John Rawls
John Rawls (1921-2002) was an American philosopher, whose writings are considered as some of the most important in 20th century political philosophy.
He is famous for his book "A Theory of Justice", in which he attempted to offer a solution to the problem of distributive justice while supporting both liberty and equality.
A Theory of Justice
In contrast to earlier social contract theorists, who proposed that the agreements made by people in a "State of Nature" to sustain a society formed the foundation of justice, Rawls used the thought experiment of an original position, which serves the purpose of the State of Nature in those earlier philosophies. In this original position, all people are behind a veil of ignorance that prevents them from knowing basic facts about themselves - such as their strength, their intelligence, their class and circumstances. This means that the agreements made that form the social contract will be fair: for example the strong will be in no better position to negotiate than the weak. Furthermore, no group will be discriminated against and no group given special treatment. No rational person behind the veil of ignorance will agree that "the weak should be slaves to the strong", because it may turn out that they are weak. Therefore the rights granted by the agreements will apply to everybody, or as Rawls puts his First Principle "each person is to have an equal right to the most extensive scheme of equal basic liberties compatible with a similar scheme of liberties for others."[1]
As part of his Second Principle Rawls goes on to suggest the "Difference Principle", which states that inequalities should benefit the least-advantaged members of society. To illustrate this, imagine three societies. In the first there is much equality but little wealth. In the second there is more inequality, but everybody is wealthier. In the third there is much more inequality, but the poor are less wealthy than they would be in the second society. On the basis of the Difference Principle Rawls would argue that the second society is the most just.
The other part of Rawls' Second Principle is fairness of opportunity. Rawls does not mean to suggest that everyone should have exactly the same opportunities in life, but only that they should have the opportunity to achieve a good life given the circumstances they are placed in.[2]
Criticism
His most notable critic was Robert Nozick, who in "Anarchy, State and Utopia" paid tribute to Rawls' contributions, but defended a libertarian viewpoint, according to which it is unjust to redistribute the earnings of the rich and successful amongst the poorer elements of society without their consent. Often "Anarchy, State and Utopia" is read as a companion to "A Theory of Justice."
