View source for Gaius Julius Caesar

{| style="float:right; width:260px; margin:0 0 1em 1em; border:1px solid #aaa; background:#f9f9f9; padding:4px;"
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! colspan="2" style="text-align:center; font-size:120%; padding:6px;" | Gaius Julius Caesar
|-
| colspan="2" style="text-align:center; padding:6px;" | [[File:Julius Caesar - Bust - 96ppi PD.jpg|220px]]
|-
! Born
| 12/13 July 100 BC, [[Rome]]
|-
! Died
| 15 March 44 BC, [[Rome]]
|-
! Occupation
| Statesman, general, author
|-
! Early Public Offices
| [[Flamen Dialis]] (High Priest of Jupiter)  
[[Military Tribune]]  
[[Quaestor]] (69 BC)
|-
! Mid‑Career Offices
| [[Aedile]] (65 BC)  
[[Pontifex Maximus]] (63–44 BC)  
[[Praetor]] (62 BC)  
[[Governor of Hispania Ulterior]] (61 BC)
|-
! Senior Offices
| [[Consul]] (59 BC)  
[[Proconsul of Gaul]] (58–50 BC)  
[[Dictator]] (49–44 BC)  
[[Consul]] (48 BC, 46 BC, 45 BC, 44 BC)
|-
! Spouse(s)
| [[Cornelia]]  
[[Pompeia]]  
[[Calpurnia]]
|-
! Children
| [[Julia]]

|}
''For the famous play by [[Shakespeare]], see [[Julius Caesar (play)]]''.

''For Gaius Julius Caesar's father, see [[Gaius Julius Caesar (the Elder)]]


'''Gaius Julius Caesar''' (July 12/13, 100 B.C - March 15, 44 B.C) He was a [[Roman]] military & political leader and one of the most influential people in [[history]]. A brilliant general, he laid the groundwork for the future [[Roman Empire]]. 

= Birth and Early Life (100-86 BC)=
Gaius Julius Caesar was born on 12/13 July 100 BC in [[Rome]] into the ancient Julian clan, a patrician family with excellent connections and modestly claiming decent from [[Aeneas]] & [[Aphrodite]] (Roman [[Venus]]). Yet the family was apparently not wealthy in his generation.  Not withstanding, this lead his early life to be shaped by a childhood amoungste the [[plebian]]s in [[Subura]], being a lower-class neighborhood of [[Rome]].  This upbringing clearly shaped much of his later political focus to draw the power of the [[Plebian|plebs]].

His father, also [[Gaius Julius Caesar (the Elder)|Gaius Julius Caesar]] earned his coin as a [[Praetor]] (in the legal sense, being the equivalent of a US Supreme Court Justice / Judge).  This necessitates that he was also a [[Senator]] as per the [[Cursus Honorum|''cursus honorum'']] which could be exceedingly expensive to climb.  In his later years was also destinguised in having also served as Govenor of Asia (western and all of central modern day Turkey), which was one of Rome's wealthiest provinces.  But there as in life he was known for being of mild manner, avoided violent factionalisms and evidently did not practice the extortions so common amongst his peers as a means to obtain wealth through position.  After which he returned home and '''died suddenly in 85 BC leaving young Julius Caesar head of the household at about 15''' and without an income stream.

Finances at home clearly were not good manifest in young Julius Caesar's '''two older sisters''' known as [[Julia Major]] and [[Julia Minor]].  While aristorcratic first marriages were common from 12 to 15, 16-20 was also frequent where political manipulation was present or simply parental choice.  It is unknown if the girls were already married when their father died, but if their younger brother was about 15 it can be assumed that under such financial stressors that Julius' sisters would have married immediately after if they already hadn't.  A clue does exist that [[Julia Minor]]'s marriage was immediate in that her daughter [[Atia Balba Caesonia|Atia]] is understood to have been born 85-80 BC necessitating an immediate marriage after their father's death if it hadn't already happened.

While both Julius' sisters married Senators, [[Julia Minor|Julia minor's]] husband was not a [[Patrician]], but a [[Plebian]] who had enough money to complete the [[Cursus Honorum|''cursus honorum'']] to become a [[senator]] creating the age old need for new money to marry into an eliet family to obtain status; and young Julius' family clearly needed the dowry.  Yet [[Julia Minor]] happily became the grandmother of [[Gaius Octavius Thurinus]], later crowned [[Gaius Julius Caesar Augustus]].

Meanwhile, Julius Caesar's mother, [[Aurelia Cottae]], came from the influential Aurelii Cottae family, a respected and politically active branch of the Roman aristocracy.  She was so well known that even [[Cicero]] spoke well of her.  A family observer would say that Julius obtained his political abilities from his mother and his calm calculation from his father.  So Aurelia played a decisive role in Caesar's upbringing, political connections and then later protected Caesar during the political turmoil of the Marian–Sullan conflict.

