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Fifty years after the executions of Sacco and Vanzetti, in 1977, Massachusetts Democratic governor and future presidential candidate Michael Dukakis signed a resolution apologizing to them and establishing a day in honor of them.  However, he did not pardon them, and many remain convinced of their guilt.  Dukakis’ soft position on crime was a major reason for his defeat by the first President George Bush in 1988.

Fifty years after the executions of Sacco and Vanzetti, in 1977, Massachusetts Democratic governor and future presidential candidate Michael Dukakis signed a resolution apologizing to them and establishing a day in honor of them.  However, he did not pardon them, and many remain convinced of their guilt.  Dukakis’ soft position on crime was a major reason for his defeat by the first President George Bush in 1988.

'''7.'''  '''John Scopes''' was just a young teacher in Tennessee when he unwittingly became a test case for promoting evolution in American schools.  Tennessee had a law against teaching human evolution, and the American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU) wanted to overturn it.  It enlisted the top criminal attorney of the day, Clarence Darrow, to serve as Scopes attorney.  As crafty as the day is long, he arrived in Tennessee armed with his bag of tricks.

'''7.'''  '''John Scopes''' was merely a young public school teacher in Tennessee when he unwittingly became a test case for promoting evolution in American schools.  Tennessee had a law against teaching human evolution, and the American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU) wanted to overturn it.  It enlisted the top criminal attorney of the day, Clarence Darrow, to serve as Scopes attorney.  As crafty as the day is long, he arrived in Tennessee armed with his bag of tricks.

William Jennings Bryan, the former presidential candidate and Secretary of State, had oratorical skills second to none.  His “Cross of Gold” nomination acceptance speech in 1896 is considered one of the greatest political works in American history.  He united the Populist and Democratic Parties then and laid the foundation for the takeover by the Democratic Party of American politics 36 years later.

William Jennings Bryan, the former presidential candidate and Secretary of State, had oratorical skills second to none.  His “Cross of Gold” nomination acceptance speech in 1896 is considered one of the greatest political works in American history.  He united the Populist and Democratic Parties then and laid the foundation for the takeover by the Democratic Party of American politics 36 years later.

After witnessing the horrors of World War I, Bryan became convinced that the teaching of evolution was leading society to ruination through war.  “Survival of the fittest” provided an intellectual justification for the brutal killing of other nationalities and races.  Bryan foresaw the ethnic cleansing that grew to its horrible culmination in the Holocaust.

After witnessing the horrors of World War I, Bryan became convinced that the teaching of evolution was leading society to ruination through war.  “Survival of the fittest” provided an intellectual justification for the brutal killing of other nationalities and races.  Bryan foresaw the ethnic cleansing that grew to its horrible culmination in the Holocaust.

Bryan defended the Tennessee law and its application to Scopes, with its mere $100 fine as the penalty for teaching evolution.  Darrow agreed to take the witness stand in favor of teaching evolution if Bryan took the witness stand against it.  Bryan then testified and performed well.  So well, in fact, that Darrow reneged on his promise and forced Scopes to plead guilty to end the case.  With that the trial ended, and Tennessee’s law remained in effect for another half century.  To this day, Tennesee schools teach little evolution, and George W. Bush won the presidential election by carrying this home state of his opponent, Al Gore.

To avoid growth of the mistaken belief in “survival of the fittest” among humans, Bryan defended the Tennessee law and its application to Scopes, which imposed a $100 fine as the penalty for teaching that humans had evolved from apes.  Darrow agreed to take the witness stand to testify for teaching human evolution if Bryan also took the witness stand to allow Darrow to ask him questions.  Bryan testified first and performed well.  So well, in fact, that Darrow reneged on his promise and forced Scopes to plead guilty to end the case.  With that the trial ended, and Tennessee’s law remained in effect for another half century.  For nearly 100 more years Tennesee public schools taught little evolution, and George W. Bush won the presidential election in 2000 by carrying this home state of his opponent, Al Gore.

