBN 0316286028.<br />
*Levine, Yitzchok. [http://www.jewishpress.com/content.cfm?contentid=21464&sContentid=1 "The Jews Of Nevis And Alexander Hamilton."] ''Glimpses Into American Jewish History'', The Jewish Press. May 2, 2007.<br />
*Harper, John Lamberton. ''American Machiavelli: Alexander Hamilton and the Origins of U.S. Foreign Policy.'' (2004).<br />
*Horton, James Oliver. "Alexander Hamilton: Slavery and Race in a Revolutionary Generation" ''New-York Journal of American History'' 2004 65(3): 16–24. ISSN 1551-5486 [http://66.102.7.104/search?q=cache:88cftz6zXJYJ:www.alexanderhamiltonexhibition.org/about/Horton%2520-%2520Hamiltsvery_Race.pdf+james+horton+%22alexander+hamilton%22+slavery&hl=en&gl=us&ct=clnk&cd=1 online version].<br />
*Kennedy, Roger G. ; ''Burr, Hamilton, and Jefferson: A Study in Character'' Oxford University Press (2000).<br />
*Knott, Stephen F. ''Alexander Hamilton and the Persistence of Myth'' University Press of Kansas, (2002) ISBN 0-7006-1157-6.<br />
*Richard H. Kohn, "[http://www.jstor.org/stable/1918650 The Inside History of the Newburgh Conspiracy: America and the Coup d'Etat]"; ''The William and Mary Quarterly, Third Series'', Vol. 27, No. 2 (Apr., 1970), pp. 188–220. [[JSTOR]] link. A review of the evidence on Newburgh, source for most more recent coverage. Despite the title, Kohn is doubtful that a ''coup d'état'' was ever seriously attempted.<br />
*Harold Larsen: "[http://www.jstor.org/stable/1925345.pdf Alexander Hamilton: The Fact and Fiction of His Early Years]" The William and Mary Quarterly, 3rd Ser., Vol. 9, No. 2. (Apr., 1952), pp. 139–51. [[JSTOR]] link. <br />
*Littlefield, Daniel C. "John Jay, the Revolutionary Generation, and Slavery." ''New York History'' 2000 81(1):91–132. ISSN 0146-437X.<br />
*[[Milton Lomask]], ''Aaron Burr, the Years from Princeton to Vice President, 1756–1805''. Farrar, Straus & Giroux, 1979. ISBN 0374100160. First volume of two, but this contains Hamilton's lifetime. <br />
*Martin, Robert W.T. "Reforming Republicanism: Alexander Hamilton's Theory of Republican Citizenship and Press Liberty." ''Journal of the Early Republic'' 2005 25(1):21–46. Issn: 0275-1275 Fulltext online in Project Muse and Ebsco.<br />
*McManus, Edgar J. ''History of Negro Slavery in New York''. Syracuse University Press, 1966. <br />
*Mitchell, Broadus: "The man who 'discovered' Alexander Hamilton". ''Proceedings of the New Jersey Historical Society'' 1951. 69:88–115.<br />
*Stryker, William S[cudder].: ''The Battles of Trenton and Princeton''; Houghton Mifflin, 1898. <br />
*Monaghan, Frank: ''John Jay''. Bobbs-Merrill (1935). <br />
*Nettels, Curtis P. ''The Emergence of a National Economy, 1775–1815'' (1962). <br />
*Newman, Paul Douglas: ''Fries's Rebellion; The Enduring Struggle for the American Revolution''. University of Pennsylvania Press, 2004. <br />
*Jack N. Rakove: ''The beginnings of National Politics: an interpretive history of the Continental Congress'', Knopf, 1979. <br />
*Rossiter, Clinton. ''Alexander Hamilton and the Constitution'' (1964).<br />
*Sharp, James. ''American Politics in the Early Republic: The New Nation in Crisis.'' (1995), survey of politics in 1790s.<br />
*Sheehan, Colleen. "Madison V. Hamilton: The Battle Over Republicanism And The Role Of Public Opinion" ''American Political Science Review'' 2004 98(3): 405–24. <br />
*Smith, Robert W. ''Keeping the Republic: Ideology and Early American Diplomacy.'' (2004).<br />
*Staloff, Darren. "Hamilton, Adams, Jefferson: The Politics of Enlightenment and the American Founding." (2005).<br />
*Stourzh, Gerald. ''Alexander Hamilton and the Idea of Republican Government'' (1970).<br />
*Thomas, Charles Marion: ''American neutrality in 1793; a study in cabinet government'', Columbia, 1931. <br />
*Trees, Andrew S. "The Importance of Being Alexander Hamilton." ''Reviews in American History'' 2005 33(1): 8–14. Issn: 0048-7511 Fulltext: in Project Muse .<br />
*Trees, Andrew S. ''The Founding Fathers and the Politics of Character.'' (2004).<br />
*Wallace, David Duncan: ''Life of Henry Laurens, with a sketch of the life of Lieutenant-Colonel John Laurens'' Putnam (1915) .<br />
*Weston, Rob N. "Alexander Hamilton and the Abolition of Slavery in New York". ''Afro-Americans in New York Life and History'' 1994 18(1): 31–45. ISSN 0364-2437 An undergraduate paper, which concludes that Hamilton was ambivalent about slavery. <br />
*White, Leonard D. ''The Federalists'' (1949), coverage of how the Treasury and other departments were created and operated.<br />
*Richard D. White; "Political Economy and Statesmanship: Smith, Hamilton, and the Foundation of the Commercial Republic" ''Public Administration Review'', Vol. 60, 2000.<br />
*Wright, Robert E. ''Hamilton Unbound: Finance and the Creation of the American Republic'' Praeger (2002).<br />
*Robert E. Wright: ''One Nation Under Debt: Hamilton, Jefferson, and the History of What We Owe'' New York: McGraw-Hill (2008).<br />
<br />
===Primary sources===<br />
*Hamilton, Alexander. (Joanne B. Freeman, ed.) ''Alexander Hamilton: Writings'' (2001), [http://www.loa.org/ The Library of America] edition, 1108 pages. ISBN 978-1-93108204-4; all of Hamilton's major writings and many of his letters <br />
*Syrett, Harold C.; Cooke, Jacob E.; and Chernow, Barbara, eds. ''The Papers of Alexander Hamilton'' (27 vol, Columbia University Press, 1961–87); includes all letters and writing by Hamilton, and all important letters written to him; this is the definitive letterpress edition, heavily annotated by scholars; it is available in larger academic libraries.<br />
*Goebel, Julius, Jr., and Smith, Joseph H., eds., ''The Law Practice of Alexander Hamilton'' (5 vols., Columbia University Press, 1964–80); the legal counterpart to the ''Papers of Alexander Hamilton.'' <br />
*Morris, Richard. ed. ''Alexander Hamilton and the Founding of the Nation'' (1957), excerpts from AH's writings<br />
*''Selected Writings and Speeches of Alexander Hamilton.'' Morton J. Frisch ed. (1985).<br />
*''The Works of Alexander Hamilton'' edited by Henry Cabot Lodge (1904) [http://books.google.com/books?id=S4CoWxuxuFAC&q=alexander+hamilton+cabot&dq=alexander+hamilton+cabot&pgis=1 full text online at Google Books] [http://oll.libertyfund.org/?option=com_staticxt&staticfile=show.php%3Fperson=201&Itemid=28 online in HTML edition]. This is the only online collection of Hamilton's writings and letters. Published in 10 volumes, containing about 1.3 million words.<br />
*[[Federalist Papers]] under the shared pseudonym "Publius" by Alexander Hamilton (c. 52 articles), [[James Madison]] (28 articles) and [[John Jay]] (five articles)<br />
*[[Report on Manufactures]], his economic program for the United States.<br />
*[[Report on Public Credit]], his financial program for the United States.<br />
*Cooke, Jacob E. ed., ''Alexander Hamilton: A Profile'' (1967), short excerpts from AH and his critics. <br />
*Cunningham, Noble E. ''Jefferson vs. Hamilton: Confrontations that Shaped a Nation'' (2000), short collection of primary sources with commentary.<br />
*Taylor, George Rogers, ed., ''Hamilton and the National Debt'', 1950, excerpts from all sides in 1790s.<br />
<br />
===Notes===<br />
{{reflist|2}}<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
{{sisterlinks|s=Author:Alexander Hamilton}}<br />
*[http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/hamilton/ Alexander Hamilton on PBS' American Experience]<br />
*[http://www.alexanderhamiltonexhibition.org/ The New-York Historical Society's Alexander Hamilton Exhibit]<br />
*[http://ideas.repec.org/p/wpa/wuwpeh/9610001.html Alexander Hamilton and The Origins of Wall Street] (subscription required)<br />
*[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/253372/Alexander-Hamilton Encyclopaedia Britannica: Alexander Hamilton]<br />
*{{gutenberg author|id=Hamilton+Alexander|name=Alexander Hamilton}}<br />
*[http://press-pubs.uchicago.edu/founders/documents/v1ch4s31.html Hamilton's Report on Manufactures (Columbia University Press)]<br />
*[http://bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index=H000101 Hamilton's Congressional biography]<br />
*[http://web.archive.org/web/20001110000000/www.ios.com/~alstone/forthebk.htm Alexander Hamilton: Debate over a National Bank (February 23, 1791)]<br />
*[http://cdl.library.cornell.edu/cgi-bin/moa/moa-cgi?notisid=ABQ7578-0123-7 Alexander Hamilton] by [[Henry Cabot Lodge]]<br />
*[http://www.footnote.com/page/146 Alexander Hamilton's Plan of Government]<br />
*[http://www.nps.gov/hagr/ Hamilton Grange National Memorial]<br />
*[http://duel2004.weehawkenhistory.org/reenactscript.pdf Reenactment of the Burr–Hamilton duel on July 12, 2004]. <br />
*[http://elections.lib.tufts.edu/aas_portal/index.xq A New Nation Votes: American Election Returns 1787–1825]<br />
*[http://bostonreview.net/BR32.6/hogeland.php Inventing Alexander Hamilton, The troubling embrace of the founder of American finance]<br />
*[http://www.thirteen.org/forum/alexander-hamilton-and-the-national-triumph-of-new-york-city Alexander Hamilton and the National Triumph of New York City] A WNET video lecture; overview of Hamilton's career<br />
{{start box}}<br />
{{s-off}}<br />
{{succession box<br />
|before=''(none)''<br />
|title=[[United States Secretary of the Treasury]]<br />
|years=1789–1795<br />
|after=[[Oliver Wolcott, Jr.]]<br />
}}<br />
{{s-mil}}<br />
{{succession box<br />
|title=[[Commanding General of the United States Army|Senior Officer of the United States Army]]<br />
|before=[[George Washington]]<br />
|after=[[James Wilkinson]]<br />
|years=1799–1800<br />
}}<br />
{{end box}}<br />
{{United States Constitution signatories}}<br />
{{USSecTreas}}<br />
{{Federalist Papers}}<br />
{{Washington cabinet}}<br />
<!--Metadata: see [[Wikipedia:Persondata]]--><br />
<!--See text for contending birthdates--><br />
<br />
{{Persondata<br />
|NAME=Hamilton, Alexander<br />
|SHORT DESCRIPTION=Founding Fathers of the United States<br />
|DATE OF BIRTH=January 11, 1755 or 1757<br />
|PLACE OF BIRTH=Nevis, Caribbean<br />
|DATE OF DEATH=July 12, 1804<br />
|PLACE OF DEATH=New York City, New York, United States<br />
}}<br />
{{DEFAULTSORT:Hamilton, Alexander}}<br />
[[Category:Alexander Hamilton| ]]<br />
[[Category:1755 births]]<br />
[[Category:1757 births]]<br />
[[Category:United States Secretaries of the Treasury]]<br />
[[Category:American financiers]]<br />
[[Category:American economists]]<br />
[[Category:American lawyers]]<br />
[[Category:New York militiamen in the American Revolution]]<br />
[[Category:Continental Army officers from New York]]<br />
[[Category:Continental Congressmen from New York]]<br />
[[Category:United States Federalist Party]]<br />
[[Category:Bank of New York]]<br />
[[Category:Columbia University alumni]]<br />
[[Category:Foreign-born American politicians]]<br />
[[Category:Sex scandal figures]]<br />
[[Category:Scottish-Americans]]<br />
[[Category:Duellists]]<br />
[[Category:Duelling fatalities]]<br />
[[Category:Kingdom of Great Britain migrants to the Thirteen Colonies]]<br />
[[Category:Deaths by firearm in New Jersey]]<br />
[[Category:Deaths by firearm in New York]]<br />
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[[af:Alexander Hamilton]]<br />
[[bg:Александър Хамилтън]]<br />
[[ca:Alexander Hamilton]]<br />
[[da:Alexander Hamilton]]<br />
[[de:Alexander Hamilton]]<br />
[[es:Alexander Hamilton]]<br />
[[eo:Alexander Hamilton]]<br />
[[fa:الکساندر همیلتون]]<br />
[[fr:Alexander Hamilton]]<br />
[[ko:알렉산더 해밀턴]]<br />
[[id:Alexander Hamilton]]<br />
[[it:Alexander Hamilton]]<br />
[[he:אלכסנדר המילטון]]<br />
[[ka:ალექსანდრე ჰამილტონი]]<br />
[[nl:Alexander Hamilton]]<br />
[[ja:アレクサンダー・ハミルトン]]<br />
[[no:Alexander Hamilton]]<br />
[[pl:Alexander Hamilton]]<br />
[[pt:Alexander Hamilton]]<br />
[[ro:Alexander Hamilton]]<br />
[[ru:Гамильтон, Александр]]<br />
[[simple:Alexander Hamilton]]<br />
[[sk:Alexander Hamilton]]<br />
[[sl:Alexander Hamilton]]<br />
[[sh:Alexander Hamilton]]<br />
[[fi:Alexander Hamilton]]<br />
[[sv:Alexander Hamilton]]<br />
[[vi:Alexander Hamilton]]<br />
[[uk:Гамілтон Александер]]<br />
[[zh:亚历山大·汉密尔顿]]</div>
Leslie
https://conservapedia.com/index.php?title=Religion_and_politics&diff=553360
Religion and politics
2008-11-10T00:37:16Z
<p>Leslie: removing some too-obvious bias</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Unreferenced|date=September 2006}}<br />
<br />
'''Religion and politics''' share an intimate and complex relationship.<br><br />
[[Religion]] is a set of beliefs and practices that are determined by one's view of reality and the [[supernatural]].<br><br />
[[Politics]] is the process by which [[group (sociology)|groups]] [[decision making|make decisions]]. <br><br />
Because one's [[experience|view of reality]] has a powerful effect on decision-making, the two realms are tightly intertwined in a number of ways. Some of these ways include:<br />
# the political processes that occur within religious organizations, known as the organization's ''internal politics'';<br />
# the effects of various religious beliefs and practices on [[civics|civic]] processes, or the organization's ''external politics'';<br />
# the effects of various [[secularity|secular]] political actions on religious organizations and people;<br />
# formal relationships between politics and religion, such as in the case of state religions or theocracies.<br />
<br />
The injection of politics into almost any other realm automatically creates a general sense of conflict because politics is, at its basest level, a [[Power (philosophy)|power struggle]]. All four aspects of this interaction can cause difficulty for religious groups that prefer to present themselves in an inclusive, rather than divisive, way. Conflict is, however, almost unavoidable. A religious group's internal politics will involve factions with different perspectives regarding policies, and when people of faith take an active interest in external politics, those who adhere to other faiths (or to no faith at all) often take offense at their actions. Political actions in the general population will often oppose the beliefs of various religions and will create conflict between the religion and society as a whole. And when a particular religion controls a [[government]], anyone who does not agree with the tenets of the faith will have conflict not only with the religion but also with the government that it administers.<br />
<br />
==Internal politics of religious organizations==<br />
A religion will experience internal politics only to the extent that is has an organized system of [[leadership]] and [[management]]. The politics are the ways in which that administrative hierarchy allocates [[authority]] and [[accountability]], and it is the framework for organizing and controlling all individual and group leadership. Because its form is ultimately dependent, either directly or indirectly, on the principles of the religion, different religions have vastly different systems.<br />
<br />
===Bahá'í administration===<br />
{{main|Bahá'í administration}}<br />
The administration of the [[Bahá'í faith]] is divided into [[Bahá'í administration#Elected|elected positions]] and [[Bahá'í administration#Appointed|appointed positions]]. Having no ordained, professional [[clergy]], Bahá'ís operate through a type of [[nonpartisan]] [[democracy|democratic]] self-government. The traditional functions of community leadership and moral leadership are vested in an institutional framework of councils with two main branches. Bahá'í administration exempts its members from any responsibility to those whom they represent, and from the obligation to conform to their views, convictions or sentiments. The highest elected body is the [[Universal House of Justice]], which possesses "the exclusive right to legislate on matters not explicitly revealed in the [[Kitáb-i-Aqdas|Most Holy Book]]."<br />
<br />
Bahá'í [[election]]s use a three-stage councilor-republic system, which varies in terms of who is an eligible member and who is an elector depending on the scope of the election. At all levels, only residents within the jurisdiction of the body being elected are eligible for membership, and all elections are won by [[plurality]]. In general, adult Bahá'ís in good standing who are resident in the jurisdiction comprise both the electorate (either directly or through delegation) and the pool of potential members of the body being elected.<br />
<br />
[[Shoghi Effendi]] strongly deprecated [[Partisan (political)|partisan politics]] and other practices current in western democracies, such as [[Political campaign|campaigning]] and [[nomination]]. He established the following rules in order to preserve the full rights and prerogatives of the electors and to guard them against manipulation:<br />
*Nominations and campaigning are prohibited. Bahá'ís are not to seek to advance themselves above their neighbors.<br />
*Voters are urged not to consult with each other about the suitability of individuals.<br />
*Voters are strongly encouraged to study and discuss, in abstract, the [[Bah%C3%A1%27%C3%AD_administration#Elections|five qualities]] named by Shoghi Effendi as being necessary in those elected to serve, without reference to individuals.<br />
*Individuals should be selected only on the basis of the five mentioned qualities, without reference to material means or other characteristics, except insofar as they provide insight into the five qualities.<br />
*Those elected are expected to serve, though in cases of extreme personal difficulty, members may request that the body to which they are elected relieve them.<br />
<br />
===Buddhist administration===<br />
{{main|Buddhist Councils|World Fellowship of Buddhists}}<br />
In 544 BC, three months after the [[Gautama Buddha|Buddha]] died, King [[Ajatasattu]] sponsored the [[First Buddhist Council|First Council]] in the [[Sattaparnaguha Cave]] outside of [[Rajgir|Rajagaha]]. The meeting was prompted by Elder [[Mahakassapa]] , who called five hundred [[Arahant]] monks to council after gaining the approval of the [[Sangha]] (an assembly of [[monk]]s and [[nun]]s). The First Council approved closing the chapter on the minor and lesser rules, and granted approval for their observance.<br />
<br />
In the years since the First Council, several others have followed, the most recent being the [[Sixth Buddhist Council]] held in 1954 by the [[Theravada]] school. Today, [[Buddhism]] is separated into several different schools with varying forms of leadership. The schools are united by organizations such as the [[World Fellowship of Buddhists]] and the [[World Buddhist Sangha Council]], both of which administer and organize various aspects of Buddhist leadership.<br />
<br />
===Christian administration===<br />
{{main|Ecclesiastical polity}}<br />
Because there are many denominations within [[Christianity]] there is no universal Christian administration. While many denominations have some hierarchy of ministers or priests above the general membership of the [[Church body|church]], others are simply a loose association of independent local churches.<br />
<br />
====''Congregationalist polity''====<br />
{{main|Congregationalist polity}}<br />
Each local church controls its own affairs in a [[Congregationalism|Congregationalist]] model. Each church is governed by the decisions of its own membership. Denominational organizations in this form of governance are simply a loose [[confederation]] of member churches.<br />
<br />
====''Episcopal polity''====<br />
{{main|Episcopal polity}}<br />
This governance style typified by the [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholic]] and [[Eastern Orthodox Church]]es, among others. Each church is overseen by a [[Bishop (Catholic Church)|bishop]], who is then responsible to an upper hierarchy, usually [[archbishop]]s and [[Cardinal (Catholicism)|cardinals]], with one mortal leader, such as the [[pope]] or [[patriarch]].<br />
<br />
====''Mormon polity''====<br />
{{main|Priesthood (Latter Day Saints)}}<br />
[[The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]] (LDS, also known as Mormon) maintains that God withdrew the "priesthood authority" to act in His name from the earth with the deaths of the [[Twelve apostles|apostles]] of the primitive Christian Church, only to be re-established on earth through [[Joseph Smith]]. The early Mormon church, first under Smith and then under [[Brigham Young]], established theocratic institutions in their anticipation of Christ's imminent return to take leadership of a cleansed world during the [[Millenialism|Millennium]]. Although the early theocratic ideals are no longer in place in any significant form, the general organization of the church remains roughly the same. Today's LDS organization is administered by a fairly complex hierarchy consisting primarily of the [[First Presidency]], the [[Quorum of the Twelve Apostles]], and the [[Quorums of the Seventy]].<br />
<br />
====''Presbyterian polity''====<br />
{{main|Presbyterian polity}}<br />
This form of leadership is most commonly seen in [[Presbyterianism]], but is not unique to it. Presbyterian governance is a form of [[Representative democracy]], in which boards elected by church membership, known as [[Presbyter]]s, retain control over individual churches. These boards may or may not also operate within a larger hierarchy of authority.<br />
<br />
===Jewish administration===<br />
{{main|Jewish leadership}}<br />
[[Orthodox Judaism]] believes that when the [[Messiah|Moshiach]] comes he will become a king, and all Jews will be united in [[Israel]] to be ruled by him. Jewish law, or ''[[halacha]]'', provides many guidelines to the reign, the central theme of which is that God is above the king. Until then, Orthodox Jews are advised to be on good terms with the government but not participate in it too directly. [[Reform Judaism]], on the other hand, believes in integration with the society in which they live, including its political structure.<br />
<br />
Throughout its history Judaism has had a number of different leadership structures, and today the leadership of the various denominations is significantly diverse in form and in function. Most, however, do fall under the leadership of rabbis (though the groups may define that position differently) and other synagogue officials and workers. Some sects, notably Orthodox and Haredi Jews, recognize a hierarchy of rabbinical levels culminating in one or more [[chief rabbi]]s.<br />
<br />
=== Muslim administration===<br />
{{main|Islamic religious leaders}}<br />
Like other major religions, [[Islam]] has many divisions, sects, and schools, and they each follow a different form of administration or authority, but all recognize (to varying degrees) the two most important positions: the [[caliph]] and the [[imam]].<br />
<br />
After [[Muhammad]]'s death, [[Sunni]] Muslims believe that Muhammad's lieutenant, [[Abu Bakr|Abū Bakr]], was chosen by the community to be Muhammad's successor as head of the religion and also to be the first caliph. They believe that this was the proper procedure and that a caliph is ideally chosen by election or community consensus. [[Shi'a]] Muslims believe that Muhammad had chosen {{Unicode|[[Ali|ˤAlī ibn Abī Talib]]}}, his cousin and son-in-law, as his successor. They say that Abū Bakr seized power by force and trickery and that all caliphs other than {{Unicode|ˤAlī}} were usurpers. {{Unicode|ˤAlī}} and his descendents are believed to have been the only proper Muslim leaders, or ''imams''. A third branch of Islam, the [[Ibadi]], believes that the caliphate rightly belongs to the greatest spiritual leader among Muslims, regardless of his lineage. The Ibadi are currently an extremely small group, found mainly in [[Oman]].<br />
<br />
The official title of "caliph" was abolished in 1924, but it is still an important consideration due to the controversy described above. Actual leadership, however, is in the hands of imams and other clergy, officials, and workers, the titles and responsibilities of which vary from one sect to another.<br />
<br />
==External politics of religious organizations==<br />
The external politics of a religion are the ways it reacts to the [[culture]] and [[society]] around it, and the ways that it influences its members with regard to their interactions with that social order. Examples include [[boycott]]s or attempted [[censorship]] of entities that the religion feels are opposed to its idea of "right", attempts to influence [[legislator]]s with regard to passage of various laws, and provision of support for the campaigns of political [[candidate]]s that the religion considers to be sympathetic to its beliefs. These activities can create significant tension between people associated with the politically active religion and society at large.<br />
<br />
The ways in which clergy and [[theology|theologians]] interpret the political domain, and the ways that they encourage people to behave within it, vary widely. Some urge their followers to withdraw completely from the outside world; others say politics should stay out of religion entirely. (When this latter view is taken to an extreme it is known as ''[[Quietism (Christian philosophy)|quietism]]''.) Some religious groups may undertake political action in an attempt to cause social change and create a culture of [[social justice]], a philosophy sometimes called ''[[liberation theology]]''. Others attempt to find a point of peaceful coexistence (but not necessarily integration or even cooperation), a line of thought exemplified by [[Jesus]]' command to his disciples to "[[Render unto Caesar...|Render unto Caesar]] the things which are [[Augustus|Caesar]]’s, and unto [[God in Christianity|God]] the things that are God’s".<br />
<br />
:''See also [[Religious rejection of politics]]'' and [http://mrzine.monthlyreview.org/majfud260906.html ''Religion and power'']<br />
<br />
==Effects of secular politics on religion==<br />
At times, religious organizations and people of faith may be affected in specific ways by the [[political climate]] of the society that surrounds them. For instance, governments may pass laws that affect (or threaten to affect) the ways in which the [[tradition]]s of a given faith may be observed, or endorsing cultural stances that are offensive to the adherents of a particular belief system. Like instances in which religious expression influences political activity, these situations create tension between the religion and the society surrounding it.<br />
<br />
==Integration of church and state==<br />
In addition to the relatively informal interactions above, religion and government may also establish a formal relationship. In this case the religion's teachings and administration will have practical effects on members of the society whether they are members of the religion or not (and in extreme cases those who are not members may be rejected as members of the society). There are, of course, varying degrees of interaction between the two realms, ranging from a government's endorsement of a specific religion without requiring that it be observed to complete domination of the religion in all government [[policy]] and action.<br />
<br />
===Religious states and state religions===<br />
{{main|State religion}}<br />
Despite efforts by early thinkers like [[Marsilio Ficino]] to keep religion and politics separate, history offers many occasions when the two have often been very closely intertwined. Sometimes a religion endorses or supports a particular leader or system. One example is the idea of the [[Divine Right of Kings]], in which royal power is believed to be derived directly from God and therefore must be obeyed. Also, [[Niccolò Machiavelli]] advocated that rulers use the power of the church to establish and maintain their reigns, believing that this would maintains stability in the society. In a related way, religion has often been used as a means of defining or maintaining social class structures. Conversely, different classes have at times overwhelmingly adopted different faiths, as with the spread of [[Christianity]] in the [[Roman Empire]] and the spread of [[Methodism]] in [[18th century|eighteenth-century]] England.<br />
<br />
On the other side of the coin, some governments have either endorsed or fully administered specific religions, sometimes to the degree that [[citizenship|citizens]] have been strongly discouraged from following any other. One of the best known examples of this in the western world is the [[Church of England]], which was established in the [[6th century|sixth century]] and remains today as the official Christian church in England with the monarch empowered as its "[[Supreme Governor of the Church of England|Supreme Governor]]". Other examples include the Roman Catholic church's status as the official religion of several countries in [[Europe]] and [[Latin America]] and the official status of Islam in many countries around the world. Contemporary efforts to impose [[sharia]] law in various places around the world (outside of pre-existing Islamic states) also fit this description.<br />
<br />
===Theocracy===<br />
This term [[theocracy]] describes a state in which religious and government leaders either are identical or form a strongly interlocked and virtually inseparable group. A number of states in the [[ancient history|ancient world]] could be so described, and examples in more recent times include the [[Vatican City|Vatican]], [[Tibet]] under the [[Dalai Lama]], and [[Iran]] and other [[Islamic republic]]s. [[Mount Athos]], although not formally independent, could also be described as a theocracy.<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{reflist}}<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
*[http://belfercenter.ksg.harvard.edu/project/57/religion_in_international_affairs.html Initiative on Religion in International Affairs] at Harvard<br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
{{wikiquote}}<br />
<br />
*[[Christianity and politics]]<br />
*[[Established church]]<br />
*[[Interfaith]]<br />
*[[Henry G. Brinton]], author of ''Balancing Acts: Obligation, Liberation, and Contemporary Christian Conflicts''<br />
<br />
{{Socialscience&religion}}<br />
{{Christianity and politics}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:Religion and politics| ]]<br />
<br />
[[ja:政教分離の歴史]]</div>
Leslie
https://conservapedia.com/index.php?title=Partisan&diff=553359
Partisan
2008-11-10T00:36:55Z
<p>Leslie: removing some too-obvious bias</p>
<hr />
<div>{{wiktionary}}<br />
'''Partisan''' may refer to:<br />
<br />
===Political matters===<br />
In politics, '''partisan''' literally means organized into [[political parties]]. The expression "[[partisan (political)|Partisan politics]]" usually refers to fervent, sometimes militant support of a party, cause, faction, person, or idea. Although this is typically an appellation with negative connotations, some supporters embrace the term, as can be seen by the names of the following publications:<br />
* [[Partizan Press]], a UK publishing company.<br />
* ''[[Partisan Review]]'', a US political and literary quarterly.<br />
* ''[[Southern Partisan]]'', a US political magazine.<br />
<br />
===Military===<br />
* [[Partisan (military)]] - As a name for irregular forces or detached light troops, engaged behind the front line<br />
* [[Yugoslav Partisans]] - main Yugoslav World War II resistance movement.<br />
* [[Bulgarian resistance movement|Bulgarian partisans]] - a Bulgarian resistance movement during World War II.<br />
* [[Military history of Albania during World War II|Albanian Partisans]], the Partisans of Albania during World War II<br />
* [[Soviet partisans]], for the USSR in World War II<br />
* [[Jewish partisans]], among the Jewish resistance movement in Nazi-occupied Europe<br />
* [[Italian partisans]] in World War II<br />
* [[Polish resistance movement in World War II|Polish partisans]] ([[Leśni]]) during World War II<br />
* [[Forest Brothers|Lithuanian, Latvian, and Estonian partisans]] after World War 2 against the Soviet Union<br />
* [[Armenian irregular units|Armenian partisans]], referring to Armenian guerrillas from World War I<br />
* Germany's World War II [[Werwolf]] movement<br />
* Germany's World War II Alpine [[National Redoubt]]<br />
<br />
===Music===<br />
<br />
* [[Chant des Partisans]], a song about the French resistance<br />
* [[The Partisan]], a song about the French resistance written by Anna Marly and Emmanuel d'Astier de la Vigerie<br />
* [[The Partisans]], a Welsh punk band from Bridgend<br />
* [[The Partisan But He's Got To know]], a song by the Canadian trio Swan Lake<br />
* [[Shqiponjat Partizane]], a revolutionary Albanian song of World War II<br />
* [[Partisan from the Amur River]], a song about partisans from far east of USSR. Translated to more than 10 languages!<br />
<br />
===Sports===<br />
* [[FK Partizan|Partizan]] - Serbian football club<br />
* [[KK Partizan|Partizan]] - Serbian basketball club<br />
* [[KF Partizani Tirana|Partizani Tirana]] - Albanian football club<br />
<br />
===Other uses===<br />
* [[partisan (weapon)]], a pole weapon.<br />
* ''[[Partisans (novel)]]'', a novel by Alistair MacLean about the Yugoslav partisans<br />
* [[Partisan game]], in combinatorial game theory<br />
<br />
{{disambig}}<br />
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[[ca:Partisà]]<br />
[[da:Partisan]]<br />
[[de:Partisan]]<br />
[[es:Partisano]]<br />
[[eo:Partizano]]<br />
[[fr:Partisan]]<br />
[[it:Partigiano]]<br />
[[he:פרטיזן]]<br />
[[lt:Partizanas (reikšmės)]]<br />
[[mk:Партизан]]<br />
[[nl:Partizanen]]<br />
[[ja:パルチザン]]<br />
[[no:Partisan]]<br />
[[nn:Partisan]]<br />
[[pl:Partyzant]]<br />
[[ru:Партизан]]<br />
[[sl:Partizani]]<br />
[[fi:Partisaani]]<br />
[[sv:Partisan]]</div>
Leslie
https://conservapedia.com/index.php?title=Anti-Saloon_League&diff=553358
Anti-Saloon League
2008-11-10T00:36:35Z
<p>Leslie: removing some too-obvious bias</p>
<hr />
<div>The '''Anti-Saloon League''' was the leading organization [[lobbying]] for [[Prohibition in the United States]] in the early 20th century. It was a key component of the [[Progressive Movement]], and was strongest in the South and rural North, drawing heavy support from pietistic Protestant ministers and their congregations, especially Methodists, Baptists, Disciples and Congregationalists. It concentrated on legislation, and cared about how legislators voted, not whether they drank or not. Founded as a state society in [[Oberlin, Ohio|Oberlin]], [[Ohio]] in 1893, its influence spread rapidly. In 1895 it became a national organization and quickly rose to become the most powerful prohibition lobby in America, pushing aside its older competitors the [[Woman's Christian Temperance Union]] and the [[Prohibition Party]]. Its triumph was nationwide prohibition locked into the Constitution with passage of the [[Eighteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|18th Amendment]] in 1920. It was decisively defeated when prohibition was [[repeal]]ed in 1933.<br />
<br />
==Organizational structure and operation==<br />
<br />
Kerr (1980) and Odegard (1928) have explored its political innovations. The League was the first modern pressure group organized around one issue. Unlike earlier popular movements, it utilized bureaucratic methods learned from business to build a strong organization. The League's founder and first leader, [[Howard Hyde Russell]] (1855-1946), believed that the best leadership was selected, not elected. Russell built from the bottom up, shaping local leagues and raising the most promising young men to leadership at the local and state levels. This organizational strategy reinvigorated the [[temperance movement]]. <br />
<br />
Lamme (2004) shows the League used a multitiered approach in its attempts to secure a dry (prohibition) nation through national legislation and congressional hearings, the [[Scientific Temperance Federation]], and its [[American Issue Publishing House|American Issue Publishing Company]]. The League also used emotion and cognition in the style of such issues related to World War I as anti-German sentiment, patriotism, and rationing. Lamme (2003) explores the public relations approach used by the League as it tried to mobilize public opinion in favor of a dry, saloonless nation. It invented many of the modern techniques of public relations. The founders saw themselves as preachers fulfilling their religious duty of eliminating liquor in America. <br />
<br />
The League lobbied at all levels of government for legislation to prohibit the manufacture or import of spirits, beer and wine. Ware (1989) explores its operations in Phoenix, Arizona. Ministers had launched several efforts to close Arizona [[bar (establishment)|saloon]]s after the 1906 creation of League chapters in Yuma, Tucson, and Phoenix. A League organizer from New York arrived in 1909, but the Phoenix chapter was stymied by local-option elections, whereby local areas could decide whether or not to allow saloons. League members pressured local police to take licenses from establishments that violated closing hours or served women and minors, and they provided witnesses to testify about these violations. One witness was Frank Shindelbower, a juvenile from a poor family, who testified several saloons had sold him liquor; as a result those saloons lost their licenses. However owners discovered that Shindelbower had perjured himself, and he was imprisoned. After the Arizona Gazette and other newspapers pictured Shindelbower as the innocent tool of the Anti-Saloon League, he was pardoned. <br />
