Difference between revisions of "Charles Darwin"

From Conservapedia
Jump to: navigation, search
m (Reverted edits by Unclueful (Talk); changed back to last version by RobS)
Line 1: Line 1:
−
{{featured article}}
+
[[Image:darwin.jpg|thumb|150px|right|Charles Darwin]]
−
{{for|other people of the same surname, and places and things named after Charles Darwin|Darwin}}
+
Charles Darwin was a famous naturalist born in [[England]] to a Christian family on February 12, [[1809]]. He is best known for the [[Theory of Natural Selection|theory of natural selection]] which has since been generally accepted by biologists as the major mechanism for [[Theory of Evolution|evolution]]. The concept is that biological species develop over time via natural selection, branching from common origins. Outside of evolution in particular, he was regarded as an expert on barnacles as well as credited with discovering how coral atolls were formed.
−
{{Infobox_Scientist
+
−
| name = Charles Robert Darwin
+
−
| image = Charles Darwin aged 51 crop.jpg
+
−
| caption = At the age of 51, Charles Darwin had just published ''[[The Origin of Species|On the Origin of Species]]''.
+
−
| birth_date = [[12 February]] [[1809]]
+
−
| birth_place = [[The Mount, Shrewsbury|Mount House]], [[Shrewsbury]], [[Shropshire]], [[England]]
+
−
| death_date = [[19 April]] [[1882]]
+
−
| death_place = [[Down House]], [[Kent]], [[England]]
+
−
| residence = [[Image:Flag_of_England_(bordered).svg|20px|]] [[England]]
+
−
| nationality = [[Image:Flag of the United Kingdom.svg|20px]] [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|British]]  
+
−
| field = [[natural history|Naturalist]]
+
−
| work_institution = [[Royal Geographical Society]]
+
−
| alma_mater = [[University of Edinburgh]] <br /> [[University of Cambridge]]
+
−
| doctoral_advisor =  [[Adam Sedgwick]]
+
−
| doctoral_students =
+
−
| known_for = [[The Origin of Species]]<br>[[Natural selection]]
+
−
| prizes = [[Royal Medal]] (1853)<br />[[Wollaston Medal]] (1859)<br />[[Copley Medal]] (1864)
+
−
| religion = [[Church of England]], though [[Unitarianism|Unitarian]] family background, [[Agnostic]] after 1851.  
+
−
| footnotes =
+
−
}}
+
−
'''Charles Robert Darwin''' ([[12 February]] [[1809]] &ndash; [[19 April]] [[1882]]) is famed as the eminent [[England|English]] [[natural history|naturalist]]{{Ref_label|A|I|none}} who presented a mass of evidence which convinced the [[scientific community]] that [[species]] develop over time from a [[Common descent|common origin]]. His theories explaining this phenomenon through [[Natural selection|natural]] and [[sexual selection]] are central to the modern understanding of [[evolution]] as the unifying theory of the life sciences, essential in [[biology]] and important in other disciplines such as [[anthropology]], [[psychology]] and [[philosophy]].<ref>[http://darwin-online.org.uk/biography.html The Complete Works of Darwin Online - Biography.] ''darwin-online.org.uk''.  Retrieved on [[2006-12-15]].<br />&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{Harvnb|Dobzhansky|1973}}</ref>
+
−
<!--Please consider discussing changes on the talk page, as this opening is the result of a very long consensus-building process.-->
+
  
−
Darwin developed his interest in natural history while studying first [[medicine]], then [[theology]], at university.<ref name=whowas>{{Harvnb|Leff|2000}}.</ref>  His [[Second voyage of HMS Beagle|five-year voyage]] on the [[HMS Beagle|''Beagle'']] established him as a [[geology|geologist]] whose observations and theorising supported [[Charles Lyell]]'s [[Uniformitarianism (science)|uniformitarian]] ideas, and the subsequent publication of his [[The Voyage of the Beagle|journal of the voyage]] made him famous as a popular author. Puzzled by the geographical distribution of wildlife and fossils he collected on the voyage, he investigated the [[transmutation of species]] and conceived his theory of natural selection in 1838. He had seen others attacked for such heretical ideas and confided only in his closest friends while carrying out extensive research to meet anticipated objections.<ref>{{Harvnb|Desmond & Moore|1991|Ref=CITEREFDesmondMoore1991|p= 210, 263-274, 284-287}}.</ref> However, in 1858, [[Alfred Russel Wallace]] sent him an essay describing a similar theory, forcing early joint publication of both of their theories.<ref>  [[Alfred Russel Wallace]] was a surveyor from whom Darwin requested a poultry skin. [http://www.amnh.org/exhibitions/darwin/work/last.php Darwin - At last.] [[American Museum of Natural History]].  Retrieved on [[2006-12-15]].</ref>
+
the big bearded bastard who finally proved us wrong. and we cant be having that, people will stop enslaving themselves to us. the horror!
  
−
His 1859 book, ''[[The Origin of Species|On the Origin of Species]]'', established evolution by common descent as the dominant scientific explanation of diversification in nature. Human origins and features without obvious utility such as beautiful bird plumage were examined in ''[[The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex]]'', followed by ''[[The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals]]''. His research on plants was published in a series of books, and in his final book, he examined [[earthworm]]s and their effect on soil.<ref>{{Harvnb|Freeman|1977}}</ref>
+
==Religious Beliefs==
  
−
In recognition of Darwin's pre-eminence, he was buried in [[Westminster Abbey]], close to [[John Herschel]] and [[Isaac Newton]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Browne|2002|p=497}}.</ref>
+
Charles Darwin was a Christian up and through his famous five year voyage on the ''HMS Beagle''. But in the ensuing two years after returning to England (1836 to 1839; and in his late twenties) Darwin abandoned Christianity (1) and [sic] "had become a 'materialist' (more or less equivalent to an atheist" (2). About twenty years later in 1859 (at the age of fifty) Darwin published his famous book ''The Origin of Species''. "In order not to hurt the feelings of his friends and wife, Darwin often used deistic language in his publications" (3). According to Darwin, the "manifestly false history of the world" (4) as recorded in the Old Testament and New Testament miracles led him to reject Biblical veracity (5). Eminent Darwin biographer, Professor Janet Browne, sums up Darwin's views concerning religion: Darwin "mapped out a comparitive evolution of the religious sense, proposing that religious belief was ultimately nothing more than a primitive urge to bestow a cause on otherwise inexplicable natural events...In short, he made no secret of his view that he did not believe religion to have any rational foundation at all" (6). Yet, in spite of these views, when he died in 1882 at the age of seventy-three, Darwin was buried at Westminster Abbey next to Sir [[Isaac Newton]].
−
{{TOChidden}}
+
−
==Biography==
+
−
===Early life===
+
−
[[Image:Charles Darwin 1816.jpg|thumb|190px|The seven-year-old Charles Darwin in 1816, one year before the sudden loss of his mother.]]
+
−
{{details|Charles Darwin's education}}
+
  
−
Charles Darwin was born in [[Shrewsbury]], [[Shropshire]], [[England]] on [[12 February]] [[1809]] at [[The Mount, Shrewsbury|The Mount]], the house his father built in 1800 near the [[River Severn]].<ref>[http://darwin.baruch.cuny.edu/biography/shrewsbury/mount/ The Mount House, Shrewsbury, England (Charles Darwin)], [http://darwin.baruch.cuny.edu/index.html Baruch College - Darwin and Darwinism]. Retrieved on [[2006-12-15]].</ref> He was the fifth of six children of wealthy society doctor and financier [[Robert Darwin]], and [[Susannah Darwin]] (''née'' Wedgwood). He was the grandson of [[Erasmus Darwin]] on his father's side, and of [[Josiah Wedgwood]] on his mother's side. Both families were largely [[Unitarianism|Unitarian]], though the Wedgwoods were adopting [[Anglicanism]]. Robert Darwin, himself quietly a [[Freethought|freethinker]], made a nod toward convention by having baby Charles baptized in the Anglican church. Nonetheless, Charles and his siblings attended the Unitarian chapel with their mother, and early in 1817, Charles joined the day school run by its preacher. In July of that year, his mother died; he was only eight. From September 1818, he attended the nearby Anglican [[Shrewsbury School]] as a [[boarding school|boarder]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Desmond & Moore|1991|Ref=CITEREFDesmondMoore1991|p= 12-15}}.</ref>
+
When investigating transmutation of species he knew that his naturalist friends thought this a bestial heresy undermining miraculous justifications for the social order, the kind of radical argument then being used by Dissenters and atheists to attack the Church of England's privileged position as the established church. Though Darwin wrote of religion as a tribal survival strategy, he still believed that God was the ultimate lawgiver. His belief dwindled, and with the death of his daughter Annie in 1851, Darwin finally lost all faith in Christianity. He continued to help the local church with parish work, but on Sundays would go for a walk while his family attended church. He now thought it better to look at pain and suffering as the result of general laws rather than direct intervention by God. When asked about his religious views, he wrote that he had never been an atheist in the sense of denying the existence of a God, and that generally "an Agnostic would be the more correct description of my state of mind."
  
−
Darwin spent the summer of 1825 as an apprentice doctor, helping his father treat the poor of [[Shropshire]]. In the autumn, he went to the [[University of Edinburgh]] to study medicine, but was revolted by the brutality of surgery and neglected his medical studies. He learned [[taxidermy]] from [[John Edmonstone]], a freed black slave who told him exciting tales of the South American [[rainforest]]. Later, in ''[[The Descent of Man]]'', he used this experience as evidence that "Negroes and Europeans" were closely related despite superficial differences in appearance.<ref>{{Harvnb|Darwin|1871|loc=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F937.1&viewtype=text&pageseq=245 p 232]}}.</ref> In Darwin's second year, he joined the [[Plinian Society]], a student group interested in [[natural history]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Browne|1995|p=72}}.</ref> He became a keen pupil of [[Robert Edmund Grant]], a proponent of [[Lamarckism|Lamarck's theory of evolution]] by acquired characteristics which had appeared in the writings of Charles's grandfather [[Erasmus Darwin|Erasmus]] before being developed by [[Jean-Baptiste Lamarck]]. On the shores of the [[Firth of Forth]], Darwin joined in Grant's investigations of the life cycle of marine animals. These studies found evidence for ''[[homology (biology)|homology]]'', the [[radicalism (historical)|radical]] theory that all animals have similar organs which differ only in complexity, thus showing [[common descent]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Desmond & Moore|1991|Ref=CITEREFDesmondMoore1991|p=33-40}}.</ref> In March 1827, Darwin made a presentation to the Plinian of his own discovery that the black spores often found in oyster shells were the eggs of a skate leech.<ref>{{Harvnb|Browne|1995|p=82}}.</ref> He also sat in on [[Robert Jameson]]'s natural history course, learning about [[stratigraphy|stratigraphic]] [[geology]], receiving training in [[alpha taxonomy|how to classify plants]], and assisting with work on the extensive collections of the [[Royal Museum|Museum of Edinburgh University]], one of the largest museums in Europe at the time.<ref>{{Harvnb|Desmond & Moore|1991|Ref=CITEREFDesmondMoore1991|p=42-43}}.</ref>
+
== Darwin's Illness ==
 +
Charles Darwin's work set off a great deal of controversy. And Darwin closely watched the public's response to his ideas while his allies [[Thomas Huxley]] and [[Joseph Hooker]] advocated his ideas within the scientific community.   For example, [[Richard Milner]] wrote regarding Darwin in the 2002 issue of Scientific American in a article entitled [http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?articleID=000B62D6-7E63-1D7E-90FB809EC5880000# "Putting Darwin in his Place"], that Darwin ''"clipped, catalogued and indexed hundreds of offprints, about 350 reviews and 1,600 articles, as well as satires, parodies and Punch caricatures, with which he filled hefty scrapbooks..."'' And it appears as if the criticism of his work may have troubled Darwin. Milner in the aforementioned article, wrote that after [[Charles Lyell]] published a very weak endorsement of Darwin's Antiquity of Man, ''"Darwin's disappointment brought on 10 days of vomiting, faintness and stomach distress". Also when anatomist St. George Mivart made a strong attack on The Descent of Man,  Milner wrote it "triggered two months of "giddiness" and inability to work..." ''
  
−
In 1827, his father, unhappy at his younger son's lack of progress, shrewdly enrolled him in a [[Bachelor of Arts]] course at [[Christ's College, Cambridge|Christ's College]], [[University of Cambridge]] to qualify as a clergyman, expecting him to get a good income as an [[Anglicanism|Anglican]] [[parson]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Desmond & Moore|1991|Ref=CITEREFDesmondMoore1991|p= 47-48}}</ref> However, Darwin preferred riding and shooting to studying.<ref>{{Harvnb|Darwin|1887|pp=[http://www.gutenberg.org/catalog/world/readfile?fk_files=39003&pageno=10 10], [http://www.gutenberg.org/catalog/world/readfile?fk_files=39003&pageno=14 14], [http://www.gutenberg.org/catalog/world/readfile?fk_files=39003&pageno=15 15], [http://www.gutenberg.org/catalog/world/readfile?fk_files=39003&pageno=17 17]}}.</ref> Along with his cousin [[William Darwin Fox]], he became engrossed in the craze at the time for the competitive collecting of [[beetle]]s.<ref>{{Harvnb|Darwin|1887|p=[http://www.gutenberg.org/catalog/world/readfile?fk_files=39003&pageno=18 18]}}</ref> Fox introduced him to the Reverend [[John Stevens Henslow]], professor of [[botany]], for expert advice on beetles. Darwin subsequently joined Henslow's natural history course and became his favourite pupil, known to the [[University don|dons]] as "the man who walks with Henslow".<ref>{{Harvnb|Desmond & Moore|1991|Ref=CITEREFDesmondMoore1991|p= 80-81}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Darwin|1887|p=[http://www.gutenberg.org/catalog/world/readfile?fk_files=39003&pageno=19 19]}}.</ref> Once exams drew near, Darwin focused on his studies and received private instruction from Henslow. Darwin was particularly enthusiastic about the writings of [[William Paley]], including the [[teleological argument|argument of divine design in nature]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Darwin|1887|p=[http://www.gutenberg.org/catalog/world/readfile?fk_files=39003&pageno=16 16]}}</ref> In his finals in January 1831, he performed well in [[theology]] and, having scraped through in [[classics]], [[mathematics]] and [[physics]], came tenth out of a pass list of 178.<ref>{{Harvnb|Browne|1995|p=97}}</ref>
+
Charles Darwin's illness afflicted him for most of his working life. [http://www.answersingenesis.org/creation/v17/i4/darwins_illness.asp] Most medical experts believe that [http://www.conservapedia.com/Darwin%27s_illness Darwin's illness was psychobiological or psychological in origin.]
  
