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The earliest beginning of the Renaissance was '''the poet Dante''' Alighieri (A.D. 1265-1321), who is famous for writing ''Dante’s Inferno'' about Hell.  Another beginning date for the Renaissance is the fall of Constantinople to the Turks in 1453, when gunpowder and the cannon became essential parts of warfare.  This military defeat caused Greek (Byzantine) scholars to flee to Rome, bringing their scholarship with them.  They also brought their hostility to the Roman Catholic Church, causing changes to the religious order in Europe.

The earliest beginning of the Renaissance was '''the poet Dante''' Alighieri (A.D. 1265-1321), who is famous for writing ''Dante’s Inferno'' about Hell.  Another beginning date for the Renaissance is the fall of Constantinople to the Turks in 1453, when gunpowder and the cannon became essential parts of warfare.  This military defeat caused Greek (Byzantine) scholars to flee to Rome, bringing their scholarship with them.  They also brought their hostility to the Roman Catholic Church, causing changes to the religious order in Europe.

By the 1400s there were numerous great artists, and also advances in the existing Gothic Art.  '''By the year 1500 the High Renaissance was in full bloom'''.  But additional internal splits in Christianity were just around the corner. On October 31, 1517, Martin Luther founded Protestantism when he nailed 95 “Theses” or issues to the door of his Wittenberg Church in what is now Germany.  A decade later, in 1529, the English King Henry VIII founded another Christian denomination for an entirely different reason:  he wanted the pope to approve his divorce from Catherine of Aragon, and when the pope refused, the king founded the Church of England and seized all the property of the Catholic Church in England.  Other Protestant faiths also began in the 1500s, and the Catholic Church responded with an ambitious reform effort of its own, often called the "Counter-reformation".  

By the 1400s there were numerous wonderful artists, and also advances in the existing Gothic Art.  '''By the year 1500 the High Renaissance was in full bloom'''.  But additional internal splits in Christianity were just around the corner. On October 31, 1517, Martin Luther founded Protestantism when he nailed 95 “Theses” or issues to the door of his Wittenberg Church in what is now Germany.  A decade later, in 1529, the English King Henry VIII founded another Christian denomination for an entirely different reason:  he wanted the pope to approve his divorce from Catherine of Aragon, and when the pope refused, the king founded the Church of England and seized all the property of the Catholic Church in England.  Other Protestant faiths also began in the 1500s, and the Catholic Church responded with an ambitious reform effort of its own, often called the "Counter-Reformation".  

But before we reach those events, let's first review the origin and development of the English language.  English does not come from Sanskrit or Hebrew or Greek or Latin. The Roman empire never conquered Germany, and English developed from Germanic people who settled in England.

But before we reach those events, let's first review the origin and development of the English language.  English does not come from Sanskrit or Hebrew or Greek or Latin. The Roman empire never conquered Germany, and English developed from Germanic people who settled in England.

The northern city-states of Italy were a perfect location for the Renaissance to occur, as Italian culture was built off of classical Greek and Roman civilization.  Recall that Italy and Germany did not form nation-states like France and England, and without a centralized government the Italian city-states were conducive to culture and intellectual renewal.  The Italian cities had become important and wealthy locations by selling and trading during the Crusades, and Muslim and Byzantine cultural influences came to Italy because of the Crusades.  The Italian city of Florence was home to wealthy families, such as the prominent Medici family, who were willing to finance artists.  Friendly competition among the different city-states brought out the best in people and created an environment in which initiative and creativity flourished.

The northern city-states of Italy were a perfect location for the Renaissance to occur, as Italian culture was built off of classical Greek and Roman civilization.  Recall that Italy and Germany did not form nation-states like France and England, and without a centralized government the Italian city-states were conducive to culture and intellectual renewal.  The Italian cities had become important and wealthy locations by selling and trading during the Crusades, and Muslim and Byzantine cultural influences came to Italy because of the Crusades.  The Italian city of Florence was home to wealthy families, such as the prominent Medici family, who were willing to finance artists.  Friendly competition among the different city-states brought out the best in people and created an environment in which initiative and creativity flourished.

'''The Medici family was the most prominent family in Italy, and in all of Europe, in the 1400s'''.  They acquired great wealth through banking, and used their wealth both to become powerful politicians and serve as patrons of great artists like Michelangelo, making him the first wealthy artist in history.  Cosimo de Medici (1389-1464) became ruler of Florence, and Lorenzo de Medici (“Lorenzo the Magnificent”) (1449-92) and his brother later governed Florence too.  '''Lorenzo’s second son became Pope Leo X, who was pope when the Reformation began'''.

'''The Medici family was the most prominent family in Italy, and in all of Europe, in the 1400s'''.  They acquired wealth through banking, and used their wealth both to become powerful politicians and to serve as patrons of phenomenal artists like Michelangelo, making him the first wealthy artist in history.  Cosimo de Medici (1389-1464) became ruler of Florence, and Lorenzo de Medici (“Lorenzo the Magnificent”) (1449-92) and his brother later governed Florence too.  '''Lorenzo’s second son became Pope Leo X, who was pope when the Reformation began'''.