A famous liberal reporter at the trial, H.L. Mencken, published such one-sided articles that it would make today’s media blush.  He excoriated Bryan at every possible turn, trying to make him look foolish.  When Hollywood got into the act with a movie called “Inherit the Wind,” it imitated Mencken’s bias.  Misinformed, many think Scopes and the evolutionists won the trial, but conservative rule in Tennessee today reflects the true outcome.

But the media wrote the history about this trial.  A famous liberal reporter at the trial, H.L. Mencken, published extremely one-sided articles that would make today’s media blush.  He excoriated Bryan at every possible turn, trying to make him look foolish.  When Hollywood got into the act with a movie called “Inherit the Wind,” it imitated Mencken’s bias.  Misinformed, many think Scopes and the evolutionists won the trial, but the real result was the opposite.

'''8.'''  '''Colonel William “Billy” Mitchell''' dropped out of college in 1898 to serve in the Spanish-American War.  Afterwards, America stayed out of wars until 1917, when Mitchell was touring Europe as an observer.  By then he was considered too old to be trained on the new airplanes that were just being considered, but he learned to fly through private lessons of his own.  When the United States entered World War I, Mitchell was the first American to fly over enemy lines.  In 1918, he led a large bombing attack on St. Mihiel.

'''8.'''  '''Colonel William “Billy” Mitchell''' dropped out of college in 1898 to serve in the Spanish-American War.  Afterwards, America stayed out of wars until 1917, when Mitchell was touring Europe as an observer.  By then he was considered too old to be trained on the new airplanes that were just being considered, but he learned to fly through private lessons of his own.  When the United States entered World War I, Mitchell was the first American to fly over enemy lines.  In 1918, he led a large bombing attack on St. Mihiel on the western front in Europe.

After the war he devoted his efforts to advocating greater use of aviation in the military, and criticizing those who resisted the change.  In 1921 and 1923 he bombed old American and captured German battleships to demonstrate how easily air power could sink them, which he did.  The embarrassed military brass sent him on a trip to Asia, but when Mitchell returned he predicted that Japan would ultimately attack us as it did at Pearl Harbor.

After the war he devoted his efforts to advocating greater use of aviation in the military, and criticizing those who resisted the change.  In 1921 and 1923 Mitchell demonstrated how easily air power could sink ships by bombing old battleships  and sinking them.  The embarrassed military brass sent him on a trip to Asia, but when Mitchell returned he predicted that Japan would ultimately attack us as it did at Pearl Harbor.

In September 1925 a military airship crashed and killed many on board.  Mitchell published a diatribe harshly criticizing his superiors, even accusing them of treason in ignoring the need for good military aviation.  He was swiftly brought before a military court, known as a court-martial, for insubordination.  He was tried for seven weeks.

In September 1925 a military airship crashed and killed many on board.  Mitchell published a diatribe harshly criticizing his superiors, even accusing them of treason in ignoring the need for good military aviation.  He was swiftly brought before a military court, known as a court-martial, for insubordination.  He was tried for seven weeks.

Military courts lack the protections guaranteed to civilians in ordinary courts.  The jury could not reach a unanimous verdict, which in a federal criminal case would prevent conviction.  One juror, widely thought to be the future General Douglas MacArthur, voted for acquittal.  But he was outvoted and Mitchell was convicted and sentenced to a humiliating loss of rank and pay.  President Coolidge intervened to restore half his pay, but Mitchell quit the military instead.

Military courts lack the protections guaranteed to civilians in ordinary courts.  The jury could not reach a unanimous verdict, which in a federal criminal case would prevent conviction.  One juror, widely thought to be the future General Douglas MacArthur, voted for acquittal.  But he was outvoted and Mitchell was convicted and sentenced to a humiliating loss of rank and pay.  President Calvin Coolidge intervened to restore half his pay, but Mitchell quit the military instead.

After Japan’s air power attacked and sunk our fleet at Pearl Harbor, Mitchell’s views were vindicated.  By then he had passed away, but the military restored his rank and President Truman honored him with a medal.

After Japan’s air power attacked and sunk our fleet at Pearl Harbor, Mitchell’s views were vindicated.  By then he had passed away, but the military restored his rank and President Truman honored him with a medal posthumously.