−
Residential requirements kept Darwin at Cambridge until June. Following Henslow's example and advice, he was in no rush to take holy orders. Inspired by [[Alexander von Humboldt]]'s ''Personal Narrative'', he planned to visit the [[Madeira Islands]] with some classmates after graduation to study natural history in the tropics. To prepare himself, Darwin joined the geology course of the Reverend [[Adam Sedgwick]] then, in the summer, went with him to assist in mapping strata in [[Wales]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Browne|1995|pp= 133-141}}.</ref> After a fortnight with student friends at [[Barmouth]], he returned home to find a letter from Henslow who had recommended Darwin as a suitable (if unfinished) naturalist for the unpaid position of gentleman's companion to [[Robert FitzRoy]], the captain of [[HMS Beagle|HMS ''Beagle'']] which was to leave in four weeks on an expedition to chart the coastline of [[South America]]. His father objected to the planned two-year voyage, regarding it as a waste of time, but was persuaded by his brother-in-law, [[Josiah Wedgwood II|Josiah Wedgwood]], to agree to his son's participation.<ref>{{Harvnb|Desmond & Moore|1991|Ref=CITEREFDesmondMoore1991|p= 94-97}}.</ref>
+
== References ==
 +
# Mayr, Ernst ''Growth of Biological Thought'' (1982:402).
 +
# Mayr, Ernst ''One Long Argument'' (1991:75).
 +
# Ibid. (1991:75).
 +
# Barlow, Nora (editor) ''The Autobiography of Charles Darin'' (1958:85).
 +
# Ibid. (1958:85-87).
 +
# Browne, Janet  ''Charles Darwin The Power of Place'' (2002:341)
  
−
===Journey of the Beagle===
+
[[Category:Biographies|Darwin, Charles]]
−
{{details|Second voyage of HMS Beagle}}
+
−
 
+
−
[[Image:HMS_Beagle_by_Conrad_Martens.jpg|thumb|245px|right|As [[HMS Beagle|HMS ''Beagle'']] surveyed the coasts of [[South America]], Darwin began to theorise about the wonders of nature around him.]]
+
−
 
+
−
The ''Beagle'' survey took five years, two-thirds of which Darwin spent on land. He carefully noted a rich variety of geological features, [[fossil]]s and living organisms, and methodically collected an enormous number of specimens, many of them new to science.<ref name=JvW>{{Harvnb|van Wyhe|2006}}.</ref> At intervals during the voyage he sent specimens to Cambridge together with letters about his findings, and these established his reputation as a naturalist. His extensive detailed notes showed his gift for theorising and formed the basis for his later work. The journal he originally wrote for his family, published as ''[[The Voyage of the Beagle]]'',  summarises his findings and provides social, political and [[Anthropology|anthropological]] insights into the wide range of people he met, both native and colonial.<ref>{{Harvnb|Desmond & Moore|1991|Ref=CITEREFDesmondMoore1991|p= 189-192, 198}}.</ref>
+
−
 
+
−
While on board the ship, Darwin suffered badly from seasickness.<ref>{{Harvnb|Browne|1995|pp=177-178}}.</ref> In October 1833, he caught a fever in Argentina, and in July 1834, while returning from the Andes down to [[Valparaíso]], he fell ill and spent a month in bed.<ref>{{Harvnb|Desmond & Moore|1991|Ref=CITEREFDesmondMoore1991|p= 142, 157}}.</ref>
+
−
 
+
−
Before they set out, [[Robert FitzRoy|Fitzroy]] gave Darwin volume one of [[Charles Lyell]]'s ''Principles of Geology'', which explained landforms as the outcome of gradual processes over huge periods of time.{{Ref_label|B|II|none}} On their first stop ashore at [[Santiago, Cape Verde|St Jago]] Darwin found that a white band high in the volcanic rock cliffs consisted of baked coral fragments and shells. This matched Lyell's concept of land slowly rising or falling, giving Darwin a new insight into the geological history of the island which inspired him to think of writing a book on geology.<ref>{{Harvnb|Browne|1995|pp=183-190}}</ref> He went on to make many more discoveries, some of them particularly dramatic.<ref name=JvW/> He saw stepped plains of shingle and seashells in [[Patagonia]] as [[raised beach]]es, and after experiencing an earthquake in [[Chile]] saw [[mussel]]-beds stranded above high tide showing that the land had just been raised. High in the [[Andes]] he saw several fossil trees that had grown on a sand beach, with seashells nearby. He theorised that [[coral]] [[atoll]]s form on sinking volcanic mountains, and confirmed this when the ''Beagle'' surveyed the [[Cocos (Keeling) Islands]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Desmond & Moore|1991|Ref=CITEREFDesmondMoore1991|p= 160-168, 182}}.<br />&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{Harvnb|Darwin|1887|p= [http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F1452.1&viewtype=text&pageseq=278 260]}}.<br />&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{Harvnb|Darwin|1958|loc=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F1497&viewtype=text&pageseq=100 p 98-99]}}</ref>
+
−
 
+
−
In [[South America]], Darwin found and excavated rare fossils of gigantic extinct mammals, some in strata which showed no signs of catastrophe or change in climate. A huge skull seemed to him to be related to the African [[rhinoceros]]. At first, he thought that fragments of bony armour came from a gigantic [[armadillo]] like the small creatures common in the area, but was then misled by [[Jean Baptiste Bory de Saint-Vincent|Bory de Saint-Vincent]]'s ''Dictionnaire classique'' into thinking they belonged to the [[megatherium]] fossils he found nearby.<ref>{{Harvnb|Browne|1995|p= 124}}<br />&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{Harvnb|Darwin|1835|p=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F1&viewtype=text&pageseq=7 7]}}</ref> He was sent Lyell's second volume which argued against [[evolutionism]] and explained species distribution by "centres of creation". Darwin puzzled over all he saw and his ideas went beyond Lyell.<ref>{{Harvnb|Desmond & Moore|1991|Ref=CITEREFDesmondMoore1991|p= 131, 159}}.</ref> In [[Argentina]], he found that two types of [[Rhea (bird)|rhea]] had separate but overlapping territories. On the [[Galápagos Islands]], he collected [[mockingbird]]s and noted that they were different depending on which island they came from. He also heard that local Spaniards could tell from their appearance on which island [[tortoise]]s originated, but thought the creatures had been imported by [[buccaneer]]s.<ref>{{Harvnb|Desmond & Moore|1991|Ref=CITEREFDesmondMoore1991|p= 145, 170-172}}.</ref> In [[Australia]], the [[marsupial]] [[Potoridae|rat-kangaroo]] and the [[platypus]] seemed so unusual that Darwin thought it was almost as though two distinct Creators had been at work.<ref>{{Harvnb|Darwin|1839|p=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F10.3&viewtype=text&pageseq=545 526]}}.</ref> In [[Cape Town]] he and FitzRoy met [[John Herschel]], who had recently written to Lyell about that "mystery of mysteries", the origin of species. When organising his notes on the return journey, Darwin wrote that if his growing suspicions about the mockingbirds and tortoises were correct, "such facts undermine the stability of Species", then cautiously added "would" before "undermine".<ref>{{Harvnb|Keynes|2000}}<br />&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{Harvnb|Eldredge|2006}}</ref> He later wrote that such facts "seemed to me to throw some light on the origin of species".<ref>{{Harvnb|Darwin|1859|loc=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F373&viewtype=text&pageseq=16 p. 1]}}</ref>
+
−
[[Image:Voyage of the Beagle.jpg|thumb|450px|right|The voyage of the Beagle]]
+
−
 
+
−
Three natives who had been taken from [[Tierra del Fuego]] on the ''Beagle''<nowiki>'</nowiki>s previous voyage were taken back there to become missionaries.<!--4 were taken, one died in England, 3 returned: covered in Darwin's cite after next sentence <ref name=DarwinAsATraveller>{{Harvnb|Anonymous|1960}}</ref>--> They had become "civilised" in England over the previous two years, yet their relatives appeared to Darwin to be "miserable, degraded savages".<ref>{{Harvnb|Darwin|1845|pp= [http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F14&viewtype=text&pageseq=220 207-208]}}.</ref>  A year on, the mission had been abandoned and only [[Jemmy Button]] spoke with them to say he preferred his harsh previous way of life and did not want to return to England.  As a result of this experience, Darwin came to think that humans were not as far removed from animals as his friends believed, and saw differences as relating to cultural advances towards civilisation rather than being racial. He detested the [[slavery]] he saw elsewhere in South America, and was saddened by the effects of European settlement on aborigines in [[New Zealand]] and Australia.<ref>{{Harvnb|Browne|1995|p= 244-250}}</ref>
+
−
 
+
−
Captain FitzRoy was committed to writing the official ''Narrative'' of the Beagle voyages, and near the end of the voyage, he read Darwin's diary and asked him to rewrite this ''Journal'' to provide the third volume, on natural history.<ref>{{Harvnb|Browne|1995|p= 336}}</ref>
+
−
 
+
−
===Growing reputation and inception of theory===
+
−
{{details|Inception of Darwin's theory}}
+
−
 
+
−
[[Image:Charles_Darwin_by_G._Richmond.jpg|thumb|left|While still a young man, Charles Darwin joined the scientific élite.]]
+
−
 
+
−
While Darwin was still on the voyage, [[John Stevens Henslow|Henslow]] fostered his former pupil's reputation by giving selected naturalists access to the fossil specimens and a pamphlet of Darwin's geological letters.<ref>{{Harvnb|Darwin|1835|loc= [http://darwin-online.org.uk/EditorialIntroductions/Freeman_LettersOnGeology.html editorial introduction].}}</ref> When the ''Beagle'' returned on [[2 October]] [[1836]], Darwin was a celebrity in scientific circles. After visiting his home in Shrewsbury and seeing relatives, Darwin hurried to [[Cambridge]] to see Henslow, who advised on finding naturalists available to describe and catalogue the collections, and agreed to take on the botanical specimens. Darwin's father organised investments, enabling his son to be a self-funded [[gentleman]] scientist, and an excited Darwin went round the [[London]] institutions being fêted and seeking experts to describe the collections. Zoologists had a huge backlog of work, and there was a danger of specimens just being left in storage.<ref>{{Harvnb|Desmond & Moore|1991|Ref=CITEREFDesmondMoore1991|p= 195-198}}.</ref>
+
−
 
+
−
An eager [[Charles Lyell]] met Darwin for the first time on [[29 October]] and soon introduced him to the up-and-coming anatomist [[Richard Owen]] who had the facilities of the [[Royal College of Surgeons of England|Royal College of Surgeons]] at his disposal to work on Darwin's fossil bones. Owen's surprising results included gigantic [[sloth]]s, a [[hippopotamus]]-like skull from the extinct [[rodent]] ''[[toxodon]]'', and armour fragments from a huge extinct armadillo (''[[glyptodon]]''), as Darwin had initially surmised.<ref>{{Harvnb|Owen|1840|loc=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F8.1&viewtype=text&pageseq=26  No. 1 p 16] [http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F8.13&viewtype=text&pageseq=26  No. 4 p 106]}}<br />&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{Harvnb|Eldredge|2006}}.</ref> The fossil creatures were unrelated to African animals, but closely related to living species in South America.<ref>{{Harvnb|Desmond & Moore|1991|Ref=CITEREFDesmondMoore1991|p= 201-205}}.<br />&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{Harvnb|Browne|1995|p=349-350}}.</ref>
+
−
 
+
−
In mid December, Darwin moved to Cambridge to organise work on his collections and rewrite his ''Journal''.<ref>{{Harvnb|Browne|1995|p= 345-347}}.</ref> He wrote his first paper, showing that the South American landmass was slowly rising, and with Lyell's enthusiastic backing read it to the [[Geological Society of London]] on [[4 January]] [[1837]]. On the same day, he presented his mammal and bird specimens to the [[Zoological Society of London|Zoological Society]]. The ornithologist [[John Gould]] soon revealed that the Galapagos birds that Darwin had thought a mixture of [[Icterid|blackbird]]s, "[[Grosbeak|gross-beak]]s" and [[finch]]es, were, in fact, twelve [[Darwin's finches|separate species of finches]]. On [[17 February]] [[1837]], Darwin was elected to the Council of the Geographical Society, and in his presidential address, Lyell presented Owen's findings on Darwin's fossils, stressing geographical continuity of species as supporting his [[Uniformitarianism (science)|uniformitarian]] ideas.<ref>{{Harvnb|Desmond & Moore|1991|Ref=CITEREFDesmondMoore1991|p=  207-210}}.<br />&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{Harvnb|Sulloway|1982|p=57}}</ref>
+
−
 
+
−
[[Image:Darwins first tree.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Darwin's first sketch of an evolutionary tree from his ''First Notebook on Transmutation of Species'' (1837)]]
+
−
On [[6 March]] [[1837]], Darwin moved to London to be close to this work, and joined the social whirl around scientists and [[savant]]s such as [[Charles Babbage|Babbage]], who thought that God preordained life by natural laws rather than [[ad hoc]] miraculous creations. Darwin lived near his [[freethought|freethinking]] brother [[Erasmus Alvey Darwin|Erasmus]], who was part of this [[British Whig Party|Whig]] circle and whose close friend the writer [[Harriet Martineau]] promoted the ideas of [[Thomas Malthus]] underlying the Whig "[[Poor Law]] reforms" aimed at discouraging the poor from breeding beyond available food supplies. [[John Herschel]]'s question on the origin of species was widely discussed. Medical men including [[James Manby Gully|Dr. Gully]] even joined [[Robert Edmond Grant|Grant]] in endorsing [[transmutation of species]], but to Darwin's scientist friends such [[Radicalism (historical)|radical]] heresy attacked the divine basis of the social order already under threat from recession and riots.<ref>{{Harvnb|Desmond & Moore|1991|Ref=CITEREFDesmondMoore1991|p= 196-201, 212-221}}.</ref>
+
−
 
+
−
Gould now revealed that the Galapagos [[mockingbird]]s from different islands were separate species, not just varieties, and the "[[wren]]s" were yet another species of finches. Darwin had not kept track of which islands the finch specimens were from, but found information from the notes of others on the ''Beagle'', including FitzRoy,  who had more carefully recorded their own collections. The zoologist [[Thomas Bell (zoologist)|Thomas Bell]] showed that the [[Galápagos tortoise]]s were native to the islands. By mid March, Darwin was convinced that creatures arriving in the islands had become altered in some way to form new species on the different islands, and investigated transmutation while noting his speculations in his "Red Notebook" which he had begun on the ''Beagle''. In mid-July, he began his secret "B" notebook on transmutation, and on page 36 wrote "I think" above his first sketch of an evolutionary tree.<ref>{{Harvnb|Desmond & Moore|1991|Ref=CITEREFDesmondMoore1991|p= 220-229}}.<br />&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{Harvnb|Eldredge|2006}}.</ref>
+
−
 
+
−
===Overwork, illness, and marriage ===
+
−
 
+
−
As well as launching into this intensive study of [[Transmutation of species|transmutation]], Darwin became mired in more work. While still rewriting his ''Journal'', he took on editing and publishing the expert reports on his collections, and with Henslow's help obtained a Treasury grant of £1,000 to sponsor this multivolume ''[[Zoology of the Voyage of H.M.S. Beagle]]''. He agreed to unrealistic dates for this and for a book on ''South American Geology'' supporting Lyell's ideas. Darwin finished writing his ''Journal'' around [[20 June]] [[1837]] just as [[Victoria of the United Kingdom|Queen Victoria]] came to the throne, but then had its proofs to correct.<ref>{{Harvnb|Browne|1995|pp=367-369}}.</ref>
+
−
 