<br />
As the state level the League had mixed results, usually doing best in rural and southern states. Pegram (1990) explains its success in [[Illinois]] under William Hamilton Anderson. From 1900 and 1905 the League worked to obtain a local option referendum law and became an official church federation. Local Option was passed on 7 May 1907 and by 1910 40 of Illinois' 102 counties and 1,059 of the state's townships and precincts had become dry. Despite these successes, after the Prohibition amendment was ratified in 1919, social problems ignored by the League undermined the public influence of the single-issue pressure group, and it faded in importance. Pegram (1997) uses its failure in [[Maryland]] to explore the relationship between Southern Progressivism and national progressivism. The Maryland leader 1907-14 was William H. Anderson, but he was unable to adapt to local conditions, such as the large German element. The League failed to ally with local political bosses and attacked the Democratic Party. In Maryland, as in the rest of the South, Pegram concludes, traditional religious, political, and racial concerns constrained reform movements even as they converted Southerners to the new national politics of federal intervention and interest-group competition. <br />
<br />
In 1909, the League moved its national headquarters from Washington, D.C. to [[Westerville, Ohio]], which had a [[Westerville, Ohio#History|reputation for temperance]]. The American Issue Publishing Company, the publishing arm of the League, was also in Westerville. [[Ernest Cherrington]] headed the company. It printed so many leaflets&mdash;over 40 tons of mail per month&mdash;that Westerville was the smallest town to have a first class post office.<br />
<br />
The League's most prominent leader was [[Wayne Wheeler]], although both Ernest Cherrington and [[William E. Johnson]] ("Pussyfoot" Johnson), were also highly influential and powerful. <br />
<br />
The League used [[pressure politics]], which it is credited with developing, in fighting against wet candidates such as [[Al Smith]], who ran for the presidency of the U.S. in 1928. Smith led the opposition to prohibition, which was repealed in 1933.<br />
<br />
==Recent history==<br />
<br />
A museum about the League is at the [[Westerville Public Library]]. From 1948 until 1950 it was renamed the Temperance League, from 1950 to 1964 the National Temperance League, from 1964 the [[American Council on Alcohol Problems]]. It remains true to its original goal.<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
*Anti-Saloon League of America. ''Anti-Saloon League of America Yearbook''. annual to 1933<br />
*Cherrington, Ernest. ''History of the Anti-Saloon League''. 1913, by senior official<br />
* Donovan, Brian L. "Framing and Strategy: Explaining Differential Longevity in the Woman's Christian Temperance Union and the Anti-Saloon League." ''Sociological Inquiry'' 1995 65(2): 143-155. Issn: 0038-0245 Fulltext: in Swetswise <br />
*Ewin, James Lithgow. ''The Birth of the Anti-Saloon League''. Washington, D.C., 1913<br />
* Richard F. Hamm. ''Shaping the Eighteenth Amendment: Temperance Reform, Legal Culture, and the Polity, 1880-1920'' (1995)<br />
* Kerr, K. Austin. "Organizing for Reform: The Anti-Saloon League and Innovation in Politics." ''American Quarterly'' 1980 32(1): 37-53. Issn: 0003-0678 Fulltext: in Jstor <br />
*Kerr, K. Austin. ''Organized for Prohibition: A New History of the Anti-Saloon League''. Yale University Press, 1985, the standard history<br />
* Lamme, Margot Opdycke. "The 'Public Sentiment Building Society': the Anti-saloon League of America, 1895-1910." ''Journalism History'' 2003 29(3): 123-132. Issn: 0094-7679 Fulltext: in Ebsco <br />
* Lamme, Margot Opdycke. "Tapping into War: Leveraging World War I in the Drive for a Dry Nation." ''American Journalism'' 2004 21(4): 63-91. Issn: 0882-1127 <br />
*Lien, Jerry. ''The Speechmaking of the Anti-Saloon League''. University of Southern California, 1968<br />
* Odegard, Peter H. ''Pressure Politics: Story of the Anti-Saloon League.'' 1928, the most influential study<br />
* Pegram, Thomas R. "Temperance Politics and Regional Political Culture: the Anti-saloon League in Maryland and the South, 1907-1915." ''Journal of Southern History'' 1997 63(1): 57-90. Issn: 0022-4642 Fulltext: in Jstor <br />
* Pegram, Thomas R. "The Dry Machine: the Formation of the Anti-Saloon League of Illinois." ''Illinois Historical Journal'' 1990 83(3): 173-186. Issn: 0748-8149 <br />
* Sponholtz, Lloyd. "The Politics of Temperance in Ohio, 1880-1912." ''Ohio History'' 1976 85(1): 4-27. Issn: 0030-0934 [http://publications.ohiohistory.org/ohstemplate.cfm?action=detail&Page=00854.html&StartPage=4&EndPage=27&volume=85&notes=&newtitle=Volume%2085%20Page%204 online edition]<br />
* Szymanski, Ann-Marie E. ''Pathways to Prohibition: Radicals, Moderates, and Social Movement Outcomes.'' 2003. <br />
* Ware, H. David. :The Anti-Saloon League Wages War in Phoenix, 1910: the Unlikely Case of Frank Shindelbower." ''Journal of Arizona History'' 1998 39(2): 141-154. Issn: 0021-9053 <br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
*[[Board of Temperance Strategy]]<br />
*[[Prohibition leaders]]<br />
*[[Purley Baker]]<br />
*[[Temperance organizations]]<br />
*[[Westerville Public Library]]<br />
*[[World League Against Alcoholism]] (the league opposed alcohol rather than alcoholism)<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
*[http://www.ohiohistorycentral.org/entry.php?rec=820 Ohio History Central (Westerville)]<br />
*[http://www.wpl.lib.oh.us/AntiSaloon/ Anti-Saloon League Museum]<br />
*[http://www.nebraskahistory.org/lib-arch/research/manuscripts/organize/anti-saloon.htm Anti-Saloon League of Nebraska records] at [[Nebraska State Historical Society]]<br />
* [http://www.james-dave.com/alcohol2.html Alcohol and the Bible] by James H. Boyd<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Category:Temperance movement|Anti-Saloon League]]<br />
[[Category:Temperance organizations|Anti-Saloon League]]<br />
[[Category:Prohibition]]<br />
[[Category:Westerville, Ohio]]</div>
Leslie
https://conservapedia.com/index.php?title=Politics_of_global_warming&diff=553356
Politics of global warming
2008-11-10T00:35:31Z
<p>Leslie: removing some too-obvious bias</p>
<hr />
<div>{{pp-semi-protected|small=yes}}<br />
{{portal|Energy}}<br />
The '''politics of global warming''' have involved policy decisions, legislation, and political debate over the science of and response to [[global warming]]. The political struggle over global warming has involved various governmental bodies, special-interest groups, and scientific organizations.<br />
<br />
== Political sphere ==<br />
* [[UNFCCC]]<br />
* [[European Union]]'s [[European Climate Change Programme]]<br />
* Developing countries<br />
* [[31st G8 summit]]<br />
<br />
== No middle ground ==<br />
Many moderates suggest the solution to global warming is "akin to buying fire insurance and installing sprinklers and new wiring in an old, irreplaceable house (the home planet) than to fighting a fire already raging." <ref>{{cite web | title=Middle Ground on Global Warming? | first=Brian | last=Montopoli | publisher=CBS News | date=January 2, 2007 | accessdate=2008-07-07 | url=http://www.cbsnews.com/blogs/2007/01/02/publiceye/entry2321267.shtml}}</ref><br />
<br />
Mike Hulme, director of the Tyndall Centre for Climate Research, wrote how increasing use of pejorative terms like "catastrophic," "chaotic" and "irreversible," had altered the public discourse around climate change: "This discourse is now characterised by phrases such as 'climate change is worse than we thought', that we are approaching 'irreversible tipping in the Earth's climate', and that we are 'at the point of no return'. I have found myself increasingly chastised by climate change campaigners when my public statements and lectures on climate change have not satisfied their thirst for environmental drama and exaggerated rhetoric....I believe climate change is real, must be faced and action taken. But the discourse of catastrophe is in danger of tipping society onto a negative, depressive and reactionary trajectory."<ref>{{cite web | title=Chaotic world of climate truth | first=Mike | last=Hulme | publisher=[[BBC]] News | date=November 4, 2006 | accessdate=2007-04-14 | url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/6115644.stm }}</ref><br />
<br />
The moderate political viewpoint has been largely abandoned in the US due to Congress' inability to pass any significant CO2 regulation despite the overwhelming popular support for such measures. Also there is substantial evidence showing that the oil industry is working hard to thwart any legislation that would limit CO2 production.<ref>{{cite web | title=Foes of global warming have energy ties | first=Jeff | last=Nesmith | publisher=Seattle Post-Intelligencer | date=June 2, 2003 | url=http://seattlepi.nwsource.com/national/124642_warming02.html | accessdate=2008-07-07 }}</ref> Given the US government's intransigence despite the clamor for change by the popular and scientific communities, the political rhetoric has become more extreme if only to get government to move even slightly in the direction of CO2 control.<ref>{{cite web | title=After Verbal Fire, Senate Effectively Kills Climate Change Bill | first=David | last=Herszenhorn | publisher=NY Times | date=June 7, 2008 | url=http://www.nytimes.com/2008/06/07/washington/07climate.html?_r=1&fta=y&oref=slogin | accessdate=2008-07-07 }}</ref><br />
<br />
== Political alignment and global warming ==<br />
In most English-speaking countries, support for action to mitigate global warming, such as ratification and implementation of the [[Kyoto Protocol]] is strong on the political left. <br />
<br />
* In [[Australia]], the [[Australian Labor Party|Labor]] party ratified Kyoto <ref>[http://www.theage.com.au/news/national/rudd-ratifies-kyoto/2007/12/03/1196530553722.html Rudd ratifies Kyoto - National - theage.com.au<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref><br />
* In [[Canada]], the [[Liberal Party of Canada|Liberal Party]] government ratified Kyoto<br />
* In [[New Zealand]], the [[New Zealand Labour Party|Labour]] government of Helen Clark ratified Kyoto<br />
* In the [[United Kingdom]], the [[United Kingdom Labour Party|Labour Party]] ratified Kyoto<br />
* In the [[United States]], [[Bill Clinton]]'s [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic]] Administration signed Kyoto and Democrats have proposed and supported a number of bills to mitigate emissions. Although Kyoto is signed, the Democratic Congress refuses to take a vote on it and thus the United States is not bound to the treaty.<br />
<br />
In some countries the political right are fighting on a platform of taking tough action against global warming<ref>[http://www.conservatives.com/tile.do?def=news.story.page&obj_id=136989 Climate change concerns championed by Cameron's Conservatives]</ref>, while in others the political right either dispute the [[scientific consensus on global warming]] or oppose action to mitigate global warming, instead favoring adaption.{{Fact|date=May 2007}} All European countries have ratified the [[Kyoto Protocol]], and all have supported strong reductions in greenhouse gas emissions.<br />
<br />
* In the United States, a February 2007 survey found that 95% of the 41 Congressional Democrats surveyed agreed "it's been proven beyond a reasonable doubt that the Earth is warming because of man-made problems" while only 13% of the 31 Republicans surveyed agreed.<ref>[http://syndication.nationaljournal.com/images/203Insiderspoll_NJlogo.pdf Base page<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref><br />
<br />
* Global warming skepticism has been promoted by newspapers associated with the right such as ''[[The Australian]]'', the ''[[Daily Telegraph]]'' in the United Kingdom and the ''[[National Post]]'' in Canada. [http://www.canada.com/nationalpost/environment/story.html?id=c6a32614-f906-4597-993d-f181196a6d71&k=0]<br />
<br />
===United States===<br />
{{Main|Greenhouse gas emissions by the United States}}<br />
<br />
==== Specific actions of the Bush administration ====<br />
{{ seealso | Presidency of George W. Bush }}<br />
In June 2005, [[US State Department]] papers showed the administration thanking [[Exxon]] executives for the company's "active involvement" in helping to determine climate change policy, including the U.S. stance on Kyoto. Input from the business lobby group [[Global Climate Coalition]] was also a factor. [http://www.guardian.co.uk/climatechange/story/0,12374,1501646,00.html]<br />
<br />
The Bush administration has implemented an industry-formulated disinformation campaign designed to actively mislead the American public on global warming and to forestall limits on "climate polluters," according to a report in ''[[Rolling Stone]]'' magazine which reviews hundreds of internal government documents and former government officials.<ref>Rolling Stone, June 13, 2007, http://www.rollingstone.com/politics/story/15148655/the_secret_campaign_of_president_george_bushs_administration_to_deny_global</ref>."'They've got a political clientele that does not want to be regulated,' says Rick Piltz, a former Bush climate official who blew the whistle on White House censorship of global-warming documents in 2005. 'Any honest discussion of the science would stimulate public pressure for a stronger policy. They're not stupid.' <br />
<br />
"Bush's do-nothing policy on global warming began almost as soon as he took office. By pursuing a carefully orchestrated policy of delay, the White House has blocked even the most modest reforms and replaced them with token investments in futuristic solutions like hydrogen cars. 'It's a charade,' says Jeremy Symons, who represented the EPA on Cheney's energy task force, the industry-studded group that met in secret to craft the administration's energy policy. 'They have a single-minded determination to do nothing -- while making it look like they are doing something.' . . .<br />
<br />
"The [[Council on Environmental Quality|CEQ]] became Cheney's shadow EPA, with industry calling the shots. To head up the council, Cheney installed James Connaughton, a former lobbyist for industrial polluters, who once worked to help General Electric and ARCO skirt responsibility for their Superfund waste sites.<br />
"two weeks after Bush took office - ExxonMobil's top lobbyist, Randy Randol, demanded a housecleaning of the scientists in charge of studying global warming. . . .Exxon's wish was the CEQ's command. <ref>The Washington Post, June 21, 2007 "http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/blog/2007/06/21/BL2007062101075_2.html?nav=hcmodule , citing the Rolling Stone invetigative report published 2007/6/13</ref><br />
<br />
Also, the White House removed key portions of a [[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention]] (CDC) report given to the U.S. Senate Environment and Public Works Committee about the dangers to human health of global warming.<ref>Associated Press, Oct. 24, 2007, http://hosted.ap.org/dynamic/stories/G/GLOBAL_WARMING_HEALTH?SITE=NVREN&SECTION=HOME&TEMPLATE=DEFAULT; also archived at http://www.commondreams.org/archive/2007/10/24/4772/ </ref> According to one CDC official familiar with both the CDC version and the version given to the Senate, the version given to the Senate was "eviscerated." The White House prevented the Senate and thus the public from receiving key CDC estimates in the report about diseases likely to flourish in a warmer climate, increased injuries and deaths from severe weather such as hurricanes, more respiratory problems from drought-driven air pollution, an increase in waterborne diseases including cholera, increases in vector-borne diseases including malaria and hantavirus, mental health problems such as depression and post-traumatic stress, and how many people might be adversely affected because of increased warming.<br />
<br />
Also according to testimony taken by the U.S. House of Representatives, the White House has pressured American scientists to suppress discussion of global warming<ref name=autogenerated1>Reuters, January 30, 2007, free archived version at http://www.commondreams.org/headlines07/0130-10.htm, last visited Jan. 30, '07</ref><ref>Written testimony of Dr. Grifo before the Committee on Oversight and Government Reform of the U.S. House of Representatives on January 30, 2007, archived at http://oversight.house.gov/Documents/20070130113153-55829.pdf</ref> <br />
<br />
"High-quality science" was "struggling to get out," as the Bush administration pressured scientists to tailor their writings on global warming to fit the Bush administration's skepticism, in some cases at the behest of an ex-oil industry lobbyist. "Nearly half of all respondents perceived or personally experienced pressure to eliminate the words 'climate change,' 'global warming' or other similar terms from a variety of communications." <br />
<br />
Similarly, according to the testimony of senior officers of the [[Government Accountability Project]], the White House attempted to bury the report "National Assessment of the Potential Consequences of Climate Variability and Change," produced by U.S. scientists pursuant to U.S. law.<ref>written testimony of Rick Piltz before the Committee on Oversight and Government Reform of the U.S. House of Representatives on January 30, 2007, archived at http://oversight.house.gov/Documents/20070130113813-92288.pdf last visited Jan. 30, 07</ref> Some U.S. scientists resigned their jobs rather than give in to White House pressure to underreport global warming.<ref name=autogenerated1 /><br />
<br />
==== Federal government ====<br />
{{seealso|Energy policy of the United States|Environmental policy of the United States|U.S. Climate Change Science Program}}<br />
The [[United States]], although a [[signatory]] to the [[Kyoto Protocol]], has neither [[ratified]] nor [[wikt:withdrawn|withdrawn]] from the protocol — though their one-time representative, [[Condoleezza Rice]], remarked that the Protocol was "unacceptable" at the time it was presented to her.{{Fact|date=May 2007}} The protocol is non-binding over the United States unless ratified. The current President, [[George W. Bush]], has indicated that he does not intend to submit the treaty for ratification, not because he does not support the general idea, but because of the strain he believes the treaty would put on the economy; he emphasizes the uncertainties he asserts are present in the climate change issue. [http://www.alternet.org/story/11054/]<br />
<br />
In October 2003, [[the Pentagon]] published a report titled [[An Abrupt Climate Change Scenario and Its Implications for United States National Security]] by [[Peter Schwartz (futurist)|Peter Schwartz]] and [[Doug Randall]]. The authors conclude by stating that "this report suggests that, because of the potentially dire consequences, the risk of abrupt climate change, although uncertain and quite possibly small, should be elevated beyond a scientific debate to a U.S. national security concern."<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.environmentaldefense.org/documents/3566_AbruptClimateChange.pdf | title=An Abrupt Climate Change Scenario and Its Implications for United States National Security | author=Peter Schwartz and Doug Randall | month=October | year=2003 | accessdate=2007-09-08|format=PDF}}</ref><br />
<br />
From 1989 to 2005, oil and gas industries gave $179.5 million to U.S. federal candidates and parties. <ref>http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_warming&diff=122610581&oldid=122607192</ref> In October 2003 and again in June 2005, the [[McCain-Lieberman Climate Stewardship Act]] failed a vote in the US Senate. [http://www.nwf.org/globalwarming/senateVoteJune05.cfm]. In the 2005 vote, Republicans opposed the Bill 49-6, while Democrats supported it 37-10. <ref>[http://www.grist.org/news/muck/2003/11/05/griscom-climatevote/ A breakdown of the Senate vote on the Climate Stewardship Act | Grist | Muckraker | 05 Nov 2003<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>.<br />
<br />
In January 2007, Democratic [[Speaker of the House|House Speaker]] [[Nancy Pelosi]] announced she would form a [[United States Congress]] subcommittee to examine global warming.<ref> [http://news.yahoo.com/s/ap/20070118/ap_on_go_co/congress_global_warming_6 Pelosi creates global warming committee], Associated Press, 1/18/07. </ref> The US government announced that it was withdrawing funding from the lobby groups it had been supporting that aimed to discount the evidence for global warming.{{Fact|date=February 2007}}<br />
<br />
Sen. [[Joe Lieberman]] said, "I'm hot to get something done. It's hard not to conclude that the politics of global warming has changed and a new consensus for action is emerging and it is a bipartisan consensus." [http://www.washtimes.com/national/20070131-121250-1632r_page2.htm]<br />
<br />
See also [[Asia-Pacific Partnership for Clean Development and Climate]].<br />
<br />
The [[Global Warming Pollution Reduction Act of 2007]] was introduced by [[United States Senate|Senators]] [[Bernie Sanders]] (I-VT) and [[Barbara Boxer]] (D-CA) on January 15, 2007. The measure would provide funding for R&D on geologic [[CO2 sequestration|sequestration of carbon dioxide]], set emissions standards for new vehicles and a renewable fuels requirement for gasoline beginning in 2016, establish energy efficiency and renewable portfolio standards beginning in 2008 and low-carbon electric generation standards beginning in 2016 for electric utilities, and require periodic evaluations by the [[Emissions trading|National Academy of Sciences]] to determine whether emissions targets are adequate.<ref>[http://www.environmentaldefense.org/page.cfm?tagID=1075 Climate Change Bills of the 110th Congress] ''Environmental Defense'', May 29, 2007.</ref><br />
<br />
There is a Report about federal climate change legislation as if the states matter.<ref>[http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1031552 McKinstry, Robert B., Dernbach, John C. and Peterson, Thomas D., "Federal Climate Change Legislation as if the States Matter" . Section of Natural Resources Law, Forthcoming Available at SSRN]</ref> <br />
<br />
=====Political pressure on scientists=====<br />
US officials, such as [[Philip Cooney]], have repeatedly edited scientific reports from US government scientists,<br />
<ref>Campbell, D. (June 20, 2003) [http://www.guardian.co.uk/climatechange/story/0,12374,981127,00.html "White House cuts global warming from report"] ''Guardian Unlimited''</ref> many of whom, such as [[Thomas Knutson]], have been ordered to refrain from discussing climate change and related topics.<ref>Donaghy, T., ''et al.'' (2007) [http://www.whistleblower.org/doc/A/Atmosphere-of-Pressure.pdf "Atmosphere of Pressure:"] a report of the [[Government Accountability Project]] (Cambridge, Mass.: UCS Publications)</ref><ref>Rule, E. (2005) "Possible media attention" Email to NOAA staff, July 27. [http://www.ucsusa.org/scientific_integrity/interference/media-interviews.html Obtained via FOIA request on July 31, 2006.] and Teet, J. (2005) "DOC Interview Policy" Email to NOAA staff, September 29. Originally published by Alexandrovna, L. (2005) [http://rawstory.com/news/2005/Commerce_Department_tells_Nationa_1004.html "Commerce Department tells National Weather Service media contacts must be pre-approved"] ''The Raw Story,'' October 4. Accessed December 22, 2006</ref><ref>Zabarenko, D. (2007) [http://today.reuters.com/news/articlenews.aspx?type=scienceNews&storyID=2007-03-08T222736Z_01_N08259521_RTRUKOC_0_US-POLARBEARS-SCIENTISTS.xml "'Don't discuss polar bears:' memo to scientists"] ''Reuters''</ref><br />
<br />
Climate scientist [[James Hansen]], director of NASA's [[Goddard Institute for Space Studies]], claimed in a widely cited ''New York Times'' article<br />
<ref>{{cite web | first=Andrew C. | last=Revkin | title=Climate Expert Says NASA Tried to Silence Him | publisher=[[The New York Times]] | date=January 29, 2006 | accessdate=2007-04-14 | url=http://www.nytimes.com/2006/01/29/science/earth/29climate.html?ei=5088&en=28e236da0977ee7f&ex=1296190800&pagewanted=all }}</ref><br />
in 2006 that his superiors at the agency were trying to "censor" information "going out to the public." [[NASA]] denied this, saying that it was merely requiring that scientists make a distinction between personal, and official government, views in interviews conducted as part of work done at the agency. Several scientists working at the [[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration]] have made similar complaints;<ref>Eilperin, J. (April 6, 2006) [http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/04/05/AR2006040502150_pf.html <br />
"Climate Researchers Feeling Heat From White House"] ''Washington Post''</ref> once again, government officials said they were enforcing long-standing policies requiring government scientists to clearly identify personal opinions as such when participating in public interviews and forums. <br />
<br />
The [[BBC]]'s long-running current affairs series ''[[Panorama (TV series)|Panorama]]'' recently investigated the issue, and was told that "scientific reports about global warming have been systematically changed and suppressed."<ref>{{cite web | title=Climate chaos: Bush's climate of fear | publisher=[[BBC]] Panorama | date=June 1, 2006 | accessdate=2007-04-14 | url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/programmes/panorama/5005994.stm}}</ref><br />
<br />
According to an Associated Press release on [[January 30]], [[2007]],<br />
:"Climate scientists at seven government agencies say they have been subjected to political pressure aimed at downplaying the threat of global warming.<br />
<br />
:"The groups presented a survey that shows two in five of the 279 climate scientists who responded to a questionnaire complained that some of their scientific papers had been edited in a way that changed their meaning. Nearly half of the 279 said in response to another question that at some point they had been told to delete reference to "global warming" or "climate change" from a report."<ref>{{cite web | title=Groups Say Scientists Pressured On Warming | publisher=[[CBS News]] and [[Associated Press]] | date=January 30, 2007 | accessdate=2007-04-14 | url=http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2007/01/30/politics/main2413400.shtml }}</ref><br />
<br />
Critics writing in the ''Wall Street Journal'' editorial page claim that the survey<br />
<ref>{{cite book | first=Timothy | last=Donaghy | coauthors=Jennifer Freeman, Francesca Grifo, Karly Kaufman, Tarek Maassarani, Lexi Shultz | chapter=Appendix A: UCS Climate Scientist Survey Text and Responses (Federal) | title=Atmosphere of Pressure &ndash; Political Interference in Federal Climate Science | publisher=[[Union of Concerned Scientists]] & [[Government Accountability Project]] | month=February | year=2007 | accessdate=2007-04-14 | url=http://www.ucsusa.org/assets/documents/scientific_integrity/Atmosphere-of-Pressure.pdf | chapterurl=http://www.ucsusa.org/assets/documents/scientific_integrity/Full-survey-instrument-with-responses.pdf|format=PDF}}</ref><br />
was itself unscientific.<ref>{{cite web | first=James | last=Taranto | authorlink=James Taranto | title=They Call This Science? | publisher=[[OpinionJournal.com]] | date=February 1, 2007 | accessdate=2007-04-14 | url=http://www.opinionjournal.com/best/?id=110009609 }}</ref><br />
<br />
Attempts to suppress scientific information on global warming and other issues have been described by [[Chris Mooney]] as constituting a [[The Republican War on Science|Republican War on Science]].<br />
<br />
=====Allegations of U.S. government attempts to mislead the public=====<br />
The book ''[[Hell and High Water (book)|Hell and High Water]]'' asserts that there has been a disingenuous, concerted and effective campaign to convince Americans that the science is not proven, or that global warming is the result of natural cycles, and that there needs to be more research. The book claims that, to delay action, industry and government spokesmen suggest falsely that "technology breakthroughs" will eventually save us with [[hydrogen cars]] and other fixes. It calls on voters to demand immediate government action to curb emissions. [[Tyler Hamilton (reporter)|Tyler Hamilton]], in his review of the book for [[The Toronto Star]], wrote that the book offers "alarming detail on how the U.S. public is being misled by a federal government (backed by conservative political forces) that is intent on inaction, and that's also on a mission to derail international efforts to curb emissions."<ref>[http://www.thestar.com/article/166819 From ''Toronto Star'' review]</ref><br />
<br />
=====Global warming litigation=====<br />
Several lawsuits have been filed over global warming. For example, [[Massachusetts v. Environmental Protection Agency]] before the [[Supreme Court of the United States]] forced the US government to regulate greenhouse gases under the [[Clean Air Act]]. A similar approach was taken by California Attorney General [[Bill Lockyer]] who filed a lawsuit [[California v. General Motors Corp.]] to force car manufacturers to reduce vehicles' emissions of carbon dioxide. A third case, [[Comer v. Murphy Oil]], was filed by Gerald Maples, a trial attorney in Mississippi, in an effort to force fossil fuel and chemical companies to pay for damages caused by global warming.<ref>{{cite web<br />
| first=Justin R. | last=Pidot<br />
| publisher=[[Georgetown University Law Center]]<br />
| year=2006<br />
| url=http://www.law.stanford.edu/program/centers/enrlp/pdf/GlobalWarmingLit_CourtsReport.pdf<br />
| title=Global Warming in the Courts - An Overview of Current Litigation and Common Legal Issues<br />
| accessdate=2007-04-13 |format=PDF}}</ref><br />
<br />
====State and local governments====<br />
However, 195 US cities representing more than 50 million Americans - have committed to reducing carbon emissions to 7% below 1990 levels. In 2005, [[California]] (the world's sixth largest economy) committed to reducing emissions to 2000 levels by 2010, 1990 levels by 2020, and 80% below 1990 levels by 2050. Measures to meet these targets include tighter automotive emissions standards, and requirements for renewable energy as a proportion of electricity production. The [[Union of Concerned Scientists]] has calculated that by 2020, drivers would save $26 billion per year if California’s automotive standards were implemented nationally. [http://www.climatechoices.org/CA_Policies_Fact_Sheet.pdf]<br />
<br />
On [[August 31]], [[2006]], the [[California]] leaders of both political parties agreed to terms in the [[Global Warming Solutions Act of 2006|California Global Warming Solutions Act]]. When this legislation goes into effect it will limit the state’s global warming emissions to 1990 levels by 2020, and institute a mandatory emissions reporting system to monitor compliance. The legislation will also allow for market mechanisms to provide incentives to businesses to reduce emissions while safeguarding local communities. <sup>[http://www.environmentaldefense.org/pressrelease.cfm?ContentID=5422]</sup> The bill was signed into law on [[September 27]], [[2006]], by Governor [[Arnold Schwarzenegger]], who declared, "We simply must do everything we can in our power to slow down global warming before it is too late... The science is clear. The global warming debate is over."<br />
<br />
Gov. Schwarzenegger also announced he would seek to work with Prime Minister [[Tony Blair]] of Great Britain, and various other international efforts to address global warming, independently of the federal government. <ref> [http://www.cbc.ca/world/story/2006/07/31/uk-calif-global-warming.html?ref=rss Blair, Schwarzenegger announce global warming research pact], Associated Press, 7/31/06. </ref> <br />
<br />
On [[September 8]], [[2006]], [[Arizona]] Governor [[Janet Napolitano]] signed an executive order calling on the state to create initiatives to cut greenhouse gas emissions to the 2000 level by the year 2020 and to 50 percent below the 2000 level by 2040.<sup>[http://today.reuters.com/news/articlenews.aspx?type=politicsNews&storyID=2006-09-11T184027Z_01_N11341321_RTRUKOC_0_US-ENVIRONMENT-EMISSIONS-ARIZONA.xml&WTmodLoc=NewsHome-C3-politicsNews-3]</sup><br />
<br />
=====RGGI=====<br />
Seven Northeastern US states are involved in the [http://www.rggi.org/ Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative], a state level emissions capping and trading program. It is believed that the state-level program will apply pressure on the federal government to support Kyoto Protocol.<br />
* '''Participating states'''<sup>[http://www.rggi.org/states.htm]</sup>: <br />
Beginning in 2009, carbon dioxide emissions from power plants will be capped by state:<br />
*[[Connecticut]]: 10.7 million tons<br />
*[[Delaware]]: 7.56 million tons<br />
*[[Maine]]: 5.95 million tons<br />
*[[New Hampshire]]: 8.6 million tons<br />
*[[New Jersey]]: 22.9 million tons<br />
*[[New York]]: 64.3 million tons<br />
*[[Vermont]]: 1.2 million tons<br />
<br />
* '''Observer states and regions''': [[Pennsylvania]], [[Massachusetts]], [[Maryland]], [[District of Columbia]], [[Eastern Canadian Provinces]].<br />
<br />
=====Federal government attempts to undermine state efforts=====<br />
The US government has worked to undermine state efforts to mitigate global warming. Transportation Secretary Mary Peters, with White House approval, personally directed US efforts to urge governors and dozens of members of the House of Representatives to block California’s first-in-the-nation limits on greenhouse gases from cars and trucks, according to e-mails obtained by Congress.<ref>"How the White House Worked to Scuttle California’s Climate Law", San Francisco Chronicle, September 25, 2007 <br />
http://www.commondreams.org/archive/2007/09/25/4099/ </ref><br />
<br />
=== Vatican ===<br />
[[Pope Benedict XVI]] told up to half a million people, over a hillside near the [[Adriatic]] city of [[Loreto]] on the day Catholic Church marks its annual [[Save Creation Day]], that world leaders must make courageous decisions to save the planet "before it is too late" <ref>[http://www.planetark.com/dailynewsstory.cfm/newsid/44080/story.htm Planet Ark : Save The Planet Before It's Too Late, Pope Urges<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>.<br />
<br />
=== Canada ===<br />
* [[Canada]]'s Liberal Government during the 1990s had agreed to Kyoto but oversaw the increase of greenhouse gas emissions during their terms in office and did little to meet Kyoto's targets. Canada's current [[Conservative Party (Canada)|Conservative Government]] has claimed that, due to increased emissions since 1990, it is realistically impossible to meet their Kyoto targets and attempting to do so would be disastrous for the Canadian economy. Current Prime Minister [[Stephen Harper]] has come under fire for being adamant in leaving Kyoto and working on a different climate plan. Consequently, this issue has become something of an [[Achilles Heel]] for the Government in recent months. The current [[Liberal Party of Canada|Liberal Party]] has been quick in their condemnation of the Government but has also been accused of using Global Warming for political purposes as seen in the naming of leader [[Stéphane Dion]]'s dog 'Kyoto'. Recent polls have indicated that, if there were to be an election soon, the environment would be the top issue for Canadians.<br />
<br />
=== Asia and Oceania ===<br />
* [[Australia]] has now officially signed the Kyoto ratification, after the new Labor government came into power on December 3, 2007. The previous Coalition government had long objected to ratifying the treaty, arguing it would unduly impact on Australian jobs, especially when countries such as China, India and the U.S. were not party to it.<br />
* [[Japan]] is preparing to force industry to make big cuts in greenhouse gases, taking the lead in a country struggling to meet its [[Kyoto Protocol]] obligations. <ref>[http://www.wbcsd.org/plugins/DocSearch/details.asp?type=DocDet&ObjectId=MzAyNzQ World Business Council for Sustainable Development (WBCSD)<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref><br />
<br />
=== Europe ===<br />
{{Main|European Climate Change Programme}}<br />
<br />
* [[Russia]] signed the Kyoto Protocol in November 2004, after a deal with the [[European Union]] over [[WTO]] membership. Russia's ratification completed the requirements of the treaty to come into force, based on nations totaling 55% of world greenhouse gas emissions. <br />
*The [[United Kingdom|UK]] government-commissioned [[Stern Review]] into the economic effects of climate change was published in October 2006. [[Tony Blair]]'s assessment was that it showed that scientific evidence of global warming was "overwhelming" and its consequences "disastrous". He added, "We can't wait the five years it took to negotiate Kyoto — we simply don't have the time. We accept we have to go further [than Kyoto]."<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/business/6096084.stm BBC News: Climate change fight 'can't wait']</ref><br />
