Early Middle Ages

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Part of the series on
The Middle Ages
Historical Periods

Early Middle Ages (6th-10th century)
High Middle Ages (11th-13th century)
Late Middle Ages (14th-15th century)

Medieval History

Holy Roman Empire
Investiture Conflict
Black Death
Vikings
The Crusades

Medieval Society

Medieval religion
Medieval politics
Feudalism

The Early Middle Ages is a period in European and Mediterranean history that falls between the fall of the Roman Empire and the High Middle Ages. However, assigning specific dates to the period is controversial and moreover implies a lack of continuity. For the purposes of this article, we will begin the period with the death of the last Roman Emperor in the West, Romulus Augustulus, even though this event in and of itself did not represent a significant political change. Likewise, defining an end to the Early Middle Ages is problematic, but the date AD 1000 serves as a convenient point.

The period in general may be characterized as generally chaotic and a decline from the achievements of the Roman Empire. Cities dwindled in population, armed bands operated with impunity in many areas throughout much of the period, and culture, learning and civilization almost disappeared completely in many places where the Romans had introduced it. One effect of this is that our written historical sources for the period are extremely few in number, while very few buildings exist that were built in the period.

Nevertheless, there were significant achievements as well, most importantly the spread of Christianity well beyond the borders of the old Roman Empire and indeed to the farthest reaches of Europe. In the East, the Byzantine Empire, the successor to the Roman Empire was still a force to be reckoned with, and also provided the primary defense against the spread of Islam in Europe. In the West, the Church was instrumental in helping preserve education and learning. Influential churchmen and scholars such as Gregory of Tours, the Venerable Bede, and Einhard recorded histories for us, while there were significant early developments in Christian theology from such men as Pope Gregory the Great and Isidore of Seville.

And while the age mostly did not produce the immense architectural monuments of the High Middle Ages and later, beautiful artworks, mostly portable, still survive from the era, including the Book of Kells and the treasures of Sutton Hoo.

Finally, no discussion of the period would be complete without recognition of the enormous impact of the birth and growth of Islam, which swept across the Middle East, North Africa and into Spain. Islamic rule brought many changes to these areas, some for the worse, such as the suppression of the growth of Christianity and unchecked piracy throughout the Mediterranean, but others more positive, including encouraging the flourishing of the important Jewish academies in Sura and Pumbedita in what is now Iraq, as well as important scientific developments in mathematics, medicine, astronomy and philosophy. Muslim scholars also translated many Classical texts into Arabic, thus helping to ensure their survival.

The Time of the Barbarians (476-622)

During the course of the 5th century, the Western part of the Roman Empire suffered a massive loss of authority, creating an opportunity for a number of Germanic tribes to enter and settle on Roman territory, creating kingdoms that were initially nominally subservient to Rome, but in fact were independent. The most prominent of these were the Franks in northern Gaul, the Visigoths in southern Gaul and Hispania, the Vandals in North Africa, and the Ostrogoths and (later) Lombards in Italy. Finally,

Hispania

After invading Gaul with the Alemanni, the Vandals invaded Hispania and took over the south. It was called Vandalusia, and today is named Andalusia in honor of them. Emperor Honorius sent the Visigoths to rid the area of barbarians, but when they became too successful urged them to set up a kingdom in southern Gaul. Later, when the Visigoths were driven out of Gaul, they took over Hispania, by then called Spain. In 586 the king converted to Catholicism and forced his entire nation except for the Jews to convert. Yet the kingdom declined until in 711-712 it was taken over by the Muslims.

Gallia

In 406, when all Roman troops left Gaul to guard Italy, the Alemanni and Vandals invaded and were quite successful in taking fortified cities. Twelve years later, when the Romans coaxed the Visigoths out of Spain, they established a kingdom in southern Gaul with imperial support. Toulouse was the capital and Theodoric I their king. In 451, Attila attacked and the Franks, a Germanic tribe from the Netherlands and Belgium, were forced to flee into Gaul. Although the Romans defeated Attila, they were forced to allow a Frankish kingdom in the Rhineland (in modern Germany). When the western empire collapsed, the kingdom continued and in 481 Clovis became king. He conquered all of Gaul over the course of 30 years and in 496 converted to Catholicism and baptized his entire nation. But after he died, the Franks suffered two hundred years of weak and greedy kings who fought so much that serfdom became common.

The Eastern Roman Empire

Theodosius II became the eastern emperor in 402. Although personally weak, his mother passed the Theodosian Codes, a collection of Roman laws that had existed since the time of Constantine. Plus, the walls of Constantinople were rebuilt in 413 and defended it successfully for 1,040 years (in 1453 the Turks destroyed the empire and took the city). Christian orthodoxy was enforced, though for around a hundred years weak emperors ruled. But in 527 Justinian became emperor. After the buildings built by Constantine were destroyed in riots, he built the Hagia Sophia and fine palaces. Plus, in 529 he passed the Code of Justinian, a collection of Roman laws that made orthodox Christianity the only legal religion, improved justice, and influenced medieval and English laws (English law influenced American law). His general Belisarius conquered North Africa, Sicily, and southern Italy, while Narses took Rome, northern Italy, and southern Spain. But in 568 the Lombards took northern Italy and soon Muhammad's legions took Persia, Israel, Egypt, Syria, and North Africa.