+
−
Darwin's health suffered from the pressure. On [[20 September]] [[1837]], he had "palpitations of the heart". On doctor's advice that a month of recuperation was needed, he went to Shrewsbury then on to visit his Wedgwood relatives at [[Maer Hall]], but found them too eager for tales of his travels to give him much rest. His charming, intelligent and rather messy cousin [[Emma Darwin|Emma Wedgwood]], nine months older than Darwin, was nursing his invalid aunt. His uncle [[Josiah Wedgwood II|Jos]] pointed out an area of ground where cinders had disappeared under [[loam]] and suggested that this might have been the work of [[earthworm]]s. This inspired a talk which Darwin gave to the Geological Society on [[1 November]], the first demonstration of the role of earthworms in [[pedogenesis|soil formation]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Desmond & Moore|1991|Ref=CITEREFDesmondMoore1991|p= 233-234}}.<br />&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{Harvnb|Arrhenius|1921|pp=255-257}}</ref>
+
−
 
+
−
[[William Whewell]] pushed Darwin to take on the duties of Secretary of the Geological Society. After first declining this extra work, he accepted the post in March 1838.<ref>{{Harvnb|Desmond & Moore|1991|Ref=CITEREFDesmondMoore1991|p= 233-236}}.</ref> Despite the grind of writing and editing, remarkable progress was made on transmutation. While keeping his developing ideas secret, Darwin took every opportunity to question expert naturalists and, unconventionally, people with practical experience such as farmers and [[Pigeon keeping|pigeon fanciers]].<ref name=JvW/><ref>{{Harvnb|Desmond & Moore|1991|Ref=CITEREFDesmondMoore1991|p= 241-244, 426}}.</ref> Over time his research drew on information from his relatives and children, the family butler, neighbours, colonists and former shipmates.<ref>{{Harvnb|Browne|1995|p=xii}}</ref> He included mankind in his speculations from the outset, and on seeing an ape in the zoo on [[28 March]] [[1838]] noted its child-like behaviour.<ref>{{Harvnb|Desmond & Moore|1991|Ref=CITEREFDesmondMoore1991|p= 241-244}}.</ref>
+
−
 
+
−
The strain told and by June he was being laid up for days on end with stomach problems, headaches and heart symptoms.<ref>{{Harvnb|Desmond & Moore|1991|Ref=CITEREFDesmondMoore1991|p= 252}}.</ref> For the rest of his life, he was repeatedly incapacitated with episodes of stomach pains, vomiting, severe boils, palpitations, trembling and other symptoms, particularly during times of stress, such as when attending meetings or dealing with controversy over his theory. The cause of [[Charles Darwin's illness|Darwin's illness]] was unknown during his lifetime and attempts at treatment had little success. Recent attempts at diagnosis have suggested [[Chagas disease]] caught from insect bites in South America, [[Ménière's disease]] or various psychological illnesses as possible causes, without any conclusive results.<ref>{{Harvnb|Gordon|Ref=CITEREFGordonThomas1999|1999}}.</ref>
+
−
 
+
−
On [[23 June]], [[1838]], he took a break from the pressure of work and went "geologising" in Scotland. He visited [[Glen Roy]] in glorious weather to see the parallel "roads", horizontal ledges cut into the hillsides. He thought that these were [[raised beach]]es: they were later shown to have been shorelines of a [[glacial lake]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Desmond & Moore|1991|Ref=CITEREFDesmondMoore1991|p= 254}}.<br />&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{Harvnb|Browne|1995|pp=377-378}}.<br />&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{Harvnb|Darwin|1887|p=[http://www.gutenberg.org/catalog/world/readfile?fk_files=39003&pageno=26 26]}}</ref>
+
−
 
+
−
[[Image:Emma Darwin.jpg|thumb|left|Charles chose to marry his cousin, [[Emma Darwin|Emma Wedgwood]].]]
+
−
Fully recuperated, he returned to Shrewsbury in July. Used to jotting down daily notes on animal breeding, he scrawled rambling thoughts about career and prospects on two scraps of paper, one with columns headed ''"Marry"'' and ''"Not Marry"''. Advantages included "constant companion and a friend in old age ... better than a dog anyhow", against points such as "less money for books" and "terrible loss of time."<ref>{{Harvnb|Darwin|1958|pp=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F1497&viewtype=text&pageseq=238 232-233]}}</ref> Having decided in favour, he discussed it with his father then went to visit Emma on [[29 July]] [[1838]]. He did not get around to proposing, but against his father's advice he mentioned his ideas on transmutation.<ref>{{Harvnb|Desmond & Moore|1991|Ref=CITEREFDesmondMoore1991|p= 256-259}}.</ref>
+
−
 
+
−
Continuing his research in London, Darwin's wide reading now included "for amusement" the 6th edition of [[Thomas Malthus|Malthus's]] ''[[An Essay on the Principle of Population]]'' which calculates from the birth rate that human population could double every 25 years, but in practice growth is kept in check by death, disease, wars and famine.<ref name=JvW/><ref>{{Harvnb|Malthus|1826}}<br />&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{Harvnb|Desmond & Moore|1991|Ref=CITEREFDesmondMoore1991|p= 264-265}}.<br />&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{Harvnb|Huxley|1897|pp=[http://aleph0.clarku.edu/huxley/CE9/CaML.html 162-3]}}</ref> Darwin was well prepared to see at once that this also applied to [[A. P. de Candolle|de Candolle]]'s "warring of the species" of plants and the struggle for existence among wildlife, explaining how numbers of a species kept roughly stable. As species always breed beyond available resources, favourable variations would make organisms better at surviving and passing the variations on to their offspring, while unfavourable variations would be lost. This would result in the formation of new species.<ref>{{Harvnb|Desmond & Moore|1991|Ref=CITEREFDesmondMoore1991|p= 264-265}}.<br />&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{Harvnb|Browne|1995|p= 385-388}}<br />&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{Harvnb|Darwin|1842|p=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F1556&viewtype=text&pageseq=39 7]}}<br />&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{Harvnb|Darwin|1887|loc=[http://www.gutenberg.org/catalog/world/readfile?fk_files=39003&pageno=34 p. 34]}}</ref> On [[28 September]] [[1838]] he noted this insight, describing it as a kind of wedging, forcing adapted structures into gaps in the economy of nature as weaker structures were thrust out.<ref name=JvW/>  He now had a theory by which to work, and over the following months compared farmers picking the best breeding stock to a Malthusian Nature selecting from variants thrown up by "chance" so that "every part of [every] newly acquired structure is fully practised and perfected", and thought this analogy "the most beautiful part of my theory".<ref>{{Harvnb|Desmond & Moore|1991|Ref=CITEREFDesmondMoore1991|p= 273-274}}.</ref>
+
−
 
+
−
On [[11 November]], he returned to Maer and proposed to Emma, once more telling her his ideas. She accepted, then in exchanges of loving letters she showed how she valued his openness, but her upbringing as a very devout [[Anglicanism|Anglican]] led her to express fears that his lapses of faith could endanger her hopes to meet in the afterlife.<ref>{{Harvnb|Browne|1995|p= 391-398}}.<br />&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{Harvnb|Desmond & Moore|1991|Ref=CITEREFDesmondMoore1991|p= 269-271}}.</ref>  While he was house-hunting in London, bouts of illness continued and Emma wrote urging him to get some rest, almost prophetically remarking "So don't be ill any more my dear Charley till I can be with you to nurse you."  He found what they called "Macaw Cottage" (because of its gaudy interiors) in [[Gower Street (London)|Gower Street]], then moved his "museum" in over Christmas. The marriage was arranged for [[24 January]] [[1839]], but the Wedgwoods set the date back. On the 24th, Darwin was honoured by being elected as [[Fellow of the Royal Society|Fellow of the]] [[Royal Society]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Desmond & Moore|1991|Ref=CITEREFDesmondMoore1991|p= 272-279}}.</ref>
+
−
 
+
−
On [[29 January]] [[1839]], Darwin and [[Emma Darwin|Emma Wedgwood]] were married at Maer in an [[Anglican]] ceremony arranged to suit the [[Unitarian]]s, then immediately caught the train to London and their new home.<ref>{{Harvnb|Desmond & Moore|1991|Ref=CITEREFDesmondMoore1991|p= 279}}.</ref>
+
−
 
+
−
=== Preparing the theory of natural selection for publication===
+
−
{{details|Development of Darwin's theory}}
+
−
Darwin had found the basis of his theory of [[natural selection]], but was aware of how much work was needed to make it credible to his fiercely critical scientific colleagues. As Secretary of the Geological Society at its meeting on [[19 December]] [[1838]], he saw [[Richard Owen|Owen]] and [[William Buckland|Buckland]] display their hatred of evolution when destroying the reputation of his old [[Lamarckism|Lamarckian]] teacher [[Robert Edmond Grant|Grant]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Desmond & Moore|1991|Ref=CITEREFDesmondMoore1991|p= 274-276}}.</ref> Work on his ''Beagle'' findings continued, and as well as consulting [[Animal husbandry|animal husbanders]] he carried out extensive experiments with plants, trying to find evidence answering all the arguments he anticipated when his theory was made public.<ref>{{Harvnb|Darwin|1859|loc=ch. 1}}.</ref> When FitzRoy's ''Narrative'' was published in May 1839, Darwin's ''Journal and Remarks'' (''[[The Voyage of the Beagle]]'') as the third volume was such a success that later that year it was published on its own.<ref>{{Harvnb|Darwin|1887|loc=[http://www.gutenberg.org/catalog/world/readfile?fk_files=39003&pageno=32 p. 32.]}}</ref> <!--probably omit this reference to illness:: However, in December 1839, as Emma's first pregnancy progressed, Darwin suffered more illness and accomplished little during the following year.{{fact}}{{clarifyme}}-->
+
−
 
+
−
Early in 1842, Darwin sent a letter about his ideas to [[Charles Lyell|Lyell]], who was dismayed that his ally now denied "seeing a beginning to each crop of species". In May, Darwin's book on [[coral reef]]s was published after more than three years of work, and he then wrote a "pencil sketch" of his theory.<ref>{{Harvnb|Desmond & Moore|1991|Ref=CITEREFDesmondMoore1991|p= 292}}.</ref> To escape the pressures of London, the family moved to rural [[Down House]] in November.<ref>{{Harvnb|Darwin|1887|p=[http://www.gutenberg.org/catalog/world/readfile?fk_files=39003&pageno=31 31]}}.</ref> On [[11 January]] [[1844]] Darwin wrote to his botanist friend [[Joseph Dalton Hooker]] about his theory, saying it was like confessing "a murder", but to his relief Hooker thought that "there might have been a gradual change of species" and expressed interest in Darwin's explanation. By July, Darwin had expanded his "sketch" into a 230-page "Essay".<ref>{{Harvnb|Desmond & Moore|1991|Ref=CITEREFDesmondMoore1991|p= 313-317}}.<br />&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{Harvnb|Darwin|1887|loc=[http://www.gutenberg.org/catalog/world/readfile?fk_files=39003&pageno=34 p.34]}}</ref> His fears that his ideas would be dismissed as  [[Jean-Baptiste Lamarck|Lamarckian]] [[Radicalism (historical)|Radicalism]] were reawakened by controversy over the anonymous publication in October of ''[[Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation]]'' which was severely attacked by establishment scientists. However, the book was a best-seller and widened middle-class interest in transmutation, paving the way for Darwin as well as reminding him of the need to answer all difficulties before making his theory public. Darwin completed his third geological book in 1846, and embarked on a huge study of [[barnacles]] with the assistance of Hooker. In 1847, Hooker read the "Essay" and sent notes that provided Darwin with the calm critical feedback that he needed, but would not commit himself and questioned Darwin's opposition to continuing acts of Creation.<ref>{{Harvnb|Desmond & Moore|1991|Ref=CITEREFDesmondMoore1991|p= 320-323, 339-348}}.</ref>
+
−
 
+
−
In an attempt to improve his chronic ill health, Darwin went to a spa in [[Great Malvern|Malvern]] in 1849. To his surprise, he found that two months of water treatment helped.<ref>{{Harvnb|Darwin|1887|p=[http://www.gutenberg.org/catalog/world/readfile?fk_files=39003&pageno=32 32]}}</ref> Then his treasured daughter Annie fell ill, reawakening his fears that his illness might be hereditary. After a long series of crises, she died and Darwin [[Problem of evil|lost all faith in a beneficent God]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Desmond & Moore|1991|Ref=CITEREFDesmondMoore1991|p= 383-387}}.</ref>
+
−
 
+
−
Darwin's eight years of work on barnacles (''Cirripedia'') found "[[Homology (biology)|homologies]]" that supported his theory by showing that slightly changed body parts could serve different functions to meet new conditions.<ref>{{Harvnb|Darwin|1887|pp=[http://www.gutenberg.org/catalog/world/readfile?fk_files=39003&pageno=32 32],[http://www.gutenberg.org/catalog/world/readfile?fk_files=39003&pageno=33 33]}}.</ref> In 1853 it earned him the [[Royal Society]]'s Royal Medal, and it made his reputation as a [[biology|biologist]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Desmond & Moore|1991|Ref=CITEREFDesmondMoore1991|p= 383-387}}.</ref> In 1854 he resumed work on his theory of species, and in November realised that divergence in the character of descendants could be explained by them becoming adapted to "diversified places in the economy of nature".<ref>{{Harvnb|Darwin|1887|pp=[http://www.gutenberg.org/catalog/world/readfile?fk_files=39003&pageno=33 33], [http://www.gutenberg.org/catalog/world/readfile?fk_files=39003&pageno=34 34]}}<br />&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{Harvnb|Desmond & Moore|1991|Ref=CITEREFDesmondMoore1991|p= 419-420}}.</ref>
+
−
 
+
−
=== Publication of the theory of evolution===
+
−
[[Image:Charles Darwin aged 51.jpg|right|thumb|Darwin was forced into early publication of his theory of [[natural selection]].]]
+
−
{{details|Publication of Darwin's theory}}
+
−
By the Spring of 1856, Darwin was investigating how species spread. [[Joseph Dalton Hooker|Hooker]] increasingly doubted the traditional view that species were fixed, but their new ally [[Thomas Huxley|Huxley]] was firmly against evolution. [[Charles Lyell|Lyell]] was intrigued by Darwin's speculations without realising their extent, and when he read a paper by [[Alfred Russel Wallace|Wallace]] on the ''Introduction'' of species, he saw similarities with Darwin's thoughts and urged him to publish to establish precedence. Though Darwin saw no threat, he began work on a short paper. He was repeatedly held up by finding answers to difficult questions such as how seeds could travel across seawater, and expanded his plans to a "big book on species" titled ''Natural Selection''. He continued his researches, [[Correspondence of Charles Darwin|obtaining information]] and specimens from naturalists worldwide including Wallace who was working in [[Borneo]]. In December 1857, Darwin received a letter from Wallace asking if the book would examine human origins. He responded that he would avoid that subject, "so surrounded with prejudices", while encouraging Wallace's theorising and adding that "I go much further than you."<ref>{{Harvnb|Desmond & Moore|1991|Ref=CITEREFDesmondMoore1991|p= 412-441, 462-463}}.</ref>
+
−
 