*[[United Kingdom|Britain]]'s government launched an official calculator in the week of [[June 18]] [[2007]] that enables every person in the country to work out how much carbon dioxide he produces and how to cut it.<ref>[http://observer.guardian.co.uk/uk_news/story/0,,2104902,00.html calculator to help save the planet]</ref>. [[Tory]] group sets out plans for Green Revolution. <ref>[http://www.planetark.com/dailynewsstory.cfm/newsid/44331/story.htm Planet Ark : Tory Group Sets Out Plans for Green Revolution<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref><br />
<br />
==Positions of the Energy Industries==<br />
{{see also|climate change denial}}<br />
One of the biggest opponents of action on global warming has been the '''fossil fuels''' energy industry, and particularly the oil industry, such as [[ExxonMobil]], which regularly publishes papers minimizing the threat of global warming. In 1998, the company started providing financial support to organizations and individuals who disagreed with the scientific consensus that human activities were contributing to climate change. One of the groups that received funds from the company was the [[Competitive Enterprise Institute]]. ExxonMobil also helped create the "[[Global Climate Science Team]]" whose members were active climate contrarians. According to a study by the Union of Concerned Scientists, between 1998 and 2005, [[ExxonMobil]] dispersed roughly $16 million to organizations that were challenging the scientific consensus view. [http://www.ucsusa.org/assets/documents/global_warming/exxon_report.pdf] After heavy criticism from the press and environmental groups in late 2006 and early 2007, ExxonMobil began distancing itself from these organizations. [http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/16593606/| MSNBC] [http://today.reuters.com/news/articleinvesting.aspx?view=CN&storyID=2007-01-12T221510Z_01_N12276392_RTRIDST_0_EXXON-CLIMATE.XML&rpc=66&type=qcna Reuters].<br />
<br />
In 2005, the oil giant opposed a shareholders' resolution to explain the science behind its denial of global warming. In recent years, other companies have increasingly come to accept the existence and consequences of global warming; for example, the Chairman of [[BP]], [[John Browne]], declared a need for action in 2002. Lord Oxburgh, non-executive chairman of [[Royal Dutch Shell|Shell]], said in a speech at the 2005 [[Hay-on-Wye Festival]]: ''"We have 45 years, and if we start now, not in 10 or 15 years' time, we have a chance of hitting those targets. But we've got to start now. We have no time to lose."'' [http://observer.guardian.co.uk/comment/story/0,,1509742,00.html]<br />
<br />
One sector of the energy industry that has no problem with the greenhouse gas arguments is the''' nuclear industry'''. Margret Thatcher was one of the first major political figures to suggest that the nuclear power was a "green" solution. This was largely regarded with derision at the time but it is the ultimate goal of Tony Blair's solution to tomorrow's energy needs and probably explains his enthusiasm for CO2 emission controls.<br />
<br />
Indeed as many countries move towards legally binding engagements to Kyoto targets, including fines for failing to achieve them, many governments may find this a convenient excuse for otherwise unpopular expansions of their nuclear programs.<br />
<br />
This would be an ironic outcome for many who see highlighting the possible dangers of global warming as protecting the environment.<br />
<br />
As pointed out on Counter Punch [http://www.counterpunch.org/nukes.html] the nuclear power industry is not slow to present itself as the "green" solution : {{quotation|only realistic way to reduce greenhouse gas emissions to 1990 levels in the next ten years is to bring on-line at least an additional 50 reactors. "Nuclear energy has been the largest single contributor to reduced air pollution in the world over the past 20 years", the NEI's Kyoto global warming book boasts.}}<br />
<br />
Nuclear power produces fewer CO2 emissions than fossil fuel plants; the exact level remains somewhat controversial; [[Greenpeace]] assert that nuclear power produces about one third of the CO2 emissions as equivalent fossil fuels energy over the lifetime of an installation. [http://www.greenpeace.org.uk/contentlookup.cfm?UCIDParam=20051111114227&]<br />
<br />
==Environmental groups==<br />
Thousands of protesters marched on the international day of action on [[December 3]], [[2005]], which coincided with the first meeting of the Parties in Montreal. The planned demonstrations were endorsed by the Assembly of Movements of the [[World Social Forum]].<br />
<br />
Christian environmental groups are also increasingly active on climate change, such as The Evangelical Climate Initiative.<br />
<br />
US Catholic Bishops also have recognized the urgency of addressing global warming in a 2001 statement from the US Congress of Catholic Bishops [http://www.usccb.org/sdwp/international/globalclimate.htm/ Global Climate Change: A Plea for Dialogue, Prudence, and the Common Good ]<br />
<br />
In New Zealand, the [[Climaction]] Coalition has blockaded the main thoroughfares of Auckland City on two occasions, calling for Free and Frequent Public Transport to reduce the city's dependency on cars. They argue that such a measure would also help reduce global warming if repeated in other cities throughout the world. [http://www.climaction.org.nz]<br />
<br />
==Academia==<br />
There are a large number of academic contributions specifically to the politics of global warming. The following are a small subset of these works:<br />
* [[G8]] science academies' statements [http://www.royalsoc.ac.uk/document.asp?latest=1&id=3222]<br />
* Monograph by [[Andrew Dessler|Dessler]] and Parson entitled ''The Science and Politics of Global Climate Change: a Guide to the Debate'', emphasizing the complexity of the issue.<br />
<br />
== Global Warming Celebrities ==<br />
To help communicate the perils of climate change to the public many celebrities have become involved with green campaigning. They include [[Charlize Theron]], [[Morgan Freeman]], [[Natalie Portman]], [[Tom Hanks]], [[Susan Sarandon]] [[Salma Hayek]]. [[Brad Pitt]], [[Keanu Reeves]], [[Alanis Morissette]], [[Leonardo DiCaprio]], [[Joanne Woodward]]. Others who have become better known to the public because of their environmental statements include [[Al Gore]], [[Prince Albert of Monaco]]<br />
<br />
==Media==<br />
<br />
The debate over global warming was raised to a considerably higher profile when former Vice President [[Al Gore]] was given an [[Academy Award]] for his documentary film, ''[[An Inconvenient Truth]]''. Gore has made a considerable number of public appearances to promote the film and the subject-matter within it. <br />
<br />
Other major media treatments of the controversy:<br />
* ''[[The Great Global Warming Swindle]]''<br />
* ''[[Hell and High Water (book)|Hell and High Water]]''<br />
* [[Michael Crichton]]<br />
* ''[[The Day After Tomorrow]]''<br />
* ''[[Are We Changing Planet Earth?]]''<br />
<br />
==Timeline==<br />
{{Prose|date=March 2007}}<br />
<!-- to be expanded into paragraphs - this is just to get some initial data for the article --><br />
<br />
* 1979: First [[World Climate Conference]] [http://www.cs.ntu.edu.au/homepages/jmitroy/sid101/uncc/fs213.html]<br />
* 1987: [[Montreal Protocol]] on restricting [[ozone layer]]-damaging [[CFC]]s demonstrates the possibility of coordinated international action on global environmental issues<br />
* 1988: [[Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change]] set up to coordinate scientific research, by two United Nations organizations, the [[World Meteorological Organization]] and the [[United Nations Environment Programme]] (UNEP) to assess the "risk of human-induced climate change".<br />
* 1992: [[United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change]] agreed at the [[Earth Summit]] in [[Rio de Janeiro]], entering into force [[21 March]] 1994<br />
* 1996: [[European Union]] adopts target of a maximum 2°C rise in average global temperature<br />
* [[25 June]] 1997: [[U.S. Senate]] passes Byrd-Hagel Resolution rejecting Kyoto without more commitments from developing countries [http://www.nationalcenter.org/KyotoSenate.html]<br />
* 1997: [[Kyoto Protocol]] agreed<br />
* 2001: [[George W. Bush]] withdraws from the Kyoto negotiations<br />
* [[16 February]] 2005: Kyoto Protocol comes into force (not including the US or Australia) <br />
* 2005: first carbon emissions trading scheme (EU) implemented<br />
* July 2005: [[31st G8 summit]] has climate change on the agenda, but makes relatively little concrete progress<br />
* November/December 2005: [[United Nations Climate Change Conference]]; the first meeting of the Parties of the Kyoto Protocol, alongside the 11th Conference of the Parties (COP11), to plan further measures for 2008-2012 and beyond.<br />
* [[July 19]], [[2006]]: In [[California]], [[Gov. Schwarzenegger]] proposed forming the Climate Action Board, a new, centralized authority under his direct control that would be responsible for implementing one of the nation's most far-reaching initiatives to curb [[global warming]]. California ranks 12th in the world in terms of [[carbon dioxide emissions]], however its regulatory actions tend to have far-reaching effects throughout the U.S.<ref>[http://www.cutco2.org/2006/07/governator-gets-greener.html Cut CO2 - You Can Help Reduce Carbon Dioxide Emissions<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref><br />
*[[30 October]] 2006: The [[Stern Review]] is published. It is the first comprehensive contribution to the global warming debate by an economist and its conclusions lead to the promise of urgent action by the UK government to further curb Europe's CO2 emissions and engage other countries to do so. It discusses the consequences of climate change, mitigation measures to prevent it, possible adaptation measures to deal with its consequences, and prospects for international cooperation.<br />
<br />
== See also ==<br />
* [[:Category:Climate change law|Climate change legislation]]<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{reflist}}<br />
* Aaron M. McCright and Riley E. Dunlap (2003), [http://stephenschneider.stanford.edu/Publications/PDF_Papers/McCrightDunlap2003.pdf "Defeating Kyoto: The Conservative Movement's Impact on U.S. Climate Change Policy"], ''Social Problems'' 50(3)<br />
* ''[[New York Times]]'', [[10 March]] 2005, [http://www.heatisonline.org/contentserver/objecthandlers/index.cfm?id=5136&method=full "Evangelicals Put Climate Change High on Their Agenda: Evangelical Leaders Swing Influence Behind Effort to Combat Global Warming"]<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
* Tarek Maassarani, Government Accountability Project, March 2007, [http://www.whistleblower.org/doc/2007/Final%203.28%20Redacting%20Climate%20Science%20Report.pdf Redacting the Science of Climate Change: An Investigative and Synthesis Report]<br />
* [http://www.cooperativeresearch.org/timeline.jsp?timeline=global_warming_tmln Timeline of events related to the politics of global warming]<br />
* U. Colorado : Politics and Science [http://sciencepolicy.colorado.edu/prometheus/archives/science_politics/index.html#001078]<br />
* [http://unfccc.int UNFCCC]<br />
* [http://www.pbs.org/now/science/climatechange.html History of global warming]<br />
* [http://www.pbs.org/now/science/climatemediaint.html Global warming and media]<br />
* [http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/hotpolitics Frontline: Hot Politics]<br />
* Spencer Weart, [http://www.aip.org/history/climate/ The Discovery of Global Warming]<br />
* [[George Monbiot]], ''[[The Guardian]]'', [[July 12]], 2005, [http://www.guardian.co.uk/climatechange/story/0,12374,1526525,00.html "Faced with this crisis: Instead of denying climate change is happening, the US now denies that we need proper regulation to stop it"]<br />
* George Monbiot, ''The Guardian'', [[20 September]] 2005, [http://www.guardian.co.uk/comment/story/0,3604,1573772,00.html "It would seem that I was wrong about big business: Corporations are ready to act on global warming but are thwarted by ministers who resist regulation in the name of the market"]<br />
* John D. Sterman and Linda Booth Sweeney (undated) [http://web.mit.edu/jsterman/www/StermanSweeney.pdf "Understanding Public Complacency About Climate Change: Adults’ mental models of climate change violate conservation of matter"]<br />
* OpenDemocracy.net [http://www.opendemocracy.net/climate_change/index.jsp the politics of climate change]<br />
* Amanda Griscom Little, ''Grist Magazine'', [[July 20]], 2005, [http://www.alternet.org/envirohealth/23608/ "The Revolution Will Be Localized"]<br />
* Dr Oliver Marc Hartwich, ''Free Market Foundation'', [[April 4]], 2006, [http://www.freemarketfoundation.com/ShowArticle.asp?ArticleType=Publication&ArticleId=1169 Weatherproofing African economies against climate change]<br />
*[http://www.washtimes.com/national/20070131-121250-1632r_page2.htm Senators sound alarm on climate] - Christina Bellantoni, Washington Times - [[January 31]], [[2007]] <br />
*Robert Tracinski, [[RealClearPolitics]], June 29, 2007: The Seeds of the Global Warming Police State. [http://news.yahoo.com/s/realclearpolitics/20070629/cm_rcp/the_seeds_of_the_global_warmin] <br />
<br />
===Environmental groups===<br />
*http://www.panda.org/climate/ &mdash; the [[World Wide Fund for Nature]] (WWF)<br />
*http://www.worldwatch.org/topics/energy/climate/ &mdash; [[Worldwatch Institute]]<br />
*http://www.greenpeace.org/international/campaigns/climate-change &mdash; [[Greenpeace]]<br />
*[http://stopclimatechaos.org Stop Climate Chaos] - Coalition of UK charities<br />
*http://www.fightglobalwarming.com &mdash; [[Environmental Defense]]<br />
*[http://www.cutco2.org/blog.php CutCO2.org] - Independent information source<br />
<br />
===Business===<br />
* [[Carbon Disclosure Project]] [http://www.cdproject.net/], supported by over 150 institutional investors, aims for transparency on companies' greenhouse gas emissions<br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
* [[Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change]]<br />
* [[Scorcher (book)]]<br />
<br><br />
{{global warming}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:Climate change policy]]<br />
[[Category:Global warming]]<br />
<br />
[[de:Klimaschutzpolitik]]<br />
[[no:Klimapolitikk]]<br />
[[nn:Klimapolitikk]]<br />
[[fi:Ilmastopolitiikka]]</div>
Leslie
https://conservapedia.com/index.php?title=Identity_politics&diff=553353
Identity politics
2008-11-10T00:35:09Z
<p>Leslie: removing some too-obvious bias</p>
<hr />
<div>{{POV|date=February 2008}}<br />
'''Identity politics''' is [[political]] action to advance the interests of members of a group whose members are oppressed by virtue of a shared and marginalized [[identity]] (such as [[Race (classification of human beings)|race]], [[ethnicity]], [[religion]], [[gender]], [[sexual orientation]], or [[neurodiversity|neurological wiring]]). The term has been used principally in [[United States]] politics since the 1970s.<br />
<br />
==Overview==<br />
<br />
The early history of identity politics has yet to be formally addressed as a subject in its own right in full-length scholarly literature. It was first described briefly in an article by L. A. Kauffman<ref>L. A. Kauffman, "The Anti-Politics of Identity," _Socialist Review_ (Oakland, Calif.) 20, no. 1 (January-March 1990), 67–80.</ref> who traced its origins to the [[Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee]] (SNCC), an organization of the civil-rights movement in the early and mid-1960s.<br />
<br />
The origin of the term itself, however, is obscure; although SNCC invented many of the fundamental practices, and various Black-Power groups extended them, they apparently found no need to apply a term. Rather, the term emerged when others outside the black freedom movements—particularly, the race- and ethnic-specific women's liberation movements, such as [[Black feminism]]— began to adopt the practice in the late 1960s. Perhaps the oldest written example of it can be found in the [[Combahee River Collective Statement]] of April 1977, subsequently reprinted in a number of anthologies,<ref>See, e.g., _Capitalist Patriarchy and the Case for Socialist Feminism,_ ed. Zillah R. Eisenstein (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1978)</ref> and [[Barbara Smith]] and the [[Combahee River Collective]] have been credited with coining the term; which they defined as "a politics that grew out of our objective material experiences as Black women.<ref>Harris, Duchess. ''From the Kennedy Commission to the Combahee Collective: Black Feminist Organizing, 1960-1980'', in ''Sisters in the Struggle: African American Women in the Civil Rights-Black Power Movement'', eds: Bettye Collier-Thomas, V. P. Franklin, NYU Press, 2001, ISBN:0814716032, p300</ref> <br />
<br />
The best-known aim of identity politics in the United States has been to empower the oppressed to articulate their oppression in terms of their own experience—a process of consciousness-raising that distinguishes identity politics from the liberal conception of politics as driven by individual self-interest. Identity politics may thus focus on diverse forms of identity: race, [[ethnicity]], [[sex]], [[religion]], [[caste]], [[sexual orientation]], [[disability rights movement|physical disability]] or some other assigned or perceived [[Trait (biological)|trait]] (see below for a more complete, but still non-exhaustive, list). Some groups have combined identity politics and Marxian [[social class]] analysis and [[class consciousness]]—the most notable example being the [[Black Panther Party]]—but this is not necessarily characteristic of the form.<br />
<br />
The practice of identity politics naturally entails some degree of separatism. Theorists of identity politics have argued passionately that oppression shapes the consciousness of the oppressed such that oppressed people usually internalize their oppression. Only in the atmosphere which obtains when members of the oppressor group are not present to enforce unjust definitions of equality, justice, and right, and the norms that derive from such definitions, can the oppressed begin the difficult work of consciousness-raising, the first step toward the organization of the oppressed to struggle for a liberation defined in their own terms. For the majority of groups embracing this perspective, separatism is only a means to an end. A minority of practitioners, however, define separation, both organizational and even territorial, as both means ''and'' end. This can lead to confusion, since advocates for a single, majoritarian national identity are also referred to as "nationalists." Bear in mind that while some practitioners of identity politics envision a separate nation-state to defend the human rights of those bearing their identity, this is not the only logical conclusion that can be reached from the perspective of identity politics.<br />
<br />
==Debates and criticism==<br />
<br />
Identity politics is a phenomenon that arose first at the radical margins of liberal democratic societies in which human rights are recognized, and the term is not usually used to refer to dissident movements within single-party or authoritarian states. Some discussion and criticism therefore is more properly concerned with the broader political system, or with the particular claims of human rights that are made. Some critics "see in [[human rights]] nothing but a rhetoric that makes the cage of globalizing liberalism more bearable."<ref>Samuel Moyn, "On the Genealogy of Morals" (reviewing Lynn Hunt, "Inventing Human Rights: A History"), [[The Nation]], April 16, 2007, p. 31 (attributing a view to certain "Marxists").</ref><br />
<br />
The argument that state regulation of abortion violates the human rights of women, to take another example, is a lively legal and political question. See, for instance, the differing opinions in the United States Supreme Court decision in ''[[Planned Parenthood v. Casey|Planned Parenthood of Southeastern Pennsylvania v. Casey'']].<ref>[http://www.law.cornell.edu/supct/html/91-744.ZS.html Planned Parenthood of Southeastern Pa. v. Casey, 505 U.S. 833 (1992)<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref><br />
<br />
The term ''identity politics'' has been applied retroactively to varying movements that long predate its coinage. Historian [[Arthur Schlesinger, Jr.]] discussed identity politics extensively in his book ''The Disuniting of America.'' Schlesinger, a strong supporter of liberal conceptions of [[civil rights]], argues that a [[liberal democracy]] requires a common basis for [[culture]] and [[society]] to function.<br />
<br />
In his view, basing politics on group marginalization fractures the civil polity, and therefore works against creating real opportunities for ending marginalization. Schlesinger believes that movements for civil rights should aim toward full acceptance and integration of marginalized groups into the mainstream culture, rather than, in his view, perpetuating that marginalization through affirmations of difference.<br />
<br />
Others counter that the intolerant homogeneity of mainstream culture is precisely the fact that makes full acceptance impossible, and that social justice movements should aim not toward integration but rather multicultural pluralism, without recourse to the types of oppressive homogeneity now at play. (See the work of [[Urvashi Vaid]] for a discussion of the perils of homogeneity.)<br />
<br />
Other critics of identity politics claim that it tends toward [[essentialism]], arguing that some of its proponents assume or imply that gender, race, or other group characteristics are fixed or biologically determined traits, rather than social constructions. Such criticism is most common with regard to groups based on claims of gender or sexual orientation, where the nature of the defining trait is in dispute. Some [[LGBT]] rights [[activist]]s, in particular, criticize the identity politics approach to [[gay rights]], particularly the approach based around the terms and concepts of [[queer theory]]. Other theorists, drawing on the work of [[Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak|Spivak]], describe some forms of identity politics as [[strategic essentialism]] that works with [[Hegemony|hegemonic]] discourses to achieve collective goals.<br />
<br />
Liberal-reformist gay and lesbian activists work for full acceptance of gays and lesbians in the institutions and culture of mainstream society, but [[queer]] activists instead make a point of declaring themselves outside of the mainstream and having no desire to be accepted by or join it. The former criticize the latter's approach as counterproductive and as perpetuating discrimination and societal attitudes against LGBT people, while the latter counter that the former seek to subsume LGBT identities in order to capitalize upon other forms of (racial, economic, geographical) privilege.<ref>[http://www.indegayforum.org/news/show/27067.html ndegayforum.org 27067]</ref><ref>[http://www.indegayforum.org/news/show/27052.html indegayforum.org 27052]</ref><br />
<br />
Still other critics have argued that groups based on shared identity, other than class, can divert energy and attention from more fundamental issues, such as class conflict in [[capitalism |capitalist]] societies. Such arguments have been expressed by a number of writers, such as [[Eric Hobsbawm]],<ref>[http://www.amielandmelburn.org.uk/articles/1996%20annual%20lecture.htm amielandmelburn.org.uk articles]</ref> [[Todd Gitlin]],<ref>[http://www.pbs.org/thinktank/transcript235.html pbs.org thinktank transcript235]</ref> [[Michael Tomasky]], [[Richard Rorty]], [[Sean Wilentz]], [[Robert W. McChesney]], and [[Jim Sleeper]].<ref>[http://www.ppionline.org/ppi_ci.cfm?knlgAreaID=115&subsecID=172&contentID=2049 ppionline.org]</ref> Hobsbawm, in particular, has criticized nationalisms, and the principle of national self-determination adopted internationally after [[World War I]], since national governments are often merely an expression of a ruling class or power, and their proliferation was a source of the wars of the twentieth century.<br />
<br />
==Forms of identity politics==<br />
{{SectOR|date=March 2008}}<br />
<br />
[[Afrocentrism]], [[Arab nationalism]] ([[Pan-Arabism]]), [[Black nationalism]] ([[pan-Africanism]]), [[Black Power]], [[Irish nationalism]], [[Latino nationalism]], [[Quebec Nationalism]], [[White nationalism]], [[Chicano nationalism]], [[Dalit Nationalism(India)|Dalit Nationalism]], [[Hindu Nationalism]], [[Bumiputera (Malaysia)]], [[Sex]] or [[Gender]] ([[LGBT]], [[Gay community]], [[Transgender]], [[Intersex]], [[Radical feminism]]), [[Disability]]-based identities ([[Disability rights movement|Disability rights]], [[Autism rights movement|Autism rights]], [[Deaf culture]], [[Diabetes]], [[Fat acceptance]]) Age-based identities: ([[Adultism]], [[Jeunism]])<br />
<br />
Global Hip Hop resembles identity politics because it can be used to codify social groups, especially by race, but also by language, political standing, and class. Kurt Iveson says about the [[Australian]] scene: "hip hop provides a vehicle of political and self expression."<ref>"Partying, Politics, and Getting Paid--hip hop and national identity in Australia." Overland, Issue no 47. Winter 1997.</ref> Wayne Marshall writes: "by embracing hip-hop white-kids-who-love-hip-hop can often productively animate public discussions and cultural politics around race."<ref>[http://wayneandwax.blogspot.com/2005/12/downunder-underground.html "downunder underground."] </ref>.<br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
* [[Diaspora politics]]<br />
* [[Political Correctness]]<br />
* [[Human rights]]<br />
* [[Separatism]]<br />
* [[White privilege]]<br />
* [[Racial politics]]<br />
<br />
==References and external articles==<br />
===Citations and notes===<br />
{{reflist}}<br />
<br />
===General information===<br />
* Carol Hanisch, "The Personal is Political," in Shulamit Firestone, ''The Dialectic of Sex''. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2003 (first pub. 1970). ISBN 13: 9780641711688.<br />
* Kimberlé Williams Crenshaw, "Mapping the Margins: Intersectionality, Identity Politics, and Violence Against Women of Color," in Kimberlé Crenshaw, Neil Gotanda, et al., editors, ''Critical Race Theory: The Key Writings That Formed the Movement,'' New York: The New Press, 1995, p. 357.<br />
</div><br />
<br />
===Books and publications===<br />
<div style="-moz-column-count:2; column-count:2;"><br />
* W.E.B. Du Bois, ''The Souls of Black Folk'' (New York: Penguin Books, 1989, M.E. Elbert, ed., first published 1903).<br />
* David Campbell, ''Writing Security. United States Foreign Policy and the Politics of Identity'' (University of Minnesota Press, Revised Edition, 1998). ISBN 978-0816631445<br />
* Walker Connor, "Ethnology and the Peace of South Asia," ''World Politics'', Vol. 22, No. 1 (October 1969), pp. 51–86.<br />
* Gad Barzilai, ''Communities and Law: Politics and Cultures of Legal Identities.'' Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2003. ISBN 0-472-11315-1<br />
* Eric Hobsbawm, ''The Age of Extremes: A History of the World, 1914–1991.''New York: Pantheon Books, 1994. ISBN 0-394-58575-5.<br />
* Shulamit Firestone, ''The Dialectic of Sex''. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2003 (first pub. 1970). ISBN 9780641711688<br />
* [http://www.minorityrights.org/OnlineReports/OnlineReport.asp?ID=17 Yash Ghai, ''Public Participation and Minorities''], (London: Minority Rights Group International, 2003)<br />
* Toni Morrison, "Home," in ''The House that Race Built'' (New York: Pantheon Books, 1997)p. 3; see also the other essays in this excellent collection.<br />
* Tzvetan Todorov, ''On Human Diversity: Nationalism, Racism, and Exoticism in French Thought'' (Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press, 1993).<br />
* Monica Duffy Toft, ''The Geography of Ethnic Violence: Identity, Interests, and the Indivisibility of Territory'' (Princeton NJ: Princeton University Press, 2003). ISBN 0-691-12383-7.<br />
</div><br />
<br />
==Websites==<br />
*[http://belfercenter.ksg.harvard.edu/project/57/religion_in_international_affairs.html Initiative on Religion in International Affairs] at Harvard<br />
*[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/identity-politics/ Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy's entry on identity politics]<br />
*[http://research.umbc.edu/~korenman/wmst/identity_pol.html Joan Mandel, "How Political is the Personal?: Identity Politics, Feminism and Social Change"]<br />
*[http://whiteprivilege.com WhitePrivilege.com]<br />
*[[Hasan Bülent Paksoy]], [http://vlib.iue.it/carrie/texts/carrie_books/paksoy-7/ IDENTITIES: How Governed, Who Pays?]<br />
<br />
[[Category:Identity politics| ]]<br />
[[Category:Human rights]]<br />
[[Category:Political terms]]<br />
<br />
[[fr:Communautarisme identitaire]]<br />
[[he:פוליטיקה של זהויות]]<br />
[[ja:アイデンティティ政治]]<br />
[[yi:אידענטיטעט פאליטיק]]</div>
Leslie
https://conservapedia.com/index.php?title=Bible_Presbyterian_Church&diff=553351
Bible Presbyterian Church
2008-11-10T00:33:03Z
<p>Leslie: removing some too-obvious bias</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Infobox Christian denomination<br />
| name = Bible Presbyterian Church<br />
| image = <br />
| caption = <br />
| main_classification = Protestant<br />
| orientation = [[Presbyterian polity|Presbyterian]], [[Fundamentalist Christianity|Fundamentalist]]<br />
| founded_date = 1938<br />
| founded_place = [[Collingswood, New Jersey]]<br />
| separated_from = [[Orthodox Presbyterian Church]]<br />
| separations = [[Evangelical Presbyterian Church (1961)|Evangelical Presbyterian Church]], [[American Presbyterian Church]]<br />
| congregations = under 30<br />
| members = <br />
| footnotes = <br />
}}<br />
<br />
The '''Bible Presbyterian Church''', an [[United States|American]] [[Protestant]] denomination, was formed in 1937, predominantly through the efforts of such [[conservatism|conservative]] [[Presbyterian]] [[clergy]]men as [[Carl McIntire]], J. Oliver Buswell and Allen A. MacRae. [[Francis Schaeffer]] was the first minister to be ordained in the new denomination. The First [[Presbyterian polity|General Synod]] of the Bible Presbyterian Church was held in 1938 in [[Collingswood, New Jersey]].<br />
<br />
The Bible Presbyterian Church was an offshoot of the [[Orthodox Presbyterian Church]], formed slightly earlier and a continuation of the Presbyterian Church of America (not to be confused with the similar but later [[Presbyterian Church in America]]). Once the conservative faction had left the [[Presbyterian Church in the United States of America]] (PCUSA), considerable dissension became apparent among the conservatives themselves, and it became evident that there were two groups within the [[Orthodox Presbyterian Church]]. The first group was more closely bound to traditional modes of worship, theological formulations, and the like. This group held to the classic formulations of [[Reformed churches|Reformed]] theology (as mediated through the [[Westminster Confession]] and the Catechisms) and piety, thus forming an "orthodox" faction. <br />
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The other faction espoused a conservatism that showed a more keen interest in cultural and [[politics|political]] matters, and saw the actions of the PCUSA as symptomatic of a rejection of long-held principles of conservative [[Christianity]] by much of the larger American society. This group was essentially [[Christian fundamentalism|fundamentalist]] in nature, and became associated with the "Bible" faction. McIntire laid the basis for much of what was to come to be called the "[[Christian right]]" in American religion and politics. <br />
<br />
Two main issues made the existence of these factions within the Orthodox Presbyterian Church evident. The first had to do with a classic Reformed piety over against a piety of fundamentalism. It came down to a conflict of the use of [[alcohol|alcoholic beverages]]. The "orthodox" side condemned drunkenness, but nevertheless did not agree that Scripture prescribed Christians to totally abstain from drinking alcoholic beverages, while the "Bible" side asserted that the Bible prohibited the consumption of alcohol entirely (see also [[Christianity and alcohol]]).<br />
<br />
The second issue was over faithfulness to [[Covenant Theology]] versus the toleration of [[Dispensationalism]]. Those on the "Bible" side had come to tolerate, and even use, the popular [[Scofield Reference Bible]] whose notes taught the theological system called Dispensationalism, rather than the Covenant Theology historically held by many [[Reformed church]]es. Scofield's notes were under considerable criticism by faculty members of [[Westminster Theological Seminary]], who led the "orthodox" faction. [[Historic premillennialism]] was tolerated within the Orthodox Presbyterian Church, yet the Dispensational form of premillennialism was considered to be serious error. Those who came to call themselves "Bible Presbyterians" saw the serious criticisms against Scofield's notes as a swipe against historic premillennialism itself, rather than merely the Dispensational form of premillennialism, and wanted the freedom to use the Scofield Reference Bible. The formal exodus of Bible Presbyterian churches came about in 1938, only two years after the forming of the Orthodox Presbyterian Church, but it was not on unkind terms, as was the case with the original split with the PCUSA. It should be noted that the Bible Presbyterian Church has always maintained the unity of the covenant of grace (a decidedly non-dispensational position), and, in later years, passed resolutions against dispensationalism in its annual Synod meetings.<br />
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In 1955-1956 a split occurred in the Bible Presbyterian Church. One faction eventually took the name Evangelical Presbyterian Church. A few years later this group merged with the Reformed Presbyterian Church in North America, General Synod to form the Reformed Presbyterian Church, Evangelical Synod; that body in turn merged with the [[Presbyterian Church in America]] in 1982. The remaining synod retained the name ''Bible Presbyterian Church.'' The group experienced another split in 1979; the [[American Presbyterian Church]] left the BPC over roughly the same concerns that led to the original OPC/BPC split decades earlier. Today the North American body has less than thirty congregations, but believes it is influential beyond its numbers. <br />
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Bible Presbyterians do not have synod-controlled boards for missions and education, but annually approve independent agencies for mission work, as well as colleges and seminaries.<br />
<br />
==Bible Presbyterian Church in Singapore==<br />
{{Original research|date=March 2008}}<br />
The Bible Presbyterian Church in Singapore is essentially divided into two factions. One group of churches subscribes to the [[Christian fundamentalism|fundamentalist]] stance of the founders; the other considers itself to be [[Evangelicalism|evangelical]]. This latter group of churches is denounced by the former to be "[[neo-evangelical]]" or "[[liberal Christianity|liberal]]", and are often called "the new BPs" because of a different interpretation on the doctrine of "Biblical Separation". The evangelical branch of Bible Presbyterian churches embraces the fellowship of any church and seminary that professes evangelical Protestant Christianity and extends cooperation with para-church organizations like [[Campus Crusade for Christ International]]. Thus, many aspiring ministers prefer an evangelical seminary (such as [[Fuller Theological Seminary]], [[Singapore Bible College]], [[Trinity Theological College]] or [[University of Nottingham]]) over the BPS' own seminary, [[Far Eastern Bible College]], which is fundamentalist.<br />
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<br />
==References==<br />
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*[http://www.bpc.org/synod/minutes/beacon_1939_08_31.html History of the Bible Presbyterian Church]<br />
*[http://www.apc-online.org/about/historypca.htm History of the Presbyterian Church in America]<br />
*[http://www.frame-poythress.org/frame_articles/2003Machen.htm "Machen’s Warrior Children"] by [[John Frame]]<br />
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==External links==<br />
*[http://www.bpc.org Bible Presbyterian Church website]<br />
*[http://www.febc.edu.sg Far Eastern Bible College website]<br />
<br />
[[Category:Presbyterianism in the United States]]<br />
[[Category:Schisms in Christianity]]<br />
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[[Category:Religious organizations established in 1938]]<br />
[[Category:Presbyterian denominations in North America]]<br />
[[Category:Presbyterian denominations]]<br />
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[[es:Iglesia Presbiteriana Bíblica]]<br />
[[ja:聖書長老教会]]</div>
Leslie
https://conservapedia.com/index.php?title=New_World_Translation_of_the_Holy_Scriptures&diff=553350
