Particles (Japanese)

This entry makes use of Japanese characters and will require Japanese language support to be installed on your computer in order to avoid the characters being replaced by question marks, or blanked out.

In Japanese grammar, particles (joshi 助詞) mostly have the same connective function as prepositions in European languages, but as they always follow the words they mark, they can be referred to "post-positions". They can also function as conjunctions and interjections. The particles are never inflected - they maintain their form, regardless of where in a sentence they appear.

They show the relationship of a word, phrase, or clause to the rest of the sentence; they can also add a meaning or nuance to that word. There are some particles with English equivalents; others functions in a similar manner to English prepositions; and there are some uniquely Japanese particles, which are not found in English.

Usage

As with English, depending on which particle you use where and when, can have a significant impact on the meaning of the sentence. For example, in English saying, "I eat fish" is fairly straightforward. However, translating that directly into Japanese would give you "watashi sakana taberu" (I fish eat). As it stands, it has no real meaning and needs particles to be added to give it meaning. However, which particle you add can drastically change the meaning of the sentence. Examples are below, with the participle added in bold:

• watashi wa sakana o taberu (I eat fish) - the original meaning), but
• watashi o sakana ga taberu (The fish eats me)
• watashi mo sakana o taberu (I, too, eat fish) - as if I am agreeing with somebody else
• watashi to sakana ga taberu (The fish and I eat) - implying we both eat "something"

Therefore, it is probably best to analyse the main particles (there are over 100, in various combinations) individually.

For the sake of clarity, all particles will be shown in bold at all times, to help readers remember what they are, and where they belong.

Wa (は) and Ga (が)

Before carrying on with these, it must be noted that although "wa" is pronounced "wa" when spoken, it is always written with the hiragana "ha" (は), even though hiragana does have a "wa" (わ). It is one of those idiosyncrasies of the language you will need to remember. To avoid confusion, the examples will use the spoken "wa", instead of the written "ha".

In simple terms, "wa" (pronounced "wah") marks the topic of a sentence, while "ga" (pronounced "gah", with the "ga" as in "gate) marks the subject. Whatever comes before "wa" is the topic of the sentence, which will be described by what follows "wa.” This is similar to splitting an English sentence into its subject and predicate, although the topic is not always the subject in the English sense. "Ga,” whilst doing much the same, links the word or phrase that precedes it to the adjective or verb that immediately follows it.

Using the sentence, "Zou wa hana ga nagai desu." (which translates directly as "(As for) the elephant (its) trunk (is) long (it is)", or simply as "The elephant's trunk is long), "wa" highlights the topic of the sentence (Elephant), from the commentary on the topic (its trunk is long), whilst "ga" in this case links hana (trunk) to the adjective which follows, nagain (long).

"Wa" can also be used more than once in a sentence, to highlight the topic of each clause within the sentence. For example, "Eigo wa muzukashii desu ga, nihongo wa muzukashiku nai desu." or "(As for) English (it) is difficult, but (as for) Japanese (it) is not difficult (it is)". In this case, the topics of the two clauses are "English" and "Japanese" respectively and the difference between the topic and the description of the topic, is indicated using red and blue text.

Even if the adjective or verb following the topic is modified, "ga" is still used, as the relationship between the topic and the adjective is still one to one. Thus the sentences "Nigatsu ni yuki ga furimasu (In February snow falls) and Nigatsu ni yuki ga yoku furimasu (In February, snow often falls), the link is between "snow" and "falls.”

"Ga" is also used for emphasis, where there is a need to distinguish a person or thing from all the others. It is a difficult concept to explain, as in English, this difference is often conveyed in the tone of voice being used.

To use an example, asking a group of children, "Who went to school?" would receive the reply, "Tom went to school.” Asking the question, "Which one of you went to school?" would probably receive the same response, but with higher pitched voices and fingers pointing to the unfortunate Tom, and if written, probably ending in an exclamation point, rather than a full stop.

In Japanese, however, this is conveyed by changing the "wa" to a "ga.” Thus, "Who went to school?" would be answered by "Tomu wa gakkou ni ikimashita." (Tom went to school.) and "Which one of you went to school?" would be answered with, "Tomu ga gakkou ni ikimashita." (Tom is the one who went to school).

In addition, the subject of subordinate clauses in a sentence normally uses "ga,” to indicate that the subordinate and main clauses have different subjects. Thus, in "Watashi wa Mika ga kekkon shita koto o shiranakatta." (I did not know Mika was married), Mika is the subordinate subject.

