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Scribes were sent forth by Jesus to proselytize the world. "I am sending you prophets and wise men and scribes ...."

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We take a break this week from Western Civilization and instead turn to the great ancient empires in the East: India and China. This requires learning about several new ~~religions~~, including Hinduism, Buddhism and Confucianism. Then we conclude by returning to the Middle East and discussing the rise of Christianity.

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We take a break this week from Western Civilization and instead turn to the great ancient empires in the East: India and China. This requires learning about several new belief systems, including Hinduism, Buddhism and Confucianism. Then we conclude by returning to the Middle East and discussing the rise of Christianity.

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Let's ask ourselves at the outset: why learn about any religion other than Christianity? Some Christians might conclude that, having found their faith, there is no reason to ~~study~~ non-Christian religions~~. When you find something good, then it is not advantageous to divert your time and energy to something less good~~.

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Let's ask ourselves at the outset: why learn about any religion other than Christianity? Some Christians might conclude that, having found their faith, there is no reason to learn about non-Christian religions that go in a different direction.

But there are several valid reasons to study other religions. Christian missionaries, for example, need to understand the religions of the peoples they are attempting to convert. World leaders and travelers should understand the different religious views of peoples they encounter, even if they are not trying to convert them. In business it is important to know the values and beliefs of people with whom you deal.

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== India ==

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Little information survives concerning the history of ancient India. There was ~~immigration~~ into the region ~~around 3000~~ B.C.~~, or perhaps in the 2000s~~ B.C., by people who called themselves "nobles" or "Aryans", a term we explained in the prior lecture. These immigrants spoke an Indo-European language that formed the basis for Sanskrit, which is the standard ancient language of India just as Latin later became the standard ancient language of Europe. Yet while Latin is a dead language today, Sanskrit is still an official language in India. The scriptures of Hinduism are written in Sanskrit. The most sacred of these scripts form the [[Vedas]] and [[Upanishads]], which ~~are considered to~~ have the most authority, importance, and antiquity.

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Little information survives concerning the history of ancient India. There was migration into the region in the second millennium B.C. (between 1000 and 2000 B.C.), by people who called themselves "nobles" or "Aryans", a term we explained in the prior lecture. These immigrants spoke an Indo-European language that formed the basis for Sanskrit, which is the standard ancient language of India just as Latin later became the standard ancient language of Europe. Yet while Latin is a dead language today, Sanskrit is still an official language in India. The scriptures of Hinduism are written in Sanskrit. The most sacred of these scripts form the [[Vedas]] and [[Upanishads]], which have the most authority, importance, and antiquity for the Indian people.

[[Image:India rel01.jpg|400px|right]]

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The roots of ancient India were settlements in the Indus River Valley, in what is now Pakistan and northwest India (note where Pakistan is on the map to the right). This was one of the most fertile regions in the world at the time, with plentiful farm products and animals. The region was surrounded in the north by the Himalaya mountains, protected to the west by the Indu Kush mountains, and insulated from the east by the Great Indian Desert. Just as Egypt had unique geographic protections against invasion by foreign enemies, so did the Indus River Valley. Two cities have been discovered there: Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa (pronounced "huh-ROP-uh"). Other small towns have also been unearthed. This ancient civilization existed from about 3000 B.C. to 1300 B.C., and its peak was 2600 to 1900 B.C. It is known as the Indus Valley Civilization or Harappan Civilization, named after its big city, Harappa. These early settlements existed long before ''classical'' Indian civilization, which thrived from 300 B.C. to A.D. 500 (similar in time to the Roman Empire).

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Writings have been found from ancient India, but no one has been able to decipher them yet. The symbols are extremely tiny, and all the writings we have contain only a few of these symbols. This is a good challenge for young experts in language!

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Writings have been found from ancient India, but no one has been able to decipher them yet. The symbols are extremely tiny, and all the writings we have contain only a few of these symbols. This is a good challenge for young experts in language (linguistics)!

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In terms of technology, the inhabitants of these ancient settlements were quite advanced. The ancient peoples of the Indus River Valley civilization had ~~advanced~~ use of water: pipes, drains and even indoor bathrooms. They were precise with mathematics, and used this skill to measure weight and mass accurately. But unlike most other civilizations in the 2000s B.C., the ruins of Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa do not contain any large palaces or monuments to false gods.

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In terms of technology, the inhabitants of these ancient settlements were quite advanced. The ancient peoples of the Indus River Valley civilization had modern use of water: pipes, drains and even indoor bathrooms. They were precise with mathematics, and used this skill to measure weight and mass accurately. But unlike most other civilizations in the 2000s B.C., the ruins of Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa do not contain any large palaces or monuments to false gods.

The ancient Indian people survived on agriculture and traded with Mesopotamia. Many of the inhabitants were tradesmen, as artistic artifacts from Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa illustrate.

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By 975 B.C., King Hiram of Phoenicia encouraged trade between India and King Solomon of Israel. In 950 B.C., Jewish people arrived in India in King Solomon's merchant fleet, and later established colonies there. Around the same time, perhaps due to increased trade, Sanskrit began to decline as the spoken language of India. Priestly Sanskrit was later refined between 750 and 250 B.C.

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Some of the people in the Indus River Valley likely migrated southeast to what is India today. The Vedic (pronounced VAYD-ik) civilization existed from about 1500 to 500 B.C., and is credited with developing the religion and culture of Hinduism (explained further below). ~~Note~~ that the "classical" civilization of India came later, after this foundation had been laid. Classical India consisted of two major empires: the Mauryan Empire (322-185 B.C.) and the Gupta Empire (A.D. 320-467). Before, during and after these empires there was very little in the way of a central government, and thus, India is best understood by studying its major religion, Hinduism. This is one of the oldest and longest-surviving religions in the history of the world. India is also the origin of two other major religions, Buddhism and Jainism. One of Jesus' Apostles (Thomas) went to India and established a Christian community there that thrives to this day.

