History of India - Revision history

DavidB4-bot: Spelling, grammar, and general cleanup, typos fixed: 1998-2004 → 1998–2004 (3)

2020-04-06T04:23:20Z

Spelling, grammar, and general cleanup, typos fixed: 1998-2004 → 1998–2004 (3)

DavidB4-bot: HTTP --> HTTPS #3, replaced: http://www.amazon.com → https://www.amazon.com (17)

2019-04-09T14:58:31Z

HTTP --> HTTPS #3, replaced: http://www.amazon.com → https://www.amazon.com (17)

DavidB4-bot: Spelling, grammar, and general cleanup, typos fixed: a 17th century → a 17th-century, nation’s → nation's

2019-03-29T00:39:56Z

Spelling, grammar, and general cleanup, typos fixed: a 17th century → a 17th-century, nation’s → nation's

Anupam: /* See also */ +

2019-02-04T11:56:22Z

GraceDalrymple: /* Historiography */ Clarified sentence beginning "James Princeps"

2018-12-29T21:13:16Z

Historiography: Clarified sentence beginning "James Princeps"

DavidB4-bot: /* Railways */HTTP --> HTTPS [#1], replaced: http://books.google.com → https://books.google.com

2018-09-26T17:27:45Z

Railways: HTTP --> HTTPS [#1], replaced: http://books.google.com → https://books.google.com

DavidB4-bot: /* Hindu-Muslim violence */correcting hyphen usage, as requested, replaced: th-century → th century

2016-08-26T15:36:48Z

Hindu-Muslim violence: correcting hyphen usage, as requested, replaced: th-century → th century

DavidB4-bot: clean up & uniformity

2016-07-12T21:30:50Z

clean up & uniformity

Show changes

DavidB4-bot: Spelling/Grammar Check, typos fixed: tghe → the, a 17th century → a 17th-century, Seven Years War → Seven Years' War, et al → et al. (2), five year → five-year

2016-07-12T19:44:25Z

Spelling/Grammar Check, typos fixed: tghe → the, a 17th century → a 17th-century, Seven Years War → Seven Years' War, et al → et al. (2), five year → five-year

Joaquín Martínez at 20:27, April 27, 2015

2015-04-27T20:27:15Z

@@ Line 88: / Line 88: @@
 ===Congress rules===
-After independence, the Indian National Congress, the party of Mohandas K. Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru, ruled India under the leadership first of Nehru and then his daughter ([[Indira Gandhi]]) and grandson ([[Rajiv Gandhi]]), with the exception of brief periods in the 1970s and 1980s, during a short period in 1996, and the period from 1998-2004, when a coalition led by the Bharatiya Janata Party governed.
+After independence, the Indian National Congress, the party of Mohandas K. Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru, ruled India under the leadership first of Nehru and then his daughter ([[Indira Gandhi]]) and grandson ([[Rajiv Gandhi]]), with the exception of brief periods in the 1970s and 1980s, during a short period in 1996, and the period from 1998–2004, when a coalition led by the Bharatiya Janata Party governed.
 ===Indira Gandhi===
-Prime Minister Nehru governed the nation until his death in 1964. Nehru was succeeded by [[Lal Bahadur Shastri]], who also died in office. In 1966, power passed to Nehru's daughter, [[Indira Gandhi]]  (1917–84), Prime Minister from 1966 to 1977, and again 1980-84.<ref>see Pranay Gupte, ''Mother India: A Political Biography of Indira Gandhi'' (1992). 320 pp.; Pupul Jayakar, ''Indira Gandhi: An Intimate Biography'' (1993). 448 pp.; Inder Malhotra, ''Indira Gandhi: A Personal and Political Biography.'' (1991). 363 pp.</ref>
+Prime Minister Nehru governed the nation until his death in 1964. Nehru was succeeded by [[Lal Bahadur Shastri]], who also died in office. In 1966, power passed to Nehru's daughter, [[Indira Gandhi]]  (1917–84), Prime Minister from 1966 to 1977, and again 1980–84.<ref>see Pranay Gupte, ''Mother India: A Political Biography of Indira Gandhi'' (1992). 320 pp.; Pupul Jayakar, ''Indira Gandhi: An Intimate Biography'' (1993). 448 pp.; Inder Malhotra, ''Indira Gandhi: A Personal and Political Biography.'' (1991). 363 pp.</ref>
-Intense political factionalism prevailed her first term as prime minister, 1966-71. Conservative elements who had supported her election - thinking she could be "molded" to their will - fought back bitterly (but unsuccessfully) when she proved to be an ardent defender of Nehru's liberal political philosophy.  In 1969 the Indian National Congress split into two factions. The majority, led by Prime Minister Indira Gandhi, promoted socialist economic and social reforms. The conservative minority, called the Syndicate, advocated more capitalism as the solution to the nation's massive poverty. Cooperating with other conservative parties, the Syndicate weakened Gandhi's popular programs by threatening the parliamentary majority of the Congress party. Mrs Gandhi responded by closer links with leftist parties.
+Intense political factionalism prevailed her first term as prime minister, 1966–71. Conservative elements who had supported her election - thinking she could be "molded" to their will - fought back bitterly (but unsuccessfully) when she proved to be an ardent defender of Nehru's liberal political philosophy.  In 1969 the Indian National Congress split into two factions. The majority, led by Prime Minister Indira Gandhi, promoted socialist economic and social reforms. The conservative minority, called the Syndicate, advocated more capitalism as the solution to the nation's massive poverty. Cooperating with other conservative parties, the Syndicate weakened Gandhi's popular programs by threatening the parliamentary majority of the Congress party. Mrs Gandhi responded by closer links with leftist parties.
 Considerable real economic growth took place, often in spite of or contrary to her proposals. Prosperity enabled Mrs. Gandhi to win a landslide reelection victory in 1971. It partly resulted from her reputation for strong leadership, and also resulted from the effects of the New Economic Policy, implemented in 1966. After hesitant beginnings in the early 1960s the [[Green Revolution]] rapidly improved food production and spurred the entire economy after 1967. She nationalized India's banks in 1967 to allow for easy credit. Social discontent resulting from the Green Revolution was still limited.