It must also be noted that in the year prior to Julius' father's death, his uncle by marriage also died while in his 7th term as [[Consul]] in the year {{nowrap|'''86 BC.'''}}  But after two decades in and out of the office, support for the family was still strong giving context to the ''Marian''-Sulan conflict.  Julius' family connection was:

<center>
'''Julius Caesar →(father was)→ Gaius Julius Caesar the Elder →(sibling was)→ Julia →(husband was)→ [[Gaius Marius]]'''

and Gaius Marius' political ally and counterpart was [[Lucius Cornelius Cinna]], {{nowrap|[[Consul]] in: 87, 86, 85, 84 BC.}}
</center>

Therefore, it should surprise none then, that young Julius Caesar now charged with the upkeep of the household married shortly after to the [[Cornelia]] daughter of the then presiding four time [[Consul]]  [[Lucius Cornelius Cinna]] and received his prestigious first public office at 16 years old as the [[Flamen|High Priest of Jupiter]].


=Career=
==Flamen Dialis (86-82 BC)==
[[Image:Flamines - frieze of the Ara Pacis - Galerus with Apex.png|250px|thumb|right|Flamen in traditional garb of the 1st century BC, complete with the tuffed apex.]]
In '''86 BC''', at the age of just sixteen, Julius Caesar was appointed [[Flamen|Flamen Dialis]], the '''High Priest of Jupiter'''. This was one of the most ancient and prestigious priesthoods in Rome, traditionally reserved for patricians of impeccable lineage.  It must also be noted that the [[Cult of Jupiter]] was the largest in the city. The appointment was arranged by the Marian leadership—notably his now father‑in‑law [[Lucius Cornelius Cinna]] loyalty to his recently deceased uncle [[Gaius Marius|Marius]] and then ratified by the Marian‑controlled government during the civil conflict with [[Lucius Cornelius Sulla Felix Epaphroditus|Sulla]]. Caesar’s selection at such a young age demonstrates both his family’s prominence and the political calculation of the ruling faction.

The office of [[Flamen|Flamen Dialis]] was highly restrictive. The priest was bound by numerous religious rules: he could not spend a night outside Rome, could not touch a horse, could not see an army, could not swear an oath, and could not be absent from certain rituals. These limitations made the priesthood incompatible with military or political ambition. If Caesar had remained [[Flamen Dialis]], he could never have pursued the career that later defined him.

When [[Lucius Cornelius Sulla Felix Epaphroditus|Sulla]] seized power in '''82 BC''', he targeted Marian appointees and stripped Caesar of the priesthood. Sulla also ordered Caesar to divorce Cornelia, the daughter of [[Lucius Cornelius Cinna]], in an effort to sever Caesar’s ties to the Marian faction and potentially force a politically acceptable bride upon him. Caesar’s refusal placed him in grave danger, but the loss of the priesthood ultimately freed him from its restrictive obligations and allowed him to begin the ''[[Cursus Honorum|cursus honorum]]''—the sequence of magistracies that formed the backbone of a Roman political career. Thus, the termination of his priesthood became the unexpected turning point that enabled his future rise.

Although Caesar never again held the [[Flamen Dialis]] position, his early appointment reveals the political alliances of his youth and the confidence placed in him by the Marian leadership. It also marks the beginning of his public life, occurring long before his later and more famous priesthood as '''Pontifex Maximus'''

==Flight and Survival (82–80 BC)==
After refusing to divorce Cornelia at the demand of [[Lucius Cornelius Sulla Felix Epaphroditus|Sulla]], Caesar was proscribed as a supporter of the Marian faction. He narrowly escaped execution, fled Rome, and spent the immediate years in hiding and flight. During this dangerous interval he found refuge among sympathetic nobles and communities in the Sabine country and elsewhere, relying on the intercession of influential figures to spare his life. This period of exile was not idle: it tested Caesar’s resolve, exposed him to the lethal stakes of Roman factional politics, and forced him to adopt a cautious, resourceful posture that would shape his later career.

When Sulla’s severity eased, Caesar left hiding and attached himself to provincial commands to gain experience and rebuild his fortunes. He served on the staff of Marcus Minucius Thermus in Asia, where he took part in operations such as the siege of Mytilene and earned early military distinction. These years of service were formative: Caesar acted as a junior officer and staff aide rather than a common legionary, acquiring practical knowledge of Roman military organisation, provincial administration, and the patronage networks of senior commanders.

==Tribunate and Early Military Service (79–72 BC)==
Following his staff service in Asia, Caesar continued to serve in the field under commanders such as [[Publius Servilius Vatia]] in [[Cilicia]], participating in campaigns against pirates and local insurgents. In '''75 BC''' he was famously kidnapped by Cilician pirates while travelling to [[Rhodes]]; after his ransom was paid he raised a small force, captured the pirates, and had them executed, an episode that enhanced his reputation for audacity and decisive action.

These experiences culminated in Caesar’s formal entry into the ''[[Cursus Honorum|cursus honorum]]''. In '''72 BC''' he was elected '''tribunus militum''', the first elected step on the Roman political ladder. As military tribune he commanded portions of a legion, supervised training and discipline, and performed staff duties for senior officers. The tribunate consolidated the practical command skills, provincial contacts, and public reputation he had developed during the preceding decade, preparing him for his later magistracies and provincial governorships.

==Between Tribunate and Quaestorship (72–69 BC)==
After completing his active provincial service and the famous episode with the Cilician pirates, Caesar returned to [[Rome]] to rebuild his public standing following the turmoil of the Sullan proscriptions. He devoted himself to legal advocacy and rhetorical training—traditionally studying under [[Apollonius Molon of Rhodes]]—and used the courts and public speaking to restore his family’s reputation and fortunes.