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Some of the people in the Indus River Valley likely migrated southeast to what is India today. The Vedic (pronounced VAYD-ik) civilization existed from about 1500 to 500 B.C., and is credited with developing the religion and culture of Hinduism (explained further below). Notice that the "classical" civilization of India came later, after this foundation had been laid. Classical India consisted of two major empires: the Mauryan Empire (322-185 B.C.) and the Gupta Empire (A.D. 320-467). Before, during and after these empires there was very little in the way of a central government, and thus India is best understood by studying its major religion, Hinduism. This is one of the oldest and longest-surviving religions in the history of the world. India is also the origin of two other major religions, Buddhism and Jainism. One of Jesus' Apostles (Thomas) went to India and established a Christian community there that thrives to this day.

=== Classical Indian Civilization ===

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=== Hinduism ===

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Hinduism was, and is, one of the most powerful and resilient religions in the history of the world. In the 20th century it withstood communism; throughout history it withstood evangelism by other religions; and in the last millennium it withstood Islam~~. We shall see whether it continues to survive against Islam in this century~~.

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Hinduism was, and is, one of the most powerful and resilient religions in the history of the world. In the 20th century it withstood communism; throughout history it withstood evangelism by other religions; and in the last millennium it withstood Islam.

Hinduism is an ancient polytheistic religion, consisting of multiple gods who were ultimately thought to be part of one god: Brahma, the supreme god of life. The name "Hindu" comes from the word Hindustan, the Persian word for riverland; the birth of Hinduism was the merger of the Upanishadic and Vedic religious traditions in ancient India. Muslim invaders of the A.D. 11th and 13th centuries began using the term "Hindu" to describe Indians from this region who were not Buddhists and who refused to convert to Islam. In the A.D. 16th century European merchants and missionaries started using the term also. But while Hinduism is not limited to one set of clear and specific beliefs, it does represent an overall belief system and today there are nearly one billion adherents to Hinduism in the world, nearly all of whom live in or emigrated from India. (There are also significant Muslim and Christian populations in India today; Mother Theresa won a Nobel Peace Prize in 1980 for her Christian charity work there.)

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Hinduism focuses on "The Eternal Way," which means that certain spiritual principles are true for eternity, transcending what is man-made. This is like a science of consciousness. The advancement of knowledge is emphasized by Hinduism, and today many Indians can be found obtaining PhDs or medical degrees. Many Indians (~~note~~ that the term "Indian" in this lecture refers to South Asia) are entering engineering and similar high-tech professions, and American companies are hiring more and more Indians for these jobs because of the high quality of their work and their willingness to work for less wages by American standards. Politically, Hindus in the United States are more Republican than other immigrant groups.

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Hinduism focuses on "The Eternal Way," which means that certain spiritual principles are true for eternity, transcending what is man-made. This is like a science of consciousness. The advancement of knowledge is emphasized by Hinduism, and today many Indians can be found obtaining PhDs or medical degrees. Many Indians (notice that the term "Indian" in this lecture refers to South Asia) are entering engineering and similar high-tech professions, and American companies are hiring more and more Indians for these jobs because of the high quality of their work and their willingness to work for less wages by American standards. Politically, Hindus in the United States are more Republican than other immigrant groups.

Hinduism encourages meditation using yoga. Historically, Hindus believed in reincarnation, a belief that spread even to the Greek philosopher Pythagoras in 560 B.C. Visitors to India are impressed or surprised by seeing cows wandering about, disrupting traffic and commerce. The expression "sacred cow" comes from the Indian belief in reincarnation, and the view that a cow may be the reincarnation of someone’s deceased relative.

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2. Both religions preach non-violence towards all forms of life.

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3. Both religions believe in karma ~~in binding people to this world, and believe in a cycle of births and deaths (reincarnation)~~.

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3. Both religions believe in karma.

4. Both religions believe in multiple hells and heavens.

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=== India's Contributions ===

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What can we thank ancient India for? Our Arabic numerals, which are derived from Hindu numbers. Also, near the end of classical India (around A.D. 500) the game of chess was invented there. ~~Note~~ that the game of chess does not involve any chance; Hinduism is against gambling. The original game of chess lacked the powerful "queen", and Muslim versions of the game lack the queen to this day.

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What can we thank ancient India for? Our Arabic numerals, which are derived from Hindu numbers. Also, near the end of classical India (around A.D. 500) the game of chess was invented there. Notice that the game of chess does not involve any chance; Hinduism is against gambling. The original game of chess lacked the powerful "queen", and Muslim versions of the game lack the queen to this day.

Vedic mathematics, which is an ancient math system found in the Hindu scriptures, is taught to this day. It emphasizes solving complex math problems orally. '''India first discovered the separate concept of "zero" around the sixth century, which was a significant intellectual breakthrough.'''

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{| class="wikitable"

|-

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|'''~~Religion~~'''

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|'''Belief systems'''

|'''Followers'''

|'''Comment'''

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|threat of death if conversion to another religion

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|~~Anti~~-religious

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|Non-religious

|1.1 billion

|followers censor school prayer and promote evolution

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== China ==

[[Image:China rel01.jpg|450px|right]]

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China, like India, is significant ~~partly~~ because it has so many people. China and India each has a population of about 1 billion persons today, and one third of the entire world now lives in China or India. Japan, North and South Korea, Vietnam, Indonesia, Pakistan, and many other countries are also part of Asia, and Asians make up more than half the world's total population.