Finally, in conversation, where a negative answer is required to a question, "ga" reverts to "wa.” Thus "Sakana ga suki desu ka?" (Do you like fish?) is answered "Iie, sakana wa suki janai desu." (No, I do not like fish.)

O (を)

Another one to be wary of, although "o" is pronounced "o" (pronounced with a short "o!" rather than "oh") when spoken, it is always written with the hiragana "wo" (を), even though hiragana does have a "o" (お). It is one of those idiosyncrasies of the language you will need to remember. To avoid confusion, the examples will use the spoken "o", instead of the written "wo".

"O" indicates the object of a verb. Whenever you hear "o" in a sentence, you will know that what precedes it will be the object of the next verb that follows it. This verb can be an active, passive, or causative verb-form, but will always act on what precedes "o" in some manner.

Thus, "Kutsu o kaimashita." literally means "(I) shoes bought".

One of the advantages of Japanese is that once the speakers understand the context in which a noun is being used, it can be omitted from the conversation. To use the example above, unless it is stated that somebody bought the shoes for me, it is clear that I bought the shoes and thus there is no need to add "Watashi wa..." to the beginning of the sentence.

Likewise, although a transitive verb always needs "something" to act on, if that "something" is understood within the context, it does not need to be spoken again. Thus, "Kare wa mou ie o demashita ka? ‘‘ (Has) he already left (the) house?" can be answered with, "Hai, demashita. ‘‘ Yes, left", as it is clear the question is referring to him leaving the house.

"O" is also used to indicate the direction of movement for verbs such as walk, run, turn, etc. Thus, "Basu wa toshokan no mae o toorimasu. Bus (the) library in front (of) passes" (The bus passes in front of the library).

It also indicates a point of departure associated with verbs such as leave, get out, get off, etc. So, "I leave home at eight o'clock." would be "Hachi-ji ni ie o demasu. (Eight o'clock house (I) leave.)"

No (の)

"No" can be called the "possessive-indicating particle" and indicates that what precedes it characterises what follows it.

In its simplest form, "no" is similar to the English apostrophe-s ('s), and indicates ownership of something. For example, "Tanaka-san no hon" is "Miss Tanaka's book." It is also used to link two related nouns, for example "Japanese car" would be "Nihon no kuruma" or literally "car of Japan.”

"No" can appear many times in a single sentence. However, one must remember that Japanese reverses the order of nouns, as opposed to English. Japanese nouns run from large to small, or from general to specific. So, you might say in English, "The names of the countries in Europe," in Japanese you would say "Yooroppa no kuni no namae." (Europe's countries' names).

Japanese has no possessive personal pronouns (his, hers, theirs, etc), but forms these by adding "no" to the pronoun. Thus, you get:

• watashi (I) becomes watashi no (my)
• atashi (I (fem)) becomes atashi no (my (fem))
• boku (I (male)) becomes boku no (my (male))
• kare (he) becomes kare no (his)
• kanojo (her) becomes kanojo no (hers)
• karera (they) becomes karera no (their)
• atashitati (we (fem)) becomes atashitachi no (our (fem))
• bokutati (we (male)) becomes bokutati no (our (male))
• anata (you) becomes anata no (your)
• wareware (we) becomes wareware no (our)

"No" is also used to indicate objective pronouns, which do not exist in Japanese. The usage is the same as above, although the meaning differs. Thus, to say "Behind him" in Japanese, you would say "kare no ushiro", but in this case, "kare no" means "him" and not "his."

Finally, Japanese does not use articles (a, the, an, etc.), but instead uses "no" to indicate location, where English would use "the.” Thus "behind the car" would be "kuruma no ushiro". This could be translated literally as "behind of (the) car."

Ni (に)

"Ni" (pronounced as the "ny" in "pony") can be said to be the "direction indicating particle" and its function is to indicate towards whom or what the action of the verb is directed. However, it is simply a structural particle, and although in certain cases can replicate the use of the English "to,” "in,” "at,” or "on,” it has no meaning on its own.

"Ni" can be used as the English "to" when indicating a destination, as in "going to...", thus "I am going to New York next year," is "Rainen Nyu-yoku ni ikimasu. (Next year New York (to) am going.)"