'''9.'''  '''Alger Hiss''' had denied he knew Whittaker Chambers, a former American communist who claimed that Hiss had been passing him State Department secrets for years.  Obscure Congressman Richard Nixon was convinced that Hiss was lying and questioned him when he appeared before the House Un-American Activities Committee during the Cold War in 1948.  Nixon intensely disliked Hiss, who came from the wealthy background of political connections that Nixon initially lacked.  Nixon’s pursuit of Hiss catapulted Nixon’s career on a path that would eventually land him in the White House.

'''9.'''  '''Alger Hiss''' had denied he knew Whittaker Chambers, a former American communist who claimed that Hiss had been passing him State Department secrets for years.  Obscure Congressman Richard Nixon was convinced that Hiss was lying and questioned him when he appeared before the House Un-American Activities Committee during the Cold War in 1948.  Nixon intensely disliked Hiss, who came from the wealthy background of political connections that Nixon initially lacked.  Nixon’s pursuit of Hiss catapulted Nixon’s career on a path that would eventually carry Nixon to become president.

Both Hiss and Chambers testified before the House Committee, contradicting each other.  One had to be lying.  When Chambers ultimately produced typed documents of State Department information and claimed they came from Hiss, a federal prosecutor in Manhattan indicted Hiss for perjury.

Both Hiss and Chambers testified before the House Committee, contradicting each other.  One had to be lying.  When Chambers ultimately produced typed documents of State Department information and claimed they came from Hiss, a federal prosecutor in Manhattan indicted Hiss for perjury.

But Hiss could afford the best attorney and had the most impressive array of character witnesses ever assembled.  It included two U. S. Supreme Court justices, a former Solicitor General, a former Democratic presidential candidate (John W. Davis) and a future one (Adlai Stevenson).  Hiss’ jury selection was also superb: the foreman proved to be sympathetic to the liberal and perhaps even communist movement in America.

But Hiss could afford the best attorney and had the most impressive array of character witnesses ever assembled.  It included two U. S. Supreme Court justices, a former Solicitor General, a former Democratic presidential candidate (John W. Davis) and a future one (Adlai Stevenson).  Hiss’ jury selection was also superb: the foreman proved to be sympathetic to the liberal and perhaps even communist movement in America.

Hiss did well on the witness stand in his defense, but his attorney probably erred in putting his wife on.  His defense counsel was scathing in his attack on the prosecution’s star witness, Chambers himself, who admitted that he worked for the communist cause in America.

Hiss did well on the witness stand in his defense, but his attorney probably erred in putting his wife on.  Hiss's attorney was blistering in his cross-examination of the prosecution’s star witness, Chambers himself, who admitted that he had worked for the communist cause in America.

The jury could not agree on a verdict, splitting with eight in favor of conviction and four against it.  Despite testimony that the unlawfully leaked documents were typed on Hiss’ typewriter, the four were not convinced beyond reasonable doubt.

The jury could not agree on a verdict, splitting with eight in favor of conviction and four against it.  Despite testimony that the unlawfully leaked documents were typed on Hiss’ typewriter, the four were not convinced beyond reasonable doubt.

As is typical, the government then brought the case for retrial.  Prosecutions do better the second time, learning from its mistakes.  The judge allowed a broader range of questioning.  New defense counsel was weaker, conceding that the leaked documents were typed by the typewriter found in Hiss’ possession, but disputing that he typed them.  Inexplicably, Supreme Court Justice Frankfurter did not testify for Hiss in the second case.

As is typical, the government then brought the case for retrial.  Prosecutions do better the second time, learning from its mistakes.  The judge allowed a broader range of questioning.  Hiss's new defense counsel was weaker, conceding that the leaked documents were typed by the typewriter found in Hiss’ possession, but disputing that he typed them.  Inexplicably, Supreme Court Justice Frankfurter did not testify for Hiss in the second trial.

The defense relied heavily on testimony by a expert witness who was a psychiatrist, who painted Chambers as a pathological liar.  But the prosecutor destroyed the witness in one of the most famous cross-examinations in American legal history.

The defense relied heavily on testimony by a expert witness who was a psychiatrist, who painted Chambers as a pathological liar.  But the prosecutor destroyed the witness in one of the most famous cross-examinations in American legal history.