New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures
2008-11-10T00:32:38Z
<p>Leslie: removing some too-obvious bias</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Bible translation infobox <br />
| image = [[Image:NewWorldTranslation blk-hdcovr.png|150px|New World Translation]] <br />
| translation_title=New World Translation<br />
| full_name=New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures<br />
| abbreviation=NWT<br />
| complete_bible_published=1961<br />
| NT_published=1950<br />
| textual_basis= '''NT:''' Westcott & Hort. '''OT:''' [[Biblia Hebraica]].<br />
| translation_type=[[Formal Equivalence]] with occasional ventures into [[Dynamic equivalence]]<ref>Jason David Beduhn, ''Truth in Translation - Accuracy and Bias in English Translations of the New Testament''...Also see ''All Scripture Is Inspired by God and Beneficial'' published in 1990 pg. 326 pars. 32-33 Study Number 7—The Bible in Modern Times: New World Translation A Literal Translation....This requires an almost word-for-word correspondency between the rendering in English and the Hebrew and Greek texts...the degree of literalness should be as high as the original-language idiom permits... There have been occasional departures from the literal text, for the purpose of conveying in understandable terms the difficult Hebrew or Greek idioms. However, in the reference edition of the New World Translation, these have been called to the reader’s attention by means of footnotes that give the literal rendering.</ref><br />
| copyright=Copyright 1961 Watchtower Society<br />
| genesis_1:1-3=In the beginning God created the heavens and the earth. Now the earth proved to be formless and waste and there was darkness upon the surface of the watery deep; and God's active force was moving to and fro over the surface of the waters. And God proceeded to say: "Let light come to be." Then there came to be light.<br />
| john_3:16=For God loved the world so much that he gave his only-begotten Son, in order that everyone exercising faith in him might not be destroyed but have everlasting life.<br />
|}}<br />
{{BibleHistory}}<br />
<br />
The '''New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures''' (''NWT'') is a modern-language translation of the [[Bible]] published by [[Jehovah's Witnesses]]<ref>Using the not-for-profit corporations [[Legal instruments of Jehovah's Witnesses|Watchtower Bible and Tract Society of New York, Inc.]] and the International Bible Students Association of [[Brooklyn, New York]]</ref>, published in 1961. It is not the first Bible to be published by the group, but is their first original translation of ancient [[Biblical Hebrew|Hebrew]], [[Ancient Greek|Greek]], and [[Aramaic language|Aramaic]] Biblical texts. As of 2008, this Bible translation was available in whole or part in 72 languages with 143 million copies in several editions having been printed.<ref>[[Awake!]], November, 2007 p. 30</ref><br />
It is also available in electronic format on the [http://www.watchtower.org/bible/index.htm Watchtower Society official web site]<br />
<br />
== History ==<br />
Until the release of the NWT, Jehovah's Witnesses in English-speaking countries generally used the [[King James Version]] or [[American Standard Version#Usage of the ASV By the Jehovah's Witnesses|American Standard Version]] of the Bible. In the literature they have produced, Jehovah's Witnesses have quoted liberally from the King James Version and many other translations of the Bible over the years.<br />
<br />
According to the publishers, one of the main reasons for producing a new translation was that the majority of existing Bible versions in common use employed archaic language. The [[English language]] has changed significantly since 1611, when the Authorised (King James) Version was first published, and many words in the KJV are no longer in common use today, or are used in a sense different from that in which the translators intended them.<ref>http://www.pronetisp.net/~diana/wcm.html list of KJV words and their modern meanings or counterparts.</ref> The stated intention was to produce a fresh translation, free of archaisms.<br />
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Additionally, over the centuries since the King James version was produced, more copies of earlier manuscripts of the original texts in the Hebrew and Greek languages have become available. In the publishers' view, better manuscript evidence has made it possible to determine with greater accuracy what the original writers intended, particularly in more obscure passages. Additionally, they feel that certain aspects of the original Hebrew and Greek languages are better understood by linguists today than previously.<br />
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In October 1946, the president of the Watch Tower Society, [[Nathan H. Knorr]], proposed a fresh translation of the Christian Greek Scriptures. Work began on December 2, 1947 when the "New World Bible Translation Committee" was formed. On September 3, 1949, Knorr convened a joint meeting of the board of directors of both the Watch Tower Society's New York and Pennsylvania corporations to announce that work on a modern-language English translation of the Christian Greek Scriptures was completed and had been turned over to the Society for printing. It was assigned to the [[Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania]] for publication.<br />
<br />
The ''New World Translation of the Christian Greek Scriptures'' ([[New Testament]]) was released at a convention of Jehovah's Witnesses at [[Yankee Stadium]], [[New York City|New York]], on August 2, 1950. The translation of the Hebrew Scriptures (Old Testament) was released in five volumes in 1953, 1955, 1957, 1958, and 1960, and the complete ''New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures'' was released as a single volume in 1961. Since then, it has undergone minor revisions, most recently in 1984. The 1984 edition is in much the same style as previous editions, the primary difference being the revised [[Cross-reference|marginal (cross) references]]. These had been included in the six volumes released between 1950 - 1960 but had not been included in the single volume editions from 1961 onward.<ref>Foreword, New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures, 1984.</ref> The basic layout style much resembles the American Standard Version 1901 edition.<br />
<br />
====Translators and Editor====<br />
The New World Translation was produced by the New World Bible Translation Committee. This committee was originally formed sometime in or around 1947 and, according to Nathan Knorr, its members had multinational background.<ref>New York Times August 3, 1950 p. 19</ref> The New World Bible Translation Committee requested that the publisher, the Watchtower Bible and Tract Society, not publish names of its members.<ref>[[The Watchtower]], September 15, 1950, p. 320</ref><ref>Walsh vs Honorable James Latham, Court of Session Scotland, 1954, cross examination of Frederick Franz pp. 90-92 "Q. Well then, which body decides? A. [by Frederick Franz] It is the Board of Directors of the Pennsylvania [Corporation] that decides in these matters." (p. 90) "Q. Were you yourself responsible for the translation of the Old Testament? A. [by Frederick Franz] Again I cannot answer that question, in harmony with the gentlemen's agreement made by the Board of Directors and the Translation Committee." (p. 92)</ref> Former high ranking Watchtower staffers have proposed their identities<ref>Martin W, Kingdom of the Cults, Expanded Anniversary Edition, October 1997, Bethany House Publishers, p. 123. "''While the members of the [NWT] committee have never been identified officially by the Watchtower, many Witnesses who worked at the headquarters during the translation period were fully aware of who the members were. They included Nathan H. Knorr (president of the Society at the time), Frederick W. Franz (who later succeeded Knorr as president), Albert D. Schroeder, George Gangas, and Milton Henschel (currently the president)''."</ref><ref>Wills T, M.A., A People For His Name - A History of Jehovah's Witnesses and An Evaluation, Lulu, 2006. Originally published in 1967 by Vantage Press. "''[Frederick] Franz is a language scholar of no mean ability-he supervised the translation of the Bible from the original languages into the New World Translation, completed in 1961''." (p. 253) Of author Tony Wills, the Preface reads "''The Author has been intimately associated with Jehovah's Witnesses for many years, close enough to be able to think as one, but never, at the same time, losing his objectivity''." </ref>, though the Watchtower organization has never confirmed or denied the details.<br />
<br />
==Editions and languages==<br />
As of 2008, the NWT has been published in 72 languages. Translation into other languages is based on the English text, possible because of the literal nature of the English translation itself, supplemented by comparison with the Hebrew and Greek.<ref>Jehovah’s Witnesses—Proclaimers of God’s Kingdom (1993) Chap. 27 p. 611, subheading Translation Into Other Languages.</ref><br />
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The complete translation the Holy Scriptures is available in [[Afrikaans]], [[Albanian language|Albanian]], [[Arabic language|Arabic]], [[Cebuano language|Cebuano]], [[Chinese language|Chinese]] (Standard, Simplified, Pinyin), [[Bemba language|Cibemba]], [[Croatian language|Croatian]], [[Czech language|Czech]], [[Danish language|Danish]], [[Dutch language|Dutch]], [[English language|English]] (also Braille), [[Finnish language|Finnish]], [[French language|French]], [[Georgian language|Georgian]], [[German language|German]], [[Greek language|Greek]], [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]], [[Igbo language|Igbo]], [[Ilokano language|Iloko]], [[Indonesian language|Indonesian]], [[Italian language|Italian]], [[Japanese language|Japanese]], [[Korean language|Korean]], [[Macedonian language|Macedonian]], [[Malagasy language|Malagasy]], [[Maltese language|Maltese]], [[Norwegian language|Norwegian]], [[Polish language|Polish]], [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] (also Braille), [[Romanian language|Romanian]], [[Russian language|Russian]], [[Serbian language|Serbian]] (Cyrillic and Latin scripts), [[Sesotho language|Sesotho]], [[Shona language|Shona]], [[Slovak language|Slovakian]], [[Spanish language|Spanish]] (also Braille), [[Swahili language|Swahili]], [[Swedish language|Swedish]], [[Tagalog language|Tagalog]], [[Tsonga language|Tsonga]], [[Tswana language|Tswana]], [[Turkic language|Turkish]], [[Xhosa language|Xhosa]], [[Yorùbá language|Yoruba]], and [[Zulu language|Zulu]]. <br />
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The Christian Greek Scriptures (commonly known as the New Testament) is available in [[American Sign Language]], [[Brazilian Sign Language]], [[Armenian language|Armenian]], [[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]], [[Chichewa language|Chichewa]], [[Efik language|Efik]], [[Ewe language|Ewe]], [[Hiligaynon language|Hiligaynon]], Italian Braille, [[Kinyarwanda language|Kinyarwanda]], [[Kirghiz language|Kirghiz]], [[Kirundi language|Kirundi]], [[Lingala language|Lingala]], [[Ossetic language|Ossetic]], [[Samoan language|Samoan]], [[Sepedi language|Sepedi]], [[Sinhalese language|Sinhala]], [[Slovene language|Slovenian]], [[Sranan Tongo|Sranantongo]], [[Thai language|Thai]], [[Twi]], and [[Ukrainian language|Ukrainian]].<br />
<br />
==Features of the translation==<br />
Various editions of the New World Translation have been published. The 1984 reference edition has more than 125,000 marginal references (cross references), running headings at the top of most pages to assist in locating texts, footnotes about translation decisions (which mention some 90 different manuscripts and other sources that are listed in a table of abbreviations at the start), a concordance, and an index of footnote words and "further word studies" (giving pointers about a certain topic). Some of the footnotes also add transliterations from the original languages. The pronoun "you" is printed in small capitals to indicate plurality, as are some verbs when plurality is not obvious. Square brackets [ ] are added around words that were inserted editorially (double brackets indicate dubious material).<br />
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The standard (not reference) edition is printed in smaller type on thinner paper, lacks the footnotes, and adds a "Bible Topics for Discussion" section that outlines where to find scriptures about various doctrinal points. An even smaller "pocket edition" also lacks the cross-references.<br />
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Many of the non-English translations lack the footnotes, and some add footnotes of their own regarding notes about the translation into the other language.<br />
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There are various appendices in the different editions published, including arguments for various translation decisions, extra data on certain aspects of manuscripts, conversion tables for weights and measures, an agricultural calendar, maps, and diagrams of the tabernacle and temple.<br />
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The translators use the terms "Hebrew-Aramaic Scriptures" and "Christian Greek Scriptures" rather than "Old Testament" and "New Testament", saying the use of "testament" was based on a misunderstanding of 2 Corinthians 3:14.<ref>Appendix 7E in the New World Translation reference edition</ref> When referring to dates in the supplemental material, the abbreviations B.C.E. (before the common era) and C.E. (common era) are used rather than BC and AD.<br />
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Verbs indicating continuous or progressive action are consistently rendered as such in English, for example "proceeded to rest" rather than "rested" in Genesis 2:2, or "keep on asking" rather than "ask" at Matthew 7:7.<br />
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==Critical Review==<br />
The New World Translation has received both commendation and criticism. In its review of bible translations released from 1955 to 1985, ''Harper's Bible Dictionary'' listed the New World Translation as one of the major modern translations.<ref>Robert G. Bratcher, "The English Bible," ''Harper's Bible Dictionary,'' Harper & Row, 1985, p. 266</ref><br />
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===Translation Committee qualifications===<br />
Critics have speculated that the translators of the NWT insisted to remain anonymous because they were not formally qualified for making a Bible translation. Among the names rumoured as possible translators, none of them has adequate academic training in Biblical languages.<ref>For instance, the formal training of Frederic Franz was concentrated on Latin and classical Greek. According to the 1911-1913 University of Cincinnati transcript for Frederick W. Franz, he did in class 15 hours of Latin, 21 hours of classical Greek, and a single 2-hour credit class in a course titled “The New Testament—A course in grammar and translation.” However, according to A. H. Macmillan, one of the directors of Watchtower organization when the NWT was published, Frederic Franz, in addition to his native tongue of English, was fluent in Spanish, Portuguese and German, conversant in French, and a scholar of Hebrew, Greek, Syrian and Latin (MacMillan AH, Faith on the March, Prentice Hall, 1957, p. 181-182).</ref> Responding, the Watchtower Society claims that "the particulars of their university or other educational training are not the important thing” and that the translation testifies to their qualification.<ref>The Watchtower, December 15, 1974, p. 768</ref> Academic reviewers of the New World Translation have made statements in favour of the translators. Dr. Bruce Metzger stated for the NWT of the Greek Scriptures: "On the whole, one gains a tolerably good impression of the scholarly equipment of the translators.”<ref name=Metzger>Metzger, Bruce M, The New World Translation of the Christian Greek Scriptures, ''The Bible Translator'' 15/3 (July 1964), pp. 150-153.</ref> Similarly, though critical, Samuel Haas, in his review of the first volume of the NWT of the Hebrew Scriptures, stated that “this work indicates a great deal of effort and thought as well as considerable scholarship.”<ref>''Journal of Biblical Literature,'' Vol. 74, No. 4, (Dec. 1955), p. 283.</ref>. On the NWT New Testament, commentator Alexander Thomson writes, “The translation is evidently the work of skilled and clever scholars, who have sought to bring out as much of the true sense of the Greek text as the English language is capable of expressing,”<ref>Thomson, A., The Differentiator, April 1952, pages 52-57</ref> and the Greek scholar Dr. [[Edgar J. Goodspeed]] wrote in a letter to the Watchtower Society, “I am [...] much pleased with the free, frank, and vigorous translation. It exhibits a vast array of sound serious learning, as I can testify.”<ref>“Loyally advocating the Word of God,” ''The Watchtower'' (15 March, 1982), p. 23.</ref><br />
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===Linguistic and theological review===<br />
[[Charles Francis Potter]] has stated about NWT: "Apart from a few semantic peculiarities like translating the Greek word stauros, as "stake" instead of "cross," and the often startling use of the colloquial and the vernacular, the anonymous translators have certainly rendered the best manuscript texts, both Greek and Hebrew, with scholarly ability and acumen."<ref>''The faiths men live by,'' Kessinger Publishing, 1954, 239. ISBN 1425486525.</ref><br />
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Regarding the NWT’s use of English, Dr. Harold H. Rowley is critical of what he calls “wooden literalism” and “harsh construction.” He characterizes these as “an insult to the Word of God” and offers a few sample renderings from Genesis. Specifically he cites Genesis 15:5, 4:13, 6:3, 18:20, 4:8, 19:22, 24:32 and 24:66. Rowley concludes these criticisms by writing, “From beginning to end this volume is a shining example of how the Bible should not be translated.”<ref>Rowley, H.H., How Not To Translate the Bible, The Expository Times, 1953; 65; 41</ref> <br />
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Commentator Alexander Thomson wrote, “We heartily recommend the New World Translation of the Christian Greek Scriptures, published in 1950 by the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society.”<ref>Thomson A, The Differentiator, 1952, 55 No. 2, 6</ref> <br />
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Various critics have accused the translators of rendering the NWT to conform "to their own preconceived and unbiblical theology."<ref>See Ankerberg, John and John Weldon, 2003, ''The New World Translation of the Jehovah's Witnesses'', accessible [http://www.johnankerberg.org/Articles/ATRI-Bible-School/Fall-Bible-School/fall-bible-school-jw-new-world-translation.htm online], which quotes a number of scholars regarding alleged theological bias of the New World Translation.</ref> To support a view of theology overriding appropriate translation, Drs. [[John Ankerberg]] and John Weldon cite several examples, such as the NWT's use of "for all time" in Hebrews 9:27: “And as it is reserved for men to die once for all time, but after this a judgment.” Ankerberg and Weldon cite Dr. Julius Mantey on this text as saying, “Heb. 9:27, which without any grounds for it in the Greek, is mistranslated in the J. W. Translation… the phrase “for all time” was inserted in the former versions without any basis in the original for it.”<ref>See Ankerberg, John and John Weldon, 2003, ''The New World Translation of the Jehovah's Witnesses'', accessible from [http://www.johnankerberg.org/Articles/ATRI-Bible-School/Fall-Bible-School/fall-bible-school-jw-new-world-translation.htm this site], which quotes a number of scholars regarding alleged theological bias of the New World Translation.</ref><br />
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[[William Barclay (theologian)|Dr. William Barclay]] concluded that "the deliberate distortion of truth by this sect is seen in the New Testament translation….It is abundantly clear that a sect which can translate the New Testament like that is intellectually dishonest."<ref>Rhodes R, The Challenge of the Cults and New Religions, The Essential Guide to Their History, Their Doctrine, and Our Response, Zondervan, 2001, p. 94</ref><br />
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In his review of 9 bible translations, Dr. Jason BeDuhn states that the NWT is a ‘remarkably good translation’.<ref>BeDuhn, Jason D. ''Truth in Translation: Accuracy and Bias in English Translations of the New Testament'', 2004: 165</ref> He also states, “While it is difficult to quantify this sort of analysis, it can be said the NW emerges as the most accurate of the translations ... judging by the passages we have looked at.” <ref>BeDuhn, Jason D. ''Truth in Translation: Accuracy and Bias in English Translations of the New Testament'', 2004. Beduhn compared the ''King James'', the ''(New) Revised Standard'', the ''New International'', the ''New American Bible'', the ''New American Standard Bible'', the ''Amplified Bible'', the ''Living Bible'', ''Today's English'' and the ''NWT'' versions in Mattthew 28:9, Phillipians 2:6, Colossians 1:15-20, Titus 2:13, Hebrews 1:8, John 8:58, John 1:1.</ref><br />
<br />
[[Bruce Metzger]] cites NWT renderings as instances of translating to support doctrine. He references the NWT’s comma placement at Luke 23:43 as “In the interest of supporting the doctrine of "soul sleep" held by Jehovah’s Witnesses.”<ref>Metzger, Bruce M, Persistent Problems Confronting Bible Translators, Bibliotheca Sacra / July-September 1993: 279</ref> Another example Metzger offers is the insertion of the word “other” four times in Colossians chapter 1 “thus making Paul say that Jesus Christ is one among ‘other’ created things.” Of this insertion, Metzger states it is “In the interest of providing support of [Jehovah’s Witnesses’] Unitarianism” and that the insertion is “totally without warrant from the Greek”.<ref>Metzger, Bruce M, The New World Translation of the Christian Greek Scriptures, The Bible Translator 15/3 (July 1964), pp. 150-153.</ref> Dr. Jason BeDuhn disagrees on this point by stating “‘Other’ is implied by ‘all,’ and the NW simply makes what is implicit explicit.”<ref>BeDuhn, Jason D. ''Truth in Translation: Accuracy and Bias in English Translations of the New Testament'', 2004: 85</ref> Dr. Bruce Metzger characterizes the NWT’s use of “Jehovah” in the New Testament as an “introduction.” He writes, “The introduction of the word ‘[[Jehovah]]’ into the New Testament text, in spite of much ingenuity in an argument filled with a considerable amount of irrelevant material (pp. 10-25), is a plain piece of special pleading.”<ref>Metzger, Bruce M., The New World Translation of the Christian Greek Scriptures, The Bible Translator 15/3 (July 1964), pp. 150-153.</ref><br />
<br />
[[Reachout Trust]] writer Tony Piper concludes it is not a "faithful translation of the Scriptures…", giving as examples Acts 2:42, 46 and 20:7, 11 and he objects that “the NWT translates it to read that the church simply shared meals together” rather than using the phrase “breaking of bread [...] to disguise the fact that the early church celebrated the Lord's Supper more than once a year.” <ref> Tony Piper, member of Reachout Trust examines the New World Translation http://www.reachouttrust.org/articles/jw/jwnwt.htm</ref><br />
<br />
Greek scholar Dr. Rijkel ten Kate notes in reference to the NWT that in rendering different Greek words (bre′phos, pai‧di′on, and pais) employed to describe the successive stages of Jesus’ growth “that there is actually one Dutch Bible in which the different use of the three Greek words bre′phos, pai‧di′on, and pais is rightly taken into account,” after having previously reviewed other Dutch translations and concluded that “not one Dutch translation has rendered this adequately, that is to say, completely in harmony with the original text.”<ref>>The Watchtower, April 15, 1995</ref><br />
<br />
Thomas Winter considers the Kingdom Interlinear Translation of the Greek Scriptures (part of the NWT project) as “highly useful” toward mastery of biblical Greek.<ref>Thomas N. Winter, Review of New World Bible Translation Committee’s The Kingdom Interlinear Translation of the Greek Scriptures, Classics and Religious Studies Faculty Publications, Classics and Religious Studies Department, University of Nebraska – Lincoln, April-May 1974: 376. “[S]ince [the Kingdom Interlinear Translation of the Greek Scriptures] short-cuts the mechanical and distracting lexicon-thumbing while presenting an unretouched text, I think it is a legitimate and highly useful aid toward the mastery of koine (and classical) Greek. After examining a copy, I equipped several interested second-year Greek students with it as an auxiliary text. No assignments were made in it: the students, combining their wish to learn Greek with a natural interest in the original of the New Testament, dipped into it on their own. They read the Greek (I strongly recommended reading it aloud), picked up the English more or less subliminally, and ended up improving their Greek. After learning the proper pronunciations, a motivated student could probably learn koine Greek from this source alone…. In sum, when a Witness comes to the door, the classicist, Greek student, or Bible student alike would do well to bring him in and place an order.”</ref> Winter relates that the translation "is thoroughly up-to-date and consistently accurate.” <ref>Thomas N. Winter, Review of New World Bible Translation Committee’s The Kingdom Interlinear Translation of the Greek Scriptures, Classics and Religious Studies Faculty Publications, Classics and Religious Studies Department, University of Nebraska – Lincoln, April-May 1974: 376</ref><br />
<br />
===A Case Study of Translation===<br />
One of the NWT's most controversial passages is John 1:1. The ''King James Version'' translation renders this verse: <br />
<blockquote><br />
In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God, and the '''Word was God'''.</blockquote><br />
<ref>http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=John%201%20;&version=9;</ref><br />
<br />
The ''New World Translation'' renders the same verse:<br />
<blockquote><br />
In [the] beginning the Word was, and the Word was with God, and the '''Word was a god'''.<br />
</blockquote><br />
<ref>http://www.watchtower.org/bible/index.htm</ref><br />
<br />
The NWT's translation is considered by many as a change to agree with the [[Beliefs and practices of Jehovah's Witnesses|doctrines of Jehovah's Witnesses]]. Some reference books argue strongly that the Greek text must be translated, “The Word was God”, however not all agree. In his article, “Qualitative Anarthrous Predicate Nouns: Mark 15:39 and John 1:1”, [[Philip B. Harner]] said that such clauses as the one in John 1:1, <blockquote>“with an anarthrous predicate preceding the verb, are primarily qualitative in meaning. They indicate that the logos has the nature of theos.”</blockquote> <br />
He suggests: <br />
<blockquote>“Perhaps the clause could be translated, ‘the Word had the same nature as God.’” (Journal of Biblical Literature, 1973, pp. 85, 87)</blockquote> <br />
Thus, in this text, the fact that the word ''theos'' in its second occurrence is without the definite article (''ho'') and is placed before the verb in the sentence in Greek is significant. Interestingly, translators that insist on rendering John 1:1, “The Word was God,” do not hesitate to use the indefinite article (a, an) in their rendering of other passages where a singular anarthrous predicate noun occurs before the verb. Thus at John 6:70, The ''Jerusalem Bible'' and ''King James'' both refer to Judas Iscariot as “a devil,” and at John 9:17 they describe Jesus as “a prophet.”<br />
<br />
Of the NWT’s rendering “…and the Word was a god” at John 1:1, Metzger states it “is not justifiable” and “entirely in accord with the Arian theology of the sect.”<ref name=Metzger /><br />
<br />
Dr. Jason BeDuhn, states of the NWT that its “translation of John 1:1 is superior to” the other translations he considered. He continues, “It may well be that the NW translators came to the task of translating John 1:1 with as much bias as the other translators did. It just so happens that their bias corresponds in this case to a more accurate translation of the Greek. ... The NW translation of John 1:1 is superior to that of the other eight translations we are comparing. I do not think it is the best possible translation for a modern English reader; but at least it breaks with the KJV tradition followed by all the others, and it does so in the right direction by paying attention to how Greek grammar and syntax actually work.”<ref>BeDuhn, Jason D. ''Truth in Translation: Accuracy and Bias in English Translations of the New Testament'', 2004: 125, 133</ref><br />
<br />
Several other bible translations render John 1:1 in a similar manner: <br />
*1808 “and the word was a god” -''The New Testament, in An Improved Version, Upon the Basis of Archbishop Newcome’s New Translation: With a Corrected Text, London.''<br />
*1864 “and a god was the Word” -''The Emphatic Diaglott (J21,interlinear reading), by Benjamin Wilson, New York and London.''<br />
*1935 “and the Word was divine” -''The Bible—An American Translation, by J. M. P. Smith and E. J. Goodspeed,Chicago.''<br />
*1950 “and the Word was a god” -''New World Translation of the Christian Greek Scriptures,Brooklyn.''<br />
*1975 “and a god (or, of a divine kind) was the Word” <br />
*1978 “and godlike sort was the Logos" <br />
*1979 “and a god was the Logos” -''Das Evangelium nach Johannes,by Johannes Schneider,Berlin.''<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{reflist|2}}<br />
<br />
==Further information==<br />
===Online Edition===<br />
*[http://www.watchtower.org/bible/index.htm New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures] - online edition available from Watchtower Society official web site. Also online in an increasing number of other languages: follow the language links from http://www.watchtower.org/ and see if there is a link to Online Bible from there, or if you know the Watchtower code of the language (usually the first letter) then place this before /bible, e.g. http://www.watchtower.org/f/bible for French<br />
<br />
===Supportive===<br />
*Stafford, Greg: ''Jehovah's Witnesses Defended''. [ISBN 0-9659814-7-9] <br />
*[[Rolf Furuli|Furuli, Rolf]]: ''The Role of Theology and Bias in Bible Translation: With a special look at the New World Translation of Jehovah's Witnesses'', 1999. [ISBN 0-9659814-9-5] <br />
*Byatt, Anthony and Flemings, Hal (editors): ''‘Your Word is Truth’, Essays in Celebration of the 50th Anniversary of the New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures (1950, 1953)'', 2004. [ISBN 0-9506212-6-9]<br />
*[http://jehovah.to/exe/translation/coptic.pdf The Coptic Evidence]<br />
<br />
===Neutral===<br />
*[[Jason BeDuhn|BeDuhn, Jason]]: ''Truth in Translation - Accuracy and Bias in English Translations of the New Testament'' [ISBN 0-7618-2556-8]<br />
*[http://www.lectio.unibe.ch/05_2/troyer_names_of_god.htm The Names of God. Their Pronunciation and Their Translation. A Digital Tour of Some of the Main Witnesses.]<br />
*[http://www.tetragrammaton.org/ Tetragrammaton in the New Testament]<br />
*[http://rosetta.reltech.org/Ebind/docs/TC/TBT/1964/03/TBT196403.html?num=150&num1=&x=0&y=0 Review by Bruce Metzger (1963) on the ''New World Translation of the Greek Scriptures''].<br />
<br />
===Critical===<br />
* Robert Countess: ''Jehovah's Witnesses' New Testament: A Critical Analysis'', [ISBN 0-87552-210-6]<br />
* [http://www.evangelicalbible.com/jw.htm NWT and the Deity of Christ - A table showing NWT changes to key Christological passages, written from an evangelical perspective]<br />
* [http://www.catholicresponse.org/articles/Hiding_The_Divine_Name.pdf Article critical of the ''Kingdom Interlinear Translation'']<br />
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Leslie
https://conservapedia.com/index.php?title=Geneva_Bible&diff=553349
Geneva Bible
2008-11-10T00:32:22Z
<p>Leslie: removing some too-obvious bias</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Bible translation infobox | translation_title= Geneva Bible<br />
| full_name= Geneva Bible<br />
| image = <br />
| other_names=<br />
| abbreviation= <br />
| NT_published=1557<br />
| OT_published=<br />
| complete_bible_published=1560<br />
| author_info=<br />
| textual_basis = [[Textus Receptus]]<br />
| translation_type =<br />
| version_revised=<br />
| publisher=<br />
| copyright=<br />
| copies_printed=<br />
| religious_affiliation= [[Protestant]]<br />
| online_address=<br />
| genesis_1:1-3=In the beginning God created the heaven and the earth. And the earth was without forme and voyde, and darkeness was upon the depe, and the Spirit of God moved upon the waters. Then God said, "Let there be light" and there was light.<br />
| john_3:16=For God so loved the world, that he hath given his only be gotten Son, that whosoever beleveth in him, should not perish, but have everlasting life.<br />
|}}<br />
{{BibleHistory}}<br />
<br />
The '''Geneva Bible''' was a [[Protestant]] [[Bible translations|translation]] of the [[Bible]] into [[English language|English]].<br />
<br />
This was the Bible read by [[William Shakespeare]], by [[John Knox]], by [[John Donne]], and by [[John Bunyan]], author of ''[[Pilgrim's Progress]]''. It was one of the Bibles taken to America on the ''[[Mayflower]]'', and it was used by many [[English Dissenters]], and by [[Oliver Cromwell]]'s soldiers at the time of the [[English Civil War]].<br />
<br />
Because the language of the Geneva Bible was more forceful and vigorous, most readers preferred this version strongly over the [[Bishops' Bible]], the translation authorised by the [[Church of England]] under [[Elizabeth I of England|Elizabeth I]]. In the words of [[Cleland Boyd McAfee]], "it drove the [[Great Bible]] off the field by sheer power of excellence".<ref>[http://www.gutenberg.org/catalog/world/readfile?fk_files=39625&pageno=24 Study of the King James Bible by Cleland Boyd McAfee]</ref><br />
<br />
==History==<br />
<br />
During the time when England was ruled by Queen [[Mary I of England|Mary I]], who persecuted Protestants, a number of Protestant scholars fled to [[Geneva]] in [[Switzerland]], which was then ruled as a [[republic]] in which [[John Calvin]] and [[Theodore Beza]] provided the primary spiritual and theological leadership. Among these scholars was [[William Whittingham]], who supervised the translation in collaboration with [[Myles Coverdale]], [[Christopher Goodman]], [[Anthony Gilby]], [[Thomas Sampson]], and [[William Cole]]&mdash;several of whom became prominent figures in the proto-Puritan [[nonconformist]] faction of the [[Vestments controversy]]. Whittingham was directly responsible for the New Testament, which was complete and published in 1557<ref name="Herbert">A. S. Herbert, ''Historical Catalogue of Printed Editions of the English Bible 1525–1961'', London: British and Foreign Bible Society; New York: American Bible Society, 1968. SBN 564-00130-9</ref>, while Gilby oversaw the Old. <br />
<br />
The first full edition of this Bible, with a further revised New Testament, appeared in [[1560]]<ref name="Herbert" />, but it was not printed in England until 1575 (New Testament<ref name="Herbert" />) and 1576 (Bible<ref name="Herbert" />). Over 150 editions were issued; the last probably in [[1644]]<ref name="Herbert" />. The first Bible printed in [[Scotland]] was a Geneva Bible in 1579<ref name="Herbert" />. In fact, the involvement of Knox and Calvin in the creation of the Geneva Bible made it especially appealing in Scotland, where a law was passed in 1579 requiring every household of sufficient means to buy a copy<ref>[http://www.bible-researcher.com/history2.html A Chronology of the English Bible]</ref>.<br />
<br />
{{Calvinism}}<br />
Some editions from [[1576]] onwards<ref name="Herbert" /> included Tomson's revisions of the New Testament. Some editions from [[1599]] onwards<ref name="Herbert" /> used a new "Junius" version of the Revelation, in which the notes were translated from a new Latin commentary by [[Franciscus Junius (the elder)|Junius]] on Revelation. <br />
<br />
Like most English translations of the time, the Geneva Bible was translated from scholarly editions of the [[Koine Greek|Greek]] New Testament and [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] scriptures that comprise the Christian Old Testament. The English rendering was substantially based on the earlier translations by [[William Tyndale]] and [[Myles Coverdale]]. (80-90% of the language in the Genevan New Testament is from Tyndale.) However, the Geneva Bible was the first English version in which ''all'' of the Old Testament was translated directly from the Hebrew (cf. [[Coverdale Bible]], [[Matthew's Bible]]).<br />
<br />