It indicates the location where something is (or literally "exists" in Japanese), and takes on the same role performed by "at,” "in,” or "on." So "Watashi wa Toukyou ni sunde imasu." means "(As for) me, Tokyo (in) live," or "I live in Tokyo." Likewise "Teburu no ue ni okimashita." combines "Teburu no ue" (top of the table) with the action of placing something "on" it, "ni okimashita".

"Ni" also indicates the indirect object within a sentence, which usually precedes a direct object. For example, "Kare wa watashi ni hon o kuremashita." which translates directly as "(As for) he, me (to) a book gave", or more sensibly, "He gave me a book." Here "I" is the indirect object and "a book" is the direct object.

It is also used to indicate specific periods of time (but not concepts such as "today" or "tomorrow") and takes on the same usage as the English "at,” "on" or "in". Using an example from above "Hachi-ji ni ie o demasu," we get "Eight o'clock (at) house (I) leave" or "I leave home at eight o'clock".

Two final uses are at the base of a verb, which is followed by another verb that indicates the purpose of the action. Thus, "Hon o kai ni ikimashita" (book buy went) has "ni" linking "went" and the reason I went, "to buy.”

It also approximates the use of the English "per" (per hour, per day), so to say, "They pay us twenty dollars per hour," you would say "Ichi-jikan ni nijuu-doru haratte kuremasu. (One-hour (per) twenty dollars they pay)"

E (へ)

Another one to be wary of, although "e" is pronounced "e" (pronounced as "eh" rather than "ee") when spoken, it is always written with the hiragana "he" (へ), even though hiragana does have an "e" (え). It is one of those idiosyncrasies of the language you will need to remember. To avoid confusion, the examples will use the spoken "e", instead of the written "he".

"E" indicates that what precedes it is the destination or direction towards which the action that follows it moves. It can be used interchangeably with the particle "ni" in this usage, although the general rule is to use "e" to indicate a place one has been in the past, and "ni" to indicate a place you are going to in the future. Thus:

• Rainen Nyu-yoku ni ikimasu. (Next year I am going to New York), and
• Sengetsu Kyouto e ikimashita. (Last month I went to Kyoto)

This is the only occasion where "e" and "ni" can be interchanged, so you would never say "Isu e suwatte imasu." for "I am sitting on the chair" (Isu ni suwatte imasu), otherwise you are saying, "I am sitting to the chair."

Another example of the difference between "e" and "ni" is when used with the verb "irassharu" ("to be somewhere,” "to go,” or "to come"). As "ni" always follows the place where a person "exists,” saying "Doko ni irasshaimasu ka?" means "Where is he?", but because "e" specifies a destination or direction, saying "Doko e irasshaimasu ka?" means "Where are you going?"

Ba (ば)

"Ba" is used to present a condition, which would result in the clause that follows. It can be approximated by the English "if.” For example, "Ima dekakere ba maniai masu yo" translates as "If you leave now, you will make it in time."

It also shows a cause-and-effect relationship, indicating "when something happens, then" rather than "if.” Thus, "When there is a vivid sunset, the next day will be clear." translates as "Yuyake ni nare ba yokujitsu wa tenki ni naru."

Another use is to indicate the topic that will be discussed in the next clause, something akin to saying "speaking of..." or "in terms of..." If I wanted to recommend a good sushi restaurant, I could say "Osushi nara ba mise ga oishii desu yo", which means "Speaking (or "in terms") of sushi, that restaurant is tasty!"

"Ba" can also be used with the particle "mo" to indicate a relationship between a list or pattern of things or events. In English it could be "(something) and (something) (is/thus/are)". For example, "Kanojo wa piano mo hike ba e mo kaku tasai no hito desu (As for her, piano (something 1) (also) to play (and) painting (something 2) (also) to paint talented person it is)" means "She is a talented person, who can play the piano and paint."

It should be mentioned that the "e" shown above is not the particle "e" (へ), but the noun "e" (絵) "painting, drawing, or sketch". This is one of the dangers of writing Japanese in romaji - homophones, or words that sound (and are "spelled") the same, but have a different meaning.

De (で)

If the particle "o" can be said to indicate "what" a verb's action acts on, then "de" indicates "where" (a place or location) the action occurs and approximates the English "in,” "at,” or "on". It can also indicate "how" an action is performed, either the means by which it is performed, or what is used to perform the action and is similar to the English "by,” "with,” or "by means of".