During these years Caesar cultivated important patronage ties with leading populares and provincial elites, converting the military and personal prestige he had earned into political capital. The pirate incident in particular enhanced his popular image for audacity and decisive action, which proved useful in the electoral contests that followed. By 69 BC Caesar had completed this period of rehabilitation and networking and successfully stood for election as '''Quaestor''', formally entering the higher ranks of the ''[[Cursus Honorum|cursus honorum]]''.

==Quaestor (69-65 BC)==
In '''69 BC''' Julius Caesar was elected [[Quaestor]], the first rung of the Roman [[Cursus Honorum|cursus honorum]] and the office that formally entered him into the Senate. The Quaestorship was primarily a financial and administrative role, responsible for managing public funds, supporting provincial governors, and overseeing the logistics of taxation and expenditure. It is roughly comparable to a modern-day '''Deputy Minister for Finance and Administration'''.

Caesar was assigned to [[Hispania Ulterior]], where he demonstrated both competence and ambition. His financial administration was efficient, and he gained early notice for resolving local disputes and supporting the governor’s judicial and military responsibilities. During this period he encountered a statue of [[Alexander the Great]], famously lamenting that he had achieved so little by comparison at the same age — a moment often cited as revealing Caesar’s intense personal drive.

The [[Quaestor]]ship also conferred lifetime membership in the [[Roman Senate|Senate]], giving Caesar his first formal platform in Roman national politics. Although the office was junior, it marked the beginning of his public career and provided the administrative experience, provincial exposure, and senatorial standing necessary for his later rise through the higher magistracies.

==Aedile (65-62 BC)==
[[Image: Colosseum, Rome, Italy - Blue Night Sky - 1280px PD.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Ancient Rome's paramount public entertainment facility, the [[Colosseum]].]]

In '''65 BC''' Julius Caesar was elected [[Aedile]], marking is progression to the second rung of the [[Cursus Honorum|''cursus honorum'']] in his active career progression.  This position might be called the '''Minister for Public Entertainment, Festivals & Civic Culture''', or perhaps the '''Minister for Public Wellbeing'''. It was an office responsible for public games, festivals, buildings, and market regulation.

Although the position was technically junior, Julius Caesar deliberately used it to dramatically increase his public reputation. He staged lavish public entertainments, restored public buildings, and displayed the trophies of his uncle [[Gaius Marius]], a symbolic gesture that appealed to the populares and irritated the conservative faction. These expenditures were enormous, but they were not reckless; the Aedileship was traditionally a role in which ambitious men invested heavily to cultivate public favour and strengthen their ‘brand’ for higher office. Caesar’s spending therefore reflected strategic political calculation rather than financial mismanagement, and it significantly increased his popularity among ordinary Romans.

As Aedile, Caesar also oversaw market regulation and urban maintenance, enforcing standards of trade and ensuring the supply of grain and other essentials — the part of the office that most resembles a '''Minister for Public Wellbeing'''. His strict attention to food prices and grain availability won him exceptional support among ordinary Romans, who had long endured price manipulation, neglect, and creeping costs under previous Aediles. By restoring fairness in the markets and ensuring stable access to basic commodities, Caesar addressed the issue common citizens cared about most: the daily cost of living. His energetic administration therefore demonstrated both generosity and competence, transforming the Aedileship from a routine magistracy into a powerful platform for political advancement and preparing the ground for his later rise.

==Pontifex Maximus (Pope)==
[[Image:Gaius Julius Caesar Augustus - Dressed as the Pontifex Maximus - National Roman Museum, Italy - 960x1455px.jpg|150px|thumb|right|[[Augustus Caesar]] dressed in the garb of the Pontifex Maximus.]]
In '''63 BC''' Julius Caesar was elected [[Pontifex Maximus]] for which he risked the entire family fortune to obtain through the purchase of votes to the highest priestly office in the Roman Republic.<ref>Suetonius, ''Divus Julius'', 13</ref>  In modern terms he became the lifelong and more powerful version of we might call the cabinet '''Minister for Religion'''.  His desire for the role was so great that Julius accrued debts therebuy bigger than he could repay; therefore he famously told his mother that morning as he left the house for the Forum:

<center>
''“Mother, today you will see your son either as Pontifex Maximus… or as an exile.”''<ref>Suetonius, ''Divus Julius'', 13</ref>
</center>

Caesar’s earlier service as [[Flamen Dialis]], the High Priest of Jupiter, also strengthened his candidacy. Although the position had once restricted his political activity, it remained one of the most venerable priesthoods in Rome and gave him recognised religious standing. This background, combined with his bold campaigning, made his election as Pontifex Maximus credible despite his youth. 

Holding the office also gave Caesar substantial political leverage. The [[Pontifex Maximus]] controlled Rome’s religious calendar, including the insertion of intercalary months, which determined the legal length of a magistrate’s term and the timing of elections. By adjusting or regularizing the calendar, the chief priest could influence political momentum, extend the tenure of allies, or shorten that of opponents. The office also oversaw the interpretation of omens and auspices, which carried legal weight in the Senate and assemblies; a favourable omen could validate public action, while an unfavourable one could halt legislation, delay elections, or prevent a military departure.