Renaissance man Leon Battista Alberti declared, “Men can do all things if they will.”  This "can-do" spirit was typical of the Renaissance.  Alberti, himself a poet, scientist, painter, architect, and mathematician, was the one who first coined the idea of “rebirth” or “Renaissance”.

Renaissance man Leon Battista Alberti declared, “Men can do all things if they will.”  This "can-do" spirit was typical of the Renaissance.  Alberti, himself a poet, scientist, painter, architect, and mathematician, was the one who first coined the idea of “rebirth” or “Renaissance”.

'''Donatello''' (1386-1466) was an influential painter and sculptor of the early Renaissance from Florence.  He sculpted a bronze “David” and a famous statue of St. George.  Work like this had not been done since ancient Greece and Rome.  Titian (Tiziano Vicelli) (1477-1576) was a painter skilled with unprecedented use of color and loose brushwork, evident in his stunning masterpiece ''The Assumption of the Virgin''.  '''Raphael''' (1482-1520) also mastered colorful artwork and painted beautiful frescoes in churches and for private patrons, the most famous of which may be ''The School of Athens'', a painting depicting Plato and Aristotle surrounded by their pupils.  He also inspired the two greatest artists in the history of the world: Michelangelo and Leonardo da Vinci.   

'''Donatello''' (1386-1466) was an influential painter and sculptor of the early Renaissance from Florence.  He sculpted a bronze “David” and a famous statue of St. George.  Work like this had not been done since ancient Greece and Rome.  Titian (Tiziano Vicelli) (1477-1576) was a painter skilled with unprecedented use of color and loose brushwork, evident in his stunning masterpiece ''The Assumption of the Virgin''.  '''Raphael''' (1482-1520) also mastered colorful artwork and painted beautiful frescoes in churches and for private patrons, the most famous of which may be ''The School of Athens'', a painting depicting Plato and Aristotle surrounded by their pupils.  He also inspired the two greatest artists in the history of the world: Michelangelo and Leonardo da Vinci.   

'''Michelangelo''' (1475-1564) is best known for his sculpture of a full-sized statue of David and for painting the ceiling of the [[Sistine Chapel]], an astounding fresco that includes over 300 Biblical figures (including the famous image of God creating Adam with an outstretched arm and hand that touches Adam's outstretched arm and hand).  The Sistine Chapel that took more than four years to complete, and an impatient Church official who wanted it completed sooner ended up being featured in the depiction of Hell!  Michelangelo also sculpted amazing renditions of Moses and “the Pieta,” a sculpture of Jesus in Mary’s arms after the Crucifixion (see above right).  The Pieta has an overpowering sense of love and tragedy to it unmatched by any other work of art in history.  Following Brunelleschi’s model Duomo in Florence, Michelangelo also designed the dome for St. Peter’s Basilica in Rome.     

'''Michelangelo''' (1475-1564) is best known for his sculpture of a full-sized statue of David and for painting the ceiling of the [[Sistine Chapel]], an astounding fresco that includes over 300 Biblical figures (including the famous image of God creating Adam with an outstretched arm and hand that touches Adam's outstretched arm and hand).  The Sistine Chapel took more than four years to complete, and an impatient Church official who wanted it completed sooner ended up being featured in the depiction of Hell!  Michelangelo also sculpted amazing renditions of Moses and “the Pieta,” a sculpture of Jesus in Mary’s arms after the Crucifixion (see above right).  The Pieta has an overpowering sense of love and tragedy to it unmatched by any other work of art in history.  Following Brunelleschi’s model Duomo in Florence, Michelangelo also designed the dome for St. Peter’s Basilica in Rome.     

'''Leonardo da Vinci''' (1452-1519) embodied the “Renaissance man.”  He was an architect, anatomist, sculptor, scientist, mathematician, musician, and painter.  He created masterpieces such as the ''Mona Lisa'', the famous portrait of a plain-looking woman with an enigmatic smile, and ''The Last Supper'', a fabulous wall painting of Christ and the Twelve Apostles which, unfortunately, has not been well-preserved.  He kept notebooks full of anatomical drawings such as the Vitruvian Man.  It is said that Leonardo could draw with one hand while at the same time painting with the other, and he wrote backwards in his notebooks, so they would have to be held up to a mirror to be read.  He was way ahead of his time and created conceptual designs for many devices such as a flying machine and an armored tank.  He was the first to come up with the ideas of the calculator and the use of solar power for energy.   

'''Leonardo da Vinci''' (1452-1519) embodied the “Renaissance man.”  He was an architect, anatomist, sculptor, scientist, mathematician, musician, and painter.  He created masterpieces such as the ''Mona Lisa'', the famous portrait of a plain-looking woman with an enigmatic smile, and ''The Last Supper'', a fabulous wall painting of Christ and the Twelve Apostles which, unfortunately, has not been well-preserved.  He kept notebooks full of anatomical drawings such as the Vitruvian Man.  It is said that Leonardo could draw with one hand while at the same time painting with the other, and he wrote backwards in his notebooks, so they would have to be held up to a mirror to be read.  He was way ahead of his time and created conceptual designs for many devices such as a flying machine and an armored tank.  He was the first to come up with the ideas of the calculator and the use of solar power for energy.   