To use an example, if I go for a swim in the sea, then the action is "to swim" and the place where it happens is "the sea", which results in the sentence "Umi de oyoida" (Sea (in) swim). Or if I am in a taxi and need to stop at the next corner, that is where the action is going to occur, so I would say, "Tsugi no kado de tomete kudasai", meaning literally, "The corner that is next (Tsugi no kado) (do) stop (do this) for me please."

Another way to illustrate how "de" indicates where an action is taking place, is by comparing the sentences "I live in Tokyo" and "I work in Tokyo." Although much the same in English, there is a subtle difference in Japanese. Because Tokyo is the place I live in, I would use the particle "ni" - "Toukyou ni sunde imasu", but because the action of my working takes place in Tokyo, I would say "Toukyou de sousaite imasu."

Similarly, in the sentence, "Shinkansen de Ousaka e ikimashita." (I went by Bullet Train to Osaka" the action of my going to Osaka was performed by the Bullet Train. If I was going to use the Bullet Train at some point in future to go to Osaka, then I would say "Shinkansen de Ousaka ni ikimasu. (I am going by Bullet Train to Osaka).

"De" also qualifies an amount or a period of time, indicating that the amount or period indicated should be the maximum required. So, "Zenbu de senjuu-en desu," means "Together they cost thirty yen" and "Ichi-jikan de ikemasu" means 'I can be there in one hour."

"De" is used to quantify things which are the largest, biggest, most, etc., so "Tokyo is the largest city in the world," becomes "Toukyou-shi wa sekai de ichiban ookii desu. (Tokyo-city (in) the world most large it is.)"

Ka (か)

The function of "ka" is to indicate that a question is being asked, or that alternatives are being offered. To convert a sentence into a question, "ka" is simply added to the end to the sentence - nothing else changes.

So, "Kare wa amerikan desu" means "He is American.” while "Kare wa amerikan desu ka" means "Is he American?"

"Ka" is added after various alternatives in a sentence, indicating that a choice needs to be made, and serves the function of the English "or.” Thus, "Kore ka, sore ka, dotchika erande yo," means "This or that, choose one of them now."

Adding a "ka" after interrogative words changes their specific meanings to indefinite meanings. Therefore, if "doko" means "where,” then "doko ka" is the more vague "somewhere.” The difference between the two is the same as asking "Where did you go yesterday?" (Kinou doko ni ikimashita ka) and "Did you go somewhere yesterday?" (Kinou doko ka ni ikimashita ka).

Other examples are:

• dare (who) becomes dare ka (somebody)
• nani (what) becomes nani ka (something)
• doko (where) becomes doko ka (somewhere)
• itu (when) becomes itu ka (sometimes)

In informal conversation, "ka" is sometimes expanded to "kana" (かな), which can be translated as "I wonder," or "I guess." If you were wondering who somebody is, but were not quite sure, you could ask, "Ano hito wa dare kana." (That person who I wonder). Drawing out the "na", indicates less certainty in what you are speculating about. "Kashira" (かしら) means the same as "kana", but is only used by women.

To (と) & Ya (や)

"To" (pronounced "toh" rather than "toe") is the connecting particle, much like the English "and", although it only connects nouns and pronouns, never phrases and clauses. For example, "Cats and dogs" would be "neko to inu" - although because Japanese always ranks nouns from large to small, it would be more corect to say, "Inu to neko."

It also connects the speaker with somebody else that they did something with, much like the English "together with". "I went to watch a film together with her" would translate as "kinou kanojo to eiga o mi ni ikimashita. (Yesterday she (and I) film (to) see went)"

"To" is commonly used to connect something that is quoted or thought by yourself or someone else, with the verb (usually "iu" (say), "omou" (think), or "kangaeru" (consider)) that follows, or if what follows a verb or an adjective is a condition. Here it adopts the English use of "as soon as", "when", or "if". Examples are:

• "Kare wa ikitaku nai to iimashita." - He said he did not want to go (he not want go said)
• "Ano mise ni iku to oishii sushi ga taberareru." - If you go to that restaurant, you can eat delicious sushi (that restaurant go to (if) delicious sushi eat)

Finally, "to" indicates where an onomatopoeic adverb has been used. Japanese has the quaint mannerism of not just telling you the stars were twinkling, or her heart was beating, but will add in "kare-kare" (for twinkle) or "doki-doki" (for heartbeat) as well as the verb. These are usually written in katakana. For example, "me ga pika-pika to kirameita", means "(Her) eyes were "sparkle-sparkle" (and) sparkling."