In addition, the [[Pontifex Maximus]] supervised all priestly colleges, giving Caesar indirect influence over elite religious bodies whose members were drawn from Rome’s most powerful families. Control over sacred law and ritual precedent allowed him to shape public religious life in ways that supported his political agenda. Although technically a religious office, the Pontifex Maximus possessed tools that could subtly but effectively steer civic affairs, '''making it one of the most politically consequential positions in the Republic'''.

The [[Pontifex Maximus]] was traditionally regarded as the religious ‘Father’ of Rome, addressed as ''“Father of the Priests”''' (Latin: Pater Patrum), and held lifetime authority over sacred law, the religious calendar, augury, and all priestly colleges. This role was paternal, sacral, and permanent — ''a religious fatherhood that long pre‑dated Christianity'' and is the ancient analogue of the later title "Holy Father" / ‘Pope’ (Latin/Spanish/German/Dutch: Papa).

As [[Pontifex Maximus]], Julius Caesar exercised his religious authority actively and politically. He reorganized the calendar, corrected long‑standing abuses in the priestly colleges, and used the office’s prestige to strengthen his public standing in Rome. The position gave him control over sacred law, festival timing, and the interpretation of omens — all of which carried significant influence in Roman public life. Although the office had traditionally been non‑executive, Caesar’s assertive use of its powers elevated the Pontifex Maximus from a primarily ceremonial priesthood into a central instrument of statecraft. His tenure marks the moment when Rome’s chief priest became a visible participant in governance, setting the stage for later developments in his career and in the constitutional evolution of Rome.

==Praetor (62-59 BC)==
In '''62 BC''' Julius Caesar was elected [[Praetor]], the senior judicial magistracy of the Roman Republic and the final step of the [[Cursus Honorum|cursus honorum]] before the [[Consul]]ship. The Praetorship carried ''imperium'', granting both judicial authority in Rome and military command when assigned to a province. In modern terms, the Praetor functioned as a combination of a '''Chief Justice''' / '''Supreme Court Judge''' and a '''Deputy Executive Governor'''.

As [[Praetor]], Caesar presided over Rome’s civil courts, issued legal rulings, and administered the complex body of Roman law. His term was marked by efficiency, fairness, and political tact, strengthening his reputation as a capable administrator. The office also allowed him to publish a praetorian edict—an annual legal proclamation that shaped judicial procedure—further expanding his influence in Roman legal affairs.

Caesar’s Praetorship was followed by his assignment as governor of [[Hispania Ulterior]], where he exercised military command, resolved provincial disputes, and restored financial order. His successes in [[Hispania]] earned him both military prestige and the political capital necessary to seek the [[Consul]]ship. The [[Praetor]]ship therefore marked Caesar’s transition from a rising politician to a leader with independent authority, preparing him for the decisive steps that would define his later career.

==Formation of the First Triumvirate (60 BC)==
After completing his [[Praetor]]ship and proving his administrative and military competence in [[Hispania Ulterior]], Caesar returned to [[Rome]] with both prestige and urgent political needs. His successes in [[Spain]] had earned him the right to celebrate a triumph, yet doing so would have barred him from standing for the [[Consul]]ship<ref>A general seeking a [[Triumphal Entry|triumph]] must remain outside the ''pomerium'' (the sacred boundary of Rome).<br>A candidate for consul must be inside the pomerium in person.<br>These two requirements are mutually exclusive.</ref> in 59 BC. Caesar chose the Consulship, signalling his intention to pursue the highest offices of the Republic and to reshape Roman politics through strategic alliances.

It is well noted that [[Rome]] in '''60 BC''' was paralysed by factional deadlock and unable to perform even basic functions. The Senate’s conservative bloc resisted reforms, while populares leaders lacked the coordinated strength to overcome entrenched opposition. Caesar recognised that no single statesman could break this stalemate alone. He therefore brokered a private political compact with the two most powerful men in Rome: [[Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus|Pompey the Great]], the celebrated general, and [[Marcus Licinius Crassus|Crassus]], the Republic’s wealthiest citizen. This behind-closed-doors alliance, later known as the [[First Triumvirate]] which was a personal agreement to combine influence, resources, and electoral power.

To ratify this treaty of the [[First Triumvirate]], Julius Caesar married his daughter [[Julia (daughter of Julius Caesar)|Julia]] to [[Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus|Pompey the Great]] in '''59 BC'''.  Although arranged for political purposes, the union quickly became apparently genuine and affectionate.  Thus Julia’s influence keep Pompey well‑disposed toward Caesar. Plutarch records that her presence preserved goodwill between the two men.<ref>[[Plutarch]], ''Life of Pompey'' 53.6<br>''“she kept Pompey gentle and friendly towards Caesar.”''</ref>  Modern historians often describe Julia as the personal bond or glue that held the Triumvirate together, for her character softened political tensions and ensured mutual trust while she lived.

Each member gained what he most needed. [[Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus|Pompey]] sought land grants for his veterans and ratification of his eastern settlements; [[Marcus Licinius Crassus|Crassus]] desired favourable tax reforms for the ''equestrian publicani''; and Caesar required support to secure the [[Consul]]ship and a strong provincial command. '''Their cooperation dominated the elections of 59 BC''', enabling Caesar to win the Consulship and immediately advance the legislative aims of his partners. 