@@ Line 152: / Line 152: @@
 *  Brown, Judith M. ''Modern India: The Origins of an Asian Democracy'' (2nd ed. 1994)  464 pgs [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=59677250 online edition]
 * Daniélou, Alain. ''A Brief History of India'' (2003)
-* Guha, Ramachandra. ''India After Gandhi: The History of the World's Largest Democracy'' (2008) [http://www.amazon.com/India-After-Gandhi-History-Democracy/dp/0060958588/ref=sr_1_8?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1242545228&sr=1-8 excerpt and text search]
+* Guha, Ramachandra. ''India After Gandhi: The History of the World's Largest Democracy'' (2008) [https://www.amazon.com/India-After-Gandhi-History-Democracy/dp/0060958588/ref=sr_1_8?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1242545228&sr=1-8 excerpt and text search]
 * Habib, Irfan. ''Atlas of the Mughal Empire: Political and Economic Maps '' (1982).
-* James, Lawrence. ''Raj: The Making and Unmaking of British India'' (1997) ISBN 0-316-64072-7 [http://www.amazon.com/Raj-Making-Unmaking-British-India/dp/0312263821/ref=sr_1_1/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&sr=1-1 excerpt and online search from Amazon.com]
+* James, Lawrence. ''Raj: The Making and Unmaking of British India'' (1997) ISBN 0-316-64072-7 [https://www.amazon.com/Raj-Making-Unmaking-British-India/dp/0312263821/ref=sr_1_1/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&sr=1-1 excerpt and online search from Amazon.com]
-* Keay, John. ''India: A History'' (2001) [http://www.amazon.com/India-History-John-Keay/dp/0802137970/ref=pd_bbs_sr_1/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1189741409&sr=8-1 excerpts and online search from Amazon.com]
+* Keay, John. ''India: A History'' (2001) [https://www.amazon.com/India-History-John-Keay/dp/0802137970/ref=pd_bbs_sr_1/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1189741409&sr=8-1 excerpts and online search from Amazon.com]
 * Kishore, Prem and Anuradha Kishore Ganpati. ''India: An Illustrated History'' (2003)
-* Kulke, Hermann and Dietmar Rothermund. ''A History of India.'' 4th ed. (2004) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=108019139 online edition  from [[Questia]]]; [http://www.amazon.com/History-India-Hermann-Kulke/dp/0415154820/ref=pd_bbs_8/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1189741409&sr=8-8  excerpts and online search from Amazon.com]
+* Kulke, Hermann and Dietmar Rothermund. ''A History of India.'' 4th ed. (2004) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=108019139 online edition  from [[Questia]]]; [https://www.amazon.com/History-India-Hermann-Kulke/dp/0415154820/ref=pd_bbs_8/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1189741409&sr=8-8  excerpts and online search from Amazon.com]
 * Lal, Deepak.  ''The Hindu Equilibrium: India C.1500 B.C.-2000 A.D.'' (2nd ed. 2005).
 * Majumdar, R. C. et al. ''An Advanced History of India'' London: Macmillan. 1960. ISBN 0-333-90298-X
 * Mcleod, John. ''The History of India'' (2002) 225pp [http://www.questia.com/library/book/the-history-of-india-by-john-mcleod.jsp online edition]
 *  Rawlinson, H. G. ''India: A Short Cultural History'' (1952) 454 pgs. [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=95582746 online edition]
-* Richards, John F. ''The Mughal Empire'' (The New Cambridge History of India) (1996) [http://www.amazon.com/Mughal-Empire-Cambridge-History-India/dp/0521566037/ref=sr_1_6/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1189744829&sr=1-6  excerpt and online search from Amazon.com]
+* Richards, John F. ''The Mughal Empire'' (The New Cambridge History of India) (1996) [https://www.amazon.com/Mughal-Empire-Cambridge-History-India/dp/0521566037/ref=sr_1_6/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1189744829&sr=1-6  excerpt and online search from Amazon.com]
-* Sardesai, D. R. ''India: The Definitive History'' (2007), 486pp  [http://www.amazon.com/gp/reader/0813343526/ref=sib_dp_pt/103-4827826-5463040#reader-link  excerpts and online search from Amazon.com]
+* Sardesai, D. R. ''India: The Definitive History'' (2007), 486pp  [https://www.amazon.com/gp/reader/0813343526/ref=sib_dp_pt/103-4827826-5463040#reader-link  excerpts and online search from Amazon.com]