"Ya" is much the same as "to" in that it is used to link one or more nouns, except that it is much more vague and it implies that the list is incomplete, or may contain surplus items. It is much the same as saying "Etcetera, etcetera" in English.

In this case, "Kutsu ya shatsu o kau", translates as "Buy (things like) shoes, shirt, etc."

Soshite (そして) & Sorekara (それから)

While "to" and "ya" only connect nouns and pronouns, "soshite" (pronounced "soh-sh'the") and "sorekara" (pronounced "soh-reh-kah-rah") are used to connect sentences to each other. The former is used as per the English "and," "thus," or "now" and the latter for when something happens after, or as a result of, something else, as in "and then" or "afterwards".

For example, "Watashi wa sakana o tabemasu. Soshite ocha o nomimasu," means "I eat fish and I drink green tea." Similarly, "Watashi wa asa gohan o tabemasu. Sorekara gakkou ni ikimasu," means "I eat breakfast, and then (I) go to school." (Another little language insght here. "Gohan" actually means "cooked rice", but because that is a staple of virtually all Japanese meals, it has become synonymous with the word "meal." "Asa" means "morning, so "asa gohan" is the "morning meal", or "breakfast.")

Ne (ね)

"Ne" is a sentence ending (and one phrase ending) participle.

"Ne" (pronounced "neh", not "knee") is used to confirm a statement, or to invite agreement from the listener. Its use is something akin to the English "Hey?," "Right?" or "Don't you think so?” If you wanted to ask "You will be ok, hey?, you would say "Daijoubu, ne." However, you are affirming to the person that they will be ok, not asking if they are ok. In the latter case, you would ask "Daijoubu desu ka?"

It also appears in the common phrase "Sou desu ne" which translates as "Well..." or "Hmmm..." and often starts a direct reply, but is used to soften the reply, or to indicate that you are thinking about what was said. "Sou desu ne kare no kutu wa ookii desu ne." means "Hmmm... his shoes are big, aren't they?"

The "ne" at the end of a sentence can also be stretched, "nee", to indicate surprise or astonishment. If something really amazes you, you could say "Sugoi nee!"

In slang use, a sentence can sometimes start with "ne," as in "Ne ima nanji ka," or "Hey, what time is it?" but its more correct use would be just "ima nanji ka."

Yo (よ)

"Yo" is another participle whose function is to end a sentence, but whilst "ne" seeks confirmation of what was said, "yo" adds emphasis to what preceded it. It is essentially a spoken, or written, exclamation point.

If I was leaving somewhere to go home, I would simply say, 'I am going home," or, "Watashi wa kaeru." But if I was not having a good time where I was and had finally had enough, I would likely say, "Watashi wa kaeru yo", which means "I am going home!" The difference, when written, lies in the exclamation point.

Mo (も)

"Mo" replaces the topic-indicating particle "wa,” and indicates that what precedes it is in addition to other things or people, much like the English "also" or "too.” The simplest example is comparing "Watashi wa" (Me) to "Watashi mo" (Me too) - the use of "mo" automatically indicates that "watashi" is now part of a larger group.

It is also added to interrogative words, expanding their meaning to encompass something greater. Thus:

• dare (who) becomes dare mo (everybody; or nobody, if used before a negative)
• nani (what) becomes nani mo (everything; or nothing, if used before a negative)
• doko (where) becomes doko mo (everywhere, or nowhere, if used before a negative)
• itu (when) becomes itu mo (always, or never, if used before a negative)

One thing to be careful of is remembering that "mo" always implies one more item than what is being spoken about. Thus you can say, "Kanojo wa Eigo mo dekimasu." (She also speaks English) because by implication the "also" means that you know she already speaks one other language. Doubling up the "mo" to say "Kanojo wa Nihongo mo Eigo mo dekimasu," does not mean, "She speaks Japanese and English,” but rather "She also speaks Japanese and also speaks English..." as well as one other unmentioned language.

"Kanojo wa Nihongo to Eigo dekimasu," would say, "She speaks Japanese and English."

Kara & Made (から & まで)

"Kara" and "Made" (pronounced "mah-deh", not "made") serve a similar function in that they indicate there is a limit to the action that is taking place.