The annotations which are an important part of the Geneva Bible were [[Calvinism|Calvinistic]] and [[Puritanism|Puritan]] in character, and as such they were disliked by the ruling conservative Protestants of the [[Church of England]], as well as King [[James I of England|James I]], who commissioned the "Authorized Version" or [[King James Bible]] to replace it. The Geneva Bible had also motivated the production of the [[Bishops' Bible]] under [[Elizabeth I]], for the same reason, and later the [[Douay-Rheims Bible|Douay-Rheims]] edition by the [[recusant]] Catholic community. The Geneva Bible remained popular among [[Puritans]] and remained in widespread use until after the [[English Civil War]]. The Geneva notes were surprisingly included in a few editions of the King James version, even as late as 1715<ref name="Herbert" />.<br />
<br />
It has been stated by some that the Geneva Bible was the Bible present at the signing of the U. S. Declaration of Independence and the U. S. Constitution, because it was the Bible that the Puritans brought with them to America. However, the U. S. Library of Congress and the [[Independence National Historical Park]] both state that they do not know what version/translation of the Bible was present at these signings ([[Independence Hall (United States)|Independence Hall]] in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania being the location of both of the signings).<br />
<br />
In [[2006]], the first completely new publication of the Geneva Bible available in modern times was published by [http://www.tollelegepress.com/ Tolle Lege Press] as part of the "1599 Geneva Bible Restoration Project." This edition uses the Tomson and [[Franciscus Junius (the elder)|Junius]] revisions described above. It also has a table of interpretations of proper names, which are chiefly found in the Old Testament, and a table of principal subjects contained in the Bible. Like many sixteenth- and seventeenth-century copies of the Bible, it is bound with the metrical Psalms by [[Thomas Sternhold]], [[John Hopkins (psalmist)|John Hopkins]] and others, and the prayers used by the English congregations every morning and evening.<br />
<br />
==Format==<br />
<br />
[[Image:GenevaBible.JPG|thumb|left|Geneva Bible]]<br />
The Geneva Bible was the first English Bible to use verse numbers based on the work of Stephanus ([[Robert Estienne]] of Paris). It also had an elaborate system of commentary in marginal [[gloss]]es. This annotation was done by [[Laurence Tomson]], who translated (for the 1560 Geneva Bible) L'Oiseleur's notes on the Gospels, which themselves came from Camerarius. In 1576 Tomson added L'Oiseleur's notes for the Epistles, which came from [[Beza]]'s Greek and Latin edition of the Bible ([[1565]] and later). Beginning in 1599 [[Franciscus Junius (the elder)|Franciscus Junius]]' notes on Revelation were added, replacing the original notes deriving from [[John Bale]] and [[Heinrich Bullinger]]. Bale's ''The Image of both churches'' had a great impact on these notes as well as [[Foxe's Book of Martyrs]]. Both the Junius and Bullinger-Bale annotations are explicitly anti-Roman Catholic and representative of much popular Protestant apocalypticism during the Reformation.<br />
<br />
The 1560 Geneva Bible was printed in Roman type—the style of type regularly used today—but many editions used the older [[blackletter|black-letter]] ("Gothic") type. Of the various later English Bible translations, the next to use Roman type was the [[Douay-Rheims Bible]] of 1582 (New Testament) and 1609–10 (Old Testament).<br />
<br />
The Geneva Bible was also issued in more convenient and affordable sizes than earlier versions. The 1560 Bible was in [[quarto]] format (218 &times; 139 mm type area), but pocketable [[octavo (book)|octavo]] editions were also issued, and a few large folio editions. The New Testament was issued at various times in sizes from quarto down to 32º (the smallest, 70×39 mm type area <ref name="Herbert" />). In the late sixteenth century it is likely that the Geneva New Testament cost less than a week's wages even for the lowest-paid labourers.<br />
<br />
The 1560 Geneva Bible contained a number of study aids, including [[woodcut]] illustrations, maps and explanatory 'tables', i.e. indexes of names and topics, in addition to the (in)famous marginal notes. Each book was preceded by an 'argument' or introduction, and each chapter by a list of contents giving verse numbers. Smaller-format editions might be unillustrated and lack the marginal notes, but some large folio editions had additional illustrations, such as one showing Adam and Eve, where Adam wears a typical Elizabethan beard and moustache.<br />
<br />
==Sample==<br />
<br />
To compare the Geneva Bible with the King James, here is Revelation&nbsp;6:12-17 in both versions (with spelling modernized). The differences have been italicized in the King James extract:<br />
<br />
{{col-begin}}<br />
{{col-2}}<br />
'''Geneva Bible'''<br />
: And I beheld when he had opened the sixth seal, and lo, there was a great earthquake, and the sun was as black as sackcloth of hair, and the moon was like blood. And the stars of heaven fell unto the earth, as a fig tree casteth her green figs, when it is shaken of a mighty wind. And heaven departed away, as a scroll, when it is rolled, and every mountain and isle were moved out of their places. And the kings of the earth, and the great men, and the rich men, and the chief captains, and the mighty men, and every bondman, and every free man, hid themselves in dens, and among the rocks of the mountains, and said to the mountains and rocks, Fall on us, and hide us from the presence of him that sitteth on the throne, and from the wrath of the Lamb. For the great day of his wrath is come, and who can stand?<br />
{{col-2}}<br />
'''King James Bible'''<br />
: And I beheld when he had opened the sixth seal, and, lo, there was a great earthquake; and the sun ''became'' black as sackcloth of hair, and the moon ''became as'' blood; and the stars of heaven fell unto the earth, ''even'' as a fig tree casteth her ''untimely'' figs, when ''she'' is shaken of a mighty wind. And ''the'' heaven ''departed'' as a scroll when it is rolled ''together''; and every mountain and ''island was'' moved out of their places. And the kings of the earth, and the great men, and the rich men, and the chief captains, and the mighty men, and every bondman, and every free man, hid themselves in ''the'' dens and ''in'' the rocks of the mountains; and said to the mountains and rocks, Fall on us, and hide us from the ''face'' of him that sitteth on the throne and from the wrath of the Lamb; for the great day of his wrath is come; and who ''shall be able to'' stand?<br />
{{col-end}}<br />
<br />
[[Image:Genevabible.png|thumb|upright|The title page of the [[1560]] edition of the Geneva Bible; the illustration depicts the Israelites before the [[Red Sea]].]]<br />
<br />
It is striking how close the two versions are to each other. Examination of their differences reveals that the earlier Geneva version frequently sounds more direct and modern than the later King James, e.g.<br />
<br />
“and the moon was like blood” (Geneva) versus “and the moon became as blood” (King James)<br />
<br />
“as a fig tree casteth her green figs” (Geneva) versus “even as a fig tree casteth her untimely figs” (King James)<br />
<br />
The Geneva Bible has sometimes been called the ''Breeches Bible,'' after its rendering of <cite>[http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Bible_%28King_James%29/Genesis#3:7 Genesis 3:7]</cite>: (using modern spelling) "Then the eyes of them both were opened, and they knew that they were naked, and they sewed fig tree leaves together, and made themselves [[breeches]]." The older [[Wyclif's Bible|Wycliffe Bible]] also used "breeches" (spelled "brechis") in this verse. Other translations use "aprons", "coverings", "loincloths", "loin coverings", or "girdles" instead of "breeches".<br />
<br />
== See also == <br />
* [[Editio Regia]] <br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{reflist}}<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
Facsimiles<br />
*[http://www.thedcl.org/bible/gb/index.html A Digital Facsimile of the 1560 Geneva Bible] at The DCL.<br />
*[http://reactor-core.org/geneva/ A Digital Facsimile by Reactor-Core]<br />
<br />
Text<br />
*[http://www.reformedreader.org/gbn/en.htm Geneva Bible Footnotes]<br />
*[http://www.studylight.org/desk/?=1en&query=Genesis+1&translation=gen Geneva Bible online]<br />
*[http://www.bibles.org.uk/pdf/bibles/ Geneva Bible Text] (links to a commercial site)<br />
*[http://www.genevabible.org/Geneva.html Modern Spelling Geneva Bible with Footnotes for the Gospels]<br />
<br />
Articles<br />
*[http://theologytoday.ptsem.edu/oct1960/v17-3-article6.htm ''The Geneva Bible of 1560'']: article by [[Bruce Metzger]] originally printed in ''Theology Today''<br />
*[http://www.bible-researcher.com/geneva6.html Online version of Sir Frederic G. Kenyon’s article] in ''[[Hastings' Dictionary of the Bible]]'', 1909<br />
<br />
Editions Currently in Print<br />
*[http://www.tollelegepress.com/gb/geneva.php ''1599 Edition'']: Modern Spelling, Typesetting from The 1599 Geneva Bible Restoration Project <br />
*[http://www.greatsite.com/facsimile-reproductions/geneva-1560.html ''1560 First Edition'']: Facsimile Reproduction<br />
<br />
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[[fr:Bible de Genève]]<br />
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Leslie
https://conservapedia.com/index.php?title=New_Jerusalem_Bible&diff=553347
New Jerusalem Bible
2008-11-10T00:32:00Z
<p>Leslie: removing some too-obvious bias</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Bible translation infobox | translation_title=New Jerusalem Bible<br />
| full_name=New Jerusalem Bible<br />
| image =<br />
| other_names=<br />
| abbreviation=NJB<br />
| NT_published=<br />
| OT_published=<br />
| complete_bible_published=1985<br />
| author_info=<br />
| textual_basis = '''NT:''' Medium Correspondence to Nestle-Aland [[Novum Testamentum Graece]] 25th edition, with occasional parallels to [[Codex Bezae]]. '''OT:''' [[Biblia Hebraica Stuttgartensia]] with [[Septuagint]] influence. '''Apocrypha:''' [[Septuagint]] with [[Vulgate]] influence.<br />
| translation_type = Free Translation<br />
| reading_level= High School<br />
| version_revised=<br />
| publisher=<br />
| copyright= © 1985 by Darton, Longman & Todd Ltd and Les Editions du Cerf<br />
| copies_printed=<br />
| religious_affiliation=[[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholic]]<br />
| online_address=<br />
| genesis_1:1-3=In the beginning God created heaven and earth. Now the earth was a formless void, there was darkness over the deep, with a divine wind sweeping over the waters. God said, 'Let there be light,' and there was light.<br />
| john_3:16=For this is how God loved the world: he gave his only Son, so that everyone who believes in him may not perish but may have eternal life.<br />
|}}<br />
The '''New Jerusalem Bible''' ('''NJB''') is a [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholic]] translation of the [[Bible]] published in 1985 and edited by The Reverend Henry Wansbrough, O.S.B., monk of Ampleforth Abbey in North Yorkshire and former Master of [[St Benet's Hall, Oxford]].<br />
<br />
== Contents ==<br />
The ''New Jerusalem Bible'' includes the [[deuterocanonical]] books and sections. The text of these is included where they occur in the context of the complete [[Septuagint]], rather than being grouped together in an appendix. Deuterocanonical sections of books in the Hebrew canon are identified by the use of italics.<br />
<br />
== Source of the NJB ==<br />
Like its predecessor, the [[Jerusalem Bible]], this version is translated "directly from the Hebrew, Greek or Aramaic." The 1973 French translation, the [http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/La_Bible_de_Jérusalem Bible de Jérusalem], is followed only "where the text admits to more than one interpretation." Introductions and notes, with some modifications, are taken from the Bible de Jérusalem<ref>[[Henry Wansbrough]], "New Jerusalem Bible, Regular Edition", pg. v.</ref>.<br />
<br />
== Review of the NJB ==<br />
It is an update to the ''[[Jerusalem Bible]]'', an English version of the French ''Bible de Jérusalem''. However, the ''Jerusalem Bible'' was not a translation from the French; rather, it is an original translation heavily influenced by the French. When the French version was updated in 1973, the changes were used to revise the ''Jerusalem Bible'', creating the ''New Jerusalem Bible''.<br />
<br />
The revisions were substantial. The revised version is said to be less literary but, for the most part, more literal. The introductions and footnotes, translated almost entirely from the French, have also been thoroughly revised and expanded, making it one of the most scholarly editions of the Bible.{{BibleHistory}}<br />
<br />
The ''New Jerusalem Bible'' uses some "[[inclusive language]]," as in Exodus 20:17: "You shall not set your heart on your neighbor's spouse," rather than "neighbor's wife" or "neighbor's woman". For the most part, however, the inclusive language is limited to avoiding a "preference" for the [[masculine]], as the translators write in the foreword. The ''New Jerusalem Bible'' uses more gender inclusive language than the ''Jerusalem Bible'', but far less than many modern translations such as the ''[[New Revised Standard Version Catholic Edition]]'' which changes "brothers" to "brothers and sisters", throughout the New Testament. For the inclusive language that it does contain, it has been rejected by many conservative [[United States|American]] Catholics, in favor of the ''[[Revised Standard Version Catholic Edition]]'', the ''[[New American Bible]]'', or the ''[[Douai Bible|Douay-Rheims Bible]]''. Outside of America it has become the most widely used Catholic translation in [[List of countries by English-speaking population|English-speaking countries]].<br />
<br />
Like the ''Jerusalem Bible'', the ''New Jerusalem Bible'' makes the uncommon decision to render God's name, the [[Tetragrammaton]], in the [[Jewish Bible|Jewish scriptures]] as [[Yahweh]] rather than as L<small>ORD</small> or God <ref>The [[World English Bible]], an unfinished revision of the [[American Standard Version]], also uses Yahweh. The [[American Standard Version]] and the [[New World Translation]] both use Jehovah.</ref>. Yahweh is the closest in English to get to what is commonly believed to be the pronunciation of YHWH, the Hebrew holy name of God, though it has in the past been spelled "[[Jehovah]]".<br />
<br />
The New Jerusalem Bible also transliterates the Hebrew term "Sabaoth" rather than using the traditional rendering, thus "Yahweh Sabaoth" instead of "L<small>ORD</small> of hosts". This is for the sake of accuracy, as the translation of "Sabaoth" is uncertain.<br />
(New Jerusalem Bible, Regular Edition, footnote to Samuel 1:3)<br />
<br />
==Notes==<br />
{{reflist}}<br />
<br />
== External links ==<br />
*[http://www.catholic.org/bible/ Online text of the New Jerusalem Bible] <br />
*[http://www.kofc.duq.edu/scripture/ Online text of the New Jerusalem Bible] (Gen.-Sam., Ps., Prov., N.T. only)<br />
*Henry Wansbrough, [http://www.tyndale.org/TSJ/6/wansbrough.html Editing the New Jerusalem Bible]<br />
*[http://www.bible-researcher.com/new-jerusalem-bible.html Michael Marlowe review of the NJB]<br />
*[http://ebaf.edu/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=173&Itemid=52 Overview of the Next Revision]<br />
{{English Bible translation navbox}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:1985 books]]<br />
[[Category:Bible versions and translations]]<br />
<br />
[[id:Alkitab Yerusalem Baru]]<br />
[[ja:新エルサレム聖書]]</div>
Leslie
https://conservapedia.com/index.php?title=New_American_Bible&diff=553346
New American Bible
2008-11-10T00:31:47Z
<p>Leslie: removing some too-obvious bias</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Bible translation infobox | translation_title = New American Bible<br />
| image = [[Image:Nab-cover.jpg|160px|The New American Bible]]<br />
| full_name = New American Bible<br />
| abbreviation = NAB<br />
| complete_bible_published = 1970<br />
| derived_from = <br />
| textual_basis = '''NT:''' High Correspondence to Nestle-Aland [[Novum Testamentum Graece]] 27th edition. '''OT:''' [[Biblia Hebraica Stuttgartensia]] with [[Septuagint]] influence. '''Apocrypha:''' [[Septuagint]] with some [[Vulgate]] influence.<br />
| translation_type = [[Formal equivalence]] (from the Preface).<br />
| reading_level = Middle School<br />
| publisher = <br />
| copyright =<br />
| online_address = <br />
| genesis_1:1-3 = In the beginning, when God created the heavens and the earth, the earth was a formless wasteland, and darkness covered the abyss, while a mighty wind swept over the waters. <br />
Then God said, "Let there be light," and there was light.<br />
| john_3:16 = For God so loved the world that he gave his only Son, so that everyone who believes in him might not perish but might have eternal life.<br />
|}}<br />
<br />
In 1970, the '''New American Bible''' ('''NAB''') was first published. It is an [[English language|English]] [[Bible translations|Bible translation]] that was produced by members of the [[Catholic Church|Catholic]] biblical scholars in cooperation with the [[United States Conference of Catholic Bishops]]. The original [[language]]s were [[translation|translated]] into [[English language|English]] by the [[Confraternity of Christian Doctrine]] according to the principles of [[Vatican II]] for use in the [[liturgy]]. <br />
<br />
== Content ==<br />
It contains the following articles and other information:<br />
<br />
*Bible Helps<br />
*The Purpose of the Bible<br />
*The Bible and History<br />
*How the Bible Came About<br />
*How to Study the Bible<br />
*List of the Popes<br />
*The English Versions of the Bible<br />
*Literary Forms of the Bible<br />
*Biblical Themes<br />
*Suggested Readings for the Liturgical Year<br />
*Sunday Readings of the Holy Scriptures<br />
<br />
== Second version ==<br />
In 1986 some traditionally familiar phraseology was restored to the [[New Testament]]. This included some [[Gender-neutral language in English|inclusive language]].<br />
<br />
== Third version ==<br />
In 1991 it was again amended to create more inclusive language in the [[Psalms]]. Some controversy ensued because of its alleged use of vertical inclusive language (God and Christ) and some uses of horizontal inclusive language (human beings instead of men).<br />
<br />
== "Fourth version" ==<br />
There has been no 4th Edition published as a Bible, however, in 2000 the text of the ''1991 New American Bible with revised [[New Testament]] and Psalms'' was modified by a committee of the [[Holy See]] and the Bishops for use in the Latin-Rite Catholic liturgy. This is the current text of the Lectionaries of the [[United States]] [[Roman Catholic Church]]. The [[Holy See]] accepted some use of inclusive language, such as where the speaker intended to address a mixed audience (such as “brothers and sisters”), but rejected any changes relating to God or Christ. This version will soon be found in the new English [[Lectionary]]. The revision of the NAB Old Testament, excluding the Psalms which were revised in 1991, is yet to be published.<br />
<br />
== Criticism ==<br />
The New American Bible of 1991 has been lauded by many liberal Catholics. However, it has been derided by more orthodox Catholics for a number of reasons. For one, it uses [[gender-neutral]] language in many places.{{Fact|date=December 2007}} Pope John Paul II and other Vatican officials were not happy with the 1991 revision, mainly because of the inclusive language. The revised Psalter of 1991 was rejected for liturgical use by the Holy See in 1994. The revised text (New Testament and Psalms) was specifically disallowed by the provisional norms for translation of biblical texts sent by Vatican officials to American Bishops in June 1997, and also disallowed by the translation guidelines formally promulgated in an Instruction published by the Vatican Congregation for Divine Worship and the Discipline of the Sacraments in March 2001 “Liturgiam authenticam ”, hence the issuing of an amended text for liturgical use. Nonetheless, the New American Bible is one of the most widely used translations by American Catholics.<br />
<br />
The notes especially have been criticized by some Catholics because of their perceived [[Liberal Christianity|liberal]] and [[Higher criticism|higher critical]] interpretation of passages, such as those which are believed to prophesy the coming of Christ.{{Fact|date=December 2007}} Traditional authorship of many books is also questioned (e.g. the Pentateuch, Daniel, and some of Paul's letters).{{Fact|date=December 2007}} Some more traditional Catholics therefore reject its use and call on Catholics to use more traditional translations, such as those in the [[Douai-Rheims Bible]] and the ''Ignatius Catholic Study Bible'' series.{{Fact|date=December 2007}} It should be noted, however, that many Church authorities find nothing wrong with the scholarly questioning of traditional authorship, especially since in many cases (in the Old Testament and even the Gospels) there is no authorial identification in the text.<br />
<br />
== External links ==<br />
*[http://www.usccb.org/nab/bible/index.htm The New American Bible] - online access (USCCB website)<br />
*[http://www.pugiofidei.com/NAB.htm Wolf in Calfskin: The Rampant Liberalism of the NAB] - a traditionalist critique of the NAB<br />
<br />
{{English Bible translation navbox}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:1970 books]]<br />
[[Category:Bible versions and translations]]</div>
Leslie
https://conservapedia.com/index.php?title=Revised_English_Bible&diff=553345
Revised English Bible
2008-11-10T00:31:33Z
<p>Leslie: removing some too-obvious bias</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Bible translation infobox | translation_title=Revised English Bible<br />
| full_name=Revised English Bible<br />
| image=[[Image:Reb-cover.jpg|180px|The Revised English Bible|thumb|center]]<br />
| derived_from=[[New English Bible]]<br />
| abbreviation=REB<br />
| complete_bible_published=1989 <br />
| textual_basis = '''NT:''' Medium correspondence to Nestle-Aland [[Novum Testamentum Graece]] 27th edition, with occasional parallels to [[Codex Bezae]]. '''OT:''' [[Biblia Hebraica Stuttgartensia]] (1967/77) with [[Dead Sea Scrolls]] and [[Septuagint]] influence. '''Apocrypha:''' [[Septuagint]] with [[Vulgate]] influence.<br />
| translation_type = [[Dynamic equivalence]].<br />
| reading_level = High School<br />
| copyright= © [[Oxford University Press]] and [[Cambridge University Press]] 1989<br />
| religious_affiliation=Ecumenical<br />
| genesis_1:1-3=In the beginning God created the heavens and the earth. The earth was a vast waste, darkness covered the deep, and the spirit of God hovered over the surface of the water. God said, 'Let there be light,' and there was light;<br />
| john_3:16=God so loved the world that he gave his only Son, that everyone who has faith in him may not perish but have eternal life.<br />
|}}<br />
<br />
{{BibleHistory}}<br />
The '''Revised English Bible (REB)''' is a 1989 update of the [[New English Bible]] of 1970. Like its predecessor, it is published by the University publishing houses of [[Oxford University|Oxford]] and [[University of Cambridge|Cambridge]].<br />
<br />
==Sponsors==<br />
<br />
The churches and other Christian groups that sponsored the REB were:<br />
<br />
*[[Baptist Union of Great Britain]]<br />
*[[Church of England]]<br />
*[[Church of Scotland]]<br />
*[[Council of Churches for Wales]]<br />
*[[Irish Council of Churches]]<br />
*The London Yearly Meeting of the [[Religious Society of Friends]]<br />
*[[Methodist Church]] of Great Britain<br />
*[[Moravian Church]] in Great Britain and Ireland<br />
*[[Roman Catholic Church]] in England and Wales<br />
*Roman Catholic Church in Ireland<br />
*Roman Catholic Church in Scotland<br />
*[[Salvation Army]]<br />
*[[United Reformed Church]]<br />
*[[British and Foreign Bible Society|Bible Society]]<br />
*[[National Bible Society of Scotland]]<br />
<br />
==Translation philosophy==<br />
<br />
The REB is the result of both advances in scholarship and translation made since the 1960s and also a desire to correct what have been seen as some of the NEB's more egregious errors. For examples of changes, see the references. The changes remove many of the most idiosyncratic renderings of the [[New English Bible]], moving the REB more in the direction of standard translations such as [[NRSV]] or [[NIV]]. <br />
<br />
The translation is intended to be gender-inclusive, to the extent that this is justified by the original language, though it does not take this to the same extent as the [[NRSV]] or [[TNIV]]. The gender-inclusive approach has also been widely praised by others as a needful corrective to centuries of church-inspired paternalism. Nevertheless, it can be criticized by those who think this approach to be a bow to [[political correctness]] and [[feminist theology]].<br />
<br />
The style has been described by several people as more "literary" than [[NRSV]] or [[NIV]]. It tends slightly further in the direction of "dynamic equivalence" than those translations, but still translates Hebrew poetry as poetry and reflects at least some of the characteristics of that poetry. The Revised English Bible's general accuracy and literary flavour has led [[Stephen Mitchell]] and others[http://homepage.mac.com/rmansfield/thislamp/files/071806_revised_english_bible.html] to compliment it as one of the best English renderings. <br />
<br />
These days there are few differences between evangelical and non-evangelical translations. The best-known difference is probably Isaiah 7:14, where evangelical translators often have "virgin" instead of "young woman". The REB is a non-evangelical translation.<br />
<br />
Like the NEB, it is primarily presented to the British and British-educated public, although it has some [[United States|American]] users and admirers.<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
*[http://homepage.mac.com/rmansfield/thislamp/files/071806_revised_english_bible.html The Revised English Bible (Top Ten Bible Versions #6)] Rick Mansfield<br />
*[http://www.bible-researcher.com/reb.html The Revised English Bible (1989)] Michael Marlowe<br />
*[http://englishbibles.blogspot.com/2005/04/reb-revised-english-bible.html Better Bibles Blog] Wayne Leman, plus comments<br />
*review of The Revised English Bible with Apocrypha by Roger Coleman, in Novum Testamentum, Vol. 33, Fasc. 2 (Apr., 1991), pp. 182-185<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
*[http://www.cambridge.org/uk/bibles/reb/ Revised English Bible: Cambridge University Press]<br />
*[http://www.bible-researcher.com/reb.html An Overview of the REB] By Michael Marlowe<br />
<br />
{{English Bible translation navbox}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:1989 books]]<br />
[[Category:Bible versions and translations]]</div>
Leslie
https://conservapedia.com/index.php?title=New_American_Standard_Bible&diff=553344
New American Standard Bible
2008-11-10T00:29:55Z
<p>Leslie: removing some too-obvious bias</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Bible translation infobox | translation_title = New American Standard Bible<br />
| image = [[Image:Nasb-cover.jpg|200px]]<br />
| full_name = New American Standard Bible<br />
| abbreviation = NASB or NAS<br />
| NT_published = 1963<br />
| OT_published = 1971<br />
| version_revised = 1995<br />
| derived_from= [[American Standard Version]] (ASV)<br />
| textual_basis = '''NT:''' High Correspondence to the 23rd edition of the Nestle-Aland [[Novum Testamentum Graece]]. '''OT:''' [[Biblia Hebraica Stuttgartensia]] with [[Septuagint]] influence.<br />
| translation_type = [[Formal Equivalence]]<br />
| reading_level = High School<br />
| copyright = (C) the [[Lockman Foundation]], 1960, 1962, 1963, 1968, 1971, 1972, 1973, 1975, 1977, 1995<br />
| online_address = [http://lockman.org http://lockman.org]<br />
| genesis_1:1-3 = In the beginning God created the heavens and the earth. The earth was formless and void, and darkness was over the surface of the deep, and the Spirit of God was moving over the surface of the waters.Then God said, "Let there be light"; and there was light. ([http://lockman.org NASB®])<br />
| john_3:16 = For God so loved the world, that He gave His only begotten Son, that whoever believes in Him shall not perish, but have eternal life. ([http://lockman.org NASB®])<br />
}}<br />
<br />
The '''New American Standard Bible (NASB)''' is an [[English language|English]] [[translation]] of the [[Bible]]. <br />
The [[New Testament]] was first published in 1963. The complete Bible was published in 1971.<ref name="NASB">{{cite web | title = The New American Standard Bible | work = The Most Literal is Now More Readable<br />
| publisher = The Lockman Foundation | url = http://www.lockman.org/nasb/ | format = HTML | accessdate =2007-12-14}}</ref> The most recent edition of the NASB text was published in 1995. Copyright and trademark to the NASB text are owned by the [[Lockman Foundation]].<ref name="Copyright">{{cite web | title = Permission to Quote Copyright & Trademark Information<br />
| publisher = The Lockman Foundation | url = http://www.lockman.org/nasb/copyright.php | format = HTML | accessdate =2007-12-14}}</ref><br />
<br />
The NASB was published in the following stages<br />
*Gospel of John (1960)<br />
*The Gospels (1962)<br />
*New Testament (1963)<br />
*Psalms (1968)<br />
*Complete Bible, Old and New Testaments (1971)<br />
*Modified Editions (1972, 1973, 1975, 1977)<br />
*Updated Edition (1995)<br />
<br />
== Translation philosophy ==<br />
The New American Standard Bible is widely regarded as one of the most literally translated of 20th-century English [[Bible translation]]s.<ref name=propadeutic>{{cite web | url=http://faith.propadeutic.com/conclusions.html | title=Comparing Bible Translations: Conclusions | accessdate=2007-11-25 | last=Pope | first=Christopher}}</ref> According to the NASB's preface, the translators had a "Fourfold Aim" in this work:<br />
# These publications shall be true to the original [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]], [[Aramaic language|Aramaic]], and [[Greek language|Greek]].<br />
# They shall be grammatically correct.<br />
# They shall be understandable.<br />
# They shall give the Lord [[Jesus|Jesus Christ]] His proper place, the place which the Word gives Him; therefore, no work will ever be personalized.<br />
<br />
As its name implies, the NASB is a revision of the [[American Standard Version]] of 1901. This translation was begun as an alternative to the [[Revised Standard Version]] (1946-1952/1971), itself a revision of the ASV, but considered by many to be theologically liberal. Using the ASV as its English base, the NASB's translators went back to established Hebrew, Aramaic, and Greek texts and revised the ASV as literally as possible.<br />
<br />
The Hebrew text used for this translation was the third edition of Rudolf Kittel's [[Biblia Hebraica]], as well as the [[Dead Sea Scrolls]]. The [[Biblia Hebraica Stuttgartensia]] was consulted for the 1995 revision. For Greek, Eberhard Nestle's Novum Testamentum Graece was used; the 23rd edition in the 1971 original, and the 26th in the 1995 revision.<br />
<br />
Seeing the need for a literal, modern translation of the English Bible, the translators sought to produce a contemporary English Bible while maintaining a [[formal equivalence|word-for-word]] translation style. In cases where word-for-word literalness was determined to be unacceptable for modern readers, changes were made in the direction of more current [[idiom]]s. In such instances, the more literal renderings were indicated in footnotes.<br />
<br />
The greatest perceived strength of the NASB is its reliability and fidelity to the original languages, which, along with other literal translations, also allows for ambiguities in the text's meaning. Its corresponding weakness is that its readability and literary style sometimes prove confusing to the average reader. In addition, its printing of verses as individual units instead of paragraphs makes the text appear fragmented (though more recent editions are available in paragraph format).<br />
<br />
=== Updated NASB (1995) ===<br />
In 1995, the Lockman Foundation reissued the NASB text as the ''NASB Updated Edition'' (or more often, the ''Updated NASB'' or ''NASB95''). Since then, it has become known simply as the "NASB" and has supplanted the 1971 text in most current printings (although the Thompson Chain Reference Bibles, the Open Bibles, and the Key Word Study Bibles still use the 1977 text for their NASB editions).<br />
<br />
In removing or replacing literal renderings of antiquated phrases and words, and many conjunctions, the current edition is slightly less literal than the original.{{Fact|date=December 2007}} It has introduced inclusive language in about 85 places.{{Fact|date=December 2007}} The NASB remains, however, the most literal version of the English Bible commonly used in churches today.{{Fact|date=December 2007}}<br />
<br />
==Translators==<br />
<br />
The revised NASB (1995) involved over 20 translators from a variety of denominational backgrounds who are conservative Bible scholars with doctorates in biblical languages, theology, or other advanced degrees.<ref>[http://www.lockman.org/nasb The Lockman Foundation]</ref><br />
<br />
==Footnotes==<br />
<div class="references-small"><references/></div><br />
<br />
== Sources ==<br />
*Marlowe, Michael D. (Oct 2002). [http://www.bible-researcher.com/nasb.html "New American Standard Bible"]. Retrieved March 19, 2005.<br />
*The Lockman Foundation (1995). [http://www.bible-researcher.com/nasb-preface.html "Preface to the New American Standard Bible"]. Retrieved March 19, 2005.<br />
*The Lockman Foundation. [http://lockman.org/nasb/index.php "New American Standard Bible"]. Retrieved April 13, 2006.<br />
*The Lockman Foundation. [http://lockman.org/nasb/nasbprin.php "Translation Principles"]. Retrieved April 13, 2006.<br />
*Ryken, Leland (2002). ''The Word of God in English''. Wheaton, IL: Crossway. ISBN 1-58134-464-3<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
* [http://lockman.org/nasb About the NASB]<br />
* [http://www.zianet.com/maxey/Ver6.htm A Critical Analysis of the NASB]<br />
* A searchable, online version of the NASB at [http://bible.gospelcom.net/passage/?search=;&version=49; gospelcom.net]<br />
* [http://www.bibleshared.com/bible A searchable, taggable, online version of the NASB Bible]<br />
*[http://www.zondervan.com/Cultures/en-US/Translations/Stats/NASB.htm?QueryStringSite=Zondervan Zondervan NASB Profile]<br />
<br />
{{BibleHistory}}<br />
{{English Bible translation navbox}}<br />
[[Category:1971 books]]<br />
[[Category:Bible versions and translations]]<br />
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[[sv:New American Standard Bible]]<br />
[[tr:Yeni Amerikan Standart İncil]]<br />
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Leslie
https://conservapedia.com/index.php?title=Woodrow_Wilson&diff=553343
Woodrow Wilson
2008-11-10T00:29:44Z
<p>Leslie: removing some too-obvious bias</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Infobox President<br />
|name=Thomas Woodrow Wilson<br />
||image=President Woodrow Wilson portrait December 2 1912.jpg<br />
|order=28th<br />
|office=President of the United States<br />
|term_start=March 4, 1913<br />
|term_end=March 4, 1921<br />
|vicepresident=[[Thomas R. Marshall]] (1913-1921)<br />
|predecessor=[[William Howard Taft]]<br />
|successor=[[Warren G. Harding]]<br />
|order2=34th<br />
|office2=Governor of New Jersey<br />
|term_start2= January 17, 1911<br />
|term_end2= March 1, 1913<br />
|predecessor2= [[John Franklin Fort]]<br />
|successor2= [[James Fairman Fielder]]<br />
|order3=13th [[President of Princeton University]]<br />
|term_start3= 1902<br />
|term_end3= 1910<br />
|predecessor3= Francis L. Patton<br />
|successor3= John Aikman Stewart<br />
|birth_date={{birth date|1856|12|28}}<br />
|birth_place=[[Staunton, Virginia]]<br />
|birthname = Thomas Woodrow Wilson<br />
|death_date={{death date and age|mf=yes|1924|02|03|1856|12|28}}<br />
|death_place=[[Washington, D.C.]]<br />
|spouse=[[Ellen Axson Wilson]]<br />[[Edith Bolling Galt Wilson]]<br />
|children=[[Margaret Woodrow Wilson]]<br>Jessie Wilson<br>[[Eleanor R. Wilson]]<br />
|alma_mater=[[Davidson College]]<br>[[Princeton University]] </br> [[The University of Virginia]]</br> [[Johns Hopkins University]] (PhD)<br />
|profession=[[Academia|Academic]] ([[History]], [[Political science]])<br />
|party=[[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic]]<br />
|signature=Woodrow wilson signature.png<br />
|religion=[[Presbyterianism|Presbyterian]]<br />
}}<br />
'''Thomas Woodrow Wilson''' (December 28, 1856 – February 3, 1924)<ref name=GenWebJRAC>{{cite web|url=http://genweb.jrac.com/genweb.php?DB=presidents&ID=I1735&query=LookupInternal <br />