 * Smith, Vincent. ''The Oxford History of India'' (1981), original edition 1915
 * Smith, Vincent. ''The Oxford student's history of India'' (1915) [http://www.archive.org/details/studentshistoryof00smitiala online edition]
 * Spear, Percival. ''The History of India'' Vol. 2 (1990)
-* Thapar, Romila. ''Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300'' (2004)  [http://www.amazon.com/History-India-Penguin/dp/0140138358/ref=pd_bbs_sr_3/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1189741409&sr=8-3 excerpts and online search from Amazon.com]
+* Thapar, Romila. ''Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300'' (2004)  [https://www.amazon.com/History-India-Penguin/dp/0140138358/ref=pd_bbs_sr_3/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1189741409&sr=8-3 excerpts and online search from Amazon.com]
-* Wolpert, Stanley. ''A New History of India'' (7th ed. 2003) 544pp [http://www.amazon.com/gp/reader/0195166779/ref=sib_dp_pt/103-4827826-5463040#reader-link excerpt and online search from Amazon.com]
+* Wolpert, Stanley. ''A New History of India'' (7th ed. 2003) 544pp [https://www.amazon.com/gp/reader/0195166779/ref=sib_dp_pt/103-4827826-5463040#reader-link excerpt and online search from Amazon.com]
 *Jackson, A.V. et al., eds. ''History of India'' (1906-1907)
 **''v.l. From the earliest times to the sixth century B.C.,'' by R.C. Dutt. [http://www.archive.org/details/historyofindia01jackiala online edition]
@@ Line 183: / Line 183: @@
 *Balachandran, G. ed. ''India and the World Economy, 1850-1950'' Oxford University Press, 2005. ISBN 0-19-567234-8.
 * Chaudhuri, K. N.''Trade and Civilisation in the Indian Ocean: An Economic History from the Rise of Islam to 1750'' (1985)
-* Das, Gurcharan. ''India Unbound: The Social and Economic Revolution from Independence to the Global Information Age'' (2002). [http://www.amazon.com/India-Unbound-Revolution-Independence-Information/dp/0385720742/ref=sr_1_1/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1189744748&sr=1-1 excerpt and online search from Amazon.com]
+* Das, Gurcharan. ''India Unbound: The Social and Economic Revolution from Independence to the Global Information Age'' (2002). [https://www.amazon.com/India-Unbound-Revolution-Independence-Information/dp/0385720742/ref=sr_1_1/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1189744748&sr=1-1 excerpt and online search from Amazon.com]
 * Dutt, Romesh. ''The Economic History of India in the Victorian Age'' (1908) [http://www.archive.org/details/TheEconomicHistoryOfIndiaInTheVictorianAge online edition]
-* Ludden, David, ed. ''New Cambridge History of India: An Agrarian History of South Asia'' (1999). [http://www.amazon.com/New-Cambridge-History-India-Agrarian/dp/0521364248/ref=sr_1_1/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1189744790&sr=1-1  excerpt and online search from Amazon.com]
+* Ludden, David, ed. ''New Cambridge History of India: An Agrarian History of South Asia'' (1999). [https://www.amazon.com/New-Cambridge-History-India-Agrarian/dp/0521364248/ref=sr_1_1/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1189744790&sr=1-1  excerpt and online search from Amazon.com]
 * Habib, Irfan. ''Agrarian System of Mughal India'' (1963, revised edition 1999).
 * Habib, Irfan. ''Atlas of the Mughal Empire: Political and Economic Maps '' (1982).
@@ Line 193: / Line 193: @@
 * Tomlinson, B. R. et al.''The Economy of Modern India, 1860-1970'' (1996) (The New Cambridge History of India)
 * Larue, C. Steven. ''The India Handbook'' (1997) (Regional Handbooks of Economic Development).
-* Panagariya, Arvind. ''India: The Emerging Giant'' (2008) 544 pp., ISBN 978-0-19-531503-5  The major recent history; for advanced readers. [http://www.amazon.com/India-Emerging-Giant-Arvind/dp/0195315030/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1222697254&sr=8-1  excerpt and text search]
+* Panagariya, Arvind. ''India: The Emerging Giant'' (2008) 544 pp., ISBN 978-0-19-531503-5  The major recent history; for advanced readers. [https://www.amazon.com/India-Emerging-Giant-Arvind/dp/0195315030/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1222697254&sr=8-1  excerpt and text search]