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China, like India, is significant because it has so many people. China and India each has a population of about 1 billion persons today, and one third of the entire world now lives in China or India. Japan, North and South Korea, Vietnam, Indonesia, Pakistan, and many other countries are also part of Asia, and Asians make up more than half the world's total population.

But China and India are vary different from each other. There is no Hinduism in China. There is very little ethnic diversity in China, in contrast with India and many Western countries today. Christianity has struggled to convert China, and only about one out of nine Chinese are Christian. And even that small number is due to courageous efforts in the face of much persecution of religion by the communist government that rules China.

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China has always been isolated by geographic protections. The highest mountains in the world, the Himalayas, separate it from India. The Himalaya Mountain Range is famous for having the world's tallest peaks, including Mount Everest and K2. Vast amounts of semi-desert land known as the Gobi desert separate China from the Middle East and the area which was Mesopotamia in ancient times.

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In the south of China, the Yangtze river flows for 3000 miles, navigable from the sea for half of its course. In the north is the Yellow river (now called the Huang He), which runs westward from the Yellow Sea and then northward a bit before turning south ~~(see the map)~~. The Yellow river obtained its original name from the murky tan color of its waters. The Yellow River is known for its tendency to flood surrounding lands, often with disastrous results. The silt and sand carried in the muddy water builds up on the bottom of the river until it blocks the water's flow and causes the river to divert its course, flooding into another area. Floods like these make the course of the Yellow River change often.

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In the south of China, the Yangtze river flows for 3000 miles, navigable from the sea for half of its course. In the north is the Yellow river (now called the Huang He), which runs westward from the Yellow Sea (labeled in the map) and then northward a bit before turning south. The Yellow river obtained its original name from the murky tan color of its waters. The Yellow River is known for its tendency to flood surrounding lands, often with disastrous results. The silt and sand carried in the muddy water builds up on the bottom of the river until it blocks the water's flow and causes the river to divert its course, flooding into another area. Floods like these make the course of the Yellow River change often.

=== Ancient China ===

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The earliest archaeological evidence in China is of the Shang dynasty, 1766-1122 B.C. By folklore it began when ~~the~~ virtuous and wise man named T'ang overthrew the decadent emperor Chieh of the Hsia dynasty. The Shang dynasty was ultimately overthrown and replaced by the Chou dynasty.

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The earliest archaeological evidence in China is of the Shang dynasty, 1766-1122 B.C. By folklore it began when a virtuous and wise man named T'ang overthrew the decadent emperor Chieh of the Hsia dynasty. The Shang dynasty ended when it was ultimately overthrown and replaced by the Chou dynasty.

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The Shang dynasty built cities in northern China, along the eastern banks of the Yellow river. It did not control all of the land that belongs to China today. Sometimes called the Yellow River Civilization, the Shang dynasty benefited from bronze ~~that~~ Mesopotamia had introduced to China around 2000 B.C. ~~Note~~ that Bronze had previously been invented in Mesopotamia around 3000 B.C.

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The Shang dynasty built cities in northern China, along the eastern banks of the Yellow river. It did not control all of the land that belongs to China today. Sometimes called the Yellow River Civilization, the Shang dynasty benefited from the use of bronze, which Mesopotamia had introduced to China around 2000 B.C. Notice that Bronze had previously been invented in Mesopotamia around 3000 B.C.

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The Shang dynasty had writing in the form of oracle bones: questions and answers inscribed on actual bone~~. The bones were quite common and were created during the pagan oracles involved in ancient Chinese religion~~. For archaeologists, these bones were the first concrete evidence that the Shang dynasty really had existed. ~~Before that, it was widely regarded as nothing more than a myth. But if oracle bones were so common, why didn't archaeologists find them sooner?~~ Oracle bones were widely sold as "dragon bones" and believed to have magical healing properties, and the bones were generally ground up and used as medicine. No one realized what the bones were until a high ranking official who was sick noticed that the bone which was to be ground for his medicine was covered in strange glyphs! His discovery proved the existence of the Shang dynasty.

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The Shang dynasty had writing in the form of oracle bones: questions and answers inscribed on actual bone. For archaeologists, these bones were the first concrete evidence that the Shang dynasty really had existed. Oracle bones were widely sold as "dragon bones" and believed to have magical healing properties, and the bones were generally ground up and used as medicine. No one realized what the bones were until a high ranking official who was sick noticed that the bone which was to be ground for his medicine was covered in strange glyphs! His discovery proved the existence of the Shang dynasty.

The Shang empire consisted of city-states, with much war between the various cities but particularly against the non-urbanized, agricultural populations in the rural areas. The capital cities shifted as often as power changed hands. The Shang dynasty perfected the wheel and used chariots in warfare.

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China used a pictographic form of writing that it continues to utilize to this day, albeit in a more developed form. ~~Often~~ the word looked like its meaning, ~~though~~ today the characters are much more complex.

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China used a pictographic form of writing that it continues to utilize to this day, albeit in a more developed form. Then the word looked like its meaning, but today the characters are much more complex.

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The Zhou or Chou dynasty replaced the Shang dynasty in 1027 B.C., and benefited from the Iron Age. The Iron Age is the period of human history characterized by the smelting of iron and its use in industry in western Asia and Egypt. The Zhou dynasty lasted longer than any other dynasty in Chinese history, ruling until 221 B.C~~. This dynasty ruled over the eastern part of China during the last few hundred years of its reign~~. The multiplication table, which is essential to ~~modern mathematics~~, was developed during this dynasty.