Characteristics of the Renaissance paintings include use of realism, perspective, individual persons (portraits) and frescoes.  '''Nature was not the subject of many Renaissance paintings; most of the paintings were of humans, and hence the name "humanism" is used to describe this period'''.  But do not be confused by that term, because the Renaissance artists were devout Christians, unlike the "humanists" of today.

Characteristics of the Renaissance paintings include use of realism, perspective, individual persons ([[portraits]]) and frescoes.  '''Nature was not the subject of many Renaissance paintings; most of the paintings were of humans, and hence the name "humanism" is used to describe this period'''.  But do not be confused by that term, because the Renaissance artists were devout Christians, unlike the "humanists" of today.

[[Image:Annibale Carracci 1585.jpg|right|300px]]

[[Image:Annibale Carracci 1585.jpg|right|300px]]

The Renaissance was led by devout Christians who looked to Jesus for inspiration.  None of the leading Renaissance artists or writers were atheists or anti-Christians.  Michelangelo and Leonardo da Vinci were as Christian as anyone.  Their Christian faith was the wellspring for their creativity and intellectual achievements.

The Renaissance was led by devout Christians who looked to Jesus for inspiration.  None of the leading Renaissance artists or writers were atheists or anti-Christians.  Michelangelo and Leonardo da Vinci were as Christian as anyone.  Their Christian faith was the wellspring for their creativity and intellectual achievements.

Some historians attempt to de-emphasize the Christian foundation of the Renaissance, and claim that it shifted away from spirituality in order to focus material, earthly things ("humanism").  Renaissance artists did focus more on human beings, such as the Mona Lisa, rather than on the afterlife.  But the great artists and thinkers of the Renaissance were inspired by Christianity in performing their works, and the objects of their work were men and women created in the image of God.  There was nothing anti-religious about the Renaissance.  Perhaps 90% or more of its achievements were inspired by Christian beliefs and faith.

Some historians attempt to de-emphasize the Christian foundation of the Renaissance, and claim that it shifted away from spirituality in order to focus material, earthly things ("humanism").  Renaissance artists did focus more on human beings, such as the Mona Lisa, rather than on the afterlife.  But the extraordinary artists and thinkers of the Renaissance were inspired by Christianity in performing their works, and the objects of their work were men and women created in the image of God.  There was nothing anti-religious about the Renaissance.  Perhaps 90% or more of its achievements were inspired by Christian beliefs and faith.

Centuries after the Renaissance, secularism did creep in.  Secularism is defined as preoccupation with the material world at the expense of the heavenly one.  This caused people to become increasingly materialistic.  The teachings of the Bible lost importance to some.  Some people rejected religion altogether, becoming “secular humanists.”  But even later, the greatest scientific works were by devout Christians like Isaac Newton and Louis Pasteur.

Centuries after the Renaissance, secularism did creep in.  Secularism is defined as preoccupation with the material world at the expense of the heavenly one.  This caused people to become increasingly materialistic.  The teachings of the Bible lost importance to some.  Some people rejected religion altogether, becoming “secular humanists.”  But even later, the greatest scientific works were by devout Christians like Isaac Newton and Louis Pasteur.

The heart of the Renaissance was in Italy, but there were also great artists and thinkers in northern Europe (primarily the Netherlands and Germany) who built on the achievements of those in Italy.  Their achievements are known as the “Northern Renaissance.”

The heart of the Renaissance was in Italy, but there were also great artists and thinkers in northern Europe (primarily the Netherlands and Germany) who built on the achievements of those in Italy.  Their achievements are known as the “Northern Renaissance.”

'''The leading thinker of the Northern Renaissance was Desiderius Erasmus''' (1466-1536) in the Netherlands.  He wanted more spirituality in the Catholic Church and urged a greater emphasis on the teachings of Jesus.  He published a Greek edition of the New Testament, and was the first scholar to become famous through '''use of the printing press, developed in Germany in 1447''' during the Northern Renaissance.  Erasmus also wrote satires about the Church that led others to criticize it too, but Erasmus condemned Luther and strenuously opposed the Reformation.

'''The leading thinker of the Northern Renaissance was Desiderius Erasmus''' (1466-1536) in the Netherlands.  He wanted more spirituality in the Catholic Church and urged more of an emphasis on the teachings of Jesus.  He published a Greek edition of the New Testament, and was the first scholar to become famous through '''use of the printing press, developed in Germany in 1447''' during the Northern Renaissance.  Erasmus also wrote satires about the Church that led others to criticize it too, but Erasmus condemned Luther and strenuously opposed the Reformation.

'''Albrecht Durer''' (1471-1528) was the leading artist in Germany, copying the style of the High Renaissance that combined grace and extreme elegance, a style known as “Mannerism”.  Durer created famous woodcuts and copper engravings.