 * Rothermund, Dietmar. ''An Economic History of India: From Pre-Colonial Times to 1991'' (1993)
 * Rudolph, Lloyd I. ''In Pursuit of Lakshmi: The Political Economy of the Indian State'' (1987).
-* Roy, Tirthankar. ''The Economic History of India 1857-1947'' (2006). [http://www.amazon.com/Economic-History-1857-1947-Oxford-Textbooks/dp/0195684303/ref=sr_1_1/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1189744962&sr=1-1  excerpt and online search from Amazon.com]
+* Roy, Tirthankar. ''The Economic History of India 1857-1947'' (2006). [https://www.amazon.com/Economic-History-1857-1947-Oxford-Textbooks/dp/0195684303/ref=sr_1_1/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1189744962&sr=1-1  excerpt and online search from Amazon.com]
 ===India in the British Empire===
-* Cain, P. J. and A.G. Hopkins. ''British Imperialism, 1688-2000'' (2nd ed. 2001), 739pp, detailed economic history that presents the new "gentlemanly capitalists" thesis [http://www.amazon.com/British-Imperialism-Crisis-Deconstruction-1914-1990/dp/058220965X/ref=sr_1_2/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1191842268&sr=8-2 excerpt and text search]
+* Cain, P. J. and A.G. Hopkins. ''British Imperialism, 1688-2000'' (2nd ed. 2001), 739pp, detailed economic history that presents the new "gentlemanly capitalists" thesis [https://www.amazon.com/British-Imperialism-Crisis-Deconstruction-1914-1990/dp/058220965X/ref=sr_1_2/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1191842268&sr=8-2 excerpt and text search]
 * Louis, William. Roger (general editor), ''The Oxford History of the British Empire'', 5 vols. (1998–99).
 ** vol 1 "The Origins of Empire" ed. by Nicholas Canny
-** vol 2 "The Eighteenth Century" ed. by P. J. Marshall [http://www.amazon.com/Oxford-History-British-Empire-Eighteenth/dp/0199246777/ref=sr_1_3/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1191842268&sr=8-3  excerpt and text search]
+** vol 2 "The Eighteenth Century" ed. by P. J. Marshall [https://www.amazon.com/Oxford-History-British-Empire-Eighteenth/dp/0199246777/ref=sr_1_3/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1191842268&sr=8-3  excerpt and text search]
-** vol 3 ''The Nineteenth Century'' edited by William Roger Louis, Alaine M. Low, Andrew Porter; (1998). 780 pp.. [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=98650583 online edition], also [http://www.amazon.com/Oxford-History-British-Empire-Nineteenth/dp/0199246785/ref=sr_1_8/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1191842268&sr=8-8 excerpt and text search]
+** vol 3 ''The Nineteenth Century'' edited by William Roger Louis, Alaine M. Low, Andrew Porter; (1998). 780 pp.. [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=98650583 online edition], also [https://www.amazon.com/Oxford-History-British-Empire-Nineteenth/dp/0199246785/ref=sr_1_8/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1191842268&sr=8-8 excerpt and text search]
-** vol 5 "Historiography" ed, by Robin W. Winks (1999) [http://www.amazon.com/Oxford-History-British-Empire-Historiography/dp/0199246807/ref=sr_1_25/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1191842573&sr=8-25  excerpt and text search]
+** vol 5 "Historiography" ed, by Robin W. Winks (1999) [https://www.amazon.com/Oxford-History-British-Empire-Historiography/dp/0199246807/ref=sr_1_25/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1191842573&sr=8-25  excerpt and text search]
-* Marshall, P. J. (ed.), ''The Cambridge Illustrated History of the British Empire'' (1996). [http://www.amazon.com/Cambridge-Illustrated-History-British-Empire/dp/0521002540/ref=sr_1_12/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1191842268&sr=8-12 excerpt and text search]
+* Marshall, P. J. (ed.), ''The Cambridge Illustrated History of the British Empire'' (1996). [https://www.amazon.com/Cambridge-Illustrated-History-British-Empire/dp/0521002540/ref=sr_1_12/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1191842268&sr=8-12 excerpt and text search]
 ===Primary sources===