However, "kara's" function is to offset a word or phrase that indicates a minimum limit in terms of time or space. "Made" on the other hand, offsets a word or phrase that indicates a limit up to, and including, when, or where, an action occurs. When used together, they approximate the English "from - to.”

To use an example, "Kyou no kaigi wa ichi-ji kara san-ji made desu." or "Today's meeting is (from) one o'clock (to) three o'clock" (literally: today of meeting (as for) one o'clock (from) three o'clock (to) it is). Likewise, if I were to say, "I travelled from Tokyo to Osaka by car," I would say, "Watashi wa Toukyou kara Ousaka made kuruma de ikimashita."

Combining "made" with "ni" sets an upper limit to a condition, thus in the following examples:

• "San-ji ni denwa shite kudasai," means "Please telephone (me) at three o'clock," but
• "San-ji made ni denwa shite kudasai," means "Please telephone (me) by (or before) three o'clock"
• "San-ji made denwa shite kudasai," means "Please telephone (me) until three o'clock" (That is why made ni is used, this is incorrect and could result in a very long phone call.)
• "San-ji kara denwa shite kudasai," means "Please telephone (me) from three o'clock".

Another way to explain the differences is using the following sentences:

• Ano mise wa hachi-ji kara aite imasu.
• Ano mise wa hachi-ji made aite imasu.

Both refer to the opening time (aite) of that shop (ano mise), but saying "kara" means, "That shop is open from eight o'clock," but using "made" means, "That shop is open until eight o'clock."

Dake (だけ)

Similar to "kara" and "made,” "dake" (pronounced "dah-keh"), indicates that what precedes it, is a precise or absolute limit. Depending on the context in which it is used, it approximates the English "just" (if the extent of the limit is not known), or "only" (if extent of the limit is small), or "enough" (if extent of the limit is large).

If you are in a convenience store and you only want three red apples, you would ask, "Akai ringo dake mittsu kudasai (red apple (only) three (do for me) please)". Likewise, if you are in a queue, and are told, "Ichi-jikan dake matte kudasai,” you are being asked to wait "just" one hour. Compare this to "hodo" (see below) - "Ichi-jikan hodo matte kudasai," means "Please wait "for up to" one hour."

In the first example above, you might have noticed the use of "mittsu" for "three", instead of "san", as in "ichi-ni-san" or "one-two-three." This is a tricky part of the language, because Japanese uses different words for numbers alone and numbers that "count" things. This is a topic for another day, but you might want to look at counting in Japanese and native Japanese numbers at some point to familiarise yourself. Suffice to say, for now, that although there are three apples, they are also three objects, so I use the "counter" word for three objects, which is "mittsu."

"Dake" is also used following the verb "dekiru" (which means "can you...") and is followed by an adverb, to add in the English equivalent of "as you can.” Thus, "Dekiru dake hayaku denwa shite kudasai." (Can you quickly telephone do for me please) means, "Please phone as soon as you can."

Similarly, it can be placed after the potential form of the verbs "~ru" (る), "~reru" (れる), and "~rareru" (られる), to indicate a maximum degree of something, which can not be passed. The English equivalent would be "as much as..." An example would be, "Atashi wa arukeru dake arukimashita desu (As for I to walk (as much as) did walk it is)," or, "I really walked as much as I could."

Bakari (ばかり)

"Bakari" is similar to "dake" in that it indicates something is limited, but that "something" is limited to one action, thing, or place, especially . It is like the English "...always just doing..." or "...all the time". For example, "Sono koneko wa itsumo nemutte bakari imasu (as for that kitten (lit. child-cat) usually to sleep (all the time) continually)" or 'That kitten sleeps all the time." This meaning applies to verbs that end in the present-tense "~te" form.

If the verb ends in the past-tense "~ta" form, then the meaning changes to "already have", as in "Watashi wa tabeta bakari da." (I already ate), compared to "Watashi wa tabete bakari iru" (I am always eating.)

It also indicates that what precedes it, could result in only one course of action. So if somebody receives bad news and can only panic because of that news, I would say, "Sono nyuusu o kiite kare wa tada oroorosuru bakari deshita. (That news (to hear) (as for) him only to panic (all the time) it happens )." (Also, notice how the use of "wa" indicates that the "news that he heard" is the topic of the sentence.)

"Bakari" is also used in conjunction with a number, to indicate a degree of things. It implies that you are not quite sure of the amount, or figure, like the English "approximately" or "about." If I am going to be away, but I only know it will be for about 10 days, I could say, "Atashi wa tooka bakari rusu ni shimasu." ("tooka" is a Japanese word that specifically means "ten days").