|title=Woodrow (Thomas) Wilson |work=Geneology@jrac.com}}</ref> was the twenty-eighth [[President of the United States]]. A leading intellectual of the [[Progressive Era]], he served as [[President of Princeton University]] and then became the [[Governor of New Jersey]] in 1910. With [[Theodore Roosevelt]] and [[William Howard Taft]] dividing the [[History of the United States Republican Party|Republican Party]] vote, Wilson was [[United States presidential election, 1912|elected]] President as a [[History of the United States Democratic Party|Democrat]] in 1912. He proved highly successful in leading a Democratic [[United States Congress|Congress]] to pass major [[legislation]] that included the [[Federal Trade Commission]], the [[Clayton Antitrust Act]], the [[Federal Farm Loan Act]], America's first-ever federal progressive income tax in the [[Revenue Act of 1913|Revenue Act of 1913]] and most notably the [[Federal Reserve System]].<ref name="autogenerated1">{{cite web<br />
|accessdate=<br />
|url=http://www.umich.edu/%7eurel/admissions/legal/expert/foner.html<br />
|author=Foner, Eric <br />
|work=The Compelling Need for Diversity in Higher Education<br />
|title= Expert Report Of Eric Foner<br />
|publisher=University of Michigan}}</ref><ref name=JNH_Wolgemuth_1959>{{cite journal|url=http://www.jstor.org/pss/2716036<br />
|title=Woodrow Wilson and Federal Segregation<br />
|first=Kathleen L. |last=Wolgemuth<br />
|journal=The Journal of Negro History |volume=44 |issue=2 |date=April 1959 |page=158-173 |publisher=Association for the Study of African-American Life and History, Inc.}}<br />
</ref><br />
<br />
Narrowly [[United States presidential election, 1916|re-elected]] in 1916, his second term centered on [[World War I]]. He tried to maintain U.S. [[Neutral country|neutrality]], but when the [[German Empire]] began unrestricted [[submarine warfare]], he wrote several admonishing notes to Germany, and in April 1917 asked Congress to [[Declaration of war|declare war]] on the [[Central Powers]]. He focused on diplomacy and financial considerations, leaving the waging of the war primarily in the hands of the [[Military of the United States|military establishment]]. On the home front, he began the first effective [[Military draft|draft]] in 1917, raised billions in war funding through [[Liberty Bonds]], imposed an [[Income tax in the United States|income tax]], enacted the first [[Harrison Narcotics Tax Act|federal drug prohibition]], set up the [[War Industries Board]], promoted [[labor union]] growth, supervised agriculture and food production through the [[Smith-Lever Act of 1914|Lever Act]], took over control of the [[Rail transport|railroads]], and suppressed [[anti-war]] movements. He paid surprisingly little attention to military affairs, but provided the funding and food supplies that helped the Americans in the war and hastened Allied victory in 1918.{{Fact|date=October 2008}}<br />
<br />
In the late stages of the war, Wilson took personal control of negotiations with Germany, including the [[Armistice with Germany (Compiègne)|armistice]]. He issued his ''[[Fourteen Points]]'', his view of a post-war world that could avoid another terrible conflict. He went to [[Paris]] in 1919 to create the [[League of Nations]] and shape the [[Treaty of Versailles]], with special attention on creating new nations out of defunct empires. Largely for his efforts to form the League, he was awarded the [[Nobel Peace Prize]] in 1919. Wilson collapsed with a debilitating [[stroke]] in 1919, as the home front saw massive strikes and race riots, and wartime prosperity turn into postwar depression. He refused to compromise with the Republicans who controlled Congress after 1918, effectively destroying any chance for ratification of the Versailles Treaty. The League of Nations was established anyway, but the United States never joined. Wilson's idealistic [[internationalism]], calling for the United States to enter the world arena to fight for democracy, progressiveness, and liberalism, has been a highly controversial position in American [[Foreign policy in the United States|foreign policy]], serving as a model for "idealists" to emulate or "realists" to reject for the following century. Wilson has been consistently ranked by scholars as one of the [[Historical rankings of United States Presidents|greatest U.S. Presidents]].<br />
<br />
==Early life==<br />
Wilson was born in [[Staunton, Virginia|Staunton]], [[Virginia]] in 1856 as the third of four children of Reverend Dr. Joseph Ruggles Wilson (1822–1903) and Jessie Janet Woodrow (1826–1888).<ref name=GenWebJRAC/> His ancestry was [[Ulster Scots people|Scots-Irish]] and Scottish. His paternal grandparents immigrated to the United States from [[Strabane]], [[County Tyrone]], Ireland in 1807, while his mother was born in [[Carlisle]] to [[Scottish people|Scottish]] parents. His grandparents' [[whitewash]]ed house still stands, and has become a tourist attraction in [[Northern Ireland]]. Descendants of the Wilsons still live in the farmhouse next door to it.<ref name=GeographiaTyrone>{{cite web<br />
|url=http://www.geographia.com/northern-ireland/ukiher01.htm#Tyrone<br />
|title= President Wilson House, Dergalt<br />
|work=Northern Ireland - Ancestral Heritage<br />
|publisher=Northern Ireland Tourist Board}}</ref><br />
<br />
Wilson's father was originally from [[Steubenville, Ohio]] where his grandfather had been an abolitionist newspaper publisher and his uncles were [[Republican Party (United States)|Republicans]].{{Fact|date=May 2008}} Wilson's parents moved South in 1851 and identified with the [[Confederate States of America|Confederacy]]. His father defended slavery, owned slaves and set up a Sunday school for them. They cared for wounded soldiers at their church. The father also briefly served as a chaplain to the [[Confederate Army]].<ref name=PresidentialAvenue>{{cite web |accessdate=<br />
|url=http://www.presidentialavenue.com/ww.cfm <br />
|title=Woodrow Wilson &mdash; 28th President, 1913-1921<br />
|publisehr=PresidentialAvenue.com}}</ref> Woodrow Wilson's earliest memory, from the age of three, was of hearing that [[Abraham Lincoln]] had been elected and that a war was coming. Wilson would forever recall standing for a moment at [[Robert E. Lee]]'s side and looking up into his face.<ref name=PresidentialAvenue>{{cite web |accessdate=<br />
|url=http://www.presidentialavenue.com/ww.cfm <br />
|title=Woodrow Wilson &mdash; 28th President, 1913-1921<br />
|publisehr=PresidentialAvenue.com}}</ref><br />
<br />
Wilson’s father was one of the founders of the Southern [[Presbyterian Church in the United States]] (PCUS) after it split from the northern Presbyterians in 1861. Joseph R. Wilson served as the first permanent clerk of the southern church’s General Assembly, was Stated Clerk from 1865-1898 and was Moderator of the PCUS General Assembly in 1879. Wilson spent the majority of his childhood, up to age 14, in [[Augusta, Georgia]], where his father was [[Minister (Christianity)|minister]] of the First Presbyterian Church.<ref name=White_Ch2>{{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=pXYqVxLyRrwC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Woodrow+Wilson:+The+Man,+His+Times+and+His+Task#PPA28,M1<br />
|title=Woodrow Wilson - The Man, His Times and His Task<br />
|last=White|first=William Allen<br />
|chapter=Chapter II: The Influence of Environment<br />
}}</ref><br />
<br />
Wilson did not learn to [[read]] until he was about 12 years old. His difficulty reading may have indicated [[dyslexia]] or [[ADHD predominantly inattentive|A.D.H.D.]]{{Fact|date=November 2008}}, but as a teenager he taught himself [[shorthand]] to compensate and was able to achieve academically through determination and self-discipline. He studied at home under his father's guidance and took classes in a small school in Augusta.<ref>Link ''Road to the White House'' pp. 3-4.</ref><br />
During [[Reconstruction era of the United States|Reconstruction]], he lived in [[Columbia, South Carolina]], the state capital, from 1870-1874, where his father was professor at the [[Columbia Theological Seminary]].<ref>Walworth ch 1</ref><br />
<br />
In 1873, he spent a year at [[Davidson College]] in North Carolina, then transferred to [[Princeton University|Princeton]] as a freshman, graduating in 1879, becoming a member of [[Phi Kappa Psi]] fraternity. Beginning in his second year, he read widely in political philosophy and history. Wilson credited the British parliamentary sketch-writer [[Henry Lucy]] as his inspiration in resolving to enter public life. He was active in the undergraduate [[American Whig-Cliosophic Society]] discussion club, and organized a separate Liberal Debating Society.<ref>Link, ''Wilson'' I:5-6; Wilson Papers I: 130, 245, 314</ref><br />
<br />
In 1879, Wilson attended law school at [[University of Virginia School of Law|University of Virginia]] for one year. Although he never graduated, during his time at the University he was heavily involved in the [[Virginia Glee Club]] and the [[Jefferson Literary and Debating Society]], serving as the Society's president.<ref name="worldswork">{{cite book|title=The World's Work: A History of our Time, Volume IV: November 1911-April 1912|location=???|publisher=[[Doubleday (publisher)|Doubleday]]|year=1912|pages=74-75}}</ref> His frail health dictated withdrawal, and he went home to [[Wilmington, North Carolina|Wilmington]], [[North Carolina]] where he continued his studies.{{Fact|date=October 2008}}<br />
<br />
He entered graduate studies at [[Johns Hopkins University]] in 1883 and three years later received a Ph.D. in political science. After completing his doctoral dissertation, ''Congressional Government'', in 1885, he received academic appointments at [[Bryn Mawr College]] (1885-88) and [[Wesleyan University]] (1888-90).<ref name=PrincetonCompanion1978_Link_PhDquote>{{cite book|accessdate=2008-10-29<br />
|url=http://etcweb.princeton.edu/CampusWWW/Companion/wilson_woodrow.html<br />
|chapter=Wilson, Woodrow<br />
|first=Arthur S. |last=Link<br />
|editor=Alexander Leitch<br />
|title=A Princeton Companion |year=1978<br />
|publisher=Princeton University Press<br />
|quote=His doctoral dissertation, ''Congressional Governmen'' (1885), brought immediate fame and academic appointments at Bryn Mawr College (1885-88) and Wesleyan University (1888-90).<br />
}}</ref><br />
<br />
== Personal life ==<br />
=== Health ===<br />
Wilson’s mother was possibly a [[hypochondriac]]. Consequently, Wilson seemed to think that he was often in poorer health than he really was. However, he did suffer from [[hypertension]] at a relatively early age and may have suffered his first stroke at age 39.<ref>[http://www.woodrowwilsonhouse.org/index.asp?section=timeline&file=timelinesearch_day&id=302 Health of Woodrow Wilson]</ref><br />
<br />
=== Family ===<br />
In 1885, he married [[Ellen Axson Wilson|Ellen Louise Axson]], the daughter of a minister from [[Rome, Georgia]]. They had three daughters: [[Margaret Woodrow Wilson]] (1886-1944); [[Jessie Wilson]] (1887-1933); and [[Eleanor R. Wilson]] (1889-1967)<ref name=GenWebJRAC /> He remarried in 1915 after Axson died. Wilson is the last President to become a widower while still in office.{{Fact|date=October 2008}}<br />
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=== Hobbies ===<br />
[[Image:wilsonspiercearrow.jpg|thumb|right|Wilson's Pierce Arrow, which resides in his hometown of Staunton, Virginia.]]<br />
Wilson was an early automobile enthusiast, and he took daily rides while he was President. His favorite car was a 1919 [[Pierce-Arrow]], in which he preferred to ride with the top down.<ref>[http://www.woodrowwilson.org/visit_sub/visit_sub_show.htm?doc_id=321148 The Pierce Arrow Limousine] from the Woodrow Wilson Presidential Library</ref> His enjoyment of motoring made him an advocate of funding for public [[National Highway System (United States)|highways]].<ref>Richard F. Weingroff, [http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/infrastructure/rw96b.htm#6 President Woodrow Wilson{{ndash}} Motorist Extraordinaire], Federal Highway Administration</ref><br />
<br />
Wilson was an avid baseball fan. In 1916, he became the first sitting president to attend a [[World Series]] game. Wilson had been a [[center fielder]] during his Davidson College days. When he transferred to Princeton he was unable to make the varsity and so became the assistant manager of the team. He was the first President officially to throw out a first ball at a World Series.<ref>[http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/statitudes/news/2002/10/16/worldseries_btn/ CNNSI.com - Statitudes - Statitudes: World Series, By the Numbers - Thursday October 17, 2002 03:33 AM<!--Bot-generated title-->]</ref><br />
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He cycled regularly, including several cycling vacations in the [[Lake District]] in Britain. Unable to cycle around Washington, D.C. as President, Wilson took to playing golf, although he played with more enthusiasm than skill. Wilson holds the record of all the presidents for the most rounds of golf, over 1,000, or almost one every other day. During the winter, the [[United States Secret Service|Secret Service]] would paint golf balls with black paint so Wilson could hit them around in the snow on the [[White House]] lawn.<ref>for details on Wilson's health see Edwin A. Weinstein, ''Woodrow Wilson: A Medical and Psychological Biography'' (Princeton 1981)</ref><br />
<br />
== Public life ==<br />
=== Legal career ===<br />
In January 1882, Wilson decided to start his first law practice in [[Atlanta]]. One of Wilson’s [[University of Virginia]] classmates, [[Edward Ireland Renick]], invited Wilson to join his new law practice as partner. Wilson joined him there in May 1882. He passed the Georgia Bar. On October 19, 1882, he appeared in court before Judge [[George Hillyer]] to take his examination for the bar, which he passed with flying colors and he began work on his thesis ''Congressional Government in the United States''.<ref name=PhDthesis>Wilson ''Congressional Government'' 1885.</ref> Competition was fierce in the city with 143 other lawyers, so with few cases to keep him occupied, Wilson quickly grew disillusioned.{{Fact|date=October 2008}}<br />
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Moreover, Wilson had studied law in order to eventually enter politics, but he discovered that he could not continue his study of government and simultaneously continue the reading of law necessary to stay proficient. In April 1883, Wilson applied to the new [[Johns Hopkins University]] to study for a Ph.D. in history and political science, which he completed in 1886.<ref name=AmericanPresident>{{cite web |title=Thomas Woodrow Wilson (1913-1921) |publisher=Miller Center of Public Affairs at the University of Virginia |date=2005-01-14 |url=http://www.americanpresident.org/history/woodrowwilson/ |accessdate=2007-01-03}}</ref><br />
<br />
Wilson would later serve as president of the [[American Political Science Association]] in 1910, and remains the only U.S. president to have earned a doctoral degree, and the only political scientist to become president. In July 1883, Wilson left his law practice to begin his academic studies.<ref name=Mulder1978_pp71-72>{{cite book|author=Mulder, John H. |title=Woodrow Wilson: The Years of Preparation|publisher=Princeton |year=1978|pages=71-72}}</ref><br />
<br />
=== Political writings ===<br />
Wilson came of age in the decades after the [[American Civil War]], when Congress was supreme&mdash; "the gist of all policy is decided by the legislature"<br />
&mdash;and corruption was rampant. Instead of focusing on individuals in explaining where American politics went wrong, Wilson focused on the American constitutional structure.<ref name=PhD_p180>Wilson ''Congressional Government'' 1885, p. 180.</ref><br />
<br />
Under the influence of [[Walter Bagehot]]'s ''The English Constitution'', Wilson saw the [[United States Constitution]] as pre-modern, cumbersome, and open to corruption. An admirer of Parliament (though he did not visit [[United Kingdom|Great Britain]] until 1919), Wilson favored a [[parliamentary system]] for the United States. Writing in the early 1880s:<br />
<br />
:"I ask you to put this question to yourselves, should we not draw the Executive and Legislature closer together? Should we not, on the one hand, give the individual leaders of opinion in Congress a better chance to have an intimate party in determining who should be president, and the president, on the other hand, a better chance to approve himself a statesman, and his advisers capable men of affairs, in the guidance of Congress?"<ref>The Politics of Woodrow Wilson, 41&ndash;48</ref><br />
<br />
Wilson's article ''The Study of Administration'' was published in June of 1887 within the Political Science Quarterly. Wilson believed that public administration was an important topic not just because of growing popularity within college campuses. He believed it was a requirement for a growing nation. He defined public administration simply as “government in action; it is the executive, the operative, the most visible side of government, and is of course as old as government itself” (Wilson 3). He believed that by studying public administration that governmental efficiency may be increased.{{Fact|date=October 2008}}<br />
<br />
This set the tone for his following discussion. Wilson is concerned with the implementation of government and not just its principles defined by documents such as the Constitution. Wilson analyzed European history and saw a pattern where educated leaders debated the nature of the state, yet the question of how should the law be administrated was relegated to a lowly “practical detail”. Most of this was due to a much smaller—in comparison to the 19th century—population with the government being relatively “simple”.{{Fact|date=October 2008}}<br />
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Wilson thought it was long past due time to confront these issues, or as he put the problem, “[i]t is getting to be harder to run a constitution than to frame one” (Wilson 4). His justification and purpose for a science of administration was for it to “seek to straighten the paths of government, to make its business less unbusinesslike, to strengthen and purify its organization, and it to crown its dutifulness” (Wilson 5).<br />
<br />
The first problem (as he saw it) identified was that so far the advancement of this science had been undertaken by Europeans, not including England, whose goals and historical backgrounds were far different from America. He declared that Americans must advance this science as well, to steep it in the American tradition and make this science their own.{{Fact|date=October 2008}}<br />
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Wilson then described the growth of modern governments, starting with absolute rule, progressing to popular rule based upon a constitution, and then finally leading to a stage where the people undertake to develop administration as a science. He briefly gives an overview of the growth of such foreign states as Prussia, France, and England, highlighting the events that led to advances in administration.{{Fact|date=October 2008}}<br />
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The next problem was that the American Republic required great compromise since public opinion differed on so many levels. The people of America itself come from diverse backgrounds. These people must be convinced to form a majority opinion. Thus practical reform to the government is necessarily slow. Although this could be judged a good thing since a single person cannot make drastic, damaging changes. Every change must be pondered at length.{{Fact|date=October 2008}}<br />
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Now Wilson insisted that “administration lies outside the proper sphere of politics” (Wilson 10) and that “general laws which direct these things to be done are as obviously outside of and above administration” (Wilson 11). He likens administration to a machine that functions independent of the changing mood of its leaders.{{Fact|date=October 2008}}<br />
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Such a line of demarcation is intended to focus responsibility for actions taken on the people or persons in charge. As Wilson put it, “[p]ublic attention must be easily directed, in each case of good or bad administration, to just the man deserving of praise or blame. There is no danger in power, if only it be not irresponsible. If it be divided, dealt out in share to many [presumably within administration], it is obscured...” (Wilson 12). Essentially, the items under the discretion of administration must be limited in scope, as to not block, nullify, obfuscate, or modify the implementation of governmental decree made by the executive branch. While this is Wilson’s ideal in today’s practice people within administration often greatly influence the makeup of law and not just its implementation.{{Fact|date=October 2008}}<br />
<br />
==='Congressional Government'===<br />
Wilson started ''Congressional Government'', his best known political work, as an argument for a parliamentary system, but Wilson was impressed by [[Grover Cleveland]], and ''Congressional Government'' emerged as a critical description of America's system, with frequent negative comparisons to [[Westminster]]. Wilson himself claimed, "I am pointing out facts&mdash;diagnosing, not prescribing remedies.".<ref name=PhD_p205>Wilson ''Congressional Government'' 1885, p. 205.</ref><br />
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Wilson believed that America's intricate system of [[checks and balances]] was the cause of the problems in American governance. He said that the divided power made it impossible for voters to see who was accountable for ill-doing. If government behaved badly, Wilson asked,<br />
<br />
:"...how is the schoolmaster, the nation, to know which boy needs the whipping? ... Power and strict accountability for its use are the essential constituents of good government.... It is, therefore, manifestly a radical defect in our federal system that it parcels out power and confuses responsibility as it does. The main purpose of the [[Constitutional convention of 1787|Convention of 1787]] seems to have been to accomplish this grievous mistake. The 'literary theory' of checks and balances is simply a consistent account of what our Constitution makers tried to do; and those checks and balances have proved mischievous just to the extent which they have succeeded in establishing themselves... ''[the Framers]'' would be the first to admit that the only fruit of dividing power had been to make it irresponsible."<ref name=PhD_pp186-187>Wilson ''Congressional Government'' 1885, pp. 186–187. </ref><br />
<br />
The longest section of ''Congressional Government'' is on the [[United States House of Representatives]], where Wilson pours out scorn for the committee system. Power, Wilson wrote,<br />
:"is divided up, as it were, into forty-seven signatories, in each of which a Standing Committee is the court baron and its chairman lord proprietor. These petty barons, some of them not a little powerful, but none of them within reach [of] the full powers of rule, may at will exercise an almost despotic sway within their own shires, and may sometimes threaten to convulse even the realm itself.".<ref name=PhD_p76>Wilson ''Congressional Government'' 1885, p. 76.</ref><br />
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Wilson said that the committee system was fundamentally undemocratic, because committee chairs, who ruled by seniority, were responsible to no one except their constituents, even though they determined national policy.{{Fact|date=October 2008}}<br />
<br />
In addition to its undemocratic nature, Wilson also believed that the Congressional Committee System facilitated corruption.{{Fact|date=October 2008}}<br />
<br />
:"the voter, moreover, feels that his want of confidence in [[United States Congress|Congress]] is justified by what he hears of the power of corrupt lobbyists to turn legislation to their own uses. He hears of enormous subsidies begged and obtained... of appropriations made in the interest of dishonest contractors; he is not altogether unwarranted in the conclusion that these are evils inherent in the very nature of Congress; there can be no doubt that the power of the lobbyist consists in great part, if not altogether, in the facility afforded him by the Committee system.<ref name=PhD_p132>Wilson ''Congressional Government'' 1885, p. 132. </ref><br />
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By the time Wilson finished ''Congressional Government'', [[Grover Cleveland]] was President, and Wilson had his faith in the United States government restored. When [[William Jennings Bryan]] captured the Democratic nomination from Cleveland's supporters in 1896, however, Wilson refused to stand by the ticket. Instead, he cast his ballot for [[John M. Palmer (politician)|John M. Palmer]], the presidential candidate of the [[National Democratic Party (United States)|National Democratic Party]], or Gold Democrats, a short-lived party that supported a gold standard, low tariffs, and limited government.<ref> David T. Beito and Linda Royster Beito, [http://www.independent.org/publications/tir/article.asp?issueID=22&articleID=261 "Gold Democrats and the Decline of Classical Liberalism, 1896-1900,"]Independent Review 4 (Spring 2000), 555-75.</ref><br />
<br />
After experiencing the vigorous presidencies of [[William McKinley]] and [[Theodore Roosevelt]], Wilson no longer entertained thoughts of parliamentary government at home. In his last scholarly work in 1908, ''Constitutional Government of the United States'', Wilson said that the presidency "will be as big as and as influential as the man who occupies it". By the time of his presidency, Wilson merely hoped that Presidents could be party leaders in the same way [[prime minister]]s were. Wilson also hoped that the parties could be reorganized along ideological, not geographic, lines. "Eight words," Wilson wrote, "contain the sum of the present degradation of our political parties: No leaders, no principles; no principles, no parties."<ref>''Frozen Republic'', 145</ref><br />
<br />
===Academic career===<br />
Wilson served on the faculties of [[Bryn Mawr College]] and [[Wesleyan University]]. At Wesleyan, he also coached the [[American football|football]] team and founded the debate team - to this date, it is named the T. Woodrow Wilson debate team. He then joined the [[Princeton University|Princeton]] faculty as professor of [[jurisprudence]] and [[political economy]] in 1890. While there, he was one of the faculty members of the short-lived coordinate college, [[Evelyn College for Women]]. Additionally, Wilson became the first lecturer of Constitutional Law at [[New York Law School]] where he taught with [[Charles Evans Hughes]].{{Fact|date=October 2008}}<br />
<br />
Wilson delivered an oration at Princeton's sesquicentennial celebration (1896) entitled "Princeton in the Nation's Service." (This has become a frequently alluded-to motto of the University, later expanded to "Princeton in the Nation's Service and in the Service of All Nations."<ref>[http://www.princeton.edu/~compub/pwb/98/0622/speech.html "Beyond FitzRandolph Gates,"] ''Princeton Weekly Bulletin'' June 22, 1998.</ref>) In this famous speech, he outlined his vision of the university in a democratic nation, calling on institutions of higher learning "to illuminate duty by every lesson that can be drawn out of the past".{{Fact|date=October 2008}}<br />
<br />
[[Image:Pu-prospect-house.JPG|200px|thumb|Prospect House, located in the center of [[Princeton University|Princeton's]] campus, was Wilson's residence during his term as president of the university.]]<br />
The trustees promoted Professor Wilson to president of Princeton in 1902. Although the school's endowment was barely $4&nbsp;million, he sought $2&nbsp;million for a preceptorial system of teaching, $1&nbsp;million for a school of science, and nearly $3&nbsp;million for new buildings and salary raises. As a long-term objective, Wilson sought $3&nbsp;million for a graduate school and $2.5&nbsp;million for schools of jurisprudence and [[electrical engineering]], as well as a museum of natural history.{{Fact|date=May 2008}}<br />
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He achieved little of that because he was not a strong fund raiser, but he did increase the faculty from 112 to 174, most of them personally selected as outstanding teachers. The curriculum guidelines he developed proved important progressive innovations in the field of higher education.{{Fact|date=October 2008}}<br />
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To enhance the role of expertise, Wilson instituted academic departments and a system of core requirements where students met in groups of six with preceptors, followed by two years of concentration in a selected major. He tried to raise admission standards and to replace the "gentleman C" with serious study. Wilson aspired, as he told alumni, "to transform thoughtless boys performing tasks into thinking men."{{Fact|date=October 2008}}<br />
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In 1906-10, he attempted to curtail the influence of the elitist [[Eating clubs|"social clubs"]] by abolishing the upperclass eating clubs and moving the students into colleges, also known as "quadrangles." Wilson's "Quad Plan" was met with fierce opposition from Princeton's alumni, most importantly [[Moses Taylor Pyne]], the most powerful of Princeton's Trustees. Wilson refused any proposed compromises that stopped short of abolishing the clubs because he felt that to compromise "would be to temporize with evil."<ref>Walworth 1:109</ref> In October 1907, due to the ferocity of alumni opposition and Wilson's refusal to compromise, the Board of Trustees took back its initial support for the Quad Plan and instructed Wilson to withdraw it.<ref>Henry Wilkinson Bragdon, ''Woodrow Wilson: The Academic Years'' (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1967), 326-327.</ref><br />
<br />
Even more damaging was his confrontation with Andrew Fleming West, Dean of the graduate school, and West's ally, former President [[Grover Cleveland]], a trustee. Wilson wanted to integrate the proposed graduate building into the same area with the undergraduate colleges; West wanted them separated. The trustees rejected Wilson's plan for colleges in 1908, and then endorsed West's plans in 1909. The national press covered the confrontation as a battle of the [[elites]] (West) versus [[democracy]] (Wilson). During this time in his personal life, Wilson engaged in an extramarital affair with socialite Mary Peck.<ref>[http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/wilson/portrait/wp_ellen.html PBS - American Experience: Woodrow Wilson Wilson- A Portrait<!--Bot-generated title-->]</ref> Wilson, after considering resignation, decided to take up invitations to move into [[New Jersey]] [[Politics of New Jersey|state politics]].<ref>Walworth v 1 ch 6, 7, 8</ref><br />
<br />
==Governor of New Jersey==<br />
In 1910 Wilson ran for [[Governor of New Jersey]] against the Republican candidate [[Vivian M. Lewis]], the State Commissioner of Banking and Insurance. Wilson's campaign focused on his independence from machine politics, and he promised that if elected he would not be beholden to party bosses. Wilson soundly defeated Lewis in the general election by a margin of more than 49,000 votes, despite the fact that Republican [[William Howard Taft]] had carried New Jersey in the [[United States presidential election, 1908|1908 presidential election]] by more than 80,000 votes.<ref>[http://www.njstatelib.org/NJ_Information/Digital_Collections/Governors_of_New_Jersey/GWILS.pdf Biography of Woodrow Wilson (PDF)], [[New Jersey State Library]].</ref><br />
<br />
In the 1910 election the Democrats also took control of the [[New Jersey General Assembly|General Assembly]]. The [[New Jersey Senate|State Senate]], however, remained in Republican control by a slim margin. After taking office, Wilson set in place his reformist agenda, ignoring the demands of party machinery. While governor, in a period spanning six months, Wilson established state primaries. This all but took the party bosses out of the presidential election process in the state. He also revamped the public utility commission, and introduced [[worker's compensation]].<ref>Shenkman, Richard. p. 275. ''Presidential Ambition''. New York, New York. Harper Collins Publishing, 1999. First Edition. 0-06-018373-X</ref><br />
<br />
== Presidency 1913-1921 ==<br />
===First term===<br />
[[Image:Woodrow Wilson addressing Congress (LOC).jpg|200px|right|Wilson addressing the U.S. Congress, April 8, 1913]]<br />
Wilson defeated two former U.S. presidents, [[Theodore Roosevelt]] and [[William Howard Taft]], to win [[United States presidential election, 1912|the election of 1912]].<br />
<br />
Wilson experienced early success by implementing his "[[The New Freedom|New Freedom]]" pledges of antitrust modification, tariff revision, and reform in banking and currency matters.{{Fact|date=October 2008}}<br />
<br />
Wilson's first wife [[Ellen Wilson|Ellen]] died on August 6, 1914 of [[Bright's disease]]. In 1915, he met [[Edith Galt]]. They married later that year on December 18.<br />
Wilson arrived at the White House with severe digestive problems. He treated himself with a stomach pump.<ref>{{cite book |coauthor=[[Sigmund Freud]] |author=William Bullitt |authorlink=William Christian Bullitt, Jr. |title=Woodrow Wilson - A Psychological Study |publisher=Transaction Publishers |location=Piscataway, NJ |year=1998 |pages=p. 150}}<br />Bullitt knew Wilson personally, and was with him at the Paris Peace Conference, 1919.</ref><br />
<br />
Wilson, born in Virginia and raised in Georgia, was the first Southerner to be elected President since [[Zachary Taylor]] in 1848 and the first Southerner to take office since [[Andrew Johnson]] in 1865, as well as the first President to deliver his State of the Union address before Congress personally since [[John Adams]] in 1799. Wilson was also the first Democrat elected to the presidency since [[Grover Cleveland]] in 1892. The next Democrat elected was Franklin D. Roosevelt in 1932.{{Fact|date=October 2008}}<br />
<br />
====Federal Reserve 1913====<br />
[[Image:US100000dollarsbillobverse.jpg|350px|right|Wilson on the $100,000 [[gold certificate]]]]<br />
Wilson secured passage of the [[Federal Reserve]] system in late 1913 in exchange for campaign support. He took a plan that had been designed by conservative Republicans&mdash;led by [[Nelson W. Aldrich]] and banker [[Paul M. Warburg]]&mdash;and passed it. However, Wilson had to find a middle ground between those who supported the Aldrich Plan and those who opposed it, including the powerful agrarian wing of the party, led by [[William Jennings Bryan]], which strenuously denounced private banks and Wall Street.{{Fact|date=October 2008}}<br />
<br />
They wanted a government-owned central bank which could print paper money whenever Congress wanted. Wilson’s plan allowed the large banks to have important influence, but Wilson went beyond the Aldrich plan and created a central board made up of persons appointed by the President and approved by Congress who would outnumber the board members who were bankers at that time. <br />
<br />
Moreover, Wilson convinced Bryan’s supporters that because Federal Reserve notes were obligations of the government, the plan fit their demands. Wilson’s plan also organized the Federal Reserve system into 12 districts. This was designed to weaken the influence of the powerful</s> New York banks, a key demand of Bryan’s allies in the [[Southern United States]] and [[Western United States]]. This decentralization was a key factor in winning the support of Congressman [[Carter Glass]] (D-VA) although he objected to making paper currency a federal obligation.{{Fact|date=October 2008}}<br />
<br />
Glass was one of the leaders of the currency reformers in the U.S. House and without his support, any plan was doomed to fail. The final plan passed, in December 1913, two days before Christmas when most of congress was on vacation. Some bankers felt it gave too much control to Washington, and some reformers felt it allowed bankers to maintain too much power. (It is more plausible that the bankers objected to the plan because it would increase the plan's popularity. The plan later proved in their interest.){{Fact|date=October 2008}}<br />
<br />
Wilson named Warburg and other prominent bankers to direct the new system. At first, the New York branch dominated the Fed and thus power remained in [[Wall Street]]. The new system began operations in 1915 and played a major role in financing the [[Allies of World War I|Allied]] and American war efforts. Wilson appeared on the [[Large denominations of United States currency|$100,000 bill]]. The bill, which is now out of print but is still [[legal tender]], was used only to transfer money between [[Federal Reserve]] banks.<ref>[http://ask.yahoo.com/20051110.html Ask Yahoo!] November 10, 2005</ref><ref>[http://www.frbsf.org/currency/world/nocirc/m2.html The $100,000 bill] Federal Reserve Bank of San Francisco</ref><br />
<br />
====Wilsonian economic views====<br />
Wilson's early views on international affairs and trade were stated in his Columbia University lectures of April 1907 where he said:<br />