+
−
Darwin's book was half way when, on [[18 June]] [[1858]], he received a paper from Wallace describing natural selection. Though shocked that he had been "forestalled", Darwin sent it on to Lyell, as requested, and, though Wallace had not asked for publication, offered to send it to any journal that Wallace chose. His family was in crisis with children in the village dying of [[scarlet fever]], and he put matters in the hands of Lyell and Hooker. They agreed on a joint presentation at the [[Linnean Society of London|Linnean Society]] on [[1 July]] of ''[[On the Tendency of Species to form Varieties; and on the Perpetuation of Varieties and Species by Natural Means of Selection]]''; however, Darwin's baby son died of the scarlet fever and he was too distraught to attend.<ref>{{Harvnb|Desmond & Moore|1991|Ref=CITEREFDesmondMoore1991|p= 466-470}}.</ref>
+
−
 
+
−
There was little immediate attention to this announcement of the theory; the president of the Linnean left the meeting lamenting that the year had not been marked by any great discoveries.<ref>{{Harvnb|Desmond & Moore|1991|Ref=CITEREFDesmondMoore1991|p= 470}}.</ref> Later, Darwin could only recall one review; Professor Haughton of Dublin claimed that "all that was new in them was false, and what was true was old."<ref>{{Harvnb|Darwin|1958|p=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F1497&viewtype=text&pageseq=126 122]}}.</ref> Darwin struggled for thirteen months to produce an abstract of his "big book", suffering from ill health but getting constant encouragement from his scientific friends. Lyell arranged to have it published by [[John Murray (publisher)|John Murray]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Desmond & Moore|1991|Ref=CITEREFDesmondMoore1991|p= 374-474}}.</ref>
+
−
 
+
−
''On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or The Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life'' (usually abbreviated to ''[[The Origin of Species]]'')  proved unexpectedly popular, with the entire stock of 1,250 copies oversubscribed when it went on sale to booksellers on [[22 November]] [[1859]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Desmond & Moore|1991|Ref=CITEREFDesmondMoore1991|p= 477}}.</ref> In the book, Darwin set out "one long argument" of facts, inferences and consideration of anticipated objections.<ref>{{Harvnb|Darwin|1859|loc= [http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F373&viewtype=text&pageseq=477 p 459]}}</ref> His only allusion to human evolution was the understatement that "light will be thrown on the origin of man and his history".<ref>{{Harvnb|Darwin|1859|loc= [http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F373&viewtype=text&pageseq=506 p 490]}}</ref> He avoided the then controversial term "[[evolutionism|evolution]]", but at the end of the book concluded that "endless forms most beautiful and most wonderful have been, and are being, evolved."<ref>{{Harvnb|Darwin|1859|loc= [http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F373&viewtype=text&pageseq=508 p 492]}}</ref> His theory is simply stated in the introduction:
+
−
 
+
−
<blockquote>
+
−
As many more individuals of each species are born than can possibly survive; and as, consequently, there is a frequently recurring struggle for existence, it follows that any being, if it vary however slightly in any manner profitable to itself, under the complex and sometimes varying conditions of life, will have a better chance of surviving, and thus be ''naturally selected''. From the strong principle of inheritance, any selected variety will tend to propagate its new and modified form.<ref>{{Harvnb|Darwin|1859|loc= [http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F373&viewtype=text&pageseq=20 p 5]}}</ref>
+
−
</blockquote>
+
−
 
+
−
=== Reaction to the publication ===
+
−
{{details|Reaction to Darwin's theory}}
+
−
[[image:Darwin_ape.jpg|thumb|left|A typical satire was the later caricature in ''Hornet'' magazine portraying Darwin with an ape body and the bushy beard he grew in 1866.]]
+
−
 
+
−
There was wide public interest in Charles Darwin's book and a controversy which he monitored closely, keeping press cuttings of [[review]]s, [[essay|articles]], [[satire]]s, [[parody|parodies]] and [[caricature]]s.<ref>{{Harvnb|Browne|2002|p=103-104, 379}}</ref> Critical reviewers were quick to pick out the unstated implications of "men from monkeys", while amongst favourable responses Huxley's reviews included swipes at [[Richard Owen]], leader of the scientific establishment Huxley was trying to overthrow. Owen's verdict was unknown until his April review condemned the book.<ref>{{Harvnb|Desmond & Moore|1991|Ref=CITEREFDesmondMoore1991|p= 477-491}}.</ref>
+
−
 
+
−
The [[Church of England]] scientific establishment including Darwin's old Cambridge tutors [[Adam Sedgwick|Sedgwick]] and  [[John Stevens Henslow|Henslow]] reacted against the book, though it was well received by a younger generation of professional naturalists. In 1860, the publication of ''[[Essays and Reviews]]'' by seven liberal [[Anglican]] theologians diverted [[clergy|clerical]] attention away from Darwin.  An explanation of [[higher criticism]] and other [[heresy|heresies]], it included the argument that miracles broke God's laws, so belief in them was atheistic&mdash;and praise for "Mr Darwin's masterly volume [supporting] the grand principle of the self-evolving powers of nature".<ref>{{Harvnb|Desmond & Moore|1991|Ref=CITEREFDesmondMoore1991|p= 487-488, 500}}.</ref>
+
−
 
+
−
The most famous confrontation took place at a meeting of the [[British Association for the Advancement of Science]] in [[Oxford]]. Professor [[John William Draper]] delivered a long lecture about Darwin and social progress, then [[Samuel Wilberforce]], the [[Bishop]] of Oxford, argued against Darwin. In the ensuing debate [[Joseph Dalton Hooker|Joseph Hooker]] argued strongly for Darwin and [[Thomas Henry Huxley|Thomas Huxley]] established himself as "Darwin's bulldog" &ndash; the fiercest defender of evolutionary theory on the Victorian stage. Both sides came away feeling victorious, but Huxley went on to make much of his claim that on being asked by Wilberforce whether he was descended from [[monkey]]s on his grandfather's side or his grandmother's side, Huxley muttered: "The Lord has delivered him into my hands" and replied that he "would rather be descended from an ape than from a cultivated man who used his gifts of culture and eloquence in the service of prejudice and falsehood".<ref>{{Harvnb|Lucas|1979}}.<br />&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{Harvnb|Desmond & Moore|1991|Ref=CITEREFDesmondMoore1991|p= 493-499}}.</ref>
+
−
 
+
−
[[Charles Darwin's illness|Darwin's illness]] kept him away from the public debates, though he read eagerly about them and mustered support through [[Correspondence of Charles Darwin|correspondence]]. [[Asa Gray]] persuaded a publisher in the [[United States]] to pay royalties, and Darwin imported and distributed Gray's pamphlet ''Natural Selection is not inconsistent with Natural Theology''.<ref>{{Harvnb|Desmond & Moore|1991|Ref=CITEREFDesmondMoore1991|p= 492, 502}}.<br />&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{Harvnb|Miles|2001}}.</ref>  In Britain, friends including Hooker<ref>{{Harvnb|Scott|2006}}.</ref> and [[Charles Lyell|Lyell]]<ref name=Bartholomew1976>{{Harvnb|Bartholomew|1976}}</ref> took part in the scientific debates which Huxley pugnaciously led to overturn the dominance of clergymen and aristocratic amateurs under Owen in favour of a new generation of professional scientists. Owen made the mistake of (wrongly) claiming certain anatomical differences between ape and human brains, and accusing Huxley of advocating "Ape Origin of Man". Huxley gladly did just that, and his campaign over two years was devastatingly successful in ousting Owen and the "old guard".<ref>{{Harvnb|Desmond & Moore|1991|Ref=CITEREFDesmondMoore1991|p= 503-505}}.</ref> Darwin's friends formed ''[[X Club|The X Club]]'' and helped to gain him the honour of the [[Royal Society]]'s Copley Medal in 1864.<ref name=Bartholomew1976 />
+
−
 
+
−
Broader public interest had already been stimulated by ''[[Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation|Vestiges]]'', and the ''Origin of Species'' was translated into many languages and went through numerous reprints, becoming a staple scientific text accessible both to a newly curious middle class and to "working men" who flocked to Huxley's lectures.<ref>{{Harvnb|Huxley|1863}}</ref> Darwin's theory also resonated with various movements at the time{{Ref_label|C|III|none}} and became a key fixture of popular culture.{{Ref_label|D|IV|none}}
+
−
 
+
−
=== Descent of Man, sexual selection, and botany===
+
−
:''More detailed articles cover Darwin's life [[Darwin from Orchids to Variation|from Orchids to Variation]], [[Darwin from Descent of Man to Emotions|from Descent of Man to Emotions]] and [[Darwin from Insectivorous plants to Worms|from Insectivorous plants to Worms]]''
+
−
[[Image:Charles Darwin by Julia Margaret Cameron.jpg|thumb|right|200px|[[Julia Margaret Cameron]]'s portrait of Darwin.]]
+
−
Despite repeated bouts of illness during the last twenty-two years of his life, Darwin pressed on with his work. He had published an abstract of his theory, but more controversial aspects of his "big book" were still incomplete, including explicit evidence of humankind's descent from earlier animals, and exploration of possible causes underlying the development of society and of human mental abilities. He had yet to explain features with no obvious utility other than decorative beauty. His experiments, research and writing continued.
+
−
 
+
−
When Darwin's daughter fell ill, he set aside his experiments with seedlings and domestic animals to accompany her to a seaside resort where he became interested in wild [[orchid]]s. This developed into an innovative study of how their beautiful flowers served to control insect pollination and ensure cross fertilisation. As with the barnacles, homologous parts served different functions in different species. Back at home, he lay on his sickbed in a room filled with experiments on climbing plants. He was visited by a reverent [[Ernst Haeckel]] who had spread the gospel of ''Darwinismus'' in [[Germany]].<ref>[http://www.lib.cam.ac.uk/Departments/Darwin/intros/vol14.html Darwin Correspondence Project: Introduction to the Correspondence of Charles Darwin, Volume 14.] Cambridge University Press.  Retrieved on [[2006-12-15]].</ref> Wallace remained supportive, though he increasingly turned to [[spiritualism]].<ref>{{harvnb|Smith|1999}}.</ref> 
+
−
 
+
−
''Variation of Plants and Animals Under Domestication'', the first part of Darwin's planned "big book" (expanding on his "abstract" published as ''The Origin of Species'') grew to two huge volumes, forcing him to leave out human evolution and sexual selection, and sold briskly despite its size.<ref>{{Harvnb|Desmond & Moore|1991|Ref=CITEREFDesmondMoore1991|p= 550}}.</ref> A further book of evidences, dealing with natural selection in the same style, was largely written, but was not published until 1975.<ref>{{Harvnb|Freeman|1977|pp=122-7}}</ref>
+
−
 
+
−
The question of [[human evolution]] had been taken up by his supporters (and detractors) shortly after the publication of ''[[The Origin of Species]]'',<ref>See list of books at [http://c19.chadwyck.co.uk/html/noframes/moreinfo/evol_t.htm Nineteenth Century Books on Evolution and Creation: scientific and religious debates in the age of Darwin.] Retrieved on [[2006-12-15]].</ref> but Darwin's own contribution to the subject came more than ten years later with the two-volume ''[[The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex]]'' published in 1871. In the second volume, Darwin introduced in full his concept of [[sexual selection]] to explain the evolution of human culture, the differences between the human sexes, and the differentiation of human [[race]]s, as well as the beautiful (and seemingly non-adaptive) plumage of birds.<ref name=DescentOfMan>{{Harvnb|Darwin|1871}}<br />{{Harvnb|Moore & Desmond|2004|Ref=CITEREFMooreDesmond2004}}</ref> A year later Darwin published his last major work, ''[[The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals]]'', which focused on the evolution of human psychology and its continuity with the behaviour of animals. He developed his ideas that the human mind and cultures were developed by natural and sexual selection,<ref>{{Harvnb|Darwin|1872}}</ref> an approach which has been revived in the last three decades with the emergence of [[evolutionary psychology]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Ghiselin|1973}}</ref> As he concluded in ''Descent of Man'', Darwin felt that, despite all of humankind's "noble qualities" and "exalted powers": "Man still bears in his bodily frame the indelible stamp of his lowly origin."<ref>{{Harvnb|Darwin|1871|p=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F937.2&viewtype=text&pageseq=422 405]}}</ref>
+
−
 
+
−
His evolution-related experiments and investigations culminated in books on the movement of [[Vine|climbing plant]]s, [[Carnivorous plant|insectivorous plant]]s, the effects of [[Heterosis|cross]] and [[Vegetative reproduction|self fertilisation]] of plants, different forms of flowers on plants of the same species, and ''[[The Power of Movement in Plants]]''. In his last book, he returned to the effect [[earthworm]]s have on soil formation. He died in Downe, [[Kent]], England, on [[19 April]] [[1882]]. He had expected to be buried in St Mary's churchyard at Downe, but, at the request of Darwin's colleagues, [[William Spottiswoode]] ([[President]] of the [[Royal Society]]) arranged for Darwin to be given a [[state funeral]] and buried in [[Westminster Abbey]], close to  [[John Herschel]] and [[Isaac Newton]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Browne|2002|pp=495-497}}.</ref>
+
−
 