The formation of the [[First Triumvirate]] marked a decisive turning point in Caesar’s career:
* It transformed him from a rising statesman into one of the three most powerful figures in the Republic
* It provided the political foundation for his later command in Gaul, and
* It initiated the sequence of events that would ultimately lead to [[Caesar's Civil War]] and the end of the [[Roman Republic]].

==Consulship (59 BC)==
In '''59 BC''' Julius Caesar entered the Consulship with the full backing of the [[First Triumvirate]], enabling him to overcome the senatorial deadlock that had paralysed [[Rome]] in the preceding years. Although the office was traditionally [[collegiate]], Caesar’s counterpart and co-consul [[Marcus Calpurnius Bibulus]] aligned himself with the conservative faction and attempted to obstruct Caesar’s legislative agenda. The year quickly became defined by political confrontation, with Caesar relying on popular support and the influence of [[Pompey]] and [[Crassus]] to advance his measures.

===Caesar’s Agrarian Law (''lex agraria'')===
Caesar’s first major act as consul was the lex agraria, a land‑distribution law granting property to [[Pompey|Pompey’s]] veterans and to impoverished citizens of Rome. The [[Senate]] fiercely resisted, but Caesar bypassed their obstruction and brought the proposal before the popular assembly, where it passed with overwhelming support.

[[Marcus Calpurnius Bibulus]] attempted to halt the proceedings by declaring obnuntiatio (unfavourable omens), an act made all the more ironic because Caesar, as [[Pontifex Maximus]], was the highest religious authority in [[Rome]] and legally responsible for interpreting such signs.<ref>Plutarch, ''Caesar'', 14</ref> The crowd, enraged at [[Marcus Calpurnius Bibulus|Bibulus’]] obstruction of this extremely popular measure, nearly slew him, broke his [[Faces|fasces]], and drove him from the [[Forum]]. Fearing for his life, [[Marcus Calpurnius Bibulus|Bibulus]] withdrew from public activity for the remainder of the year and issued edicts from his house. His absence led Romans to joke triumphantly that the year was “the consulship of ''Julius'' and ''Caesar'',”<ref>Suetonius, ''Divus Julius'', 20.2</ref><ref>Dio, 38.6</ref> reflecting Caesar’s effective sole control of the magistracy of the [[consul]]ship.

Caesar’s methods during his [[consul]]ship alarmed many [[senator]]s and earned him lasting hostility within the [[Aristocratocracy|aristocracy]]. [[Plutarch]] and [[Suetonius]] record that Caesar relied on organised street supporters to force his measures through the [[Forum]], and violence broke out whenever opponents attempted to obstruct him. [[Cassius Dio]] is even more explicit, stating that Caesar’s faction “surrounded the houses” of senators and threatened them with violence if they did not support the desired legislative outcomes.<ref>[[Cassius Dio]], 38.6–7</ref> Bibulus’ fasces were broken, tribunes were assaulted, and senators were pushed aside as Caesar pressed his agrarian law to a vote.

By bypassing the Senate, ignoring [[Marcus Calpurnius Bibulus|Bibulus'’]] declarations of unfavourable omens, and using his position as [[Pontifex Maximus]] to neutralise religious objections, Caesar appeared to many of his peers as a man willing to overturn constitutional norms to achieve his aims. '''These actions created deep resentment among the conservative faction and laid the foundations for the political confrontations that would follow in his proconsulship, the civil war and ultimately in his assassination.'''

===Caesar’s Grain Law (''lex frumentaria'')===
Caesar’s reform of the grain distribution was welcomed enthusiastically by Rome’s poor, who loved Julius for it. Corruption had caused the grain rolls to swell with fraudulent entries, including the names of dead citizens whose portions were collected by administrators, and politically connected clients who received double allocations. The numbers illustrate the scale of the abuse:

<center>
''''320,000 registered recipients prior to the reforms reduced to → 150,000 recipients after the reforms.'''
</center>

Corrupt officials collected grain on behalf of dead entrants and sold the surplus for personal profit. Non‑citizens were enrolled, and favoured individuals received double portions. Beyond this, the supply itself was irregular, and distribution days often saw insufficient quantities, leaving bread lines sent home empty‑handed and hungry.

Caesar ordered a complete audit of the lists and reduced the number of registered recipients by more than half, removing duplicates, non‑citizens, and the names of the dead. Although less grain was now issued overall, it was distributed honestly and reliably, giving the poor a regular supply for the first time in years. This anti‑corruption measure greatly increased Caesar’s popularity among the urban masses, who saw him as the only magistrate willing to confront abuses they had long suspected or experienced directly.

These reforms, however, struck at the income streams of the elite who had been managing the racket, turning them into bitter political enemies. Like his agrarian laws, Caesar’s grain law was fiercely resisted, and the same tactics of obstruction, popular agitation, and senatorial hostility were deployed against him—further deepening the political divide that would shape the conflicts of his later career.