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The Zhou (also known as "Chou") dynasty replaced the Shang dynasty in 1027 B.C., and benefited from the Iron Age. The Iron Age is the period of human history characterized by the smelting of iron and its use in industry in western Asia and Egypt. The Zhou dynasty lasted longer than any other dynasty in Chinese history, ruling until 221 B.C. The multiplication table, which is essential to learning arithmetic, was developed during this dynasty.

Early Chinese religion consisted of worshiping a supreme god called "Shang Ti," or "Lord on High." Shang Ti was believed to be a god ruling over the lesser gods of the sun, moon, wind, rain and other aspects of nature. The ancient Chinese people worshiped these gods with human sacrifices. When a king died, for example, hundreds of slaves and prisoners would be sacrificed in his honor. There were also sacrifices on a smaller scale when a temple or palace was constructed.

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=== Sun Tzu ===

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The first military treatise was written by Sun Tzu in the 6th century B.C., ~~often called~~ in English the "Art of Warfare." It became a classic of military strategy used by generals and even modern businessmen, and is available freely on the internet.<ref>http://suntzusaid.com/</ref>

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The first military treatise was written by Sun Tzu in the 6th century B.C., known in English as the "Art of Warfare." It became a classic of military strategy used by generals and even modern businessmen, and is available freely on the internet.<ref>http://suntzusaid.com/</ref>

This classic contained timeless insights including:<ref>http://suntzusaid.com/book/4</ref>

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*"To see victory only when it is within the ken of the common herd is not the acme of excellence."

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The "Art of Warfare" reflects insights shared by the ancient Chinese culture. The last item above about seeing victory, for example, reflects an observation of another ancient Chinese sage named Ts'ao Kung, who remarked that the goal is to recognize a fruitful plant ''before'' it germinates. In order words, success depends on being able to anticipate the future.

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The "Art of Warfare" reflects insights shared by the ancient Chinese culture. The last item above about seeing victory, for example, reflects an observation of another ancient Chinese sage named Ts'ao Kung, who remarked that the goal is to recognize a fruitful plant ''before'' it germinates. In order words, success depends on being able to anticipate and work to succeed in the future.

=== Confucius ===

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The great figure in ancient China was Confucius, who lived from 551 to 478 B.C. and taught social ethics to the people. This was around the same time as the early Greek philosophers. The name Confucius is simply a Latin translation of his real name, Kung Fu-tze, by Western historians. Confucius's disciples wrote down his teachings in a book called the Analects, which focused on man's duties to obey a universal natural law. Moderation in conduct, or "li", was emphasized, and filial piety (respecting the older members of one's family) was the goal of the practices outlined in the Analects. Age itself is greatly honored in Chinese culture, unlike Christianity: the older a person was, the wiser he must be. Confucius taught rulers to be just, and said those being ruled should be loyal to their rulers.

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The great figure in ancient China was Confucius, who lived from 551 to 478 B.C. and taught social ethics to the people. This was around the same time as the early Greek philosophers. The name "Confucius" is simply a Latin translation of his real name, Kung Fu-tze, by Western historians. Confucius's disciples wrote down his teachings in a book called the Analects, which focused on man's duties to obey a universal natural law. Moderation in conduct, or "li", was emphasized, and filial piety (respecting the older members of one's family) was the goal of the practices outlined in the Analects. Age itself is greatly honored in Chinese culture, unlike Christianity: the older a person was, the wiser he must be. Confucius taught rulers to be just, and said those being ruled should be loyal to their rulers.

Confucius wrote little himself, but his disciples recorded his teachings in the Analects. This book became a "classic" (widely read and respected text) and has had enormous influence over Chinese history. Confucius emphasized rational analysis with a touch of flexibility. He disavowed any original insight or knowledge, and opposed anything egotistical. He once said, "I for my part am not one of those who have innate knowledge. I am simply one who loves the past and who is diligent in investigating it."

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=== Taoism ===

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Taoism (~~also known~~ as Daoism) eventually caught on in China and Southeast Asia (e.g., Vietnam) more than other religions, probably due to its compatibility with the philosophical foundations laid by Confucius. Taoism is significantly more philosophical than the world's largest religions of Christianity, Islam and Hinduism. The symbol for Taoism (see right) is the Taijitu or "Yin and Yang," in which a curved half of a circle divides a shaded from a clear region to represent a constant interaction in nature between two forces having opposite qualities. [[Image:Yin yang.jpg|right]]

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Taoism (pronounced as "Daoism") eventually caught on in China and Southeast Asia (e.g., Vietnam) more than other religions, probably due to its compatibility with the philosophical foundations laid by Confucius. Taoism is significantly more philosophical than the world's largest religions of Christianity, Islam and Hinduism. The symbol for Taoism (see right) is the Taijitu or "Yin and Yang," in which a curved half of a circle divides a shaded from a clear region to represent a constant interaction in nature between two forces having opposite qualities. [[Image:Yin yang.jpg|right]]

The Yin (darker side) is passive or negative or feminine; the Yang (lighter side) is active or positive or masculine. While western philosophy often views this dualism as a struggle, in China the goal is to harmonize these complementary forces. Taoism and Confucianism strive to obtain harmony, though in Taoism the focus is on nature while in Confucianism the focus is on people.