@@ Line 92: / Line 92: @@
 Prime Minister Nehru governed the nation until his death in 1964. Nehru was succeeded by [[Lal Bahadur Shastri]], who also died in office. In 1966, power passed to Nehru's daughter, [[Indira Gandhi]]  (1917–84), Prime Minister from 1966 to 1977, and again 1980-84.<ref>see Pranay Gupte, ''Mother India: A Political Biography of Indira Gandhi'' (1992). 320 pp.; Pupul Jayakar, ''Indira Gandhi: An Intimate Biography'' (1993). 448 pp.; Inder Malhotra, ''Indira Gandhi: A Personal and Political Biography.'' (1991). 363 pp.</ref>
-Intense political factionalism prevailed her first term as prime minister, 1966-71. Conservative elements who had supported her election - thinking she could be "molded" to their will - fought back bitterly (but unsuccessfully) when she proved to be an ardent defender of Nehru's liberal political philosophy.  In 1969 the Indian National Congress split into two factions. The majority, led by Prime Minister Indira Gandhi, promoted socialist economic and social reforms. The conservative minority, called the Syndicate, advocated more capitalism as the solution to the nation’s massive poverty. Cooperating with other conservative parties, the Syndicate weakened Gandhi's popular programs by threatening the parliamentary majority of the Congress party. Mrs Gandhi responded by closer links with leftist parties.
+Intense political factionalism prevailed her first term as prime minister, 1966-71. Conservative elements who had supported her election - thinking she could be "molded" to their will - fought back bitterly (but unsuccessfully) when she proved to be an ardent defender of Nehru's liberal political philosophy.  In 1969 the Indian National Congress split into two factions. The majority, led by Prime Minister Indira Gandhi, promoted socialist economic and social reforms. The conservative minority, called the Syndicate, advocated more capitalism as the solution to the nation's massive poverty. Cooperating with other conservative parties, the Syndicate weakened Gandhi's popular programs by threatening the parliamentary majority of the Congress party. Mrs Gandhi responded by closer links with leftist parties.
 Considerable real economic growth took place, often in spite of or contrary to her proposals. Prosperity enabled Mrs. Gandhi to win a landslide reelection victory in 1971. It partly resulted from her reputation for strong leadership, and also resulted from the effects of the New Economic Policy, implemented in 1966. After hesitant beginnings in the early 1960s the [[Green Revolution]] rapidly improved food production and spurred the entire economy after 1967. She nationalized India's banks in 1967 to allow for easy credit. Social discontent resulting from the Green Revolution was still limited.
@@ Line 125: / Line 125: @@
 The Kargil conflict in 1999 and an attack by terrorists on the Indian Parliament in December 2001 led to increased tensions with Pakistan.
 ====Hindu-Muslim violence====
-Hindu nationalists supportive of the BJP agitated to build a temple on a disputed site in Ayodhya, destroying a 17th century mosque there in December 1992, and sparking widespread religious riots in which thousands, mostly Muslims, were killed. In February 2002, 57 Hindu volunteers returning from Ayodhya were burnt alive when their train caught fire. Alleging that the fire was caused by Muslim attackers, anti-Muslim rioters throughout the state of Gujarat killed over 900 people and left 100,000 homeless. This led to accusations that the BJP-led Gujarat state government had not done enough to contain the riots, or arrest and prosecute the rioters.
+Hindu nationalists supportive of the BJP agitated to build a temple on a disputed site in Ayodhya, destroying a 17th-century mosque there in December 1992, and sparking widespread religious riots in which thousands, mostly Muslims, were killed. In February 2002, 57 Hindu volunteers returning from Ayodhya were burnt alive when their train caught fire. Alleging that the fire was caused by Muslim attackers, anti-Muslim rioters throughout the state of Gujarat killed over 900 people and left 100,000 homeless. This led to accusations that the BJP-led Gujarat state government had not done enough to contain the riots, or arrest and prosecute the rioters.
 The ruling BJP-led coalition was defeated in a five-stage election held in April and May 2004, and a Congress-led coalition, known as the United Progressive Alliance (UPA), took power on May 22 with [[Manmohan Singh]] as Prime Minister. The UPA's victory was attributed to dissatisfaction among poorer rural voters that the prosperity of the cities had not filtered down to them, and rejection of the BJP's Hindu nationalist agenda.