In modern terms, Caesar’s grain law functioned as a state‑funded social security programme. By guaranteeing a regular, publicly financed supply of grain to Rome’s poorest citizens, the *lex frumentaria* provided a basic welfare safety net comparable to contemporary social assistance systems. Although limited to citizens and focused on food security rather than monetary payments, it represented the closest institution the late Republic possessed to a formalised social welfare scheme.  As with noted modern security systems, this class of recipients yielded their support and vote to whoever maintained their security.  Theirfore they loved Caesar as one who had grown up among them in Subura and acted in their interests.

===Crassus’ Financial Reforms===
====Lex de publicanis====
In addition to the agrarian and grain laws, Caesar advanced legislation favourable to the interests of [[Marcus Licinius Crassus|Crassus]] and the [[Equestrian Order|equestrian order]]. Crassus had made much of his vast fortune through state‑backed enterprises, particularly tax‑farming companies and public works contracts. It was therefore logical that he pushed Caesar to table measures benefiting government contractors. The most significant of these was the ''lex de publicanis'', a law that renegotiated the tax‑farming contracts in the province of Asia. The publicani had overbid on these contracts and faced severe financial losses, but the ''lex de publicanis'' allowed them to withdraw their bids and resubmit them under more favourable terms.<ref>Dio, 38.7</ref>

This effectively rescued the equestrian tax‑farming companies from bankruptcy and greatly strengthened the political influence of both Caesar and Crassus. The equestrians, grateful for their intervention, became firm supporters of the [[First Triumvirate|Triumvirate]]. The Senate, however, viewed the measure as an abuse of consular authority and resented Caesar for empowering a wealthy non‑senatorial class at their expense.

====Judicial Reforms Favouring the Equestrian Order====
Caesar also supported judicial reforms that increased equestrian influence in the courts, further alienating the conservative aristocracy. These measures weakened senatorial control over juries and strengthened the position of the equestrian class in legal proceedings, particularly in cases involving provincial administration and financial disputes. Combined with the agrarian and grain laws, these reforms ensured that Caesar satisfied all three members of the First Triumvirate—Pompey, Crassus, and himself—while deepening the political divide that defined the year.

====Ratification of Pompey’s Eastern Settlements and Anti‑Corruption Laws====
Caesar next secured the ratification of [[Pompey|Pompey’s]] eastern settlements and enacted additional financial measures favourable to the ''equestrian publicani'', fulfilling the political aims of his Triumvirate partners. These actions strengthened Caesar’s alliance with both [[Pompey]] and [[Marcus Licinius Crassus|Crassus]] and demonstrated the effectiveness of their combined influence.

At the same time, Caesar introduced laws against extortion in the provinces, reformed judicial procedures, and enforced public accountability on magistrates. These anti‑corruption measures increased his popularity among the plebs while provoking disaffection among those who profited from provincial exploitation. Caesar’s legislative programme thus simultaneously advanced the interests of his allies and positioned him as a champion of administrative reform.

====Lex Vatinia====
The most consequential achievement of Caesar’s consulship was the securing of his provincial command. Through the ''lex Vatinia'', Caesar received a five‑year proconsulship over [[Cisalpine Gaul]] and [[Illyricum]], an unusually long term that granted him independent imperium and control of several legions. This command placed him in the strategically vital Po Valley, giving him access to recruitment grounds, supply routes, and the Alpine passes leading into Gaul.

Shortly after Caesar departed [[Rome]], the [[Senate]]—under pressure from [[Pompey]] and [[Marcus Licinius Crassus|Crassus]]—expanded his authority to include [[Transalpine Gaul]]. This addition transformed Caesar’s position from a routine provincial governor into the commander of Rome’s entire northern frontier. He now controlled the [[Mediterranean]] coast of southern France, the [[Rhône]] corridor, and the Helvetian borderlands, giving him both the opportunity and the justification to intervene in Gallic affairs.

[[Crassus]] strongly supported this enlargement of Caesar’s command. As the financial patron of the equestrian publicani, Crassus understood that frontier provinces generated extensive administrative, logistical, and contracting activity. Roman expansion reliably produced new tax‑farming opportunities, construction projects, transport contracts, and financial instruments. While ancient sources do not state this explicitly, it is reasonable to suggest that [[Crassus]] recognised the commercial potential of a militarily active Gallic command and encouraged Caesar’s appointment for this reason.

Although separated by two millennia, the dynamic is not entirely unlike modern government contracting, where large firms profit from infrastructure, logistics, and administrative projects that follow military expansion; in [[Thomas Moore#The Washington Poem|''"the second Rome"'']] a prime example could be [[Halliburton]]. In Rome’s case, new roads, mines, military installations, postal systems, and markets generated lucrative contracts, and Crassus—who financed and coordinated the publicani syndicates—profited from each one. The comparison is only illustrative, but it helps modern readers understand why Crassus had a strong interest in Caesar receiving a frontier command likely to produce sustained activity.

With the expanded ''lex Vatinia'' in place, Caesar left Rome with unprecedented authority: multiple legions, a unified Triumvirate behind him, and a vast frontier province whose instability would soon justify military intervention. This command became the foundation of his later conquests—and ultimately his rise to unmatched power.

===Solidification by Marriage===
A crucial element in stabilising the [[First Triumvirate]] during Caesar’s consulship was the creation of a network of family alliances that bound the three men together more securely than political agreements alone could achieve. Caesar understood that Roman politics rested not merely on legislation and patronage, but on the personal ties created through marriage, which carried immense social and emotional weight among the aristocracy.