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The basic differences between Confucianism, Taoism and a third philosophy in China called "Legalism" were the following. Confucianism emphasized education, tradition, reference for elders and ancestors, and a strong government. Taoism emphasized harmony with nature, and preferred the least amount of government. Legalism, the forerunner to modern communist China, held that a strong government was essential to control the people.

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The basic differences between Confucianism, Taoism and a third philosophy in China called "Legalism" were the following. '''Confucianism emphasized education, tradition, reference for elders and ancestors, and a strong government. Taoism emphasized harmony with nature, and preferred the least amount of government. Legalism, the forerunner to modern communist China, held that a strong government was essential to control the people'''.

Buddhism, which was popular in India, emphasizes personal salvation more than the Taoism of China. It makes little difference today in China, where the communist dictators impose atheism as the official belief system. But in ancient China, before communism, these religions competed with each other for followers. Taoism advanced at the expense of Confucianism, which lost followers until northern rulers reestablished the Mandate of Heaven. The Mandate of Heaven was a theory that heaven blessed good rulers but overthrew bad ones, and was first used by the Zhou Dynasty to justify overthrowing the Shang Dynasty. These northern rulers obtained control in A.D. 589 under the Sui and Tang Dynasties.

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=== Imperial China ===

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The first imperial or national Chinese dynasty was the Qin or Ch'in dynasty (221-206 B.C.), which was founded by the ruler of the Zhou vassal state Qin, Prince Zheng. The Qin dynasty was superb in battle, using chariots and iron weaponry, and that enabled Prince Zheng to conquer all the Chinese states and unify the country. The Qin dynasty built many internal improvements, such as roads, canals and irrigation, using iron and bronze tools. It was the Qin dynasty that began to construct the Great Wall, which stretches today for 1,400 miles. China has always feared and been threatened by foreign invaders, and the wall was a way to defend itself by augmenting the natural protections of geography. It is from "Qin" that the name "China" is derived. But the Qin dynasty's highly legalistic approach to governing eventually led to rebellion.

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'''The first imperial or national Chinese dynasty was the Qin or Ch'in dynasty (221-206 B.C.), which was founded by the ruler of the Zhou vassal state Qin, Prince Zheng''' (also known as Shih Huang-ti). The Qin dynasty was superb in battle, using chariots and iron weaponry, and that enabled Prince Zheng to conquer all the Chinese states and unify the country. The Qin dynasty built many internal improvements, such as roads, canals and irrigation, using iron and bronze tools. It was the Qin dynasty that began to construct the Great Wall, which stretches today for 1,400 miles. China has always feared and been threatened by foreign invaders, and the wall was a way to defend itself by augmenting the natural protections of geography. It is from "Qin" that the name "China" is derived. But the Qin dynasty's highly legalistic approach to governing eventually led to rebellion.

The Han empire or dynasty (206 B.C. to A.D 220, with only a brief interruption from A.D. 6-23) built on the foundation of the Qin dynasty - literally. The walls and roads were extended and improved during this period. Liu Bang was the first Han ruler, and he imposed a centralized government that was stable for many years. Empress Lu was a woman who seized power from 195 until 180 B.C. and then installed her sons as emperors while they were still infants. Han Wudi (141-87 B.C.) was the longest serving Han ruler. He was known for appointing efficient provincial administrators.

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The Han dynasty expanded the territory of China into Vietnam and Korea, and administered justice to the country from a centralized and organized civil service. This was the most significant of all Chinese dynasties, and is compared by historians to the Pax Romana period in the Roman empire (which we will discuss in the next lecture). The Han dynasty valued education highly, and even created a scholar class of people known as "shi". Historians criticize the Han dynasty, however, for treating women in an inferior manner.

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'''The Han dynasty expanded the territory of China into Vietnam and Korea, and administered justice to the country from a centralized and organized civil service. This was the most significant of all Chinese dynasties, and is compared by historians to the Pax Romana period in the Roman empire (which we will discuss in the next lecture)'''. The Han dynasty valued education highly, and even created a scholar class of people known as "shi". Historians criticize the Han dynasty, however, for treating women in an inferior manner.

The Han dynasty developed the famous Silk Road: 5,000 miles of interconnected roads linking China to the Mediterranean region, which enabled trade in silk and fine goods to greatly increase. Buddhism spread widely along the Silk Road, promoted both by traders and Buddhist monks, and reached China in A.D. 100. Another new religion designed to appeal to merchants, Manichaeism (named after its founder Mani (A.D. 216-272)), also spread to Turkish nomads by teaching self-denial and acceptance of both Buddha and Jesus as prophets. Notice how Buddhism would predictably become more popular outside India than Hinduism did; Buddhism was not based on one's class or family heritage, while Hinduism was.

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Trade flourished on the Silk Road, which China used to transport silk, spices gems, wine, cosmetics and even grain to the Mediterranean. By land the traders carrying the goods to all groups in the Middle East; by sea the Malay sailors mastered the tricky monsoon wind patterns. The Silk Road was influential from 150 B.C. to A.D. 900. Perhaps one might compare its enormous influence to the internet today! Today, an important railway runs along a common route which ~~was~~ part of the ~~silk road~~.

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Trade flourished on the Silk Road, which China used to transport silk, spices gems, wine, cosmetics and even grain to the Mediterranean. By land the traders carrying the goods to all groups in the Middle East; by sea the Malay sailors mastered the tricky monsoon wind patterns. The Silk Road was influential from 150 B.C. to A.D. 900. Perhaps one might compare its enormous influence to the internet today! Today, an important railway runs along a common route which had been part of the Silk Road.