:"Since trade ignores national boundaries and the manufacturer insists on having the world as a market, the flag of his nation must follow him, and the doors of the nations which are closed must be battered down…Concessions obtained by financiers must be safeguarded by ministers of state, even if the sovereignty of unwilling nations be outraged in the process. Colonies must be obtained or planted, in order that no useful corner of the world may be overlooked or left unused".<ref>[http://www.smarter.com/america-history-books/the-tragedy-of-american-diplomacy/pd--ch-1--pi-1716178.html The Tragedy of American Diplomacy] from [[William Appleman William]] p. 72</ref><br />
<br />
====Other economic policies====<br />
In 1913, the [[Underwood tariff]] lowered the [[tariff]]. The revenue thereby lost was replaced by a new federal income tax (authorized by the [[Sixteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|16th Amendment]], which had been sponsored by the Republicans). The "Seaman's Act" of 1915 improved working conditions for merchant sailors. As response to the [[RMS Titanic|RMS ''Titanic'']] disaster, it also required all ships to be retrofitted with lifeboats.<br />
<br />
A series of programs were targeted at farmers. The "Smith Lever" act of 1914 created the modern system of agricultural extension agents sponsored by the state agricultural colleges. The agents taught new techniques to farmers. The 1916 "Federal Farm Loan Board" issued low-cost long-term mortgages to farmers.<ref>[http://www.archives.gov/research/guide-fed-records/groups/103.html?template=print Records of the Farm Credit Administration ]</ref><br />
<br />
[[Child labor]] was curtailed by the [[Keating-Owen Act]] of 1916, but the [[U.S. Supreme Court]] declared it unconstitutional in 1918.<ref>[http://www.classbrain.com/artteenst/publish/article_109.shtml Keating-Owen Act (ClassBrain.com)]</ref><ref>[http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/scripts/getcase.pl?court=US&vol=247&invol=251 FindLaw.com]</ref>Additional child labor bills would not be enacted until the 1930s.{{Fact|date=October 2008}}<br />
<br />
The railroad brotherhoods threatened in summer 1916 to shut down the national transportation system. Wilson tried to bring labor and management together, but when management refused he had Congress pass the [[Adamson Act|"Adamson Act"]] in September 1916, which avoided the strike by imposing an 8-hour work day in the industry (at the same pay as before). It helped Wilson gain union support for his reelection; the act was approved by the Supreme Court.{{Fact|date=October 2008}}<br />
[[Image:Pump1913.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Wilson uses tariff, currency and anti-trust laws to prime the pump and get the economy working in a 1913 political cartoon]]<br />
<br />
====Antitrust====<br />
Wilson broke with the "big-lawsuit" tradition of his predecessors Taft and Roosevelt as "[[trust-busting|Trustbusters]]", finding a new approach to encouraging competition through the [[Federal Trade Commission]], which stopped "unfair" trade practices. In addition, he pushed through Congress the [[Clayton Antitrust Act]] making certain business practices illegal (such as price discrimination, agreements forbidding retailers from handling other companies’ products, and directorates and agreements to control other companies). The power of this legislation was greater than previous anti-trust laws, because individual officers of corporations could be held responsible if their companies violated the laws. More importantly, the new laws set out clear guidelines that corporations could follow, a dramatic improvement over the previous uncertainties. This law was considered the "[[Magna Carta]]" of labor by [[Samuel Gompers]] because it ended union liability antitrust laws. In 1916, under threat of a national railroad strike, he approved legislation that increased wages and cut working hours of railroad employees; there was no strike.{{Fact|date=October 2008}}<br />
<br />
====War policy&mdash;World War I====<br />
{{main|World War I}}<br />
Wilson spent 1914 through the beginning of 1917 trying to keep America out of the [[World War I|war in Europe]]. He offered to be a [[Mediation|mediator]], but neither the [[Allies]] nor the [[Central Powers]] took his requests seriously. Republicans, led by [[Theodore Roosevelt]], strongly criticized Wilson’s refusal to build up the [[U.S. Army]] in anticipation of the threat of war. Wilson won the support of the U.S. peace element by arguing that an army buildup would provoke war. However for all his words, Wilson was anything but neutral. His pro-British views caused his Secretary of State [[William Jennings Bryan]] to resign in protest in 1915.{{Fact|date=October 2008}}<br />
<br />
While German submarines were sinking merchant ships, the U.S. and Wilson stayed neutral. Britain had declared a blockade of Germany, preventing neutral shipping carrying “contraband” goods to Germany. Wilson protested this violation of neutral rights by London, but his protests were mild, and the British knew America would not take action.{{Fact|date=October 2008}}<br />
<br />
====Introduction of segregation====<br />
"An unprecedented number"<ref>[http://www.jstor.org/pss/2716036 "Woodrow Wilson and Federal Segregation"], Kathleen L. Wolgemuth, ''The Journal of Negro History'', Vol. 44, No. 2 (April, 1959 ), p. 158</ref>of African Americans had left the Republicans to cast their vote for the Democrat Wilson, encouraged by his promises of support for their issues. They were disappointed when early in his administration he allowed the introduction of segregation into several federal departments. The issue came up early in an April 1913 [[United States Cabinet|cabinet]] meeting, when [[Albert Burleson]], his [[United States Postmaster General|Postmaster General]] and a southern native, complained about working conditions at the Railway Mail Service. Offices and restrooms were segregated, sometimes by partitions erected between seating for white and African American employees.<ref>Wolgemuth, op. cit.</ref><br />
<br />
===Election of 1916===<br />
{{main|United States presidential election, 1916}}<br />
Renominated in 1916, Wilson's major campaign slogan was "He kept us out of the war", referring to his administration's avoiding open conflict with Germany or [[Mexico]] while maintaining a firm national policy. Wilson, however, never promised to keep out of war regardless of provocation. In his acceptance speech on September 2, 1916, Wilson pointedly warned Germany that submarine warfare that took American lives would not be tolerated:<br />
:"The nation that violates these essential rights must expect to be checked and called to account by direct challenge and resistance. It at once makes the quarrel in part our own."<ref>[http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=65393 Woodrow Wilson: Speech of Acceptance<!--Bot-generated title-->]</ref><br />
<br />
Wilson narrowly won [[U.S. presidential election, 1916|the election]], defeating Republican candidate [[Charles Evans Hughes]]. As governor of New York from 1907-1910, Hughes had a progressive record, strikingly similar to Wilson's as governor of New Jersey. Theodore Roosevelt would comment that the only thing different between Hughes and Wilson was a shave. However, Hughes had to try to hold together a coalition of conservative Taft supporters and progressive Roosevelt partisans and so his campaign never seemed to take a definite form. Wilson ran on his record and ignored Hughes, reserving his attacks for Roosevelt. When asked why he did not attack Hughes directly, Wilson told a friend to “Never murder a man who is committing suicide.”<ref>[http://www.quotedb.com/quotes/3489 The American Presidency Project] Wison Qoute</ref><br />
<br />
The final result was exceptionally close and the result was in doubt for several days. Because of Wilson's fear of becoming a [[Lame duck (politics)|lame duck]] president during the uncertainties of the war in Europe, he created a hypothetical plan where if Hughes were elected he would name Hughes secretary of state and then resign along with the vice-president to enable Hughes to become the president. The vote came down to several close states. Wilson won California by 3,773 votes out of almost a million votes cast and New Hampshire by 54 votes. Hughes won [[Minnesota]] by 393 votes out of over 358,000. In the final count, Wilson had 277 electoral votes vs. Hughes 254. Wilson was able to win [[U.S. presidential election, 1916|reelection in 1916]] by picking up many votes that had gone to Teddy Roosevelt or [[Eugene V. Debs]] in 1912.{{Fact|date=October 2008}}<br />
<br />
===Second term===<br />
====Decision for War, 1917====<br />
Before entering the war in 1917, the U.S. had made a declaration of neutrality in 1914. During this time of neutrality, President Wilson warned citizens not to take sides in the war in fear of endangering wider U.S. policy. In his address to congress in 1914, Wilson states, “Such divisions amongst us would be fatal to our peace of mind and might seriously stand in the way of the proper performance of our duty as the one great nation at peace, the one people holding itself ready to play a part of impartial mediation and speak the counsels of peace and accommodation, not as a partisan, but as a friend.” <ref>"Primary Documents: U.S. Declaration of Neutrality, 19 August 1914". 7 January 2002. <http://www.firstworldwar.com/source/usneutrality.htm>.</ref> Woodrow Wilson did not hold his strict belief, that America could achieve peace without victory, for long.<br />
<br />
The U.S. neutrality would deteriorate when Germany began to initiate its unrestricted submarine warfare threatening U.S. commercial shipping. When Germany started [[unrestricted submarine warfare]] in early 1917 and made an attempt to enlist Mexico as an ally (see [[Zimmermann Telegram]]), Wilson took America into World War I as a war to make "the world safe for democracy." He did not sign a formal alliance with the United Kingdom or France but operated as an "Associated" power. He raised a massive army through [[conscription]] and gave command to General [[John J. Pershing]], allowing Pershing a free hand as to tactics, strategy and even diplomacy.{{Fact|date=October 2008}}<br />
<br />
[[Image:USA bryter de diplomatiska förbindelserna med Tyskland 3 februari 1917.jpg|300px|thumb|President Wilson before Congress, announcing the break in official relations with Germany. February 3, 1917.]]<br />
<br />
Woodrow Wilson had decided by then that the war had become a real threat to humanity. Unless the U.S. threw its weight into the war, as he stated in his declaration of war speech, on April 2nd, 1917.<ref>[http://www.firstworldwar.com/source/usawardeclaration.htm Declaration of war speech (FirstWorldWar.com)]</ref> Western civilization itself could be destroyed. His statement announcing a "war to end all wars" meant that he wanted to build a basis for peace that would prevent future catastrophic wars and needless death and destruction. This provided the basis of Wilson's [[Fourteen Points]], which were intended to resolve territorial disputes, ensure free trade and commerce, and establish a peacemaking organization, which later emerged as the [[League of Nations]].{{Fact|date=October 2008}}<br />
<br />
To stop defeatism at home, Wilson pushed the [[Espionage Act of 1917]] and the [[Sedition Act of 1918]] through Congress to suppress anti-British, pro-German, or anti-war opinions. He welcomed [[Socialism|socialists]] who supported the war, such as [[Walter Lippmann]], but would not tolerate those who tried to impede the war or, worse, assassinate government officials, and pushed for deportation of foreign-born radicals.<ref>Avrich, Paul, Sacco and Vanzetti: The Anarchist Background, Princeton University Press, 1991</ref> Over 170,000 US citizens were arrested during this period, in some cases for things they said about the president in their own homes.{{Fact|date=March 2008}} Citing the Espionage Act, the U.S. Post Office refused to carry any written materials that could be deemed critical of the U. S. war effort. Some sixty newspapers were deprived of their second-class mailing rights.{{Fact|date=October 2008}}<br />
<br />
His wartime policies were strongly pro-labor, though again, he had no love for radical unions like the [[Industrial Workers of the World]]. The [[American Federation of Labor]] and other 'moderate' unions saw enormous growth in membership and wages during Wilson's administration. There was no rationing, so consumer prices soared. As income taxes increased, [[white-collar worker]]s suffered. Appeals to buy [[war bond]]s were highly successful, however. Bonds had the result of shifting the cost of the war to the affluent 1920s.{{Fact|date=October 2008}}<br />
<br />
Wilson set up the first western propaganda office, the United States [[Committee on Public Information]], headed by [[George Creel]] (thus its popular name, ''Creel Commission''), which filled the country with patriotic anti-German appeals and conducted various forms of censorship.<ref>[http://www.archives.gov/research/guide-fed-records/groups/063.html Records of the Committee on Public Information] from the [[National Archives]]</ref> In 1917 Congress authorized ex-President [[Theodore Roosevelt]] to raise 4 Divisions of Volunteers to fight in France-[[Roosevelt's World War I volunteers]]; Wilson refused to accept this offer.{{Fact|date=October 2008}}<br />
<br />
'''War Message'''<br />
<br />
Woodrow Wilson's ''War Message'' was delivered on April 2, 1917. This day he had stood up before Congress and delivered his historic speech. <ref>http://www.history.com/this-day-in-history.do?action=tdihArticleCategory&displayDate=4/2&categoryId=worldwari</ref><br />
<br />
April 2nd was a cold and rainy day in Washington D.C. and thousands of supporters gathered to support President Wilson. Wilson had slept very little the night before but still spent the day reading over his address with Colonel House, a close friend, as they reworded and corrected the speech. That evening Wilson made his way to the State, War and Navy Building to discuss the war proclamation. At approximately 8:30 p.m. President Wilson was introduced to Congress. He walked to the rostrum and arranged his papers of his speech in a particular order on the podium. The applause that he received was the greatest that President Wilson had ever received in front of Congress. He waited impatiently for the applause to die down before he started his address. He had an intense look on his face and remained intense and almost motionless for the entire speech, only raising one arm as his only bodily movement.<ref> Baker, Ray Stannard.(1937). "Woodrow Wilson Life and Letters". Garden City, New York.</ref><br />
<br />
In President Wilson’s war message presented to Congress, he addressed a few main points to Congress about why the United States was required to enter the war. He first brought to their attention that the Imperial German Government had announced that it would begin using its submarines to sink any vessel approaching the ports of Great Britain, Ireland or any of the Western Coasts of Europe. Wilson’s main concern was not that ships or any type of property were being damaged, but that innocent lives were being taken in these attacks by the Germans. Wilson announced that even though his previous thought was to remain in an “armed neutrality” state, it had become evident that this was no longer a practical tactic. He advised Congress to declare that the recent course of action taken by the Imperial German Government to be nothing less than war. <br />
<br />
Wilson continues on to state that the object of this war was to “vindicate principles of peace and justice in the life of the world as against selfish and autocratic power…” He also describes the other undermining attacks on the U.S. by the German government by pointing out that they had “filled our unsuspecting communities and even our offices of government with spies and set criminal intrigues everywhere afoot against our national unity of counsel, our peace within and without our industries and our commerce.” The United States had also intercepted a telegram sent to the German ambassador in Mexico City which provided evidence that Germany meant to convince Mexico to attack the U.S., hence Wilson states that the German government “means to stir up enemies against us at our very doors.” <br />
<br />
Wilson ends his address to Congress with the statement that the world must be once again safe for democracy.<ref>''"Woodrow Wilson's War Message". <http://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/ww18.htm>.''</ref><br />
<br />
Once he ended his War message in front of the joint houses of congress, the place loudly roared in applause. Wilson’s speech was not just for Congress but for the American public.<br />
<br />
Of the thousands of supporters in Washington that day “Hundreds carried little American flags. The very atmosphere was explosive with excitement.” Going into the speech, there were those in support and those opposed to entering the war, but afterwards the support for Wilson was unanimous. According to a speech made by Robert M. La Follette, Senator of Wisconsin, many were opposed to the war. In the three to four days that Congress had to decide whether to declare war or not, several telegrams and petitions were wired to him in Washington expressing disagreement with going to war. Senator Robert La Follette was one of only six senators that had opposed Wilson’s decision to go to war. Senator George Norris of Nebraska was also an Irreconcilable because he too was opposed to entry into WWI.<br />
<br />
George W. Norris stated “I am most emphatically and sincerely opposed to taking any step that will force our country into the useless and senseless war now being waged in Europe…” He provided reasonable examples of how the United States is unfair in declaring war on Germany. One of his examples was that the British had declared a war zone on November 4th and America had submitted to it, but when Germany declared a war zone on February 4th America had opposed it. Both of them had violated international law and interfered with our neutral rights, and America only acts against Germany and not both. Again, he finds evidence where there are “Many instances of cruelty and inhumanity (that) can be found on both sides”. Norris believed that the government only wanted to take part in this war because the wealthy had already aided British financially in the war. He told Congress that the only people who would benefit from the war were “munition manufacturers, stockbrokers, and bond dealers”. He presented evidence to the Congress in the form of a letter written by a member of the New York Stock Exchange. He concluded from his evidence that “Here we have the man representing the class of people who will be made prosperous should we become entangled in the present war, who have already made millions of dollars, and who will make many hundreds of millions more if we get into the war”. George W. Norris’s concludes that it is not worth going to war just to benefit the rich and to “deliver munitions of war to belligerent nations”. “War brings no prosperity to the great mass of common and patriotic citizens. It increases the cost of living of those who toil and those who already must strain every effort to keep soul and body together. War brings prosperity to the stock gambler on Wall Street--to those who are already in possession of more wealth than can be realized or enjoyed”. [8] <ref> "Opposition to Wilson's War Message". <http://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/doc19.htm>.</ref><br />
<br />
Robert M. La Follette’s main argument too relates to Norris’s arguments. He also believed though, that once we entered WWI, our reputation of America would deteriorate; “When we cooperate with those governments, we endorse their methods; we endorse the violations of international law by Great Britain; we endorse the shameful methods of warfare against which we have again and again protested in this war”. He also gave recognition to Woodrow Wilson’s speech and how Wilson aimed towards his audience’s feelings. He criticized Wilson that “In many places throughout the address is this exalted sentiment given expression. It is a sentiment peculiarly calculated to appeal to American hearts and, when accompanied by acts consistent with it, is certain to receive our support”. <ref>"Opposition to Wilson's War Message". <http://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/doc19.htm>.</ref><br />
<br />
Despite what Norris and La Follette had to say, Congress had made a declaration of war on April 4th, 1917.<br />
<br />
====American Protective League====<br />
The [[American Protective League]] was a quasi-private organization with 250,000 members in 600 cities was sanctioned by the Wilson administration. These men carried Government Issue badges and freely conducted warrantless searches and interrogations.<ref>[http://www.csmonitor.com/2008/0205/p09s01-coop.html?page=3 You want a more 'progressive' America? Careful what you wish for. csmonitor.com<!--Bot-generated title-->]</ref> This organization was empowered by the U.S. Justice Department to spy on Americans for anti-government/anti war behavior. As national police, the APL checked up on people who failed to buy Liberty Bonds and spoke out against the government’s policies.<br />
<br />
====The Fourteen Points====<br />
{{wikisource|Fourteen Points}}<br />
{{main|Fourteen Points}}<br />
President Woodrow Wilson articulated what became known as the Fourteen Points before Congress on January 8, 1918. The Points were the only war aims clearly expressed by any belligerent nation and thus became the basis for the Treaty of Versailles following World War I. The speech was highly idealistic, translating Wilson's progressive domestic policy of democracy, self-determination, open agreements, and free trade into the international realm. It also made several suggestions for specific disputes in Europe and the [[Middle East]] on the recommendation of Wilson's foreign policy adviser, Colonel [[Edward M. House]], and his team of 150 advisers known as “[[The Inquiry]].” The points were:<br />
#Abolition of secret treaties<br />
#Freedom of the seas<br />
#Free Trade<br />
#Disarmament<br />
#Adjustment of colonial claims (decolonization and national self-determination)<br />
#Russia to be assured independent development and international withdrawal from occupied Russian territory<br />
#Restoration of Belgium to antebellum national status<br />
#Alsace-Lorraine returned to France from Germany<br />
#Italian borders redrawn on lines of nationality<br />
#Autonomous development of Austria-Hungary as a nation, as the Austro-Hungarian Empire dissolved<br />
#Romania, Serbia, Montenegro, and other Balkan states to be granted integrity, have their territories de-occupied, and Serbia to be given access to the Adriatic Sea<br />
#Sovereignty for the Turkish people of the Ottoman Empire as the Empire dissolved, autonomous development for other nationalities within the former Empire<br />
#Establishment of an independent Poland with access to the sea<br />
#General association of the nations – a multilateral international association of nations to enforce the peace (League of Nations)<ref>[http://wwi.lib.byu.edu/index.php/President_Wilson%27s_Fourteen_Points President Wilson's Fourteen Points]</ref><br />
<br />
The speech was controversial in America, and even more so with its Allies. France wanted high reparations from Germany as French agriculture, industry, and lives had been so demolished by the war; and Britain, as the great naval power, did not want freedom of the seas. Wilson compromised with [[Georges Clemenceau|Clemenceau]], [[Lloyd George]], and many other European leaders during the [[Paris Peace Conference, 1919|Paris Peace talks]] to ensure that the fourteenth point, the [[League of Nations]], would be established. In the end, Wilson's own Congress did not accept the League and only four of the original Fourteen Points were implemented fully in Europe.{{Fact|date=October 2008}}<br />
<br />
====Other foreign affairs====<br />
{{main|American Expeditionary Force Siberia}}<br />
{{main|Polar Bear Expedition}}<br />
Between 1914 and 1918, the United States intervened in [[Latin America]], particularly in [[Mexico]], [[Haiti]], [[Cuba]], and [[Panama]]. The U.S. maintained troops in [[Nicaragua]] throughout his administration and used them to select the president of Nicaragua and then to force Nicaragua to pass the [[Bryan-Chamorro Treaty]]. American troops in Haiti forced the Haitian legislature to choose the candidate Wilson selected as Haitian president. American troops occupied Haiti between 1915 and 1934.{{Fact|date=October 2008}}<br />
<br />
After Russia left the war in 1917 following the [[Bolshevik Revolution]], the Allies sent troops there, presumably, to prevent a [[Germans|German]] or [[Bolshevik]] takeover of allied-provided weapons, munitions and other supplies, which had been previously shipped as aid to the [[Czarist]] government. Wilson sent armed forces to assist the withdrawal of [[Czechs|Czech]] and [[Slovaks|Slovak]] prisoners along the [[Trans-Siberian Railway]], hold key port cities at [[Arkhangelsk|Arkangel]] and [[Vladivostok]], and safeguard supplies sent to the [[Tsarist]] forces. Though not sent to engage the Bolsheviks, the U.S. forces had several armed conflicts against forces of the new Russian government. Wilson withdrew most of the soldiers on April 1, 1920, though some remained as late as 1922. As [[Donald E. Davis|Davis]] and [[Eugene P. Trani|Trani]] conclude,<br />
:"Wilson, Lansing, and Colby helped lay the foundations for the later Cold War and policy of containment. There was no military confrontation, armed standoff, or arms race. Yet, certain basics were there: suspicion, mutual misunderstandings, dislike, fear, ideological hostility, and diplomatic isolation....Each side was driven by ideology, by capitalism versus communism. Each country sought to reconstruct the world. When the world resisted, pressure could be used."<ref>Donald E. Davis and Eugene P. Trani, ''The First Cold War: The Legacy of Woodrow Wilson in U.S.-Soviet Relations.'' (2002) p. 202.</ref><br />
====Armenian Genocide====<br />
{{main|Armenian Genocide}}<br />
In response to the circumstances of the Armenians at the time, Wilson went before Congress seeking a [[mandate]] of U.S. intervention in the form of [[humanitarian aid]].{{Fact|date=October 2008}}<br />
<br />
:Gentlemen of the Congress:<br />
<br />
:On the fourteenth of May an official communication was received at the Executive Office from the Secretary of the Senate of the United States conveying the following preambles and resolutions:<br />
<br />
:Whereas the testimony adduced at the hearings conducted by the subcommittee of the Senate Committee on Foreign Relations have clearly established the truth of the reported massacres and other atrocities from which the Armenian people have suffered; and<br />
<br />
:Whereas the people of the United States are deeply impressed by the deplorable conditions of insecurity, starvation, and misery now prevalent in Armenia; and<br />
<br />
:Whereas the independence of the Republic of Armenia has been duly recognized by the Supreme Council of the Peace Conference and by the Government of the United States of America: Therefore be it<br />
<br />
:Resolved, That the sincere congratulations of the Senate of the United States are hereby extended to the people of Armenia on the recognition of the independence of the Republic of Armenia, without prejudice respecting the territorial boundaries involved: And be it further<br />
<br />
:Resolved, That the Senate of the United States hereby expresses the hope that stable government, proper protection of individual liberties and rights, and the full realization of nationalistic aspirations may soon be attained by the Armenian people: And be it further<br />
<br />
:Resolved, That in order to afford necessary protection for the lives and property of citizens of the United States at the port of Batum and along the line of the railroad leading to Baku, the President is hereby requested, if not incompatible with the public interest, to cause a United States warship and a force of marines to be dispatched to such port with instructions to such marines to disembark and to protect American lives and property.<br />
<br />
:I received and read this document with great interest and with genuine gratification, not only because it embodied my own convictions and feelings with regard to Armenia and its people, but also, and more particularly, because it seemed to me the voice of the American people expressing their genuine convictions and deep Christian sympathies, and intimating the line of duty which seemed to them to lie clearly before us.<br />
<br />
:I cannot but regard it as providential, and not as a mere casual coincidence that almost at the same time I received information that the conference of statesmen now sitting at San Remo for the purpose of working out the details of peace with the Central Powers which it was not feasible to work out in the conference at Paris, had formally resolved to address a definite appeal to this Government to accept the mandate for Armenia. They were at pains to add that they did this, "not from the smallest desire to evade any obligations which they might be expected to undertake, but because the responsibilities which they are already obliged to bear in connection with the disposition of the former Ottoman Empire will strain their capacities to the uttermost, and because they believe that the appearance on the scene of a power emancipated from the prepossessions of the old world will inspire a wider confidence and afford a firmer guarantee for stability in the future then would the selection of any European power."<br />
<br />
:Early in the conferences at Paris it was agreed that to those colonies and territories which as a consequence of the late war have ceased to be under the sovereignty of the States which formerly governed them and which are inhabited by peoples not yet able to stand by themselves under the strenuous conditions of the modern world there should be applied the principle that the well being and development of such peoples form a sacred trust of civilization, and that securities for the performance of this trust should be afforded.<br />
<br />
:It was recognized that certain communities formerly belonging to the Turkish Empire have reached a stage of development where their existence as independent nations can be provisionally recognized, subject to the rendering of administrative advice and assistance by a mandatory until such time as they are able to stand alone.<br />
<br />
:It is in pursuance of this principle and with a desire of affording Armenia such advice and assistance that the statesmen conferring at San Remo have formally requested this Government to assume the duties of mandatory in Armenia. I may add, for the information of the Congress, that at the same sitting it was resolved to request the President of the United States to undertake to arbitrate the difficult question of the boundary between Turkey and Armenia in the Vilayets of Erzerum, Trebizond, Van and Bitlis, and it was agreed to accept his decision thereupon, as well as any stipulation he may prescribe as to access to the sea for the independent State of Armenia. In pursuance of this action, it was resolved to embody in the Treaty with Turkey, now under final consideration, a provision that "Turkey and Armenia and the other High Contracting Parties agree to refer to the arbitration of the President of the United States of America the question of the boundary between Turkey and Armenia in the Vilayets of Erzerum, Trebizond, Van and Bitlis, and to accept his decision thereupon as well as any stipulation he may prescribe as to access to the sea for the independent State of Armenia:" pending that decision the boundaries of Turkey and Armenia to remain as at present. I have thought it my duty to accept this difficult and delicate task.<br />
<br />
:In response to the invitation of the Council at San Remo, I urgently advise and request that the Congress grant the Executive power to accept for the United States a mandate over Armenia. I make this suggestion in the earnest belief that it will be the wish of the people of the United States that this should be done. The sympathy with Armenia has proceeded from no single portion of our people, but has come with extraordinary spontaneity and sincerity from the whole of the great body of Christian men and women in this country by whose free-will offerings Armenia has practically been saved at the most critical juncture of its existence. At their hearts this great and generous people have made the cause of Armenia their own. It is to this people and to their Government that the hopes and earnest expectations of the struggling people of Armenia turn as they now emerge from a period of indescribable suffering and peril, and I hope that the Congress will think it wise to meet this hope and expectation with the utmost liberality. I know from unmistakable evidences given by responsible representatives of many peoples struggling towards independence and peaceful life again that the Government of the United States is looked to with extraordinary trust and confidence, and I believe that it would do nothing less than arrest the hopeful processes of civilization if we were to refuse the request to become the helpful friends and advisers of such of these people as we may be authoritatively and formally requested to guide and assist.<br />
<br />
:I am conscious that I am urging upon the Congress a very critical choice, but I make the suggestion in the confidence that I am speaking in the spirit and in accordance with the wishes of the greatest of the Christian peoples. The sympathy for Armenia among our people has sprung from untainted consciences, pure Christian faith, and an earnest desire to see Christian people everywhere succored in their time of suffering, and lifted from their abject subjection and distress and enabled to stand upon their feet and take their place among the free nations of the world. Our recognition of the independence of Armenia will mean genuine liberty and assured happiness for her people, if we fearlessly undertake the duties of guidance and assistance involved in the functions of a mandatory. It is, therefore, with the most earnest hopefulness and with the feeling that I am giving advice from which the Congress will not willingly turn away that I urge the acceptance of the invitation now formally and solemnly extended to us by the Council at San Remo, into whose hands has passed the difficult task of composing the many complexities and difficulties of government in the one-time Ottoman Empire and the maintenance of order and tolerable conditions of life in those portions of that Empire which it is no longer possible in the interest of civilization to leave under the government of the Turkish authorities themselves.<ref>[http://www.anca.org/genocide_resource/wilson.php 66th Congress 2nd Session House of Representatives Document No. 791 Mandate For Armenia] from the [[Armenian National Committee of America]]</ref><br />
<br />
:Woodrow Wilson, The White House, May 24, 1920.<br />
<br />
[[Image:AmbassadorMorgenthautelegram.jpg|thumb|210px|A telegram written by Morgenthau to the [[State Department]] in 1915 described the massacres of Armenians in the Ottoman Empire as a "campaign of race extermination".]]<br />
<br />
In 1913 [[Henry Morgenthau Sr.]], was appointed [[ambassador]] to the [[Ottoman Empire]]. In his capacity as ambassador, Morgenthau did his best to blunt the consequences of the Ottoman actions'. A telegram detailing the "Armenian situation", was sent to Wilson, imparting the magnitude of the hardships faced by the Armenians. The full extent of the Genocide was discussed in Morgenthau's book ''[[Ambassador Morgenthau's Story]]''.<ref name="autogenerated3">[http://net.lib.byu.edu/estu/wwi/comment/morgenthau/MorgenTC.htm Ambassador Morgenthau's Story. 1918. Preface. Table of Contents<!--Bot-generated title-->]</ref> A book dedicated by the ambassador to Wilson.<ref name="autogenerated3" /><br />
<br />
Also, humanitarian aid was coordinated by the [[American Committee for Relief in the Near East]], a society founded by Morgenthau.{{Fact|date=October 2008}}<br />
<br />
===Aftermath of World War I===<br />
====Versailles 1919====<br />
[[Image:WoodrowWilsonVersailles.jpg|right|thumb|Wilson returning from the Versailles Peace Conference, 1919.]]<br />
After World War I, Wilson participated in negotiations with the stated aim of assuring statehood for formerly oppressed nations and an equitable peace. On January 8, 1918, Wilson made his famous ''[[Fourteen Points]]'' address, introducing the idea of a League of Nations, an organization with a stated goal of helping to preserve territorial integrity and political independence among large and small nations alike.{{Fact|date=October 2008}}<br />
<br />
Wilson intended the Fourteen Points as a means toward ending the war and achieving an equitable peace for all the nations. He spent six months at Paris for the [[Paris Peace Conference, 1919|1919 Paris Peace Conference]] (making him the first U.S. president to travel to Europe while in office). He worked tirelessly to promote his plan. The charter of the proposed League of Nations was incorporated into the conference's [[Treaty of Versailles]].{{Fact|date=October 2008}}<br />