'''Albrecht Durer''' (1471-1528) was the leading artist in Germany, copying the style of the High Renaissance that combined grace and extreme elegance, a style known as “Mannerism”.  Durer created famous woodcuts and copper engravings.

'''The greatest painter in all of Northern Europe was the Dutch (Netherlands) artist Rembrandt''' (1606-1669), who drew many great portraits known for their depiction of light and shadow.  The increased number of portraits by Rembrandt and others demonstrated the new emphasis on individualism in the Renaissance.  Other great painters included '''Jan Van Eyck''' (1400s) and '''Pieter Bruegel''' (mid-1500s), both of Flanders (a region from parts of the Netherlands, Belgium and France today).

'''The greatest painter in all of Northern Europe was the Dutch (Netherlands) artist Rembrandt''' (1606-1669), who drew many marvelous portraits known for their depiction of light and shadow.  The increased number of portraits by Rembrandt and others demonstrated the new emphasis on individualism in the Renaissance.  Other superb painters included '''Jan Van Eyck''' (1400s) and '''Pieter Bruegel''' (mid-1500s), both of Flanders (a region from parts of the Netherlands, Belgium and France today).

In England, '''William Shakespeare (1564-1616) became the greatest playwright in the history of the world''', and Sir Francis Bacon (1561-1626) was a leading English statesman, writer and philosopher, who rose to become Lord Chancellor (1618) until he was impeached in 1621 for accepting bribes.

In England, '''William Shakespeare (1564-1616) became the greatest playwright in the history of the world''', and Sir Francis Bacon (1561-1626) was a leading English statesman, writer and philosopher, who rose to become Lord Chancellor (1618) until he was impeached in 1621 for accepting bribes.

Under Catholic doctrine the souls of the deceased enter “purgatory” for a process of purification before reaching Heaven.  Prayers are typically offered for the benefit of the souls of the deceased, quite often relatives.  “Indulgences” are the lessening of the punishment (purification) of someone after they die.  A person typically seeks an indulgence for a dear relative or friend who has passed away.

Under Catholic doctrine the souls of the deceased enter “purgatory” for a process of purification before reaching Heaven.  Prayers are typically offered for the benefit of the souls of the deceased, quite often relatives.  “Indulgences” are the lessening of the punishment (purification) of someone after they die.  A person typically seeks an indulgence for a dear relative or friend who has passed away.

In fund-raising to rebuild St. Peter’s Basilica, church officials offered indulgences in exchange for donations.  No one in Rome seemed to mind, but Martin Luther in Germany objected.  He nailed 95 objections or “Theses” to a church door in the German part of Europe in 1517, inviting debate on how the pope was offering indulgences.  Here are two of Luther’s "theses" or objections:

In fundraising to rebuild St. Peter’s Basilica, church officials offered indulgences in exchange for donations.  No one in Rome seemed to mind, but Martin Luther in Germany objected.  He nailed 95 objections or “Theses” to a church door in the German part of Europe in 1517, inviting debate on how the pope was offering indulgences.  Here are two of Luther’s "theses" or objections:

:Thesis 82:  “Why does not the pope empty purgatory, for the sake of holy love and of the dire need of the souls that are there, if he redeems an infinite number of souls for the sake of miserable money with which to build a Church? The former reasons would be most just; the latter is most trivial.”   

:Thesis 82:  “Why does not the pope empty purgatory, for the sake of holy love and of the dire need of the souls that are there, if he redeems an infinite number of souls for the sake of miserable money with which to build a Church? The former reasons would be most just; the latter is most trivial.”   

There was a political element to Germany breaking away from Rome.  German nobles did not like the flow of money to Rome, and they backed Martin Luther in order to cut off the donations by Germans to support Rome.  

There was a political element to Germany breaking away from Rome.  German nobles did not like the flow of money to Rome, and they backed Martin Luther in order to cut off the donations by Germans to support Rome.  

In 1520, Pope Leo X announced the papal bull Exsurge Domine, which required Luther to withdraw 41 of his 95 Theses or be excommunicated.  Luther refused and was then excommunicated (kicked out) by the Catholic Church.

In 1520, Pope Leo X announced the papal bull (formal proclamation) Exsurge Domine, which required Luther to withdraw 41 of his 95 Theses or be excommunicated.  Luther refused and was then excommunicated (kicked out) by the Catholic Church.

It was then up to German authorities to take any legal action against Luther.  The 21-year-old Holy Roman Emperor Charles V ordered Luther to stand trial before an assembly (a “Diet”) of estates of the Holy Roman Empire that met in Worms, a small town in what is now Germany.  This famous assembly is therefore known as the “Diet of Worms.”  The verdict (the “Edict of Worms”) was “guilty”.  Luther was declared an outlaw who should be arrested.   