The state philosophy of the Han dynasty was Confucianism. Technology advanced during this time, as did the arts. Paper, porcelain, the magnetic compass, the fixed rudder, the seismograph and possibly acupuncture were all invented under the Han dynasty. Detailed historical records were maintained. Most Chinese people were farmers, but China's discovery of iron enabled it to develop some highly profitable manufacturing trade.

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The Han dynasty declined, in a manner similar to the decline and fall of the Roman empire, though a bit earlier. Historians cite the same reasons for the decline of both empires: too vast an empire to administer and keep together, invasions by barbarians, hardship caused by the spread of disease and poor harvests, and overall economic failure. In both cases, leaders of the armies gained power as the empires declined, but the generals could not save the empires.

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~~But historians~~ credit both the Han dynasty and the Roman empire for their lasting contributions to the world: roads and, for a while, peace and prosperity. The Han dynasty left us with paper, a greater emphasis on education, and the marvelous Silk Road. The Roman empire left us with a system of laws, a powerful language (Latin), and the spread of Christianity.

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Historians credit both the Han dynasty and the Roman empire for their lasting contributions to the world: roads and, for a while, peace and prosperity. The Han dynasty left us with paper, a greater emphasis on education, and the marvelous Silk Road. The Roman empire left us with a system of laws, a powerful language (Latin), and the spread of Christianity.

But just as the West fell into disorganization once Rome fell, so did China when the Han dynasty collapsed. China was ruled by regional governments known as the Three Kingdoms (A.D. 220-280). Many legends arose during this period, as described in a Chinese literature classic entitled, "The Romance of the Three Kingdoms."

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It was not until A.D. 589 that the Sui Dynasty arose to reestablish centralized government. Subsequently the longer Tang and Song Dynasties ruled China also.

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'''It was not until A.D. 589 that the Sui Dynasty arose to reestablish centralized government. Subsequently the longer Tang and Song Dynasties ruled China also'''.

=== China's Contributions ===

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What inventions do we owe to ancient China? A great deal: paper, the compass, the umbrella, the fan, spaghetti, acupuncture, bamboo cultivation, harvesting silk, and perhaps the first planetarium. ~~Later~~, in A.D. 850, ~~China~~ invented gunpowder~~, which also popularized fireworks~~.

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What inventions do we owe to ancient China? A great deal: paper, the compass, the umbrella, the fan, spaghetti, acupuncture, bamboo cultivation, harvesting silk, and perhaps the first planetarium. Chinese invented fireworks and then, in A.D. 850, Chinese invented gunpowder too.

English philosopher Francis Bacon said this about three Chinese inventions: "Printing, gunpowder and the compass: These three have changed the whole face and state of things throughout the world; the first in literature, the second in warfare, the third in navigation; whence have followed innumerable changes, in so much that no empire, no sect, no star seems to have exerted greater power and influence in human affairs than these mechanical discoveries."<ref>http://www.bjreview.com.cn/forum/txt/2008-08/26/content_146756_2.htm</ref> Sometimes historians refer to the "Four Great Inventions": paper-making, printing, compass and gunpowder, and claim that China deserves credit for all four.

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'''Debate: ~~What were~~ the greatest ~~inventions~~ of the ~~ancient world~~?'''

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'''Debate: Which was the greatest of the Chinese inventions?'''

== The Rise of Christianity ==

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The ancient Greek, Hebrew and Latin all lacked the modern English letter "J". The Hebrew initially spelled Jesus as "Yeshua" and "y'hoshua", using two different spellings because of the tradition against pronouncing "the sacred part of Yahweh's name, so they changed the 'Yah', to 'Yeh'."<ref>http://www.plim.org/JesusOrigin.htm</ref>

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The ancient world had several founders of great religions, but only one performed miracles: Jesus of Nazareth. His resurrection is the single greatest event in the history of the world. ~~Do we know when it occurred?~~

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The ancient world had several founders of great religions, but only one performed miracles: Jesus of Nazareth. His resurrection is the single greatest event in the history of the world. We can estimate the date of the Resurrection because we know it happened during the reign of Pontius Pilate: between A.D. 26 and 36. A Roman historian named Philo described Pilate as inflexible, obstinate and merciless, and Pilate was hated by the Jewish people under his rule. The Gospels describe the savage retaliation by Pilate against Galileans as follows: "Now on the same occasion there were some present who reported to Him about the Galileans whose blood Pilate had mixed with their sacrifices."<ref>Luke 13:1 (NAS).</ref> Years after the Crucifixion of Jesus, the Romans (who were themselves known for cruelty) removed Pilate from power for being too cruel even by the harsh Roman standards!

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We can estimate the date of ~~His crucifixion~~ because we know it ~~was~~ during the reign of Pontius Pilate~~, who served from~~ A.D. 26 to 36~~, thereby encompassing the entire period of ministry of John the Baptist and Jesus himself~~. A Roman historian named Philo described Pilate as inflexible, obstinate and merciless, and Pilate was hated by the Jewish people under his rule. The Gospels describe the savage retaliation by Pilate against Galileans as follows: "Now on the same occasion there were some present who reported to Him about the Galileans whose blood Pilate had mixed with their sacrifices."<ref>Luke 13:1 (NAS).</ref> ~~The~~ Romans ~~later~~ removed Pilate from power for being too cruel!

A detailed analysis of the Gospel and historical sources places the date of the Crucifixion at Friday, April 3, A.D. 33, although some historians think it occurred in A.D. 29.<ref>http://www.themoorings.org/apologetics/69weeks/weeks4.html</ref>

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From these dates come the traditional view that Jesus was 33 years old when He rose from the dead. However, the Gospels do not specify His age and it is not entirely clear precisely when Jesus was born. We do know from the Gospels that He was less than 50. Many historians place his birth between 6 and 4 B.C. The description of Jesus' birth in the Gospel of Luke refers to King Herod, whose brutal reign was from 37 to 4 B.C.