Earlier in the year Caesar arranged the betrothal of Crassus’ son, [[Publius Licinius Crassus]], to the daughter of [[Mucia Tertia]] from her earlier marriage. Although this step-daughter had once been part of [[Pompey|Pompey’s]] household during his marriage to Mucia, she was not Pompey’s biological child, and the match created no personal difficulty for him. The marriage strengthened Crassus’ aristocratic standing and linked him socially to Pompey’s circle, reinforcing unity within the Triumvirate.

Caesar then completed the most important alliance of all: the marriage of his own daughter [[Julia (daughter of Julius Caesar)|Julia]] to [[Pompey]]. The betrothal was arranged during the consulship, but the marriage itself was finalised as Caesar prepared to depart for his provincial command. Unlike Pompey’s earlier marriage to  [[Mucia Tertia]], which had been politically useful but emotionally indifferent, [[Pompey]] apparently genuinely loved Julia, and ancient writers emphasise the affection and harmony of their union. This personal bond transformed the political partnership between Caesar and [[Pompey]] into a family alliance, greatly strengthening the cohesion of the [[First Triumvirate|Triumvirate]].

Through these marriages Caesar ensured that the members of the Triumvirate were bound together by personal ties as well as political interests. Although only Pompey and Caesar became true kin through Julia’s marriage, the additional match between Crassus’ son and Mucia’s daughter linked Crassus socially to Pompey’s former household and reinforced the cooperative spirit of the alliance. These arrangements made political defection more costly and helped stabilise the Triumvirate during the conclusion of a year of intense conflict. By the end of his consulship Caesar had secured the ongoing support of both Pompey and Crassus, enabling him to depart for his proconsulship in Gaul with the backing of the two most powerful men in the Republic.

===Summary of the Consulship of 59 BC===
Caesar’s consulship of 59 BC was one of the most consequential in the history of the late Republic. Through the agrarian law, the grain law, through [[Marcus Licinius Crassus|Crassus']] financial measures, Caesar's judicial reforms, and anti‑corruption legislation, there was a sweeping programme that satisfied the interests of all three members of the [[First Triumvirate]] while simultaneously increasing his popularity among the Roman people. His reliance on popular support and organised street pressure, combined with [[Marcus Calpurnius Bibulus|Bibulus'’]] withdrawal from public life, gave Caesar effective sole control of the magistracy of the [[Consul]]ship and deepened senatorial resentment.

The year also saw the consolidation of the [[First Triumvirate]] through marriage alliances, most notably the union of [[Julia (daughter of Julius Caesar|Julia]] and [[Pompey]], which transformed a political partnership into a personal bond. By its end, Caesar had secured the ratification of Pompey’s eastern settlements, rescued the equestrian tax‑farmers, strengthened [[Marcus Licinius Crassus|Crassus']] influence, and passed the ''lex Vatinia'', granting him a powerful provincial command in [[Gaul]].

Caesar left Rome at the close of his consulship with unprecedented political backing, a unified [[First Triumvirate|Triumbirate]], and a military command that would soon make him the most formidable figure in the Republic. The events of 59 BC laid the foundations for his later conquests, the breakdown of senatorial authority, and ultimately the [[Caesar's Civil War|civil war]] that reshaped Roman history.

==Proconsulship in Gaul (58–50 BC)==
===Appointment and Departure from Rome===
At the conclusion of his [[consul]]ship, Caesar departed [[Rome]] to assume the provincial command granted to him under the ''lex Vatinia''. The law assigned him [[Cisalpine Gaul]] and [[Illyricum]] for five years, an unusually long term that gave him both stability and independence from senatorial interference. Shortly after his departure, the [[Senate]]—under pressure from [[Pompey]] and [[Crassus]]—added [[Transalpine Gaul]] to his authority, vastly expanding the scope of his command and placing him in control of one of the most strategically important regions of the Republic.

Caesar’s command included three legions, later increased to four, and eventually far more as the Gallic campaigns unfolded. His imperium was independent, meaning he could act without direct senatorial oversight, and his extended term ensured that he would not be recalled prematurely by hostile political factions. This arrangement alarmed the conservative aristocracy, who viewed Caesar’s growing military power as a threat to the Republic’s constitutional balance.

The [[First Triumvirate|Triumbirate]], however, fully supported Caesar’s appointment. [[Pompey’s]] marriage to [[Julia (the daughter of Julius Caesar)|Julia]] ensured his loyalty, while Crassus’ financial interests aligned with Caesar’s success. With both men backing him, Caesar left Rome with a unified political base, a secure command, and the opportunity to achieve military glory. His departure marked the beginning of a decade‑long proconsulship that would transform him from a political operator into the most celebrated general of his age.


==WORK IN PROGRESS / REDUNDANT==. 