It was then up to German authorities to take any legal action against Luther.  The 21-year-old Holy Roman Emperor Charles V ordered Luther to stand trial before an assembly (a “Diet”) of estates of the Holy Roman Empire that met in Worms, a small town in what is now Germany.  This famous assembly is therefore known as the “Diet of Worms.”  The verdict (the “Edict of Worms”) was “guilty”.  Luther was declared an outlaw who should be arrested.   

Luther translated Romans 3:28 by adding an extra German word for “alone” (alleine or alleyn) after the phrase: “justified by faith”:  “So halten wir nun dafür, daß der Mensch gerecht werde ohne des Gesetzes Werke, '''alleyn''' durch den Glauben.”  Luther believed that man is justified (saved) by faith '''alone''', and that salvation comes only from faith.  The Catholic Church (and Eastern Orthodox Church) taught that man is justified (saved) by faith ''and good works''.

Luther translated Romans 3:28 by adding an extra German word for “alone” (alleine or alleyn) after the phrase: “justified by faith”:  “So halten wir nun dafür, daß der Mensch gerecht werde ohne des Gesetzes Werke, '''alleyn''' durch den Glauben.”  Luther believed that man is justified (saved) by faith '''alone''', and that salvation comes only from faith.  The Catholic Church (and Eastern Orthodox Church) taught that man is justified (saved) by faith ''and good works''.

A remarkable invention awaited Luther’s German translation of the Bible.  Previously, in 1447, the German Johannes Gutenberg had already invented the printing press (with movable type).  This enabled Luther’s translation to be printed for the public in September 1522.  The Christian world would never be the same again.  (The Gutenberg Bible (in Latin, not German), had been printed in 1455 and it is the oldest existing (extant) book in the West.)

A remarkable invention awaited Luther’s German translation of the Bible.  Previously, in 1447, the German Johannes Gutenberg had already invented the printing press (with movable type).  This enabled Luther’s translation to be printed for the public in September 1522.  The Christian world would never be the same again.  (The original Gutenberg Bible was in Latin, not German, and had already been printed in 1455; it is the oldest existing (extant) book in the West.)

The Holy Roman Emperor Charles V tried to stop this new Christian religion of Lutheranism.  In 1544, Charles V even sent armies against the German princes.  But the Peace of Augsburg in 1555 gave each German ruler the right to choose the religion for his own State.  The princes in southern Germany selected Roman Catholicism, but the princes in northern Germany chose Lutheranism.  After World War II, when Germany split into West and East Germany, the West German part contained the predominantly Roman Catholic regions and the East German part consisted of the mostly Lutheran regions.

The Holy Roman Emperor Charles V tried to stop this new Christian religion of Lutheranism.  In 1544, Charles V even sent armies against the German princes.  But the Peace of Augsburg in 1555 gave each German ruler the right to choose the religion for his own State.  The princes in southern Germany selected Roman Catholicism, but the princes in northern Germany chose Lutheranism.  After World War II, when Germany split into West and East Germany, the West German part contained the predominantly Roman Catholic regions and the East German part consisted of the mostly Lutheran regions.

Martin Luther continued to write, and taught at a German university for his financial support.  He wrote extremely harsh things about the pope and about Jewish people, even urging the destruction of their homes and the burning of synagogues and schools.  Historians debate today whether Luther’s anti-Semitic (anti-Jewish) writings were responsible, directly or indirectly, for the Holocaust by the Germans in World War II.  Luther harshly criticized many peoples in addition to Jews; a pamphlet of his in 1545 was entitled “Against the Roman Papacy an Institution of the Devil,” and he urged burning witches to death. Some of Luther’s writings seem quite vulgar by today’s standards.  Luther was in poor health for several years before he died, in 1546.

Martin Luther continued to write, and taught at a German university for his financial support.  He wrote extremely harsh things about the pope and about Jewish people, even urging the destruction of their homes and the burning of synagogues and schools.  Historians debate today whether Luther’s anti-Semitic (anti-Jewish) writings were responsible, directly or indirectly, for the Holocaust by the Germans in World War II.  Luther harshly criticized many peoples in addition to Jews; a pamphlet of his in 1545 was entitled “Against the Roman Papacy an Institution of the Devil,” and he urged burning witches to death. Some of Luther’s writings seem quite vulgar by today’s standards.  Luther was in poor health for several years before he died, in 1546.

Today Lutheranism has only 70 million adherents, which is only about 7% of the Catholic population.  But nearly all Christians, including Catholics, have sung a famous hymn written by Luther:  “A Mighty Fortress is Our God.”  Moreover, hundreds of millions of Christians worldwide agree with Luther that justification or salvation is by faith alone.

Today Lutheranism has about 70 million adherents, which is only about 7% as much as the Catholic population.  But nearly all Christians, including Catholics, have sung a famous hymn written by Luther:  “A Mighty Fortress is Our God.”  Moreover, hundreds of millions of Christians worldwide agree with Luther that justification or salvation is by faith alone.

===The Schism in England===

===The Schism in England===

The King of England split from the Roman Catholic Church in 1529 for reasons completely independent of Martin Luther and the German schism.  In fact, the King of England defended the pope against Martin Luther’s complaints.  But a different issue arose in England that had nothing to do with theology.  The King of England did not think that a pope in Rome should have the power to tell him whom he could or could not marry.  This schism was purely over power.