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'~~''Modern controversy:'''~~ Jesus~~'s hometown~~ of ~~Nazareth~~ is ~~now mostly Muslim~~, ~~and a modern controversy exists about plans~~ to ~~build a mosque adjacent~~ to the ~~place where~~ the ~~angel Gabriel greeted~~ the ~~Virgin Mary~~. ~~Muslims honor Mary in the Koran~~.

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An error occurred in the dating of our calendar from Christ's birth in the sixth century A.D., when the Roman monk Dionysis the Little changed the calendar to recognize the birth of Christ. He calculated that Jesus was born the year that King Herod died, and modern historians agree. However, the monk thought that Herod died 753 years after the founding of Rome, instead of the correct 749 years after the founding of Rome. (King Herod is the ruler who ordered all babies in Bethlehem younger than 2 to be killed in his unsuccessful attempt to murder Jesus, whose family fled to Egypt to escape this.) Thus the monk estimated that Jesus was born four years later than He probably was. What was intended to be A.D. 1 was actually 4 B.C. Notice that there is no year "0", as the concept of "0" was unknown to the Greeks and not even discovered until the seventh century by mathematicians in India. The year that followed 1 B.C. is A.D. 1.

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An error occurred in the dating of our calendar from Christ's birth by a monk in the sixth century A.D., when the Roman monk Dionysis the Little changed the calendar to recognize the birth of Christ. He calculated that Jesus was born the year that King Herod died, and modern historians agree. However, the monk thought that Herod died 753 years after the founding of Rome, instead of the correct 749 years after the founding of Rome. (King Herod is the ruler who ordered all babies in Bethlehem younger than 2 to be killed in his unsuccessful attempt to murder Jesus, whose family fled to Egypt to escape this.) Thus the monk estimated that Jesus was born four years later than He probably was. What was intended to be A.D. 1 was actually 4 B.C. Note that there is no year "0", as the concept of "0" was unknown to the Greeks and not even discovered until the seventh century by mathematicians in India. The year that followed 1 B.C. is A.D. 1.

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The teachings of Jesus were recorded in the Gospels (the word is from Middle English "god" and "spel" for "news", or "Good News") by three of His Apostles (Matthew, John and also Mark, a scribe for Peter) and by a physician (Luke). The oldest known versions of the Gospels are in Greek, the common ''lingua franca'' (common or commercial language among diverse peoples) of the Roman Orient. No original Gospels have been found in Aramaic; the only discovered Aramaic Gospels are translations from Greek versions. Some say that the Gospel according to Matthew was written particularly for Jews, that the Gospel according to Mark was written particularly for Romans, that the Gospel according to Luke was written particularly for Greeks, and that the Gospel according to John was written for everyone. Matthew and John were part of Jesus's original Apostles, and Mark was probably a boy being homeschooled by his mother as she followed Jesus. With Mark's better education from being homeschooled, he was later able to serve as the scribe for Peter. Scribes were sent forth by Jesus to proselytize the world. "I am sending you prophets and wise men and scribes ...."<ref>Matt 23:34 (NAS).</ref>

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The teachings of Jesus were recorded in the Gospels (the word is from Middle English "god" and "spel" for "news", or "Good News") by three of His Apostles (Matthew, John and also Mark, a scribe for Peter) and by a physician (Luke). The oldest known versions of the Gospels are in Greek, the common ''lingua franca'' (common or commercial language among diverse peoples) of the Roman Orient. No original Gospels have been found in Aramaic; the only discovered Aramaic Gospels are translations from Greek versions. ~~The general consensus is~~ that the Gospel according to Matthew was written particularly for Jews; the Gospel according to Mark was written particularly for Romans; the Gospel according to Luke was written particularly for Greeks; and the Gospel according to John was written for everyone. Matthew and John were part of Jesus's original Apostles, and Mark ~~is thought~~ to ~~have been a~~ scribe for ~~the Apostle~~ Peter. ~~Jesus had emphasized that scribes~~ were ~~part of those He~~ sent forth to proselytize the world. "I am sending you prophets and wise men and scribes ...."<ref>Matt 23:34 (NAS).</ref>

Luke was a Greek physician (see Col 4:14) who accompanied Paul and also wrote the Acts of the Apostles describing the arrival of the Holy Spirit. Unlike the firsthand Gospels of Matthew and John, the Gospel of Luke records eyewitness accounts of others, much as a doctor asks a patient for his medical history and then writes it down in the medical file. Due to Luke's professionalism, his Gospel is comprehensive about Jesus's life and resurrection, and conveys the great sense of joy that Christians felt. In the Battle of the Bulge in World War II (the surprise Nazi counterattack in Dec. 1944), which was one of the worst military defeats in American history, a minister's son who had memorized Luke's description of the Nativity recited it for his fellow soldiers on Christmas Eve while together in the trenches. Many of the American soldiers died in battle soon afterward.

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American soldiers in World Wars I and II would carry copies of the Gospel of John with them as they journeyed to faraway battles. This single book has done more to shape human thought and behavior than any other work. America's First Amendment right of free speech is based on ministers preaching of the "Word" of God as described at the beginning of the Gospel of John.