@@ Line 145: / Line 145: @@
 *[[Indian Painting]]
 *[[Adiabene]] sending station to the Far East
 ==Bibliography==

@@ Line 134: / Line 134: @@
 ==Historiography==
-The discovery and elucidation of India's past owes much to European scholars. William Jones's (1746–94) identification of "Sandrocottus" of Greek history with Chandragupta Mauriya (ruled 321-297 B.C.) established a fixed point in ancient Indian chronology. James Prinsep's (1793-1878) deciphering of Asoka's (ruled 268-231 B.C.) inscriptions and the identification of the "Piyyadasi" mentioned in Asoka's edicts as Asoka himself was another major contribution.
+The discovery and elucidation of India's past owes much to European scholars. William Jones's (1746–94) identification of "Sandrocottus" of Greek history with Chandragupta Mauriya (ruled 321-297 B.C.) established a fixed point in ancient Indian chronology. James Prinsep's (1793-1878) deciphering of the inscriptions of  Asoka (ruled 268-231 B.C.) and identification of the "Piyyadasi" mentioned in Asoka's edicts as Asoka himself was another major contribution.
 ===Judgment on colonial rule===

@@ Line 54: / Line 54: @@
 India provides an example of the British Empire pouring its money and expertise into a very well built system designed for military reasons (after the Mutiny of 1857), and with the hope that it would stimulate industry. The system was overbuilt and much too elaborate and expensive for the small amount of freight traffic it carried. However, it did capture the imagination of the Indians, who saw their railways as the symbol of an industrial modernity—but one that was not realized until a century or so later.
-The British built a superb system in India. However, Christensen (1996) looks at of colonial purpose, local needs, capital, service, and private-versus-public interests. He concludes that making the railways a creature of the state hindered success because railway expenses had to go through the same time-consuming and political budgeting process as did all other state expenses. Railway costs could therefore not be tailored to the timely needs of the railways or their passengers.<ref>* R. O. Christensen, "The State and Indian Railway Performance, 1870-1920" in Terri Gourvish, ed. ''Railways'' vol 1 (1996); George ston, ''History of the East Indian Railway'' (1906) 281 pages; [http://books.google.com/books?id=-5MEAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA1&dq=intitle:railway+intitle:history&num=30&as_brr=1 online at Google]</ref>
+The British built a superb system in India. However, Christensen (1996) looks at of colonial purpose, local needs, capital, service, and private-versus-public interests. He concludes that making the railways a creature of the state hindered success because railway expenses had to go through the same time-consuming and political budgeting process as did all other state expenses. Railway costs could therefore not be tailored to the timely needs of the railways or their passengers.<ref>* R. O. Christensen, "The State and Indian Railway Performance, 1870-1920" in Terri Gourvish, ed. ''Railways'' vol 1 (1996); George ston, ''History of the East Indian Railway'' (1906) 281 pages; [https://books.google.com/books?id=-5MEAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA1&dq=intitle:railway+intitle:history&num=30&as_brr=1 online at Google]</ref>
 By the 1940s, India had the fourth longest railway network in the world. Yet the country's industrialization was delayed until after independence in 1947 by British colonial policy. Until the 1930s, both the Indian government and the private railway companies hired only European supervisors, civil engineers, and even operating personnel, such as locomotive drivers (engineers). The government's "Stores Policy" required that bids on railway matériel be presented to the India Office in London, making it almost impossible for enterprises based in India to compete for orders. Likewise, the railway companies purchased most of their matériel in Britain, rather than in India. Although the railway maintenance workshops in India could have manufactured and repaired locomotives, the railways imported a majority of them from Britain, and the others from Germany, Belgium, and the United States. The Tata company built a steel mill in India before World War I but could not obtain orders for rails until the 1920s and 1930s.