The King of England split from the Roman Catholic Church in 1529 for reasons completely independent of Martin Luther and the German schism.  In fact, the King of England defended the pope against Martin Luther’s complaints.  But a different issue arose in England that had nothing to do with theology.  The King of England did not think that a pope in Rome should have the power to tell him whom he could or could not marry.  This schism was purely over power.

King Henry VIII sought a (male) heir, but did not have any sons from his marriage to Queen Catherine of Aragon.  King Henry VIII demanded a divorce from her so that he could take a younger wife (Anne Boleyn), who might give birth to a baby boy.  King Henry VIII sought approval by the pope to divorce Queen Catherine and marry Anne Boleyn.  The pope refused.  The king next did what he wanted and founded the Church of England (the Anglican Church) in 1529.  The pope excommunicated the king in about 1535.  The king then beheaded any member of the Catholic clergy (including Thomas More) who refused to bow down to this new Church of England, and the king seized lands belonging to the Catholic Church for the benefit of the new Church of England.  Religious conflict in England ensued for several hundred years.

King Henry VIII sought a (male) heir, but did not have any sons from his marriage to Queen Catherine of Aragon.  King Henry VIII demanded a divorce from her so that he could take a younger wife (Anne Boleyn), who might give birth to a baby boy.  King Henry VIII sought approval by the pope to divorce Queen Catherine and marry Anne Boleyn.  The pope refused.  The king next did what he wanted and founded the Church of England (the Anglican Church) in 1529.  The pope excommunicated the king around 1535.  The king then beheaded any member of the Catholic clergy (including Thomas More) who refused to bow down to this new Church of England, and the king seized lands belonging to the Catholic Church for the benefit of the new Church of England.  Religious conflict in England ensued for several hundred years.

Subsequently, King Henry VIII tired of his new wife Anne Boleyn, and arranged for a divorce from her in order to marry Jane Seymour.  He forced Anne Boleyn to be beheaded, along with others falsely accused of wrongdoing.  Jane Seymour did give birth to a son (Edward) who became Henry VIII’s heir to the thrown.  But Henry VIII divorced and married, and divorced and married, and divorced and married, over and over.  He had a total of six wives in his life.  The fate of each wife can be remembered by this catchy mnemonic:  “divorced, beheaded, died, divorced, beheaded, survived.”

Subsequently, King Henry VIII tired of his new wife Anne Boleyn, and arranged for a divorce from her in order to marry Jane Seymour.  He forced Anne Boleyn to be beheaded, along with others falsely accused of wrongdoing.  Jane Seymour did give birth to a son (Edward) who became Henry VIII’s heir to the thrown.  But Henry VIII divorced and married, and divorced and married, and divorced and married, over and over.  He had a total of six wives in his life.  The fate of each of the six wives of King Henry VIII can be remembered by this catchy mnemonic:  “divorced, beheaded, died, divorced, beheaded, survived.”

There were subsequently “protestant” separations from the Church of England.  For example, the Pilgrims who left England on the Mayflower and landed in Plymouth, Massachusetts, sought to break away from the Church of England.  The larger and more successful Puritans who settled in Boston sought to “purify” the Church of England while remaining in it.

There were subsequently “protestant” separations from the Church of England.  For example, the Pilgrims who left England on the Mayflower and landed in Plymouth, Massachusetts, sought to break away from the Church of England.  The larger and more successful Puritans who settled in Boston sought to “purify” the Church of England while remaining in it.

Today the Anglican Church and its affiliate branches worldwide (called the Episcopalians in the United States) has about 80 million members.

Today the Anglican Church and its affiliate branches worldwide (called the Episcopalians in the United States) have about 80 million members - roughly the same size as the Lutheran Church.

===Other Protestant Reformation Movements===

===Other Protestant Reformation Movements===

Martin Luther was not the first to protest against the Catholic Church, and to break away from it.  Wycliffe in England, discussed earlier in this lecture, was nearly 200 years before Luther.  Then, 100 years before Luther, John Huss (or Jan Hus) (1372-1415) was a preacher in Prague who picked up on Wycliffe’s views and spread them in northern and eastern Europe.  Born in southern Bohemia, Huss harshly criticized immorality in the clergy and preached a doctrine concerning the Eucharist that was considered to be heretical.  He was excommunicated by the Catholic Church in 1411.  A Council of Constance was convened under an “antipope” (not the official pope), and this Council tried Huss in 1414 and burned him at the stake, making him a martyr.  His followers, known as Hussites, successfully fought battles against the Holy Roman Empire.