+
−
== Darwin's children ==
+
−
 
+
−
{| class="toccolours" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em; font-size: 85%; background:#e0e0ee; color:black; width:32em; max-width: 50%;" cellspacing="5"
+
−
|colspan="2"|<center>[[Image:Charles and William Darwin.jpg|185px|Darwin in 1842 with his eldest son, [[Darwin-Wedgwood family|William Erasmus Darwin]].]]</center>
+
−
<Center>Darwin and his eldest son [[Darwin — Wedgwood family|William Erasmus Darwin]] in 1842.</center>
+
−
|-
+
−
!<Center>Darwin's Children</CENTER>
+
−
|-
+
−
|William Erasmus Darwin ||([[27 December]] [[1839]]&ndash;1914)
+
−
|-
+
−
|[[Anne Darwin|Anne Elizabeth Darwin]] || ([[2 March]] [[1841]]&ndash;[[22 April]] [[1851]])
+
−
|-
+
−
|Mary Eleanor Darwin  || ([[23 September]] [[1842]]&ndash;[[16 October]] [[1842]])
+
−
|-
+
−
|[[Etty Darwin|Henrietta Emma "Etty" Darwin]] || ([[25 September]] [[1843]]&ndash;1929)
+
−
|-
+
−
|[[George Darwin|George Howard Darwin]] || ([[9 July]] [[1845]]&ndash;[[7 December]] [[1912]])
+
−
|-
+
−
|[[Darwin — Wedgwood family|Elizabeth "Bessy" Darwin]] || ([[8 July]] [[1847]]&ndash;1926)
+
−
|-
+
−
|[[Francis Darwin]] || ([[16 August]] [[1848]]&ndash;[[19 September]] [[1925]])
+
−
|-
+
−
|[[Leonard Darwin]] || ([[15 January]] [[1850]]&ndash;[[26 March]] [[1943]])
+
−
|-
+
−
|[[Horace Darwin]] || ([[13 May]] [[1851]]&ndash;[[29 September]] [[1928]])
+
−
|-
+
−
|[[Charles Waring Darwin]] || ([[6 December]] [[1856]]&ndash;[[28 June]] [[1858]])
+
−
|}
+
−
The Darwins had ten children: two died in infancy, and Annie's death at the age of ten had a devastating effect on her parents. Charles was a devoted father and uncommonly attentive to his children.<ref name=whowas/> Whenever they fell ill he feared that they might have inherited weaknesses from [[inbreeding]] due to the close family ties he shared with his wife and cousin, [[Emma Darwin|Emma Wedgwood]]. He examined this topic in his writings, contrasting it with the advantages of crossing amongst many organisms.<ref>{{Harvnb|Desmond & Moore|1991|Ref=CITEREFDesmondMoore1991|p=447}}.</ref> Despite his fears, most of the surviving children went on to have distinguished careers as notable members of the prominent [[Darwin — Wedgwood family|Darwin-Wedgwood family]].<ref>[http://www.aboutdarwin.com/darwin/Children.html The Children of Charles & Emma Darwin.] ''AboutDarwin.com''.  Retrieved on [[2006-12-15]].</ref>
+
−
 
+
−
Of his surviving children, [[George Darwin|George]], [[Francis Darwin|Francis]] and [[Horace Darwin|Horace]] became Fellows of the Royal Society, distinguished as [[astronomer]],<ref>{{MacTutor Biography|id=Darwin}}</ref> [[botanist]] and [[civil engineer]], respectively.<ref>{{cite web | title=Royal Society Fellows' Directory | url=http://www.royalsoc.ac.uk/downloaddoc.asp?id=3120 | accessdate = 2006-12-15 | format=PDF}}</ref> His son Leonard, on the other hand, went on to be a [[soldier]], [[politician]], [[economist]], [[eugenics|eugenicist]] and mentor of the statistician and evolutionary biologist [[Ronald Fisher]].<ref>Edwards, A. W. F. 2004. Darwin, Leonard (1850-1943). In: ''Oxford Dictionary of National Biography'', Oxford University Press.</ref>
+
−
 
+
−
== Religious views ==
+
−
{{details|Charles Darwin's views on religion}}
+
−
 
+
−
Though Charles Darwin's family background was [[Nonconformist]], and his father, grandfather and brother were [[Freethought|Freethinkers]],<ref>{{Harvnb|Desmond & Moore|1991|Ref=CITEREFDesmondMoore1991|p= 9, 12}}.</ref> at first he did not doubt the literal truth of the Bible.<ref>{{Harvnb|Darwin|1887|p=[http://www.gutenberg.org/catalog/world/readfile?fk_files=39003&pageno=15 15]}}</ref> He attended a [[Church of England]] school, then at Cambridge studied [[Anglican]] theology to become a clergyman.<ref>{{Harvnb|Desmond & Moore|1991|Ref=CITEREFDesmondMoore1991|p= 12-15, 80-81}}.</ref> He was convinced by [[William Paley]]'s [[teleological argument]] that design in nature proved the existence of God,<ref>{{Harvnb|Darwin|1887|p=[http://www.gutenberg.org/catalog/world/readfile?fk_files=39003&pageno=16 16]}}.</ref> but during the ''Beagle'' voyage he questioned, for example, why beautiful deep-ocean creatures had been created where no one could see them, or how the [[ichneumon wasp]] paralysing caterpillars as live food for its eggs could be reconciled with Paley's vision of beneficent design.<ref>{{Harvnb|Desmond|2004}}<br />&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{Harvnb|Lamoureux|2004|p=5}}<br />&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{Harvnb|Darwin|1887|p=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F1452.2&viewtype=text&pageseq=328 312]}}.</ref> He was still quite [[orthodoxy|orthodox]] and would quote the Bible as an authority on morality, but did not trust the history in the [[Old Testament]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Darwin|1958|p=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F1497&viewtype=side&pageseq=87 87]}}.</ref>
+
−
 
+
−
[[Image:Annie Darwin.jpg|frame|left|The 1851 death of Darwin's daughter, [[Anne Darwin|Annie]], was the final step in pushing an already doubting Darwin away from the idea of a beneficent God.]]
+
−
When investigating [[transmutation of species]] he knew that his naturalist friends thought this a bestial heresy undermining miraculous justifications for the social order, the kind of [[Radicalism (historical)|radical]] argument then being used by [[Dissenter]]s and [[atheism|atheists]] to attack the Church of England's privileged position as the [[Established Church|established church]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Desmond & Moore|1991|Ref=CITEREFDesmondMoore1991|p= 217-219, 221}}</ref> Though Darwin wrote of religion as a [[Tribe|tribal]] survival strategy, he still believed that God was the ultimate lawgiver.<ref>{{Harvnb|Moore|2006}}</ref> His belief dwindled, and with the death of his daughter [[Anne Darwin|Annie]] in 1851, Darwin finally lost all faith in Christianity. He continued to help the local church with parish work, but on Sundays would go for a walk while his family attended church.<ref>{{Harvnb|Desmond & Moore|1991|Ref=CITEREFDesmondMoore1991|p= 387, 402}}</ref> He now thought it better to look at pain and suffering as the result of general laws rather than direct intervention by God.<ref>{{Harvnb|Darwin|1887|p=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F1452.3&viewtype=text&pageseq=76 64].}}</ref> When asked about his religious views, he wrote that he had never been an [[atheism|atheist]] in the sense of denying the existence of a God, and that generally "an [[Agnosticism|Agnostic]] would be the more correct description of my state of mind."<ref>{{Harvnb|Darwin|1887|p=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F1452.1&viewtype=text&pageseq=322 304].}}</ref>
+
−
 
+
−
The "[[Elizabeth Hope|Lady Hope Story]]", published in 1915, claimed that Darwin had converted to Christianity on his sickbed. The claims were refuted by Darwin's children and have been dismissed as false by historians.<ref>{{harvnb|Padian|n.d.}}.</ref> His daughter, Henrietta, who was at his deathbed, said that he did not convert to Christianity.<ref>{{Harvnb|Yates|2003}}</ref> His last words were, in fact, directed at Emma: "Remember what a good wife you have been."<ref>{{Harvnb|Browne|2002|p=495}}.</ref>
+
−
<br clear="both" />
+
−
 
+
−
== Political interpretations ==
+
−
[[image:Charles Darwin 1880.jpg|frame|right|200px|A classic image of Darwin in 1880, still researching and producing numerous books.]]
+
−
 
+
−
Darwin's theories and writings, combined with [[Gregor Mendel]]'s [[genetics]], (the "[[modern synthesis]]") form the basis of all modern biology.<ref>{{Harvnb|Bowler|1989}}<br />&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{harvnb|Dobzhansky|1973}}</ref> However, Darwin's fame and popularity led to his name being associated with ideas and movements which at times had only an indirect relation to his writings, and sometimes went directly against his express comments.
+
−
 
+
−
===Eugenics ===
+
−
{{main|Eugenics}}
+
−
Following Darwin's publication of the ''Origin'', his cousin, [[Francis Galton]], applied the concepts to human society, starting in 1865 with ideas to promote "hereditary improvement" which he elaborated at length in 1869.<ref>{{Harvnb|Galton|1865}} and {{Harvnb|Galton|1869}}</ref>  In ''[[The Descent of Man]]'' Darwin agreed that Galton had demonstrated the probability that "talent" and "genius" in humans was inherited, but dismissed the social changes Galton proposed as too utopian.<ref name=DoM5>{{Harvnb|Darwin|1871|loc=[http://www.infidels.org/library/historical/charles_darwin/descent_of_man/chapter_05.html ch. 5]}}</ref> Neither Galton nor Darwin supported government intervention and instead believed that, at most, heredity should be taken into consideration by people seeking potential mates.<ref>{{Harvnb|Galton|1869}} p. 1 and {{Harvnb|Darwin|1871|loc=[http://www.infidels.org/library/historical/charles_darwin/descent_of_man/chapter_05.html ch. 5]}}</ref> In 1883, after Darwin's death, Galton began calling his social philosophy ''[[Eugenics]]''.<ref>{{Harvnb|Galton|1883}} p 17, fn1.</ref> In the twentieth century, eugenics movements gained popularity in a number of countries and became associated with reproduction control programmes such as [[compulsory sterilization|compulsory sterilisation]] laws,<ref>{{harvnb|Reilly|1991}}.</ref> then were stigmatised after their usage in the rhetoric of [[Nazi Germany]] in its goals of genetic "purity".{{Ref_label|E|V|none}}
+
−
 
+
−
===Social Darwinism ===
+
−
{{main|Social Darwinism}}
+
−
The ideas of [[Thomas Malthus]] and [[Herbert Spencer]] which applied ideas of evolution and "[[survival of the fittest]]" to societies, nations and businesses became popular in the late 19th and early 20th century, and were used to defend various, sometimes contradictory, ideological perspectives including [[laissez-faire economics]],<ref>{{Harvnb|Kotzin|2004}}</ref> [[colonialism]],<ref name=SocialDarwinismThinkQuest>[http://library.thinkquest.org/C004367/eh4.shtml ''Social Darwinism''.] ''ThinkQuest.org''.  Retrieved on [[2006-12-15]].</ref> [[racism]] and [[New Imperialism|imperialism]].<ref name=SocialDarwinismThinkQuest>[http://library.thinkquest.org/C004367/eh4.shtml ''Social Darwinism'' at ThinkQuest.org]</ref> The term, "Social Darwinism", originated around the 1890s, but became popular as a derogatory term in the 1940s with [[Richard Hofstadter]]'s critique of laissez-faire conservatism.<ref>{{Harvnb|Paul|2003}}</ref> The concepts predate Darwin's publication of the ''Origin'' in 1859:<ref name=SocialDarwinismThinkQuest /><ref>{{Harvnb|Desmond & Moore|1991|Ref=CITEREFDesmondMoore1991|p=477}}.<br />&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{harvnb|Wilkins|1997}}.</ref> Malthus died in 1834<ref>{{Harvnb|Anonymous|1935}}</ref> and Spencer published his books on economics in 1851 and on evolution in 1855.<ref>{{Harvnb|Sweet|2004}}</ref> Darwin himself insisted that social policy should not simply be guided by concepts of struggle and selection in nature,<ref>{{Harvnb|Bannister|1989}}</ref> and that sympathy should be extended to all races and nations.<ref>{{Harvnb|Browne|1995|p= 244-246}}</ref>{{Ref_label|F|VI|none}}
+
−
 
+
−
==Commemoration ==
+
−
[[Image:Charles_Darwin_1881.jpg|thumb|left|140px|Charles Darwin's contributions to evolutionary thought had an enormous effect on many fields of science.]]
+
−
During Darwin's lifetime many species and geographical features were given his name. An expanse of water adjoining the [[Beagle Channel]] was named ''[[Darwin Sound]]'' by [[Robert FitzRoy]] after Darwin's prompt action saved them from being marooned on a nearby shore when a collapsing glacier caused a large wave that would have swept away their boats,<ref>{{Harvnb|FitzRoy|1839|pp=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F10.2&viewtype=text&pageseq=267 216-8]}}</ref> and the nearby [[Mount Darwin (Andes)|Mount Darwin]] in the [[Andes]] was named in celebration of Darwin's 25th birthday.<ref>[http://www.aboutdarwin.com/timeline/time_04.html "Darwin's Timeline"]. ''AboutDarwin.com'' Retrieved on [[2006-12-15]]. </ref> When the [[HMS Beagle|''Beagle'']] was surveying [[Australia]] in 1839, Darwin's friend [[John Lort Stokes]] sighted a natural harbour which the ship's captain [[John Clements Wickham|Wickham]] named ''Port Darwin''.<ref name=NTDoPaI>[http://www.ipe.nt.gov.au/whatwedo/landinformation/place/origins/palmdarwin.html Territory origins.] Northern Territory Department of Planning and Infrastructure, Australia. Retrieved on [[2006-12-15]].</ref> The settlement of [[Palmerston, Northern Territory|Palmerston]] [[History of Darwin|founded there in 1869]] was officially renamed [[Darwin, Northern Territory|Darwin]] in 1911. It became the capital city of Australia's [[Northern Territory]],<ref name=NTDoPaI /> which also boasts [[Charles Darwin University]]<ref>[http://www.cdu.edu.au/ Charles Darwin University Homepage.] Retrieved [[2006-12-15]].</ref> and [[Charles Darwin National Park]].<ref>[http://www.nt.gov.au/nreta/parks/find/charlesdarwin.html Charles Darwin National Park.] Northern Territory, Australia Government.  Retrieved on [[2006-12-15]].</ref>
+
−
 
+
−
The 14 species of [[finch]]es he collected in the [[Galápagos Islands]] are affectionately named "[[Darwin's Finches]]" in honour of his legacy.<ref>{{Harvnb|Rothman|2000}}.</ref> [[Darwin College, Cambridge]], founded in 1964, was named in honour of the Darwin family, partially because they owned some of the land it was on.<ref>[http://www.dar.cam.ac.uk/visitors/history.shtml Darwin College:About Darwin.] Darwin College, Cambridge University website.  Retrieved on [[2006-12-10]].</ref> In 1992, Darwin was ranked #16 on [[Michael H. Hart]]'s [[The 100|list of the most influential figures in history]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Hart|2000|pp=82ff.}}</ref> Darwin came fourth in the ''[[100 Greatest Britons]]'' poll sponsored by the [[BBC]] and voted for by the public.<ref>[http://www.npg.org.uk/live/greatbritop100.asp What's on? BBC Great Britons.] [[National Portrait Gallery (United Kingdom)|National Portrait Gallery]]. Retrieved on [[2006-12-15]].</ref> In 2000 Darwin's image appeared on the [[Bank of England]] [[British banknotes|ten pound note]], replacing [[Charles Dickens]]. His impressive, luxuriant beard (which was reportedly difficult to forge) was said to be a contributory factor to the bank's choice.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/1009901.stm "How to join the noteworthy".] ''[[BBC News]]'' ([[7 November]] [[2000]]).  Retrieved on [[2006-12-15]].</ref>
+
−
 
+
−
As a humourous celebration of evolution, the annual [[Darwin Awards|Darwin Award]] is bestowed on individuals who "improve our gene pool by removing themselves from it."<ref>[http://www.snopes.com/horrors/freakish/darwin04.asp 2004 Darwin Awards.] ''Snopes.com'' ([[26 July]] [[2005]]).  Retrieved on [[2006-12-15]].</ref>
+
−
 