@@ Line 28: / Line 28: @@
 In 1757, the battle of Plassey confirmed British supremacy, although the British avoided exercising direct political power in India even as senior civil servants began to play an ever-increasing role.
-The disastrous defeat of France in the Seven Years War (1758-63), the decline of French influence in India, and the growing British predominance there led France in 1778 to plan a new war against Britain in coordination with the [[American Revolution]].  The strategy included an expedition against British spheres of influence in India, which was intended to draw a large part of the British navy into the Indian Ocean. France found an ally in Hyder Ali, ruler of Mysore and a leader of the princes opposed to the growing domination of the British. France sent a military assistance group to Hyder Ali to reinforce his artillery and his cavalry, but in a series of campaigns he failed to inflict a decisive defeat upon the British. Although the war between Britain and France ended in 1783, the French continued to assist Tipu Sultan, the son and successor of Hyder Ali, until he was defeated by the British and died in 1799.
+The disastrous defeat of France in the Seven Years' War (1758-63), the decline of French influence in India, and the growing British predominance there led France in 1778 to plan a new war against Britain in coordination with the [[American Revolution]].  The strategy included an expedition against British spheres of influence in India, which was intended to draw a large part of the British navy into the Indian Ocean. France found an ally in Hyder Ali, ruler of Mysore and a leader of the princes opposed to the growing domination of the British. France sent a military assistance group to Hyder Ali to reinforce his artillery and his cavalry, but in a series of campaigns he failed to inflict a decisive defeat upon the British. Although the war between Britain and France ended in 1783, the French continued to assist Tipu Sultan, the son and successor of Hyder Ali, until he was defeated by the British and died in 1799.
 [[File:India1795.jpg|thumb|280px|India in 1795]]
@@ Line 65: / Line 65: @@
 Beginning in 1920, Gandhi transformed the Indian National Congress political party into a mass movement to campaign against British colonial rule. The party used both parliamentary and nonviolent resistance and non-cooperation to agitate for independence.
-By the mid-1930s, India was still the cornerstone of the world's largest colonial empire, but tghe Empire had been badly shaken by World War I, the Great Depression, and the effective independence of the dominions such as Canada.  The empire was costing Britain heavily. To facilitate the inevitable trnasition, London organized the first true elections, sparking the confrontation of two great leaders - [[Mohammed Ali Jinnah]] (who founded Pakistan) and [[Jawaharlal Nehru]] (who led independent India).
+By the mid-1930s, India was still the cornerstone of the world's largest colonial empire, but the Empire had been badly shaken by World War I, the Great Depression, and the effective independence of the dominions such as Canada.  The empire was costing Britain heavily. To facilitate the inevitable trnasition, London organized the first true elections, sparking the confrontation of two great leaders - [[Mohammed Ali Jinnah]] (who founded Pakistan) and [[Jawaharlal Nehru]] (who led independent India).
 ==Social history==
@@ Line 121: / Line 121: @@
 In November 1997, the Congress Party again withdrew support from the United Front. In new elections in February 1998, the BJP won the largest number of seats in Parliament--182--but fell far short of a majority. On March 20, 1998, the President approved a BJP-led coalition government with Vajpayee again serving as Prime Minister. On May 11 and 13, 1998, this government conducted a series of underground nuclear tests, spurring U.S. President [[Bill Clinton]] to impose economic sanctions on India pursuant to the 1994 Nuclear Proliferation Prevention Act.
-In April 1999, the BJP-led coalition government fell apart, leading to fresh elections in September. The National Democratic Alliance--a new coalition led by the BJP--won a majority to form the government with Vajpayee as Prime Minister in October 1999. The NDA government was the first in many years to serve a full five year term, providing much-needed political stability.