Martin Luther was not the first to protest against the Catholic Church, and to break away from it.  Wycliffe in England, discussed earlier in this lecture, was nearly 200 years before Luther.  Then, 100 years before Luther, John Huss (or Jan Hus) (1372-1415) was a preacher in Prague who picked up on Wycliffe’s views and spread them in northern and eastern Europe.  Born in southern Bohemia, Huss harshly criticized immorality in the clergy and preached a doctrine concerning the Eucharist that was considered to be heretical.  He was excommunicated by the Catholic Church in 1411.  A Council of Constance was convened under an “antipope” (not the official pope), and this Council tried Huss in 1414 and burned him at the stake, making him a martyr.  His followers, known as Hussites, successfully fought battles against the Holy Roman Empire.

There was even internal strife within the Catholic Church in Italy in the late 1400s, before the Reformation.  A Dominican friar in Florence named Girolamo Savonarola (1452-1498) challenged the authority of the pope with fiery sermons and, after his excommunication, saying Mass without authority to do so.  His outspokenness against immorality in the Catholic Church and in the powerful Medici family won Savonarola many supporters at first, but eventually the people of Florence turned against him, stormed his monastery, took him prisoner, and then tried, convicted and hanged him.   

There was even internal strife within the Catholic Church in Italy in the late 1400s, before the Reformation.  A Dominican friar in Florence named Girolamo Savonarola (1452-1498) challenged the authority of the pope with fiery sermons and, after his excommunication, would provide Mass without authority to do so.  His outspokenness against immorality in the Catholic Church and in the powerful Medici family won Savonarola many supporters at first, but eventually the people of Florence turned against him, stormed his monastery, took him prisoner, and then tried, convicted and hanged him.   

There was a Reformation in Switzerland started by Ulrich Zwingli (1484-1531) and continued by John Calvin (1509-1564), who emphasized justification by faith alone and also predestination.  Predestination is a doctrine stating that the decision about who goes to Heaven and who to Hell was made before the creation of the world, and this differentiates Calvinism from other Christian denominations.  It is not obvious how predestination can be reconciled with free will, and most Christians reject predestination, but Calvinists say that both free will and predestination exist.  Calvin established a theocracy in Geneva, Switzerland.

There was a Reformation in Switzerland started by Ulrich Zwingli (1484-1531) and continued by John Calvin (1509-1564), who emphasized justification by faith alone and also predestination.  Predestination is a doctrine stating that the decision about who goes to Heaven and who to Hell was made before the creation of the world, and this differentiates Calvinism from other Christian denominations.  It is not obvious how predestination can be reconciled with free will, and most Christians reject predestination, but Calvinists say that both free will and predestination exist.  Calvin established a theocracy in Geneva, Switzerland.

Another denomination called “Anabaptists” developed based on adult baptism and a strict separation of church and state.  The Quakers, Baptists, Amish and Mennonites, including many in this country, are from the Anabaptists.  The Quakers are essentially “protestant” of any Christian denomination that has a paid clergy, because the Quakers reject the concept of a paid clergy.  In a sense, Quakers are "Protestant Protestants," protesting against even organized Protestant denominations.  Another denomination, the Presbyterian Church, arose in Scotland, founded by John Knox.

Another denomination called “Anabaptists” developed based on adult baptism and a strict separation of church and state.  The Quakers, Baptists, Amish and Mennonites, including many in this country, are from the Anabaptists.  The Quakers are essentially “protestant” of any Christian denomination that has a paid clergy, because the Quakers reject the concept of a paid clergy.  In a sense, Quakers are "Protestant Protestants," protesting against even organized Protestant denominations.  Another denomination, the Presbyterian Church, arose in Scotland, founded by John Knox.

Today, there are over 33,000 Protestant denominations in 238 countries, increasing at a rate of about 270 to 300 new denominations each year.<ref>''See'' the World Christian Encyclopedia (2001) by David B. Barrett, et al.</ref>  Protestants total 590 million today, about 27% of the worldwide Christian population, though it is not always clear whether a Christian denomination should be labeled as “Protestant”.  Is the Anglican Church, which has 73 million adherents, properly called “Protestant”?

Today, there are over 33,000 Protestant denominations in 238 countries, increasing at a rate of about 270 to 300 new denominations each year.<ref>''See'' the World Christian Encyclopedia (2001) by David B. Barrett, et al.</ref>  Protestants total 590 million today, about 27% of the worldwide Christian population, though it is not always clear whether a Christian denomination should be labeled as “Protestant”.  Is the Anglican Church, which has more than 10% of the total, properly called “Protestant”?  Many Anglicans would answer, “no”.  Are Mormons “Protestant”?

A majority of the United States has always been Protestant, as has nearly every president except John F. Kennedy (who was Catholic).  Nearly every Founder of the United States was Protestant.

A majority of the United States has always been Protestant, as has nearly every president except John F. Kennedy (who was Catholic).  Nearly every Founder of the United States was Protestant.

The immediate effect of the Reformation was to strengthen the nation-state.  England and Germany acquired their own churches, and that meant Rome was no longer the center of power.  Catholics and Protestants began competing against each other, seeking to increase their numbers.  Both started building better schools, and overall began trying harder.

The immediate effect of the Reformation was to strengthen the nation-state.  England and Germany acquired their own churches, and that meant Rome was no longer the center of power.  Catholics and Protestants began competing against each other, seeking to increase their numbers.  Both started building better schools, and overall began trying harder.