Britannia

In 410 AD, Roman armies in Britannia were recalled to the continent as part of one of the civil wars that plagued the late Empire. As a consequence, the Romans and Celts living in Britannia turned to hiring Anglo-Saxon mercenaries for military protection. The mercenaries, being the primary military force in the province, took control of England themselves and created a number of independent kingdoms, the greatest being Wessex in the south, Mercia in the Midlands and Northumbria in the north. The Anglo-Saxons were originally non-Christian, but were gradually converted to Christianity through the efforts of missionaries from Ireland and Rome.

The Italian Peninsula

In 410, the Visigoths had sacked Rome, though they did not harm a single piece of property owned by the Church. Forty-two years Pope Leo I convinced Attila to leave, perhaps by his holiness, perhaps by an angel threatening to kill him unless the Hun obeyed him, perhaps by some gold. When the empire fell in 476, mercenaries ruled, but in 493, Theodoric of the Ostrogoths took over. He built roads, churches, aqueducts, theaters, and ampitheaters. Even though he was an Arian (someone who believed Jesus was not equal to God), he tolerated Catholics and Jews. But when he died, Justinian tried to conquer Italy. Even though they at first succeeded, the Ostrogoths fought back and both sides viciously destroyed the peninsula. Although eventally all Italy was ruled by Constantinople, in 568 the Lombards took over northern Italy. Pope Gregory I converted them to Catholicism, fed the people of Rome by grain from papal estates, and paid the Eastern Roman troops in Italy.

The Rise of Islam (622-751)

The establishment of Islam by Muhammad is traditionally dated from the year of his flight (the Hijra) from Mecca in 622. Using the new faith to unite the various Arab tribes, Muhammad's successors deployed them against the Byzantine and Persian Empires, traditional enemies that had just finished a long, exhausting war that had depleted the treasuries and military powers of both. The Arabs also took advantage of conflicts between Monophysite Christians in Syria and Egypt and the Orthodox Byzantine emperors. The end result was the total elimination of the Persian Empire and its incorporation into the Caliphate, and the permanent loss of the Middle East and Egypt to the Byzantines.

By 661, after a brief civil war, the Umayyad family had established itself as the rulers of the Islamic world, with their capital at Damascus. Although Byzantium successfully resisted the conquest of Constantinople and Asia Minor, the Umayyads successfully took the rest of North Africa, sweeping aside Byzantine resistance and invaded Spain in 711.

Visigothic Spain and its Conquest

Spain declined. Suspicion that Jews were aiding Muslims in planning to attack led them to be forcibly baptized. In 711, Moors from Africa attacked. They quickly conquered all of it but the far north. A great culture flourished and religious tolerance generally reigned. Christian kingdoms in the north were buttressed by Charlemagne's conquest of Barcelona and began planning to retake Spain from the heretics. The Reconquista (reconquest) would begin in earnest under El Cid only a few decades before the Crusades.

Merovingian Francia

Different families of claimants to the throne battled ruthlessly. The major domo (chief of the palace) became dominant. Charles Martel became major domo in 719. In 732, the Muslims invaded Francia, as Gaul was called, via Spain. But with an army of heavy cavalry that was the first real knights and with church money, he won. Charles, formerly a name for serfs, became an honored royal name. One person was that name was his grandson Charlemagne.

The Byzantine Empire

Anglo-Saxon England and Britain

The Italian Peninsula and the Papacy

The Carolingian Empire (751-843)

Pepin the Short, major domo, became Frankish king with the support of the Pope in 751. He protected Pope Stephen II from a Lombard attack on Rome and besieged Pavia, their capital, but let them off the hook. In 768 his son Charles became king. He protected Pope Adrian I from the Lombards and then conquered Pavia and their entire kingdom. Next he attacked the Saxons, a savage barbarian people from northeastern Germany. Though they were stubborn, eventually he conquered them and forcibly baptized them, building churches and monasteries. He invaded Spain in 778 and was unsuccessful. But the Song of Roland, a fascinating romantic tale, told that all of Spain was conquered, that the king of Saragossa tricks him into making peace, that Roland's father-in-law is angry with his nephew for making him ambassador and believes he wants him dead, and so tells the Muslims which way the Franks are headed. The Arabs kill the entire battalion, including Roland. But at the end Ganelon is killed. God's justice reigns. Charlemagne encouraged art and learning in his realm, and brought in English, Italian, and even Muslim teachers. He was crowned emperor by the Pope in 800 and the Holy Roman Empire was founded. In 814 he died. Louis the Pious, his godly but ineffective son, had to battle nobles who disdained his goodness. In 843, two years after his death, the empire was divided into France, Germany, and the Middle Kingdom.

Al-Andalus

France and The Holy Roman Empire

Following Frankish custom, Charlemagne had intended to divide his empire between his sons after his death. However, only one of his sons, Louis the Pious survived their father to inherit him. But Louis left three sons when he died, and shortly after his death, they fell into civil war over the question of how to divide the inheritance. At the Treaty of Verdun in 843 AD, it was decided to divide the Empire in three parts. The western part would go to Charles the Bald while the eastern part went to Louis the German. The eldest son, Lothair received the Imperial Crown and a part of land wedged in between the other two. Finally, the son of Lothair received the Kingdom of Italy, consisting of northern Italy down to the Papal States.

This arrangement was never stable, and caused numerous wars in the following years. Eventually, the western part of the Empire became the Kingdom of France, while the eastern part became the Holy Roman Empire. The middle part, called Lotharingia, soon broke up, and was finally absorbed into the Holy Roman Empire in the beginning of the 10th century.

The Byzantine Empire

Anglo-Saxon England and Britain

The Italian Peninsula and the Papacy

The Transition to the High Middle Ages (843-1000)

References