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Archaeological discoveries in Jerusalem confirm, to the dismay of skeptics, many references in the Gospels about Jesus's work. The Pool of Bethesda has been discovered (John 5:1f). The Pavement has been found (John 19:13). The setting of Jacob's well has been discovered (John 4). Because Jerusalem was destroyed by the Romans in A.D. 70, it would have been impossible for a writer after A.D. 70 ~~to make up any of~~ these ~~details.~~

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Archaeological discoveries in Jerusalem confirm, to the dismay of skeptics, the truth of many references in the Gospels about Jesus's work. The Pool of Bethesda has been discovered (John 5:1f). The Pavement has been found (John 19:13). The setting of Jacob's well has been discovered (John 4). Because Jerusalem was destroyed by the Romans in A.D. 70, it would have been impossible for a writer after A.D. 70 afterward unfamiliar with these locations to be able to refer to these specific locations.

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~~Paul of Taurus (now southern Turkey) was Jewish and converted~~ to Christianity within a year or two of the Crucifixion while on the road to Damascus (now located in Syria), and afterward spread the Good News far and wide within the Roman empire. He was both a prolific writer and scholar, and a prodigious missionary who traveled on three great missions throughout the Roman empire before being executed by a beheading in Rome in A.D. 62 (as a Roman citizen, Paul could not be ~~scourged or crucified). Several of Paul's letters are included in the New Testament, and often quoted~~ to ~~this day. (For example, in Paul's letter~~ to the Romans, he condemns homosexuality.<ref>Romans 1:27.</ref>) Peter, who was not a Roman citizen, likewise spread the faith before being crucified in Rome, by his choice upside down out of the utmost respect to Jesus's own Crucifixion.

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~~Many misconceptions about early Christians persist. Americans are often taught that all~~ the ~~disciples were ignorant fishermen who could not read or write~~. ~~This is plainly false~~, ~~as several communicated~~ by ~~letter while held~~ in ~~jail by~~ Roman ~~authorities~~. Many of the ~~insights~~ and ~~truths revealed~~ in the ~~Gospels by~~ the ~~Apostles could only have been understood and taught~~ by ~~people~~ of ~~tremendous intelligence and faith~~.

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Paul of Tarsus (now southern Turkey) was Jewish and converted to Christianity within a year or two of the Crucifixion, while on the road to Damascus (now located in Syria), and afterward spread the Good News far and wide within the Roman empire. He was both a prolific writer and scholar, and a prodigious missionary who traveled on three great missions throughout the Roman empire before being executed by a beheading in Rome in A.D. 62 (as a Roman citizen, Paul could not be scourged or crucified). Many of Paul's letters are included in the New Testament, and often quoted to this day. For example, in Paul's letter to the Romans, he condemns homosexuality.<ref>Romans 1:27.</ref> Peter, who was not a Roman citizen, likewise spread the faith before being crucified in Rome, by his choice upside down out of the utmost respect for Jesus's own Crucifixion.

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~~Christianity was taken by~~ the early Christians ~~as far and wide as possible~~. ~~The religious celebrations consisted~~ of ~~a communal meal, called "communion" today but given~~ the ~~Greek name for "love feat" then: "agape". This reenacted the Last Supper of Christ as described~~ in the Gospels~~. The concept~~ of ~~Christian love has had a profound, positive on the world~~.

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One misconception about early Christians is the claim that they could not read or write. But several early Christians wrote letters while held in jail by Roman authorities. Moreover, many of the insights and truths revealed in the Gospels by the Apostles could only have been understood and taught by people of tremendous intelligence and faith.

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Mark founded a church in Egypt under the reign of the Roman emperor Nero, first converting Alexandrian Jews such as Theophilus and also converting many native Egyptians who were neither Greek nor Jewish. It was for Theophilus and the Egyptian community that Luke wrote his Gospel and Acts of the Apostles, addressing Theophilus in the beginning of each.<ref>''See'' Luke 1:3 and Acts 1:1.</ref> The local language in Egypt was Coptic, and translations of the Gospels into that language have been discovered which date from the first half of the second century. Coptic Christianity remains in Egypt now, although Islam has become the ~~most popular~~ religion there. Some cite the acceptance of Arabic as a liturgical language by the Pope of Alexandria as aiding the rise to dominance of Islam there. Coptic Christians celebrate Christmas each year on January 7th.

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Mark founded a church in Egypt under the reign of the Roman emperor Nero, first converting Alexandrian Jews such as Theophilus and also converting many native Egyptians who were neither Greek nor Jewish. It was for Theophilus and the Egyptian community that Luke wrote his Gospel and Acts of the Apostles, addressing Theophilus in the beginning of each.<ref>''See'' Luke 1:3 and Acts 1:1.</ref> The local language in Egypt was Coptic, and translations of the Gospels into that language have been discovered which date from the first half of the second century. Coptic Christianity remains in Egypt now, although Islam has become the dominant religion there. Some cite the acceptance of Arabic as a liturgical language by the Pope of Alexandria as aiding the rise to dominance of Islam there. Coptic Christians celebrate Christmas each year on January 7th.

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The Apostle Thomas, known as the "Doubting Thomas" traveled as far as India and established a Christian community ~~that~~ continues to thrive ~~now, although the country is still majority Hindu~~.

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The Apostle Thomas, known as the "Doubting Thomas" traveled as far as India and established a small Christian community, which continues to thrive there.

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Christianity ~~differs from other major religions~~ in its peaceful evangelism, spreading its truths through freedom of speech~~. Christianity is unlike non-evangelical religions, such as Judaism and Hinduism, and Christianity also differs from Islam in the manner in which force is used~~.

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Christianity is unique in its peaceful evangelism, spreading its truths through freedom of speech.

== References ==

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