Similarly, it can be used to indicate that something is about to happen. "Ame ga furidasan bakari no sora moyoo da (Rain (will) rainfall about from sky show signs of will) means, " The sky looks like it is about to rain."

Shika (しか)

"Shika" (pronounced "sh'ka" - the "i" is devoiced) serves a very similar function to that of "dake", but is always followed by a negative verb. Whereas "dake" indicates a precise limit, "shika" indicates that what precedes it is the maximum limit; there can be no more. It approximates the English "only", "mo more than..." or "nothing but..."

To compare the two, consider these sentences:

• "sen-en dake motte imasu", and
• "sen-en shika motte imasen"

The first translates as "I only have 1,000 yen", whereas the second, with the negative verb "imasen" means "I have no more than 1,000 yen." You might say the first, if somebody wants to borrow 1,500 yen from you, and the second if you are haggling with a stall owner, in an effort to have the price reduced.

"Shika" is also used to indicate that what precedes it is small, insufficient, or unsatisfactory. Thus, if I was unhappy that somebody only knew 200 kanji symbols, I would say, "Kare wa kanji ga ni-hyaku shika shirimasen." (As for him, kanji two hundred (no more than) knows.).

If "shika" is used after a verb, then it indicates that the action indicated by the verb is the only course of action. This example, "Sen-en shika motte inai kara kanojo ni kariru shika arimasen," combines the two uses into one sentence. First, we have "Sen-en shika motte inai" meaning "I do not have more than 1,000 yen", then second half, with the verb "kariru" (in italics) tells me I have "to borrow", from "kanojo" (her) and the "shika" tells me I have no alternative. So, the sentence means, "As (I) have no more than 1,000 yen, there is nothing (I can do, but) borrow (from) her."

Yori (より)

"Yori" indicates a comparison between two nouns or pronouns.

To state a fact, such as "Tokyo is larger than Osaka,” one would say "Toukyou wa Ousaka yori eki desu." (Tokyo Osaka (is) larger(er)(than) it is.)

The catch comes when you are using a comparison to correct somebody. If for example, somebody thought Osaka was larger than Tokyo, you would change the emphasis of the comparison, as well as add the phrase "no hou ga" and say, "Ousaka yori Toukyou no hou ga eki desu." The English translation is the same, but the nuance is that you are correcting somebody's incorrect statement.

Datte (だった)

"Datte" (pronounced "dat-the") can be used to indicate that a special condition is part of the topic, even though it appears to state the opposite. It is like saying "Even (condition) does..." in English. For example, "Natsu datte hadazamui hi mo aru (Summer (even) chilly day (many) some)" means "Even in summer, there are some chilly days."

It is also used to list various items, if they ultimately have the same meaning, or impact, much like the English, "If (x), or (y)... doesn't matter/is the same". So, if I do not mind which day we go shopping, I could say, "Ashita datte asatte datte kamaimasen yo (tomorrow (or) day after tomorrow (or) it doesn't matter (really)." or, "It doesn't matter if it's tomorrow, or the day after!" The fact that the sentence ends in "yo" means I really do not mind and the choice is yours to make.

If it added after an interrogative pronoun, it indicates that what is in the clause that follows is valid. Conversely, if it is in a negative sentence, then nothing that is specified should be (or wants to be) part of the group. Thus:

• Itu (when), becomes itu datte (anytime, or never in the negative)
• Doko (where) becomes doko datte (anywhere, or nowhere in the negative)
• Dare (who) becomes dare datte (anybody, or nobody in the negative)
• Nani (what) becomes nani datte (anything, or nothing in the negative)

To use an example:

• "Itsu datte miraremasu yo," means "You can see it anytime!", but
• "Dare datte binboo wa iya da" means "Nobody likes to be poor," or literally "Everybody poor (or poverty) does not like."

It can also be added to the end of something I am quoting, to express surprise, or disapproval, at what was said. It is like the English, "Oh really?" or "Can you believe it?". To use an example, "Boku wa okane nanka karite imasen yo datte. Wasureta no ka (As for him, money (something like that) (to borrow) never did really (can you believe). Forget did (he)?" or "He said he never borrowed money (from me), can you believe it?! Did he forget?" (The "?!" is to approximate the yo datte which indicates that I really disapprove of what he said.)