+
−
Darwin has been the subject of many exhibitions, including the "Darwin" exhibition organised by the [[American Museum of Natural History]] in [[New York City]] in 2006 and shown in various cities in the [[US]].<ref>[http://www.amnh.org/exhibitions/darwin/work/ Dariwn: A Life's Work.] [[American Museum of Natural History]], Retrieved on [[2006-12-01]].</ref> Numerous biographies of Darwin have appeared, and the 1980 biographical novel ''[[The Origin (novel)|The Origin]]'' by [[Irving Stone]] gives a closely researched fictional account of Darwin's life from the age of 22 onwards.
+
−
 
+
−
==Works==
+
−
{{main|List of works by Charles Darwin}}
+
−
Darwin was a prolific author, and even without publication of his works on evolution would have had a considerable reputation as the author of ''[[The Voyage of the Beagle]]'', as a geologist who had published extensively on [[South America]] and had solved the puzzle of the formation of [[coral atoll]]s, and as a biologist who had published the definitive work on [[barnacle]]s. While ''[[The Origin of Species]]'' dominates perceptions of his work, ''[[The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex]]'' and ''[[The Expression of Emotions in Man and Animals]]'' had considerable impact, and his books on plants including ''[[The Power of Movement in Plants]]'' were innovative studies of great importance, as was his final work on ''The Formation of Vegetable Mould Through the Action of Worms''.<ref>{{Harvnb|Balfour|1882}}<br />&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{Harvnb|van Wyhe|2006}}<br />&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{Harvnb|Anonymous|1882}}</ref>
+
−
 
+
−
His writings are available at [http://darwin-online.org.uk/ The Complete Work of Charles Darwin Online] – the [http://darwin-online.org.uk/contents.html Table of Contents] provides links to all of his publications, including alternative editions, contributions to books & periodicals, correspondence, life and letters, autobiography, as well as a complete bibliography and catalogue  of his manuscripts. The works are free to read, but not [[Public Domain]], and include publications still under [[Copyright]]. For unencumbered versions of his major works, see {{gutenberg author| id=Charles+Darwin | name=Charles Darwin}}
+
−
 
+
−
 
+
−
 
+
−
==See also==
+
−
* [[Darwin's Frog]] &ndash; a species of [[frog]] named after Charles Darwin.
+
−
* [[Descent with modification]]
+
−
* [[Harriet]] &ndash; a Galápagos tortoise, possibly collected by Darwin; died [[23 June]] [[2006]] at an estimated age of 175.
+
−
* [[Patrick Matthew]] &ndash; an amateur evolutionary theorist and contemporary of Darwin.
+
−
* [[Randal Keynes]] &ndash; the great-great grandson of Charles Darwin who wrote a book about him, his daughter, and human evolution
+
−
* [[Tree of life#Science|The Tree of Life]] &ndash; an excerpt from the [[Origin of Species]]
+
−
 
+
−
==Notes==
+
−
<div class="references-small">
+
−
'''<small>I</small>.''' {{Note_label|A|I|none}} Darwin was also considered a [[geologist]], [[biologist]], and [[author]]; was educated as a [[clergyman]], and as a [[medical student]]; worked as a physician's assistant; and was trained in [[taxidermy]].
+
−
 
+
−
'''<small>II</small>.''' {{Note_label|B|II|none}}  <!--bit off topic and inaccurate refs – Darwin became famous for his [[1839]] book ''[[Voyage of the Beagle]]'' (before ''[[Origin of Species]]'' in [[1859]]). See ''[http://www.rit.edu/~flwstv/darwin.html Science and Human Values: Charles Darwin and Evolution]'', Professor Fred L. Wilson, [[Rochester Institute of Technology]], [[Rochester, NY]].-->[[Robert FitzRoy]] was to become known after the voyage for biblical literalism, but at this time he had considerable interest in Lyell's ideas, and they met before the voyage when Lyell asked for observations to be made in South America. FitzRoy's diary during the ascent of the River Santa Cruz in [[Patagonia]] recorded his opinion that the plains were [[raised beach]]es, but on return, newly married to a very religious lady, he recanted these ideas.<ref>{{Harvnb|Browne|1995|pp= 186, 414}}.</ref>
+
−
 
+
−
'''<small>III</small>.''' {{Note_label|C|III|none}} See, for example,  WILLA volume 4, [http://scholar.lib.vt.edu/ejournals/old-WILLA/fall95/DeSimone.html ''Charlotte Perkins Gilman and the Feminization of Education''] by Deborah M. De Simone:  "Gilman shared many basic educational ideas with the generation of thinkers who matured during the period of "intellectual chaos" caused by Darwin's Origin of the Species. Marked by the belief that individuals can direct human and social evolution, many progressives came to view education as the panacea for advancing social progress and for solving such problems as urbanization, poverty, or immigration."
+
−
 
+
−
'''<small>IV</small>.''' {{Note_label|D|IV|none}} See, for example, the song "A lady fair of lineage high" from [[Gilbert and Sullivan]]'s [[Princess Ida]], which describes the descent of man (but not woman!) from apes.
+
−
 
+
−
'''<small>V</small>.''' {{Note_label|E|V|none}} The Nazi eugenics policies are discussed in a number of sources. A few of the more definitive ones are Robert Proctor, ''Racial hygiene: Medicine under the Nazis'' (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1988) and Dieter Kuntz, ed., ''Deadly medicine: creating the master race'' (Washington, DC: United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, 2004) ([http://www.ushmm.org/museum/exhibit/online/deadlymedicine/ online exhibit]). On the development of the [[racial hygiene]] movement before National Socialism, see Paul Weindling, ''Health, race and German politics between national unification and Nazism, 1870-1945'' (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1989).
+
−
 
+
−
'''<small>VI</small>.''' {{Note_label|F|VI|none}} See {{Harvnb|Darwin|1887|p=[http://www.gutenberg.org/catalog/world/readfile?fk_files=39003&pageno=23 23]}}:
+
−
:[E]arly in the voyage at Bahia, in Brazil, [FitzRoy] defended and praised slavery, which I abominated, and told me that he had just visited a great slave-owner, who had called up many of his slaves and asked them whether they were happy, and whether they wished to be free, and all answered "No."  I then asked him, perhaps with a sneer, whether he thought that the answer of slaves in the presence of their master was worth anything?  This made him excessively angry, and he said that as I doubted his word we could not live any longer together.
+
−
See also {{Harvnb|Darwin|1845|pp= [http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F14&viewtype=text&pageseq=220 207-208]}} on the [[Fuegian]]s:
+
−
:It seems yet wonderful to me, when I think over all his many good qualities, that he should have been of the same race, and doubtless partaken of the same character, with the miserable, degraded savages whom we first met here.
+
−
 
+
−
</div>
+
−
 
+
−
==Citations==
+
−
<div class="references-small" style="column-count:3;-moz-column-count:3;">
+
−
<references />
+
−
</div>
+
−
 