+In April 1999, the BJP-led coalition government fell apart, leading to fresh elections in September. The National Democratic Alliance--a new coalition led by the BJP--won a majority to form the government with Vajpayee as Prime Minister in October 1999. The NDA government was the first in many years to serve a full five-year term, providing much-needed political stability.
 The Kargil conflict in 1999 and an attack by terrorists on the Indian Parliament in December 2001 led to increased tensions with Pakistan.
 ====Hindu-Muslim violence====
-Hindu nationalists supportive of the BJP agitated to build a temple on a disputed site in Ayodhya, destroying a 17th century mosque there in December 1992, and sparking widespread religious riots in which thousands, mostly Muslims, were killed. In February 2002, 57 Hindu volunteers returning from Ayodhya were burnt alive when their train caught fire. Alleging that the fire was caused by Muslim attackers, anti-Muslim rioters throughout the state of Gujarat killed over 900 people and left 100,000 homeless. This led to accusations that the BJP-led Gujarat state government had not done enough to contain the riots, or arrest and prosecute the rioters.
+Hindu nationalists supportive of the BJP agitated to build a temple on a disputed site in Ayodhya, destroying a 17th-century mosque there in December 1992, and sparking widespread religious riots in which thousands, mostly Muslims, were killed. In February 2002, 57 Hindu volunteers returning from Ayodhya were burnt alive when their train caught fire. Alleging that the fire was caused by Muslim attackers, anti-Muslim rioters throughout the state of Gujarat killed over 900 people and left 100,000 homeless. This led to accusations that the BJP-led Gujarat state government had not done enough to contain the riots, or arrest and prosecute the rioters.
 The ruling BJP-led coalition was defeated in a five-stage election held in April and May of 2004, and a Congress-led coalition, known as the United Progressive Alliance (UPA), took power on May 22 with [[Manmohan Singh]] as Prime Minister. The UPA's victory was attributed to dissatisfaction among poorer rural voters that the prosperity of the cities had not filtered down to them, and rejection of the BJP's Hindu nationalist agenda.
@@ Line 168: / Line 168: @@
 * Thapar, Romila. ''Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300'' (2004)  [http://www.amazon.com/History-India-Penguin/dp/0140138358/ref=pd_bbs_sr_3/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1189741409&sr=8-3 excerpts and online search from Amazon.com]
 * Wolpert, Stanley. ''A New History of India'' (7th ed. 2003) 544pp [http://www.amazon.com/gp/reader/0195166779/ref=sib_dp_pt/103-4827826-5463040#reader-link excerpt and online search from Amazon.com]
-*Jackson, A.V. et al, eds. ''History of India'' (1906-1907)
+*Jackson, A.V. et al., eds. ''History of India'' (1906-1907)
 **''v.l. From the earliest times to the sixth century B.C.,'' by R.C. Dutt. [http://www.archive.org/details/historyofindia01jackiala online edition]
 **''v.2. From the sixth century B.C. to the Mohammedan conquest,'' by V.A. Smith. [http://www.archive.org/details/historyofindia02jackiala online edition]
@@ Line 206: / Line 206: @@
 ===Primary sources===
-*Jackson, A.V. et al, eds. ''History of India'' (1907) ''v.9. Historic accounts of India by foreign travellers, classic, oriental, and occidental,'' by A.V.W. Jackson [http://www.archive.org/details/historyofindia09jackiala online edition]
+*Jackson, A.V. et al., eds. ''History of India'' (1907) ''v.9. Historic accounts of India by foreign travellers, classic, oriental, and occidental,'' by A.V.W. Jackson [http://www.archive.org/details/historyofindia09jackiala online edition]
 ====references====
 <references/>

@@ Line 34: / Line 34: @@
 [[File:Eic-india.jpg|thumb|290px|growth of the East India Company 1780-1804]]
-The British expanded their influence from these footholds until, by the 1850s, they controlled most of South Asia, including present-day India, [[Pakistan]], [[Sri Lanka]], and [[Bangladesh]].  The Victorian era brought new values and led to greater Westernization.
+The British expanded their influence from these footholds until, by the 1850s, they controlled most of South Asia, including present-day India, [[Pakistan]], [[Sri Lanka]], and [[Bangladesh]].  The [[Victorian era]] brought new values and led to greater Westernization.
 ===Missionaries===