<br />
For his peace-making efforts, Wilson was awarded the 1919 [[Nobel Peace Prize]].<ref>[http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/peace/laureates/1919/index.html Woodrow Wilson bio sketh] from NobelFoundation.org</ref> However, Wilson failed to win Senate support for ratification and the United States never joined the League. Republicans under [[Henry Cabot Lodge]] controlled the Senate after the 1918 elections, but Wilson refused to give them a voice at Paris and refused to agree to Lodge's proposed changes. The key point of disagreement was whether the League would diminish the power of Congress to declare war. Historians generally have come to regard Wilson's failure to win U.S. entry into the League as perhaps the biggest mistake of his administration, and even as one of the largest failures of any American presidency.<ref>[http://www.ctv.ca/servlet/ArticleNews/story/CTVNews/20060218/presidential_errors_060218/20060218?hub=World CTV.ca U.S. historians pick top 10 presidential errors<!--Bot-generated title-->]</ref> When President Wilson came to Europe to settle the peace terms, Wilson visited Pope [[Benedict XV]] in Rome, which made Wilson the first American President to visit the Pope while in office.{{Fact|date=May 2008}}<br />
<br />
====Post war: 1919-20====<br />
Wilson had ignored the problems of demobilization after the war, and the process was chaotic and violent. Four million soldiers were sent home with little planning, little money, and few benefits. A wartime bubble in prices of farmland burst, leaving many farmers bankrupt or deeply in debt after they purchased new land. In 1919, major strikes in steel and meatpacking broke out.<ref>Leonard Williams Levy and Louis Fisher, ''Encyclopedia of the American Presidency'', Simon and Schuster: 1994, p. 494. ISBN 0132759837</ref> Serious [[Chicago Race Riot of 1919|race riots hit Chicago]] and other cities.<br />
<br />
After a series of bombings by radical anarchist groups in New York and elsewhere, Wilson directed Attorney General [[A. Mitchell Palmer]] to put a stop to the violence. Palmer then ordered the [[Palmer Raids]], with the aim of collecting evidence on violent radical groups, to deport foreign-born agitators, and jail domestic ones.<ref>The successful Communist takeover of Russia in 1917 was also a background factor: many anarchists believed that the worker's revolution that had taken place there would quickly spread across Europe and the United States. Paul Avrich, ''Sacco and Vanzetti: The Anarchist Background,'' Princeton University Press, 1991</ref><br />
<br />
Wilson broke with many of his closest political friends and allies in 1918-20, including Colonel House. Historians speculate that a series of strokes may have affected his personality. He desired a third term, but his Democratic party was in turmoil, with German voters outraged at their wartime harassment, and Irish voters angry at his failure to support Irish independence.<br />
<br />
====Eugenics====<br />
Wilson supported [[eugenics]], and in 1907 he helped to make [[Indiana]] the first of more than thirty states to adopt legislation aimed at [[compulsory sterilization]] of certain<br />
individuals.<ref>Indiana Supreme Court Legal History Lecture Series,<br />
"Three Generations of Imbeciles are Enough:"<br />
Reflections on 100 Years of Eugenics in Indiana, at [http://www.in.gov/judiciary/citc/special/eugenics/index.html The Indiana Supreme Court ]</ref> Although the law was overturned by the [[Indiana Supreme Court]] in 1921,<ref>''Williams v. Smith'', 131 NE 2 (Ind.), 1921, text at [http://www.bioethics.iupui.edu/Eugenics/SMith%20vs%20Williams.pdf] </ref> the [[Supreme Court of the United States]] upheld the constitutionality of a [[Buck v. Bell|Virginia law]] allowing for the compulsory sterilization of patients of state mental institutions in 1927.<ref>{{harvnb|Larson|2004|p=194-195}} Citing [[Buck v. Bell]] 274 U.S. 200, 205 (1927)</ref><br />
<br />
====Incapacity====<br />
The cause of his incapacitation was the physical strain of the demanding public speaking tour he undertook to obtain support of the American people for ratification of the Covenant of the League. After one of his final speeches to attempt to promote the League of Nations in [[Pueblo, Colorado]], on September 25, 1919<ref>[http://www.firstworldwar.com/source/wilsonspeech_league.htm Primary Documents: President Woodrow Wilson's Address in Favor of the League of Nations, September 25, 1919 (FirstWorldWar.com)]</ref> he collapsed. On October 2, 1919, Wilson suffered a serious [[stroke]] that almost totally incapacitated him, leaving him paralyzed on his left side and blind in his left eye. For at least a few months, he was confined to a wheelchair. Afterwards, he could walk only with the assistance of a cane. The full extent of his disability was kept from the public until after his death on February 3, 1924.<br />
<br />
Wilson was purposely, with few exceptions, kept out of the presence of [[Vice President of the United States|Vice President]] [[Thomas R. Marshall]], his [[United States Cabinet|cabinet]] or Congressional visitors to the [[White House]] for the remainder of his presidential term. His first wife, [[Ellen Wilson|Ellen]], had died in 1914, so his second wife, [[Edith Bolling Wilson|Edith]], served as his steward, selecting issues for his attention and delegating other issues to his cabinet heads. This was, as of 2008, the most serious case of presidential disability in American history and was later cited as a key example why ratification of the [[Twenty-fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution|25th Amendment]] was seen as important.{{Fact|date=October 2008}}<br />
<br />
===Administration and Cabinet===<br />
Wilson's chief of staff ("Secretary") was [[Joseph Patrick Tumulty]] 1913-1921, but he was largely upstaged after 1916 when Wilson's second wife, [[Edith Bolling Wilson]], assumed full control of Wilson's schedule. An important foreign policy advisor and confidant was "Colonel" [[Edward M. House]].{{Fact|date=October 2008}}<br />
[[Image:Wilson Cabinet 2.jpg|right|320px|thumb|Woodrow Wilson and his cabinet in the Cabinet Room]]<br />
{| cellpadding="1" cellspacing="4" style="margin:3px; border:3px solid #000000;" align="left"<br />
!bgcolor="#000000" colspan="3"|<br />
|-<br />
|align "right"|'''OFFICE'''||align="left"|'''NAME'''||align="left"|'''TERM'''<br />
|-<br />
!bgcolor="#000000" colspan="3"|<br />
|-<br />
|align="left"|[[President of the United States|President]]||align="left" |'''Woodrow Wilson'''||align="left"|1913&ndash;1921<br />
|-<br />
|align="left"|[[Vice President of the United States|Vice President]]||align="left"|'''[[Thomas R. Marshall]]'''||align="left"|1913&ndash;1921<br />
|-<br />
!bgcolor="#000000" colspan="3"|<br />
|-<br />
|align="left"|[[United States Secretary of State|Secretary of State]]||align="left"|'''[[William J. Bryan]]'''||align="left"|1913&ndash;1915<br />
|-<br />
|align="left"|&nbsp;||align="left"|'''[[Robert Lansing]]'''||align="left"|1915&ndash;1920<br />
|-<br />
|align="left"|&nbsp;||align="left"|'''[[Bainbridge Colby]]'''||align="left"|1920&ndash;1921<br />
|-<br />
|align="left"|[[United States Secretary of the Treasury|Secretary of the Treasury]]||align="left"|'''[[William G. McAdoo]]'''||align="left"|1913&ndash;1918<br />
|-<br />
|align="left"|&nbsp;||align="left"|'''[[Carter Glass]]'''||align="left"|1918&ndash;1920<br />
|-<br />
|align="left"|&nbsp;||align="left"|'''[[David F. Houston]]'''||align="left"|1920&ndash;1921<br />
|-<br />
|align="left"|[[United States Secretary of War|Secretary of War]]||align="left"|'''[[Lindley M. Garrison]]'''||align="left"|1913&ndash;1916<br />
|-<br />
|align="left"|&nbsp;||align="left"|'''[[Newton D. Baker]]'''||align="left"|1916&ndash;1921<br />
|-<br />
|align="left"|[[Attorney General of the United States|Attorney General]]||align="left"|'''[[James C. McReynolds]]'''||align="left"|1913&ndash;1914<br />
|-<br />
|align="left"|&nbsp;||align="left"|'''[[Thomas W. Gregory]]'''||align="left"|1914&ndash;1919<br />
|-<br />
|align="left"|&nbsp;||align="left"|'''[[A. Mitchell Palmer]]'''||align="left"|1919&ndash;1921<br />
|-<br />
|align="left"|[[Postmaster General of the United States|Postmaster General]]||align="left"|'''[[Albert S. Burleson]]'''||align="left"|1913&ndash;1921<br />
|-<br />
|align="left"|[[United States Secretary of the Navy|Secretary of the Navy]]||align="left"|'''[[Josephus Daniels]]'''||align="left"|1913&ndash;1921<br />
|-<br />
|align="left"|[[United States Secretary of the Interior|Secretary of the Interior]]||align="left"|'''[[Franklin K. Lane]]'''||align="left"|1913&ndash;1920<br />
|-<br />
|align="left"|&nbsp;||align="left"|'''[[John B. Payne]]'''||align="left"|1920&ndash;1921<br />
|-<br />
|align="left"|[[United States Secretary of Agriculture|Secretary of Agriculture]]||align="left"|'''[[David F. Houston]]'''||align="left"|1913&ndash;1920<br />
|-<br />
|align="left"|&nbsp;||align="left"|'''[[Edwin T. Meredith]]'''||align="left"|1920&ndash;1921<br />
|-<br />
|align="left"|[[United States Secretary of Commerce|Secretary of Commerce]]||align="left"|'''[[William C. Redfield]]'''||align="left"|1913&ndash;1919<br />
|-<br />
|align="left"|&nbsp;||align="left"|'''[[Joshua W. Alexander]]'''||align="left"|1919&ndash;1921<br />
|-<br />
|align="left"|[[United States Secretary of Labor|Secretary of Labor]]||align="left"|'''[[William B. Wilson]]'''||align="left"|1913&ndash;1921<br />
|}<br />
<br clear="all">{{Fact|date=October 2008}}<br />
<br clear="all"><br />
<br />
===Supreme Court appointments===<br />
Wilson appointed the following Justices to the [[Supreme Court of the United States]]:<br />
*'''[[James Clark McReynolds]]'''{{ndash}} 1914<br />
*'''[[Louis Dembitz Brandeis]]'''{{ndash}} 1916<br />
*'''[[John Hessin Clarke]]'''{{ndash}} 1916'''<br />
<br />
==Wilsonian Idealism==<br />
[[Image:Ww28.gif|thumb|right|200px|The official White House portrait of President Woodrow Wilson]]<br />
Wilson was a remarkably effective writer and thinker. He composed speeches and other writings with two fingers on a little Hammond typewriter.<ref>Phyllis Lee Levin. Edith and Woodrow: The Wilson White House. Simon and Schuster. New York. 2001, p139</ref> Wilson's diplomatic policies had a profound influence on shaping the world. Diplomatic historian [[Walter Russell Mead]] has explained:<br />
<br />
:"Wilson's principles survived the eclipse of the Versailles system and that they still guide European politics today: self-determination, democratic government, collective security, international law, and a league of nations. Wilson may not have gotten everything he wanted at Versailles, and his treaty was never ratified by the Senate, but his vision and his diplomacy, for better or worse, set the tone for the twentieth century. France, Germany, Italy, and Britain may have sneered at Wilson, but every one of these powers today conducts its European policy along Wilsonian lines. What was once dismissed as visionary is now accepted as fundamental. This was no mean achievement, and no European statesman of the twentieth century has had as lasting, as benign, or as widespread an influence."<ref>Walter Russell Mead, [http://www.randomhouse.com/knopf/authors/mead/excerpt.html ''Special Providence],'' (2001) </ref><br />
<br />
American foreign relations since 1914 have rested on Wilsonian idealism, argues historian David Kennedy, even if adjusted somewhat by the "realism" represented by [[Franklin Delano Roosevelt]] and [[Henry Kissinger]]. Kennedy argues that every president since Wilson has,<br />
:"embraced the core precepts of Wilsonianism. Nixon himself hung Wilson's portrait in the White House Cabinet Room. Wilson's ideas continue to dominate American foreign policy in the twenty-first century. In the aftermath of 9/11 they have, if anything, taken on even greater vitality."<ref> David M. Kennedy, "What 'W' Owes to 'WW': President Bush May Not Even Know It, but He Can Trace His View of the World to Woodrow Wilson, Who Defined a Diplomatic Destiny for America That We Can't Escape." ''The Atlantic Monthly'' Vol: 295. Issue: 2. (March 2005) pp 36+.</ref><br />
<br />
==Wilson and race==<br />
[[Image:Wilson-quote-in-birth-of-a-nation.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Quotation from Woodrow Wilson's ''History of the American People'' as reproduced in the film ''[[The Birth of a Nation]]''.]]<br />
===African Americans===<br />
While president of [[Princeton University]], Wilson discouraged blacks from even applying for admission.<ref>Arthur Link, ''Wilson:The Road to the White House'' (Princeton University Press, 1947) 502 </ref> Princeton would not admit its first black student until the 1940s.{{Fact|date=October 2008}}<br />
<br />
As President, Wilson allowed many of his cabinet officials to establish official [[racial segregation|segregation]] in most federal government offices, in some departments for the first time since 1863. "His administration imposed full racial segregation in Washington and hounded from office considerable numbers of black federal employees."<ref name="autogenerated1" /><br />
Wilson and his cabinet members fired many black Republican office holders in political appointee positions, but also appointed a few black Democrats to such posts. [[W. E. B. Du Bois]], a leader of the [[NAACP]], campaigned for Wilson and in 1918 was offered an Army commission in charge of dealing with race relations. (DuBois accepted, but he failed his Army physical and did not serve.)<ref>Ellis, Mark. "'Closing Ranks' and 'Seeking Honors': W. E. B. Du Bois in World War I" ''Journal of American History'', 1992 79(1): 96-124. ISSN 0021-8723 Fulltext in Jstor</ref> When a delegation of blacks protested the discriminatory actions, Wilson told them that "segregation is not a humiliation but a benefit, and ought to be so regarded by you gentlemen." In 1914, he told the ''[[New York Times]]'', "If the colored people made a mistake in voting for me, they ought to correct it."{{Fact|date=October 2008}}<br />
<br />
Wilson was highly criticized by African Americans for his actions. He was also criticized by southern hard-line racists such as Georgian [[Thomas E. Watson]], who believed Wilson did not ''go far enough'' in ''restricting'' black employment in the federal government. The segregation introduced into the federal workforce by the Wilson administration was kept in place by the succeeding presidents and not officially ended until the Truman Administration.{{Fact|date=October 2008}}<br />
<br />
Woodrow Wilson's ''History of the American People'' explained the [[Ku Klux Klan]] of the late 1860s as the natural outgrowth of [[Reconstruction era of the United States|Reconstruction]], a lawless reaction to a lawless period. Wilson noted that the Klan "began to attempt by intimidation what they were not allowed to attempt by the ballot or by any ordered course of public action."<ref>Woodrow Wilson, ''A History of the American People'' (1931) V:59.</ref> Although it is unclear whether Wilson's harsh critique of the Reconstruction was colored by his personal beliefs, it is clear that his critique provided much of the intellectual/historical justification for the racist policies/reactions of the 20th century American South.{{Fact|date=October 2008}}<br />
<br />
In a 1923 letter to Senator [[Morris Sheppard]] of [[Texas]], Wilson noted of the reborn Klan, "...no more obnoxious or harmful organization has ever shown itself in our affairs." Although Wilson had a volatile relationship with American blacks, he was a friend of the Ethiopian Emperor [[Haile Selassie I of Ethiopia|Haile Selassie]], a black African monarch. A sword, a gift from Selassie, is on display at Wilson's Washington, DC house, now a museum.<ref>Link, ''Papers of Woodrow Wilson'' 68:298</ref><br />
<br />
===White ethnics===<br />
Wilson had harsh words to say about immigrants in his history books. But after he entered politics in 1910, Wilson worked to integrate immigrants into the Democratic party, into the army, and into American life. During the war, he demanded in return that they repudiate any loyalty to enemy nations.{{Fact|date=October 2008}}<br />
<br />
[[Irish American]]s were powerful in the Democratic party and opposed going to war as allies of their traditional enemy Great Britain, especially after the violent suppression of the [[Easter Rebellion]] of 1916. Wilson won them over in 1917 by promising to ask Great Britain to give Ireland its independence. At Versailles, however, he reneged and the Irish-American community vehemently denounced him. Wilson, in turn, blamed the Irish Americans and [[German American]]s for lack of popular support for the [[League of Nations]], saying,<br />
<br />
:"There is an organized propaganda against the League of Nations and against the treaty proceeding from exactly the same sources that the organized propaganda proceeded from which threatened this country here and there with disloyalty, and I want to say, I cannot say too often, any man who carries a hyphen about with him carries a dagger that he is ready to plunge into the vitals of this Republic whenever he gets ready."<ref>American Rhetoric, [http://www.americanrhetoric.com/speeches/wilsonleagueofnations.htm "Final Address in Support of the League of Nations"], Woodrow Wilson, delivered 25 Sept 1919 in Pueblo, CO. John B. Duff, "German-Americans and the Peace, 1918-1920" ''American Jewish Historical Quarterly'' 1970 59(4): 424-459. and Duff, "The Versailles Treaty and the Irish-Americans" ''Journal of American History'' 1968 55(3): 582-598. ISBN 0021-8723</ref>''<br />
<br />
Wilson refused to meet with [[Éamon de Valera]] the [[President of Dáil Éireann]] during the latter's 1919 visit to the United States.{{Fact|date=September 2008}}<br />
<br />
== Mother's Day ==<br />
In 1914, Wilson declared the first national [[Mother's Day (United States)|Mother's Day]]<ref>[http://www.history.com/this-day-in-history.do?action=tdihArticleCategory&id=522 Woodrow Wilson proclaims the first Mother’s Day holiday] from the [[History Channel]]</ref><br />
:"Now, Therefore, I, Woodrow Wilson, President of the United States of America, by virtue of the authority vested in me by the said Joint Resolution, do hereby direct the government officials to display the United States flag on all government buildings and do invite the people of the United States to display the flag at their homes or other suitable places on the second Sunday in May as a public expression of our love and reverence for the mothers of our country."<br />
<br />
==Death==<br />
[[Image:Woodrow Wilson Tomb.JPG|thumb|right|The final resting place of Woodrow Wilson at the [[Washington National Cathedral]]]]<br />
<br />
In 1921, Wilson and his wife retired from the White House to a home in the [[Embassy Row]] section of [[Washington, D.C.]] Wilson continued going for daily drives and attended Keith's [[vaudeville]] theater on Saturday nights. Wilson was one of only two Presidents ([[Theodore Roosevelt]] was the first) who had been president of the [[American Historical Association]].<ref>David Henry Burton. ''Theodore Roosevelt, American Politician'', p.146. Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 1997, ISBN 0838637272</ref><br />
<br />
Wilson died in his S Street home on February 3, 1924. Because his plan for the [[League of Nations]] ultimately failed, he died feeling that he had lied to the American people and that his entry into the war had been in vain. He was buried in [[Washington National Cathedral]], and is thus the only president buried in Washington, DC.<ref>John Whitcomb, Claire Whitcomb. ''Real Life at the White House'', p.262. Routledge, 2002, ISBN 0415939518</ref><br />
<br />
Mrs. Wilson stayed in the home another 37 years, dying on December 28, 1961, ironically the same day she was to be the guest of honor at the opening of the [[Woodrow Wilson Bridge]] near [[Washington, D.C.]] She passed away with her favorite dog, Rooter, at her bedside. Mrs. Wilson left the home to the [[National Trust for Historic Preservation]] to be made into a museum honoring her husband. [[The Woodrow Wilson House (Washington, D.C.)|Woodrow Wilson House]] opened as a museum. It is also on the [[National Register of Historic Places]].{{Fact|date=October 2008}}<br />
<br />
==Media==<br />
<br />
{{Sound sample box align right|Speech sample}}<br />
{{Listen<br />
|filename=Wilson - Address to the American Indians.ogg<br />
|title="Address to the American Indians"<br />
|description=("The great white father now calls you his brothers"), an address given in 1913<br />
|format=[[Ogg]]<br />
}}<br />
{{Sample box end}}<br />
<br />
<gallery widths=300px><br />
Image:Woodrow Wilson at a parade, 1918.ogg|Wilson tips his hat as he exits the White House on his way to a parade along [[Pennsylvania Avenue]] (1918)<br />
Image:Woodrow Wilson video montage.ogg|Collection of video clips of the president<br />
</gallery><br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
* [[United States presidential election, 1912]]<br />
* [[United States presidential election, 1916]]<br />
* [[History of the United States (1865-1918)|History of the United States (1865–1918)]]<br />
* [[History of the United States (1918–1945)]]<br />
* [[World War I]]<br />
* [[Paris Peace Conference, 1919#Japanese approach|Racial equality proposal]]<br />
* [[Woodrow Wilson Presidential Library]]<br />
* [[The Woodrow Wilson House (Washington, D.C.)]]<br />
* [[The Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars]]<br />
* [[Woodrow Wilson School of Public and International Affairs]], Princeton, New Jersey<br />
* [[USS Woodrow Wilson (SSBN-624)|USS ''Woodrow Wilson'' (SSBN-624)]]<br />
<br />
==Citations==<br />
{{reflist|2}}<br />
[[Image:Postcard21000SoldiersCreateImageofPresidentWilsonCampShermanOH1918.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Image of Wilson created by 21,000 soldiers at Camp Sherman, [[Chillicothe, Ohio]], 1918]]<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
* {{cite book<br />
|url=http://www.pupress.princeton.edu/catalogs/series/pw.html <br />
|title=The Papers of Woodrow Wilson<br />
|author=Link, Arthur S. (editor)}} Complete in 69 volumes at major academic libraries. Annotated edition of all of Wilson's correspondence, speeches and writings.<br />
* {{cite book<br />
|url=http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/etext05/8wwik10.txt <br />
|author=Tumulty, Joseph P.<br />
|title=Woodrow Wilson as I Know Him<br />
|year=1921}}. Memoir by Wilson's chief of staff.<br />
* {{gutenberg|no=14811|name=The New Freedom by Woodrow Wilson}} 1912 campaign speeches<br />
* {{cite book|url=http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/etext04/whwar10h.htm <br />
|author=Wilson, Woodrow<br />
|title=Why We Are at War |year=1917}} Six war messages to Congress, January - April 1917.<br />
* {{cite book<br />
|author=Wilson, Woodrow<br />
|title=Selected Literary & Political Papers & Addresses of Woodrow Wilson}} 3 volumes, 1918 and later editions.<br />
* Woodrow Wilson, compiled with his approval by Hamilton Foley; ''Woodrow Wilson's Case for the League of Nations'', Princeton University Press, Princeton 1923; [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,716925-1,00.html contemporary book review].<br />
* Wilson, Woodrow. ''Messages & Papers of Woodrow Wilson'' 2 vol (ISBN 1-135-19812-8)<br />
* Wilson, Woodrow. ''The New Democracy. Presidential Messages, Addresses, and Other Papers (1913-1917)'' 2 vol 1926 (ISBN 0-89875-775-4<br />
* Wilson, Woodrow. [http://www.usa-presidents.info/speeches/fourteen-points.html ''President Woodrow Wilson's Fourteen Points (1918)''].<br />
* [http://www.libertydollar.org/ld/federal-reserve 'Wilson and the Federal Reserve']<br />
* Ambrosius, Lloyd E., “Woodrow Wilson and George W. Bush: Historical Comparisons of Ends and Means in Their Foreign Policies,” ''Diplomatic History'', 30 (June 2006), 509–43.<br />
* Bailey; Thomas A. ''Wilson and the Peacemakers: Combining Woodrow Wilson and the Lost Peace and Woodrow Wilson and the Great Betrayal'' (1947)<br />
* Bennett, David J., ''He Almost Changed the World: The Life and Times of Thomas Riley Marshall'' (2007)<br />
* Brands, H. W. ''Woodrow Wilson 1913-1921'’ (2003)<br />
* Clements, Kendrick, A. ''Woodrow Wilson : World Statesman'' (1999)<br />
* Clements, Kendrick A. ''The Presidency of Woodrow Wilson'' (1992)<br />
* Clements, Kendrick A. "Woodrow Wilson and World War I," ''Presidential Studies Quarterly'' 34:1 (2004). pp 62+.<br />
* Davis, Donald E. and Eugene P. Trani; [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=109328821 ''The First Cold War: The Legacy of Woodrow Wilson in U.S.-Soviet Relations''] (2002)<br />
* Greene, Theodore P. Ed. ''Wilson at Versailles'' (1957)<br />
* Hofstadter, Richard. "Woodrow Wilson: The Conservative as Liberal" in ''The American Political Tradition'' (1948), ch. 10.<br />
* Knock, Thomas J. ''To End All Wars: Woodrow Wilson and the Quest for a New World Order'' (1995)<br />
* N. Gordon Levin, Jr., ''Woodrow Wilson and World Politics: America's Response to War and Revolution'' (1968)<br />
* Link, Arthur S. "Woodrow Wilson" in Henry F. Graff ed., ''The Presidents: A Reference History '' (2002) pp 365-388<br />
* Link, Arthur Stanley. ''Woodrow Wilson and the Progressive Era, 1910-1917'' (1972) standard political history of the era<br />
* Link, Arthur Stanley. ''Wilson: The Road to the White House'' (1947), first volume of standard biography (to 1917); ''Wilson: The New Freedom'' (1956); ''Wilson: The Struggle for Neutrality: 1914-1915'' (1960); ''Wilson: Confusions and Crises: 1915-1916'' (1964); ''Wilson: Campaigns for Progressivism and Peace: 1916-1917'' (1965), the last volume of standard biography<br />
* Link, Arthur S.; ''Wilson the Diplomatist: A Look at His Major Foreign Policies'' (1957)<br />
* Link, Arthur S.; ''Woodrow Wilson and a Revolutionary World, 1913-1921'' (1982)<br />
* Livermore, Seward W. ''Woodrow Wilson and the War Congress, 1916-1918'' (1966)<br />
* Malin, James C. [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=5260560 ''The United States after the World War'' ] (1930)<br />
* May, Ernest R. ''The World War and American Isolation, 1914-1917'' (1959)<br />
* Saunders, Robert M. ''In Search of Woodrow Wilson: Beliefs and Behavior'' (1998)<br />
* Trani, Eugene P. “Woodrow Wilson and the Decision to Intervene in Russia: A Reconsideration.” ''Journal of Modern History'' (1976). 48:440—61. in JSTOR<br />
* Walworth, Arthur. [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=24215014 ''Woodrow Wilson'' 2 Vol.] Pulitzer prize winning biography, (1958).<br />
* Arthur Walworth; [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=104399613 ''Wilson and His Peacemakers: American Diplomacy at the Paris Peace Conference, 1919'']<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
{{commons|Woodrow Wilson}}<br />
{{Wikisource author}}<br />
{{wikiquote}}<br />
* [http://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/big/0402.html#article NY Times main headline, April 2, 1917, ''President Calls for War Declaration, Stronger Navy, New Army of 500,000 Men, Full Cooperation With Germany's Foes'']<br />
* [http://www.millercenter.virginia.edu/index.php/academic/americanpresident/wilson Extensive essay on Woodrow Wilson and shorter essays on each member of his cabinet and First Lady from the Miller Center of Public Affairs]<br />
* [http://www.utwatch.org/funfacts/woodrowwilson.html Ode to Woodrow Wilson]<br />
* [http://www.whitehouse.gov/history/presidents/ww28.html Official White House biography]<br />
* [http://www.loc.gov/rr/program/bib/presidents/wilson/index.html Woodrow Wilson: A Resource Guide] from the Library of Congress<br />
*[http://woodrowwilson.net Presidential Biography by Stanley L. Klos]<br />
* [http://vvl.lib.msu.edu/showfindingaid.cfm?findaidid=WilsonW Audio clips of Wilson's speeches]<br />
* [http://www.geocities.com/peace_888grom/wilson-bio.html Woodrow Wilson – Biography]<br />
* [http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/presiden/inaug/wilson1.htm First Inaugural Address]<br />
* [http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/presiden/inaug/wilson2.htm Second Inaugural Address]<br />
* [http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/President_Wilson's_War_Address President Wilson's War Address]<br />
* [http://www.libraryreference.org/wilson.html Woodrow Wilson Biography]<br />
* [http://www.woodrowwilson.org Woodrow Wilson Presidential Library at His Birthplace] Staunton, Virginia<br />
* [http://www.wilsonboyhoodhome.org Boyhood Home of President Woodrow Wilson] Augusta, GA<br />
* [http://www.woodrowwilsonhouse.org Woodrow Wilson House] Washington,DC<br />
* [http://www.wilsoncenter.org Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars] Washington,DC<br />
* [http://www.davidpietrusza.com/wilson-links.html Woodrow Wilson Links]<br />
* {{gutenberg author|id=Woodrow+Wilson | name=Woodrow Wilson}}<br />
* [http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/today/dec28.html Library of Congress: "Today in History: December 28"]<br />
* [http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/today/jun09.html Library of Congress: "Today in History: June 9"]<br />
* [http://www.discovernorthernireland.com/product.aspx?ProductID=2941 Woodrow Wilson Ancestral Home]<br />
* [http://www.nps.gov/history/nr/twhp/wwwlps/lessons/14wilson/14wilson.htm ''Woodrow Wilson: Prophet of Peace,'' a National Park Service Teaching with Historic Places (TwHP) lesson plan]<br />
* [http://thedcl.org/christia/w/wilsonwo/jwpih/jwpih.html John Wesley's Place in History] at The DCL.<br />
* [http://boomp3.com/m/46f4c88f954a President Woodrow Wilson: Address To The American Indians]<br />
*[http://www.nga.org/portal/site/nga/menuitem.29fab9fb4add37305ddcbeeb501010a0/?vgnextoid=534c3058be3f9010VgnVCM1000001a01010aRCRD&vgnextchannel=e449a0ca9e3f1010VgnVCM1000001a01010aRCRD New Jersey Governor Thomas Woodrow Wilson], [[National Governors Association]] (listen online)<br />
* [http://www.njstatelib.org/NJ_Information/Digital_Collections/Governors_of_New_Jersey/GWILS.pdf Biography of Woodrow Wilson], [[New Jersey State Library]]<br />
<br />
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<br />
{{Persondata<br />
|NAME = Wilson, Woodrow<br />
|ALTERNATIVE NAMES = Wilson, Thomas Woodrow<br />
|SHORT DESCRIPTION = 28th [[President of the United States]]<br />
|DATE OF BIRTH = December 28, 1856<br />
|PLACE OF BIRTH = [[Staunton, Virginia|Staunton]], [[Virginia]], United States<br />
|DATE OF DEATH = February 3, 1924<br />
|PLACE OF DEATH = [[Washington, D.C.]], United States<br />
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{{Lifetime|1856|1924|Wilson, Woodrow}}<br />
[[Category:Woodrow Wilson| ]]<br />
[[Category:American academics]]<br />
[[Category:American Presbyterians]]<br />
[[Category:American progressives]]<br />
[[Category:American university and college presidents]]<br />
[[Category:American people of World War I]]<br />
[[Category:English Americans]]<br />
[[Category:Scots-Irish Americans]]<br />
[[Category:Scottish-Americans]]<br />
[[Category:Deaths from stroke]]<br />
[[Category:Democratic Party (United States) presidential nominees]]<br />
[[Category:United States presidential candidates, 1912]]<br />
[[Category:United States presidential candidates, 1916]]<br />
[[Category:Governors of New Jersey]]<br />
[[Category:History of the United States (1865–1918)]]<br />
[[Category:Johns Hopkins University alumni]]<br />
[[Category:League of Nations people]]<br />
[[Category:Nobel Peace Prize laureates]]<br />
[[Category:People from Staunton, Virginia]]<br />
[[Category:People from Augusta, Georgia]]<br />
[[Category:Presidents of the United States]]<br />
[[Category:Presidents of Princeton University]]<br />
[[Category:Princeton University alumni]]<br />
[[Category:Princeton University faculty]]<br />
[[Category:History of racial segregation in the United States]]<br />
[[Category:Wesleyan University faculty]]<br />
[[Category:Bryn Mawr College faculty]]<br />
[[Category:University of Virginia]]<br />
[[Category:Burials at Washington National Cathedral]]<br />
[[Category:Articles containing video clips]]<br />
[[Category:Members of Phi Beta Kappa Society]]<br />
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Leslie
https://conservapedia.com/index.php?title=Confraternity_Bible&diff=553342
Confraternity Bible
2008-11-10T00:29:07Z
<p>Leslie: removing some too-obvious bias</p>
<hr />
<div>[[Image:Confraternity New Testament.jpg|thumb|right|250px|[[Scepter Publishing]]'s 2006 rerelease of the 1941 Confraternity New Testament]]<br />
<br />
{{EnglishTranslations}}<br />
<br />
The '''Confraternity Bible''', or the '''Holy Bible, Confraternity Version''', is a blanket title given to various English language Bible translation compilations, which were periodically released by the Confraternity of Christian Doctrine starting in 1941 and culminating in, but not completely inclusive of, the release of the 1970 [[New American Bible]].<br />
<br />
In 1941, a revision of [[Richard Challoner]]'s Version of the [[Douay_Rheims_Bible#Challoner_Revision|Rheims New Testament]], Edited by Catholic Scholars under the Patronage of the Episcopal Committee of the Confraternity of Christian Doctrine, and titled "The New Testament, Confraternity Version", was released. In the years to follow, this release was accompanied by subsequent entire-canon Bibles, in various formats, that contained this specific revision of the New Testament, unchanged, along with a hybrid assortment of both untouched books from Challoner's Douay Old Testament, and newly revised Old Testament books from the original languages, as promulgated by Pope Pius XII. <br />
<br />
A revision of Challoner's Douay Old Testament was never fully completed, and it is not known how much of it had been completed when work immediately and completely shifted to translation from the original languages following Pope Pius XII's [[Divino Afflante Spiritu]], an encyclical letter issued on September 30, 1943, which stressed the importance of diligent study of the original languages and other cognate languages, so as to arrive at a deeper and fuller knowledge of the meaning of the sacred texts.<br />
<br />
Because of the hybrid nature of what would become the various versions of the Confraternity Bible, it has been referred to in the past, more descriptively, as the Challoner-Confraternity, or Douay/Douai-Confraternity, referencing the fact that it was made up of part Old Testament books from the Challoner Douay Old Testament, and also books translated or revised by the Confraternity of Christian Doctrine.<br />
<br />
The New Testament portion of the Confraternity Bible revised Challoner's translation in several ways:<br />
*It modernized the style of Challoner's eighteenth century English.<br />
*It translated from critical editions of the Latin [[Vulgate]], rather than from the Clementine edition.<br />
*When Greek idioms were literally translated into the [[Vulgate]], it paraphrased the Greek idiom, rather than translating direct from the Latin.<br />
*In general, it was a freer translation than Challoner's, and more paraphrastic.<br />
*It restored the paragraph formatting of the first edition of the [[Douay-Rheims Bible]], which had been removed in the [[Douay Bible#Challoner Revision|Challoner Revision]].<br />
<br />
Because it was intended to be used in the liturgy, the translators did not introduce any rendering that would depart from the text of the [[Vulgate]]. <br />
<br />
The Book of Psalms contained in a Confraternity Bible could be one of three versions: The Douay-Rheims Challoner Psalms, the Confraternity of Christian Doctrine (CCD) Psalms of 1941, or the CCD "Olinger" Psalms of 1950.<br />
<br />
The CCD Psalter of 1941 was based on the "Vulgate" or "Gallican" Latin version of the Psalter, and based on the Douay-Rheims-Challoner version of the Bible. The CCD "Olinger" Psalms, of 1950, were translated by Eberhard Olinger, OSB, and were based on the new Latin version of Pius XII, the "Novum Psalterium", which appeared in 1945. This version of the Psalter also eventually appeared in the 1970 [[New American Bible]].<br />
<br />
The new translations of the books from the Old Testament in the Confraternity Bible formed the basis of what would become the 1970 New American Bible, except for the Book of Genesis. The Confraternity version of Genesis was completely revised before the release of the NAB.<br />
<br />
The Old Testament books that had been translated anew from the original languages, remained virtually unchanged under the new NAB title, with only relatively minor revising done to normalize the anglicized form of formal names throughout the entire text.<br />
<br />
The Challoner-Confraternity version continues to be popular with traditional Catholics.<br />
<br />
Scepter Publishers [http://www.scepterpublishers.org/] have put the New Testament back into print ISBN 0-933932-77-4.<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
<br />
* [http://www.thedcl.org/store/confra-preface.html Preface to the Confraternity New Testament] at The DCL.<br />
<br />
[[Category:Bible versions and translations]]</div>
Leslie