+
−
==References==
+
−
*{{Harvard reference
+
−
| Surname    = Anonymous
+
−
| Year        = 1882
+
−
| Title      = Obituary: Death Of Chas. Darwin
+
−
| Journal    = The [[New York Times]]
+
−
| Issue      = April 21, 1882
+
−
| URL        = http://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/bday/0212.html }}  Retrieved on [[2007-02-21]]
+
−
*{{Harvard reference
+
−
| Surname    = Anonymous
+
−
| Year        = 1935
+
−
| Title      = Obituary: Thomas Robert Malthus: Died [[29 December]] [[1834]]
+
−
| Journal    = Journal of the Royal Statistical Society,
+
−
| Issue      = Vol. 98, No. 2
+
−
| Pages      = 376-379.
+
−
| URL        = http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0952-8385%281935%2998%3A2%3C376%3AOTRMD2%3E2.0.CO%3B2-6 }}  Retrieved on [[2006-12-15]]
+
−
*{{Harvard reference
+
−
| Surname    = Anonymous
+
−
| Year        = 1960
+
−
| Date        = June 1960
+
−
| Title      = Darwin as a Traveller
+
−
| Journal    = The Geographical Journal
+
−
| Issue      = Vol. 126, No. 2.
+
−
| Pages      = 129-136
+
−
| URL        = http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0016-7398%28196006%29126%3A2%3C129%3ADAAT%3E2.0.CO%3B2-P }} Retrieved on [[2006-12-15]]
+
−
*{{Harvard reference
+
−
| Surname    = Arrhenius
+
−
| Given      = O.
+
−
| Year        = 1921
+
−
| Date        = October 1921
+
−
| Title      = Influence of Soil Reaction on Earthworms
+
−
| Journal    = Ecology
+
−
| Issue      = Vol. 2, No. 4
+
−
| Pages      = 255-257
+
−
| URL        = http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0012-9658%28192110%292%3A4%3C255%3AIOSROE%3E2.0.CO%3B2-P }} Retrieved on [[2006-12-15]]
+
−
*{{Harvard reference
+
−
| Surname    = Balfour
+
−
| Given      = J. B.
+
−
| Year        = 1882
+
−
| Date        = 11 May 1882
+
−
| Title      = Obituary Notice of Charles Robert Darwin
+
−
| Journal    = Transactions & Proceedings of the Botanical Society of Edinburgh
+
−
| Issue      = 14
+
−
| Pages      = 284-298
+
−
| URL        = http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=A6&viewtype=text&pageseq=1 }} Retrieved on [[2007-02-21]]
+
−
*{{Harvard reference
+
−
| Surname    = Bannister
+
−
| Given      = Robert C.
+
−
| Year        = 1989
+
−
| Title      = Social Darwinism: Science and Myth in Anglo-American Social Thought.
+
−
| Publisher  = Philadelphia: Temple University Press
+
−
| ID          = ISBN 0-87722-566-4}}
+
−
*{{Harvard reference
+
−
| Surname1    = Bartholomew
+
−
| Given1      = M. J.
+
−
| Year        = 1976
+
−
| Title      = The Award of the Copley Medal to Charles Darwin
+
−
| URL        = http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0035-9149(197601)30%3A2%3C209%3ATAOTCM%3E2.0.CO%3B2-6
+
−
| Journal    = Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London
+
−
| Issue      = Vol. 30, No. 2 (Jan. 1976)
+
−
| Pages      = 209-218 }} (Includes Lyell's speech at the award ceremony which was his first public affiliation with Darwin's theory.) Retrieved on [[2006-12-15]]
+
−
*{{Harvard reference
+
−
| Surname    = Bowler
+
−
| Given      = Peter J.
+
−
| Authorlink  =
+
−
| Year        = 1989
+
−
| Title      = The Mendelian Revolution: The Emergence of Hereditarian Concepts in Modern Science and Society
+
−
| Publisher  = Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press
+
−
| ID          = ISBN 0-485-11375-9 }}
+
−
*{{Harvard reference
+
−
| Surname    = Browne
+
−
| Given      = E. Janet
+
−
| Authorlink  = Janet Browne
+
−
| Year        = 1995
+
−
| Title      = Charles Darwin: vol. 1 Voyaging
+
−
| Publisher  = London: Jonathan Cape
+
−
| ID          = ISBN 1-84413-314-1}}
+
−
*{{Harvard reference
+
−
| Surname    = Browne
+
−
| Given      = E. Janet
+
−
| Authorlink  = Janet Browne
+
−
| Year        = 2002
+
−
| Title      = Charles Darwin: vol. 2 The Power of Place
+
−
| Publisher  = London: Jonathan Cape
+
−
| ID          = ISBN 0-7126-6837-3}}
+
−
*{{Harvard reference
+
−
| Surname    = Darwin
+
−
| Given      = Charles
+
−
<!-- NOT NEEDED ON THIS PAGE, BUT POSSIBLY ELSEWHERE | Authorlink  = Charles Darwin -->
+
−
| Year        = 1835
+
−
| Title      = Extracts from letters to Professor Henslow. Cambridge
+
−
| Publisher  = [printed by the Cambridge University Press for private distribution]
+
−
| URL        = http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F1&viewtype=text&pageseq=1 }} Retrieved on [[2006-12-15]]
+
−
*{{Harvard reference
+
−
| Surname    = Darwin
+
−
| Given      = Charles
+
−
<!-- NOT NEEDED ON THIS PAGE, BUT POSSIBLY ELSEWHERE | Authorlink  = Charles Darwin -->
+
−
| Year        = 1839
+
−
| Title      = Journal and Remarks ([[The Voyage of the Beagle]])
+
−
| Publisher  = London: Henry Colburn
+
−
| URL        = http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F20&viewtype=text&pageseq=1 }} Retrieved on [[2006-12-15]]
+
−
*{{Harvard reference
+
−
| Surname1    = Darwin
+
−
| Given1      = Charles
+
−
<!-- NOT NEEDED ON THIS PAGE, BUT POSSIBLY ELSEWHERE | Authorlink  = Charles Darwin -->
+
−
| Chapter    = Pencil Sketch of 1842
+
−
| Editor      = Darwin, Francis
+
−
| Year        = 1842
+
−
| Date        = 1842 (published 1909)
+
−
| Title      = The foundations of The origin of species: Two essays written in 1842 and 1844.
+
−
| Publisher  = Cambridge University Press
+
−
| Location    = Cambridge
+
−
| URL        = http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F1556&viewtype=text&pageseq=1 }} Retrieved on [[2006-12-15]]
+
−
*{{Harvard reference
+
−
| Surname    = Darwin
+
−
| Given      = Charles
+
−
<!-- NOT NEEDED ON THIS PAGE, BUT POSSIBLY ELSEWHERE | Authorlink  = Charles Darwin -->
+
−
| Year        = 1845
+
−
| Title      = Journal of Researches ([[The Voyage of the Beagle]])
+
−
| Edition    = Second
+
−
| Publisher  = London: John Murray
+
−
| URL        = http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F14&viewtype=text&pageseq=1 }} Retrieved on [[2006-12-15]]
+
−
*{{Harvard reference
+
−
| Surname    = Darwin
+
−
| Given      = Charles
+
−
<!-- NOT NEEDED ON THIS PAGE, BUT POSSIBLY ELSEWHERE | Authorlink  = Charles Darwin -->
+
−
| Year        = 1859
+
−
| Title      = On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life
+
−
| Publisher  = London: John Murray
+
−
| URL        = http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F373&viewtype=text&pageseq=1 }} ([[The Origin of Species]]) Retrieved on [[2006-12-15]]
+
−
*{{Harvard reference
+
−
| Surname    = Darwin
+
−
| Given      = Charles
+
−
<!-- NOT NEEDED ON THIS PAGE, BUT POSSIBLY ELSEWHERE | Authorlink  = Charles Darwin -->
+
−
| Year        = 1868
+
−
| Title      = The variation of animals and plants under domestication
+
−
| Publisher  = London: John Murray
+
−
| URL        = http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F880.1&viewtype=text&pageseq=1 }} Retrieved on [[2006-12-15]]
+
−
*{{Harvard reference
+
−
| Surname    = Darwin
+
−
| Given      = Charles
+
−
<!-- NOT NEEDED ON THIS PAGE, BUT POSSIBLY ELSEWHERE | Authorlink  = Charles Darwin -->
+
−
| Year        = 1871
+
−
| Title      = The Descent of Man and Selection in Relation to Sex
+
−
| Publisher  = London: John Murray
+
−
| URL        = http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F937.1&viewtype=text&pageseq=1 }} ([[The Descent of Man]]) Retrieved on [[2006-12-15]]
+
−
*{{Harvard reference
+
−
| Surname    = Darwin
+
−
| Given      = Charles
+
−
<!-- NOT NEEDED ON THIS PAGE, BUT POSSIBLY ELSEWHERE | Authorlink  = Charles Darwin -->
+
−
| Year        = 1872
+
−
| Title      = The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals
+
−
| Publisher  = London: John Murray
+
−
| URL        = http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F1142&viewtype=text&pageseq=1 }} Retrieved on [[2006-12-15]]
+
−
*{{Harvard reference
+
−
| Surname    = Darwin
+
−
| Given      = Charles
+
−
<!-- NOT NEEDED ON THIS PAGE, BUT POSSIBLY ELSEWHERE | Authorlink  = Charles Darwin -->
+
−
| Year        = 1887
+
−
| Editor      = [[Francis Darwin|Darwin, F]]
+
−
| Title      = The life and letters of Charles Darwin, including an autobiographical chapter.
+
−
| Publisher  = London: John Murray
+
−
| URL        = http://www.gutenberg.org/catalog/world/readfile?fk_files=39003&pageno=1 }} ([[The Autobiography of Charles Darwin]]) Retrieved on [[2006-12-15]]
+
−
*{{Harvard reference
+
−
| Surname    = Darwin
+
−
| Given      = Charles
+
−
<!-- NOT NEEDED ON THIS PAGE, BUT POSSIBLY ELSEWHERE | Authorlink  = Charles Darwin -->
+
−
| Year        = 1958
+
−
| Editor      = [[Nora Barlow|Barlow, N]]
+
−
| Title      = The autobiography of Charles Darwin 1809-1882. With the original omissions restored. Edited and with appendix and notes by his grand-daughter Nora Barlow.
+
−
| Publisher  = London: Collins
+
−
| URL        = http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F1497&viewtype=text&pageseq=1 
+
−
}} ([[The Autobiography of Charles Darwin]]) Retrieved on [[2006-12-15]]
+
−
*{{Harvard reference
+
−
| Surname1    = Desmond
+
−
| Given1      = Adrian J.
+
−
| Year        = 2004
+
−
| Chapter    = Darwin
+
−
| Title    = Encyclopaedia Britannica 2004 DVD
+
−
}}
+
−
*{{Harvard reference
+
−
| Surname1    = Desmond
+
−
| Given1      = Adrian
+
−
| Surname2    = Moore
+
−
| Given2      = James
+
−
| Authorlink2 = James Moore (biographer)
+
−
| Year        = 1991
+
−
| Title      = Darwin
+
−
| Publisher  = London: Michael Joseph, Penguin Group
+
−
| ID          = ISBN 0-7181-3430-3}}
+
−
*{{Harvard reference
+
−
| Surname1    = Dobzhansky
+
−
| Given1      = Theodosius
+
−
| Year        = 1973
+
−
| Date        = March 1973
+
−
| Title      = Nothing in Biology Makes Sense Except in the Light of Evolution
+
−
| URL        = http://www.2think.org/dobzhansky.shtml
+
−
| Journal    = The American Biology Teacher
+
−
| Volume      = 35
+
−
| Pages      = 125-129 }} Retrieved on [[2006-12-15]]
+
−
*{{Harvard reference
+
−
| Surname1    = Eldredge
+
−
| Given1      = Niles
+
−
| Year        = 2006
+
−
| Title      = Confessions of a Darwinist
+
−
| URL        = http://www.vqronline.org/articles/2006/spring/eldredge-confessions-darwinist/#fn11
+
−
| Journal    = The Virginia Quarterly Review
+
−
| Issue      = Spring 2006
+
−
| Pages      = 32-53 }} Retrieved on [[2006-12-15]]
+
−
*{{Harvard reference
+
−
| Surname1    = FitzRoy
+
−
| Given1      = Robert
+
−
| Authorlink1 = Robert Fitzroy
+
−
| Year        = 1839
+
−
| Title      = Voyages of the Adventure and Beagle, Volume II
+
−
| URL        = http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F10.2&viewtype=text&pageseq=1
+
−
| Publisher  = Henry Colburn
+
−
| Location    = Great Marlborough Street, London }} Retrieved on [[2006-12-15]]
+
−
*{{Harvard reference
+
−
| Surname1    = Freeman
+
−
| Given1      = R. B.
+
−
| Year        = 1977
+
−
| Title      = The Works of Charles Darwin: An Annotated Bibliographical Handlist
+
−
| URL        = http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=A1&viewtype=text&pageseq=1
+
−
| Publisher  = Wm Dawson & Sons Ltd
+
−
| Location    = Cannon House Folkestone, Kent, England
+
−
| Edition    = Second }} Retrieved on [[2006-12-15]]
+
−
*{{Harvard reference
+
−
| Surname1    = Galton
+
−
| Given1      = Francis
+
−
| Authorlink1 = Francis Galton
+
−
| Year        = 1865
+
−
| Title      = Hereditary talent and character
+
−
| URL        = http://www.mugu.com/galton/essays/1860-1869/galton-1865-hereditary-talent.pdf
+
−
| Journal    = Macmillan's Magazine
+
−
| Issue      = 12
+
−
| Pages      = 157-166 and 318-327 }} Retrieved on [[2006-12-15]]
+
−
*{{Harvard reference
+
−
| Surname1    = Galton
+
−
| Given1      = Francis
+
−
| Authorlink1 = Francis Galton
+
−
| Year        = 1869
+
−
| Title      = Hereditary genius: an inquiry into its laws and consequences
+
−
| Publisher  = Macmillan
+
−
| Location    = London
+
−
| URL        = http://www.mugu.com/galton/books/hereditary-genius/
+
−
}} Retrieved on [[2006-12-15]]
+
−
*{{Harvard reference
+
−
| Surname1    = Galton
+
−
| Given1      = Francis
+
−
| Authorlink1 = Francis Galton
+
−
| Year        = 1883
+
−
| Title      = Inquiries into human faculty and its development
+
−
| Publisher  = Macmillan
+
−
| Location    = London
+
−
| URL        = http://www.mugu.com/galton/books/human-faculty/
+
−
}} Retrieved on [[2006-12-15]]
+
−
*{{Harvard reference
+
−
| Surname1    = Ghiselin
+
−
| Given1      = Michael T.
+
−
| Year        = 1973
+
−
| Title      = Darwin and Evolutionary Psychology
+
−
| URL        = http://www.robertgordon.net/papers/four.html
+
−
| Journal    = Science
+
−
| Volume      = 179
+
−
| Pages      = 964-968 }} Retrieved on [[2006-12-15]]
+
−
*{{Harvard reference
+
−
| Surname1    = Gordon
+
−
| Given1      = Robert
+
−
| Surname2    = Thomas
+
−
| Given2      = Deborah
+
−
| Year        = 1999
+
−
| Date        = [[20 March]]-[[21 March]] [[1999]]
+
−
| Title      = Circumnavigating Darwin
+
−
| URL        = http://www.robertgordon.net/papers/four.html
+
−
| Journal    = Darwin Undisciplined Conference, Sydney.
+
−
}} Retrieved on [[2006-12-15]]
+
−
*{{Harvard reference
+
−
| Surname1    = Hart
+
−
| Given1      = Michael
+
−
| Authorlink  = Michael Hart
+
−
| Year        = 2000
+
−
| Title      = The 100: A Ranking of the Most Influential Persons in History
+
−
| Publisher  = Citadel
+
−
| Location    = New York
+
−
}}
+
−
*{{Harvard reference
+
−
| Surname    = Huxley
+
−
| Given      = Thomas
+
−
| Authorlink  = Thomas Huxley
+
−
| Year        = 1863
+
−
| Title      = Six Lectures to Working Men "On Our Knowledge of the Causes of the Phenomena of Organic Nature" (Republished in Volume II of his Collected Essays, ''Darwiniana'')
+
−
| URL        = http://aleph0.clarku.edu/huxley/CE2/Phen.html }} Retrieved on [[2006-12-15]]
+
−
*{{Harvard reference
+
−
| Surname    = Huxley
+
−
| Given      = Thomas
+
−
| Authorlink  = Thomas Huxley
+
−
| Year        = 1897
+
−
| Title      = Evolution and Ethics and Other Essays
+
−
| Publisher  = New York, D. Appleton and Company
+
−
| URL        = http://aleph0.clarku.edu/huxley/CE9/index.html
+
−
}} Retrieved on [[2006-12-15]]
+
−
*{{Harvard reference
+
−
| Surname1    = Keynes
+
−
| Given1      = Richard (ed.)
+
−
| Year        = 2000
+
−
| Title      = Charles Darwin's zoology notes & specimen lists from H.M.S. Beagle.
+
−
| Publisher  = Cambridge University Press
+
−
| Location    = Cambridge
+
−
| Chapter    = [http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F1840&viewtype=text&pageseq=23 June – August 1836]}} Retrieved on [[2006-12-15]]
+
−
*{{Harvard reference
+
−
| Surname1    = Kotzin
+
−
| Given1      = Daniel
+
−
| Year        = 2004
+
−
| Title      = Point-Counterpoint: Social Darwinism
+
−
| Publisher  = Columbia American History Online
+
−
| URL        = http://caho-test.cc.columbia.edu/pcp/14008.html }}
+
−
*{{Harvard reference
+
−
| Surname1    = Lamoureux
+
−
| Given1      = Denis O.
+
−
| Year        = 2004
+
−
| Date        = March 2004
+
−
| Title      = Theological Insights from Charles Darwin
+
−
| URL        = http://users.ox.ac.uk/~jrlucas/legend.html
+
−
| Journal    = Perspectives on Science and Christian Faith
+
−
| Volume      = 56
+
−
| Issue      = 1
+
−
| Pages      = 2-12
+
−
}} Retrieved on [[2006-12-15]]
+
−
*{{Harvard reference
+
−
| Surname1    = Leff
+
−
| Given1      = David
+
−
| Year        = 2000
+
−
| Title      = About Charles Darwin
+
−
| URL        = http://www.aboutdarwin.com/darwin/WhoWas.html
+
−
}} Retrieved on [[2006-12-15]]
+
−
*{{Harvard reference
+
−
| Surname1    = Lucas
+
−
| Given1      = J. R.
+
−
| Year        = 1979
+
−
| Title      = Wilberforce and Huxley: A Legendary Encounter
+
−
| URL        = http://users.ox.ac.uk/~jrlucas/legend.html
+
−
| Journal    = The Historical Journal
+
−
| Volume      = 22
+
−
| Issue      = 2
+
−
| Pages      = 313-330
+
−
}} Retrieved on [[2006-12-15]]
+
−
*{{Harvard reference
+
−
| Surname1    = Malthus
+
−
| Given1      = Thomas Robert
+
−
| Authorlink1 = Thomas Malthus
+
−
| Year        = 1826
+
−
| URL        = http://www.econlib.org/library/Malthus/malPlong.html
+
−
| Title      = An Essay on the Principle of Population: A View of its Past and Present Effects on Human Happiness; with an Inquiry into Our Prospects Respecting the Future Removal or Mitigation of the Evils which It Occasions
+
−
| Edition    = Sixth
+
−
| Publisher  = John Murray
+
−
| Location    = London }} Retrieved on [[2006-12-15]]
+
−
*{{Harvard reference
+
−
| Surname1    = Miles
+
−
| Given1      = Sara Joan
+
−
| Year        = 2001
+
−
| Title      = Charles Darwin and Asa Gray Discuss Teleology and Design
+
−
| URL        = http://www.asa3.org/ASA/PSCF/2001/PSCF9-01Miles.html
+
−
| Journal    = Perspectives on Science and Christian Faith
+
−
| Volume      = 53
+
−
| Pages      = 196-201 }} Retrieved on [[2006-12-15]]
+
−
*{{Harvard reference
+
−
| Surname1    = Moore
+
−
| Given1      = James
+
−
| Authorlink1 = James Moore (biographer)
+
−
| Surname2    = Desmond
+
−
| Given2      = Adrian
+
−
| Year        = 2004
+
−
| Title      = "Introduction", in Darwin's The Descent of Man and Selection in Relation to Sex
+
−
| Publisher  = London: Penguin Classics
+
−
}}
+
−
*{{Harvard reference
+
−
| Surname1    = Moore
+
−
| Given1      = James
+
−
| Authorlink1 = James Moore (biographer)
+
−
| Year        = 2006
+
−
| Chapter    = Evolution and Wonder - Understanding Charles Darwin
+
−
| URL        = http://speakingoffaith.publicradio.org/programs/darwin/transcript.shtml
+
−
| Title      = Speaking of Faith (Radio Program)
+
−
| Publisher  = American Public Media }} Retrieved on [[2006-12-15]]
+
−
*{{Harvard reference
+
−
| Surname1    = Owen
+
−
| Given1      = Richard
+
−
| Authorlink  = Richard Owen
+
−
| Editor      = Darwin, C. R.
+
−
| Year        = 1840
+
−
| Title      = The zoology of the voyage of H.M.S. Beagle., Fossil Mammalia Part 1
+
−
| Publisher  =  Smith Elder and Co
+
−
| Location    = London
+
−
}}
+
−
*{{Harvard reference
+
−
| Surname1    = Padian
+
−
| Given1      = Kevin
+
−
| Year        = n.d.
+
−
| Title      = The Darwin Legend
+
−
| URL        = http://web.archive.org/web/19980119234102/natcenscied.org/PADREV.HTM
+
−
| Publisher  = National Center for Science Education}} Retrieved on [[2006-12-15]]
+
−
*{{Harvard reference
+
−
| Surname1    = Paul
+
−
| Given1      = Diane B.
+
−
| Chapter    = Darwin, social Darwinism and eugenics
+
−
| Editor      = Hodge, Jonathan and Radick, Gregory
+
−
| Year        = 2003
+
−
| Title      = The Cambridge Companion to Darwin
+
−
| Publisher  = Cambridge University Press
+
−
| Location    = Cambridge
+
−
| Pages      = 214-239
+
−
| ID          = ISBN 0-521-77730-5
+
−
}}
+
−
*{{Harvard reference
+
−
| Surname1    = Reilly
+
−
| Given1      = Philip
+
−
| Year        = 1991
+
−
| Title      = The surgical solution: a history of involuntary sterilization in the United States
+
−
| Publisher  = Johns Hopkins University Press
+
−
| Location    = Baltimore }}
+
−
*{{Harvard reference
+
−
| Surname1    = Rothman
+
−
| Given1      = Robert
+
−
| Year        = 2000 <!--see http://web.archive.org/web/*/http://www.rit.edu/~rhrsbi/GalapagosPages/DarwinFinch.html -->
+
−
| Title      = Darwin's finches
+
−
| URL        = http://www.rit.edu/~rhrsbi/GalapagosPages/DarwinFinch.html }} Retrieved on [[2006-12-15]]
+
−
*{{Harvard reference
+
−
| Surname1    = Scott
+
−
| Given1      = Michon
+
−
| Year        = 2006
+
−
| Title      = Joseph Hooker
+
−
| URL        = http://www.strangescience.net/jhooker.htm }} Retrieved on [[2006-12-15]]
+
−
*{{Harvard reference
+
−
| Surname1    = Smith
+
−
| Given1      = Charles H.
+
−
| Year        = 1999
+
−
| Title      = Alfred Russel Wallace on Spiritualism, Man, and Evolution: An Analytical Essay
+
−
| URL        = http://www.wku.edu/~smithch/essays/ARWPAMPH.htm }} Retrieved on [[2006-12-15]]
+
−
*{{Harvard reference
+
−
| Surname1    = Sulloway
+
−
| Given1      = Frank J.
+
−
| Chapter    = The ''Beagle'' collections of Darwin's finches (Geospizinae)
+
−
| Year        = 1982
+
−
| Title      = Bulletin of the British Museum (Natural History) Historical Series 43, No. 2: pp 49-94
+
−
| Publisher  = The British Museum
+
−
| Location    = London
+
−
| URL        = http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=A86&viewtype=image&pageseq=1 }} Retrieved on [[2006-12-15]]
+
−
*{{Harvard reference
+
−
| Surname1    = Sweet
+
−
| Given1      = William
+
−
| Year        = 2004
+
−
| Title      = Herbert Spencer
+
−
| Publisher  = Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
+
−
| URL        = http://www.iep.utm.edu/s/spencer.htm }} Retrieved on [[2006-12-15]]
+
−
*{{Harvard reference
+
−
| Surname1    = Wilkins
+
−
| Given1      = John S.
+
−
| Year        = 1997
+
−
| Title      = Evolution and Philosophy: Does evolution make might right?
+
−
| URL        = http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/evolphil/social.html
+
−
| Publisher  = TalkOrigins}} Retrieved on [[2006-12-15]]
+
−
*{{Harvard reference
+
−
| Surname1    = van Wyhe
+
−
| Given1      = John
+
−
| Year        = 2006
+
−
| Title      = Charles Darwin: gentleman naturalist: A biographical sketch
+
−
| URL        = http://darwin-online.org.uk/darwin.html }} Retrieved on [[2006-12-15]]
+
−
*{{Harvard reference
+
−
| Surname1    = Yates
+
−
| Given1      = Simon
+
−
| Year        = 2003
+
−
| Title      = The Lady Hope Story: A Widespread Falsehood
+
−
| URL        = http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/hope.html
+
−
| Publisher  = TalkOrigins }} Retrieved on [[2006-12-15]]
+
−
 