Julius Caesar then made himself the provincial ruler (proconsul) of [[Gaul]] (modern-day [[France]]). He conquered vast amounts of territory for Rome and, while fighting abroad, sent written reports back to Rome of the victories he was winning to sustain his popularity and to ensure that the people did not forget him. Back in Rome, Julius Caesar’s plan was working, and Pompey became increasingly jealous (by this time, Crassus had died in battle). Pompey, with the support of the [[Roman Senate|Senate]], objected to Julius Caesar’s actions and ordered him to disband his army and return to Rome. He refused, and in an act of direct defiance to the Senate, led his loyal troops across the Rubicon River to Rome and conquered it in 49 B. C. The expression, “crossing the Rubicon” is used today to describe an act from which there is no turning back. Julius Caesar went on to defeat Pompey at the [[Battle of Pharsalus]] in 48 B.C. This left Julius Caesar firmly in control of Rome, and he then took his veteran army on campaigns in [[Egypt]] (where he installed ally [[Cleopatra]] as queen), Asia Minor, [[Africa]] and [[Spain]] before returning to Rome again in 45 B.C. Rome ruled much of the Western civilized world as result of these military campaigns. It is interesting to note that Caesar did not start his string of incredible military victories until he was well into middle age.  The Roman Senate appointed Julius Caesar as dictator for life in 46 B.C.

==Later Career and Death==
[[Image:Cesare Maccari (1840–1919) Cicero Denounces Catiline in the Roman Senate - PD 200ppi.jpg|250px|left]]
The [[Roman Senate]] was less than pleased with Caesar's actions as dictator. In a conspiracy famously recounted in [[Shakespeare]]’s play “Julius Caesar,” [[Cassius]] and [[Brutus]] and up to 60 others agreed to stab and kill Julius Caesar when he entered the Senate on the “Ides of March” (March 15, 44 B.C.). After he died, Rome fell into chaos for 13 years as rivals strove for power. Julius Caesar had named his 18-year-old grandnephew, [[Gaius Octavius]], to be his heir. Gaius Octavius also intended to inherit his adopted father's political power. Others wanted [[Mark Antony]]. Cassius and Brutus also had armies of their own. First a triumvirate of Octavian, Antony and Lepidus defeated the armies of Cassius and Brutus, and that ended the republican rule by the Senate.  Octavius went on in history to become Augustus, the first Roman Emperor.

=Military Actions=
[[Image:Caesarmap.jpg|thumb|560px|center]]


=In Prophecy=
It has long been accepted by many commentators that Julius Caesar appears directly from [[Commentary: Daniel 11, Anthony's Historicist Study Aid#Daniel 11:17a|Daniel 11:17]].  This position is best relayed in [[Commentary: Daniel 11, Anthony's Historicist Study Aid#Daniel 11:17a|Anthony's Historicist Study Aid]] wherein his political ambition, the formation of the [[First Triumvirate]] rising him to the [[Consul]]ship, his demotion to Govenor of [[Gaul]], the invasion of the British Isles, the summons to stand trial for his life, the intiation of the Civil War and his eventual murder.

=Contributions=
adopted later by a [[pope]] and used to this day. Julius Caesar also granted religious rights to the [[Jews]] in [[Palestine]], so that the Jewish religion could be practice outside the requirements of Roman religious law. An uneasy practice of the Jewish faith thus continued in the Roman empire up to and through the time of [[Christ]]. Julius Caesar, as all Roman generals, campaigned strenuously on behalf of his veterans, in particular with regards to the gifting of land. Roman culture flourished in the struggles during the lifetime of Julius Caesar, and those which followed his assassination. 

Casesar's influence extends even to this day in the name of the month of July, and in such titles as Czar (tsar) and Kaiser, both of which were a variant of the title [[Emperor]].

=Cultural Productions=
{{Rome}}

==Julian Calendar==
Julius Caesar instituted the 12-month, 365-day [[Julian Calendar]], which provided the foundation for the [[Gregorian Calendar]] 


==Sculptures==
{| style="margin:auto; text-align:center; border:0;"
|-
| [[File:Caesar.jpg|204px]] 
| [[File:Julius Caesar - Bust - 96ppi PD.jpg|150px]]
| [[File:Head of Julius Caesar from Tusculum - Museum of Antiquities, Turin - inv2089 - 1 - 1920 x 2882px.jpg|183px]]
|-
| ''Chiaramonti Caesar<br />Vatican Museums'' 
| ''to be confirmed<br />to be confirmed''
| ''Tusculum Caesar<br /> Museum of Antiquities, Turin''

|}

==Related Artwork currently uploaded to Conservapedia==
{| style="margin:auto; text-align:center; border:0;"
|-
| [[File:John Cassell (1817–1865) Cassell's Illustrated History of England, Volume 1 - Landing of the Romans on the Coast of Kent.jpg|170px]] 
| [[File:Gustave Boulanger (1824-1888), Jules-César arrivé au Rubicon, 1854, Musée Picardie.jpg|200px]]
|-
| Julius Caesar<br />Landing at [[Kent']]' 
| ''Julius Caesar<br />Crossing the [[Rubicon River]]''
|}


==Litrature==
*The Gallic Wars (''Commentarii de Bello Gallico'')
*The Civil Wars (''Comentarii de Bello Civili'')

= See also =
*[[Alexander the Great]]
*[[The Crusades]]
*[[Byzantine Empire]]
*[[Roman painting]]
* [[List of military strategies and concepts]]




==References==
{{Reflist}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Caesar, Julius}}

[[Category:Roman Commanders]]
[[Category:Conquerors]]
[[Category:Military Strategies and Concepts]]