+
−
==External links==
+
−
{{sisterlinks|Charles Darwin}}
+
−
*[http://darwin-online.org.uk/ The Complete Work of Charles Darwin Online]
+
−
*[http://darwin.gruts.com/ The Friends of Charles Darwin]
+
−
*[http://www.orchids.co.in/orchidologists/charles-robert-darwin.shtm Darwin's work on orchids]
+
−
*[http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/ Darwin Correspondence Project]
+
−
*[http://darwinlibrary.amnh.org/ The Darwin Digital Library of Evolution]
+
−
*[http://www.darwinisme.org/ Institut Charles Darwin International]
+
−
*[http://www.bankofengland.co.uk/banknotes/current/darwin.htm Darwin's portrait on £10 note]
+
−
*[http://www.npg.org.uk/live/search/person.asp?search=ss&sText=Charles+Darwin&LinkID=mp01196 Twelve different portraits of Charles Darwin, National Portrait Gallery, U.K.]
+
−
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/4607037.stm BBC: "Darwin family repeat flower count"]
+
−
*[http://www.rationalrevolution.net/articles/darwin_nazism.htm Mis-portrayal of Darwin as a Racist]
+
−
*[http://www.themountshrewsbury.com/subpages/darwin_2.php Listing of the significant places in Shrewsbury relevant to Darwin's early life.]
+
−
*[http://www.botanicus.org/creator.asp?creatorid=93 Digitized titles by Charles Darwin in ''Botanicus.org'']
+
−
*[http://greatcaricatures.com/articles_galleries/nast/html/1871_0819_darwin.html 1871 Caricature of Charles Darwin by Thomas Nast, Harper's Weekly]
+
−
*{{dmoz|Science/Biology/History/People/Darwin,_Charles/}}
+
−
 
+
−
{{Darwin}}
+
−
 
+
−
{{evolution}}
+
−
 
+
−
{{featured article}}
+
−
 
+
−
{{Persondata
+
−
|NAME=Darwin, Charles Robert
+
−
|ALTERNATIVE NAMES=
+
−
|SHORT DESCRIPTION=English naturalist, evolutionary biologist
+
−
|DATE OF BIRTH=[[February 12]], [[1809]]
+
−
|PLACE OF BIRTH=[[Mount House]], [[Shrewsbury]], [[Shropshire]], [[England]]
+
−
|DATE OF DEATH=[[April 19]], [[1892]]
+
−
|PLACE OF DEATH=[[Down House]], [[Downe]], [[Kent]], [[England]]
+
−
}}
+
−
 
+
−
[[Category:Charles Darwin|*]]
+
−
[[Category:Evolutionary biologists|Darwin, Charles]]
+
−
[[Category:English naturalists|Darwin, Charles]]
+
−
[[Category:English geologists|Darwin, Charles]]
+
−
[[Category:Carcinologists|Darwin, Charles]]
+
−
[[Category:Coleopterists|Darwin, Charles]]
+
−
[[Category:Ethologists|Darwin, Charles]]
+
−
[[Category:English scientists|Darwin, Charles]]
+
−
[[Category:English travel writers|Darwin, Charles]]
+
−
[[Category:Fellows of the Royal Entomological Society of London|Darwin, Charles]]
+
−
[[Category:Fellows of the Royal Society|Darwin, Charles]]
+
−
[[Category:Fellows of the Zoological Society of London|Darwin, Charles]]
+
−
[[Category:Old Salopians|Darwin, Charles]]
+
−
[[Category:Alumni of the University of Edinburgh|Darwin, Charles]]
+
−
[[Category:Alumni of Christ's College, Cambridge|Darwin, Charles]]
+
−
[[Category:English agnostics|Darwin, Charles]]
+
−
[[Category:English Anglicans|Darwin, Charles]]
+
−
[[Category:English Unitarians|Darwin, Charles]]
+
−
[[Category:Darwin — Wedgwood family|Darwin, Charles]]
+
−
[[Category:People from Shrewsbury|Darwin, Charles]]
+
−
[[Category:1809 births|Darwin, Charles]]
+
−
[[Category:1882 deaths|Darwin, Charles]]
+
−
[[Category:Hypochondriacs|Darwin]]
+
−
 
+
−
{{Link FA|sl}}
+
−
{{Link FA|sr}}
+
−
{{Link FA|bs}}
+
−
 
+
−
[[af:Charles Darwin]]
+
−
[[ar:تشارلز داروين]]
+
−
[[an:Charles Darwin]]
+
−
[[ast:Charles Darwin]]
+
−
[[az:Çarlz Robert Darvin]]
+
−
[[bn:চার্ল্‌স্‌ ডারউইন]]
+
−
[[zh-min-nan:Charles Darwin]]
+
−
[[bs:Charles Darwin]]
+
−
[[bg:Чарлз Дарвин]]
+
−
[[ca:Charles Robert Darwin]]
+
−
[[cs:Charles Darwin]]
+
−
[[cy:Charles Darwin]]
+
−
[[da:Charles Darwin]]
+
−
[[de:Charles Darwin]]
+
−
[[et:Charles Darwin]]
+
−
[[el:Κάρολος Δαρβίνος]]
+
−
[[es:Charles Darwin]]
+
−
[[eo:Charles Darwin]]
+
−
[[eu:Charles Darwin]]
+
−
[[fa:چارلز داروین]]
+
−
[[fr:Charles Darwin]]
+
−
[[fy:Charles Darwin]]
+
−
[[ga:Charles Darwin]]
+
−
[[gd:Charles Darwin]]
+
−
[[gl:Charles Darwin]]
+
−
[[ko:찰스 다윈]]
+
−
[[hy:Շարլ Դարվին]]
+
−
[[hi:चार्ल्स डार्विन]]
+
−
[[hr:Charles Darwin]]
+
−
[[io:Charles Darwin]]
+
−
[[id:Charles Darwin]]
+
−
[[is:Charles Darwin]]
+
−
[[it:Charles Darwin]]
+
−
[[he:צ'ארלס דרווין]]
+
−
[[kn:ಚಾರ್ಲ್ಸ್ ಡಾರ್ವಿನ್]]
+
−
[[ka:დარვინი, ჩარლზ]]
+
−
[[sw:Charles Darwin]]
+
−
[[ku:Charles Darwin]]
+
−
[[la:Carolus Darwin]]
+
−
[[lv:Čārlzs Darvins]]
+
−
[[lb:Charles Darwin]]
+
−
[[lt:Čarlzas Darvinas]]
+
−
[[hu:Charles Darwin]]
+
−
[[mk:Чарлс Дарвин]]
+
−
[[mr:चार्ल्स डार्विन]]
+
−
[[ms:Charles Darwin]]
+
−
[[nl:Charles Darwin]]
+
−
[[ja:チャールズ・ダーウィン]]
+
−
[[no:Charles Darwin]]
+
−
[[nn:Charles Darwin]]
+
−
[[oc:Charles Darwin]]
+
−
[[pl:Karol Darwin]]
+
−
[[pt:Charles Darwin]]
+
−
[[ro:Charles Darwin]]
+
−
[[qu:Charles Darwin]]
+
−
[[ru:Дарвин, Чарлз Роберт]]
+
−
[[sco:Charles Darwin]]
+
−
[[sq:Charles Darwin]]
+
−
[[scn:Charles Darwin]]
+
−
[[simple:Charles Darwin]]
+
−
[[sk:Charles Robert Darwin]]
+
−
[[sl:Charles Darwin]]
+
−
[[sr:Чарлс Дарвин]]
+
−
[[sh:Charles Darwin]]
+
−
[[fi:Charles Darwin]]
+
−
[[sv:Charles Darwin]]
+
−
[[tl:Charles Darwin]]
+
−
[[ta:சார்லஸ் டார்வின்]]
+
−
[[th:ชาลส์ ดาร์วิน]]
+
−
[[vi:Charles Darwin]]
+
−
[[tg:Чарлз Дарвин]]
+
−
[[tr:Charles Darwin]]
+
−
[[uk:Дарвін Чарльз Роберт]]
+
−
[[ur:ڈارون]]
+
−
[[wa:Charles Darwin]]
+
−
[[yi:טשארלס דארווין]]
+
−
[[zh-yue:達爾文]]
+
−
[[zh:查尔斯·达尔文]]
+

Revision as of 00:07, March 22, 2007

Charles Darwin

Charles Darwin was a famous naturalist born in England to a Christian family on February 12, 1809. He is best known for the theory of natural selection which has since been generally accepted by biologists as the major mechanism for evolution. The concept is that biological species develop over time via natural selection, branching from common origins. Outside of evolution in particular, he was regarded as an expert on barnacles as well as credited with discovering how coral atolls were formed.

the big bearded bastard who finally proved us wrong. and we cant be having that, people will stop enslaving themselves to us. the horror!

Religious Beliefs

Charles Darwin was a Christian up and through his famous five year voyage on the HMS Beagle. But in the ensuing two years after returning to England (1836 to 1839; and in his late twenties) Darwin abandoned Christianity (1) and [sic] "had become a 'materialist' (more or less equivalent to an atheist" (2). About twenty years later in 1859 (at the age of fifty) Darwin published his famous book The Origin of Species. "In order not to hurt the feelings of his friends and wife, Darwin often used deistic language in his publications" (3). According to Darwin, the "manifestly false history of the world" (4) as recorded in the Old Testament and New Testament miracles led him to reject Biblical veracity (5). Eminent Darwin biographer, Professor Janet Browne, sums up Darwin's views concerning religion: Darwin "mapped out a comparitive evolution of the religious sense, proposing that religious belief was ultimately nothing more than a primitive urge to bestow a cause on otherwise inexplicable natural events...In short, he made no secret of his view that he did not believe religion to have any rational foundation at all" (6). Yet, in spite of these views, when he died in 1882 at the age of seventy-three, Darwin was buried at Westminster Abbey next to Sir Isaac Newton.

When investigating transmutation of species he knew that his naturalist friends thought this a bestial heresy undermining miraculous justifications for the social order, the kind of radical argument then being used by Dissenters and atheists to attack the Church of England's privileged position as the established church. Though Darwin wrote of religion as a tribal survival strategy, he still believed that God was the ultimate lawgiver. His belief dwindled, and with the death of his daughter Annie in 1851, Darwin finally lost all faith in Christianity. He continued to help the local church with parish work, but on Sundays would go for a walk while his family attended church. He now thought it better to look at pain and suffering as the result of general laws rather than direct intervention by God. When asked about his religious views, he wrote that he had never been an atheist in the sense of denying the existence of a God, and that generally "an Agnostic would be the more correct description of my state of mind."

Darwin's Illness

Charles Darwin's work set off a great deal of controversy. And Darwin closely watched the public's response to his ideas while his allies Thomas Huxley and Joseph Hooker advocated his ideas within the scientific community. For example, Richard Milner wrote regarding Darwin in the 2002 issue of Scientific American in a article entitled "Putting Darwin in his Place", that Darwin "clipped, catalogued and indexed hundreds of offprints, about 350 reviews and 1,600 articles, as well as satires, parodies and Punch caricatures, with which he filled hefty scrapbooks..." And it appears as if the criticism of his work may have troubled Darwin. Milner in the aforementioned article, wrote that after Charles Lyell published a very weak endorsement of Darwin's Antiquity of Man, "Darwin's disappointment brought on 10 days of vomiting, faintness and stomach distress". Also when anatomist St. George Mivart made a strong attack on The Descent of Man, Milner wrote it "triggered two months of "giddiness" and inability to work..."

Charles Darwin's illness afflicted him for most of his working life. [1] Most medical experts believe that Darwin's illness was psychobiological or psychological in origin.

References

  1. Mayr, Ernst Growth of Biological Thought (1982:402).
  2. Mayr, Ernst One Long Argument (1991:75).
  3. Ibid. (1991:75).
  4. Barlow, Nora (editor) The Autobiography of Charles Darin (1958:85).
  5. Ibid. (1958:85-87).
  6. Browne, Janet Charles Darwin The Power of Place (2002:341)
Retrieved from "https://conservapedia.com/index.php?title=Charles_Darwin&oldid=55762"