The Reformation resulted in the translation of the Bible into local languages, which increased the use of "vernacular" (local languages) and decreased reliance on old Latin.

The Reformation resulted in the translation of the Bible into local languages, which increased the use of "vernacular" (local languages) and decreased reliance on Latin.

The bad news is that for more than a hundred years, and even longer in England, religious wars raged between Catholics and Protestants.  Tragically, Christians killed other Christians over religious differences.  To this day the division between Catholics and Protestants weakens Christianity in several respects and makes it easier for enemies of Christianity to prevail.  Often anti-Christians will try to drive a wedge between Christians and cause disagreements that would not otherwise arise, in order to gain advantage against all Christians.

The bad news is that for more than a hundred years, and even longer in England, religious wars raged between Catholics and Protestants.  Tragically, Christians killed other Christians over religious differences.  To this day the division between Catholics and Protestants weakens Christianity in several respects and makes it easier for enemies of Christianity to prevail.  Often anti-Christians will try to drive a wedge between Christians and cause disagreements that would not otherwise arise, in order to gain advantage against all Christians.

The massive continent of Asia is divided into “South Asia” (India), “East Asia” (China, Japan and Korea), “Southeast Asia” (Vietnam and Cambodia), and “Southwest Asia” (the Middle East).  In this section we learn about East and Southeast Asia, discussing in particular what happened in China in the Middle Ages (other than the Mongols, whom we discussed in our prior lecture).

The massive continent of Asia is divided into “South Asia” (India), “East Asia” (China, Japan and Korea), “Southeast Asia” (Vietnam and Cambodia), and “Southwest Asia” (the Middle East).  In this section we learn about East and Southeast Asia, discussing in particular what happened in China in the Middle Ages (other than the Mongols, whom we discussed in our prior lecture).

Recall that in the ancient world China first had the Zhou dynasty (1122-221 B.C.) north of the Yangtze River.  Next China had its first imperial or national Chinese dynasty:  the Qin or Ch’in dynasty (221-206 B.C.), which was founded by the ruler of the Zhou vassal state Qin, Prince Zheng.  The Qin dynasty began to construct the Great Wall to defend against foreign invaders, which stretches today for 1,400 miles.  It has been said that the Great Wall is the only man-made structure visible from outer space, but actually several other structures (ancient Egyptian pyramids and the Hoover Dam) are even more visible.<ref>http://www.space.com/scienceastronomy/visible_from_space_031006.html</ref>

Recall that in the ancient world China first had the Zhou dynasty (1027-221 B.C.) north of the Yangtze River.  Next China had its first imperial or national Chinese dynasty:  the Qin or Ch’in dynasty (221-206 B.C.), which was founded by the ruler of the Zhou vassal state Qin, Prince Zheng.  The Qin dynasty began to construct the Great Wall to defend against foreign invaders, which stretches today for 1,400 miles.  It has been said that the Great Wall is the only man-made structure visible from outer space, but actually several other structures (ancient Egyptian pyramids and the Hoover Dam) are even more visible.<ref>http://www.space.com/scienceastronomy/visible_from_space_031006.html</ref>

The Han empire or dynasty (206 B.C. to A.D. 220, with only a brief interruption from A.D. 6-23) built on the foundation of the Qin dynasty, extending the walls and roads.  The Han dynasty expanded the territory of China into Southeastern Asia regions of Vietnam and Korea, and administered the country from a centralized and organized civil service.  This Han dynasty was comparable to the Roman empire, and lasted the longest of any dynasty in China.  Its state philosophy was Confucianism.  But the Han dynasty fell just as the Roman empire did.   

The Han empire or dynasty (206 B.C. to A.D. 220, with only a brief interruption from A.D. 6-23) built on the foundation of the Qin dynasty, extending the walls and roads.  The Han dynasty expanded the territory of China into Southeastern Asia regions of Vietnam and Korea, and administered the country from a centralized and organized civil service.  This Han dynasty was comparable to the Roman empire, and lasted the longest of any dynasty in China.  Its state philosophy was Confucianism.  But the Han dynasty fell just as the Roman empire did.   

The Sui dynasty established centralized rule in China in A.D. 589 for the first time since the Han dynasty in A.D. 220.  In other words, China went without a centralized government for over 300 years, from 220 to the establishment of the Sui Dynasty in 589.   

The Sui dynasty established centralized rule in China in A.D. 589 for the first time since the Han dynasty in A.D. 220.  In other words, China went without a centralized government for over 300 years, from 220 to the establishment of the Sui Dynasty in 589.   

The Sui dynasty ruled for only a very brief period of 29 years, until A.D. 618.  But in that brief period of time it accomplished something magnificent:  it built the Grand Canal to connect northern and southern China.  This tremendous engineering achievement consisted of a canal nearly 1240 miles long, with a road running alongside it on each side.  It enabled the transportation of agricultural products such as rice from the fertile Yangtze River valley to northern China.   

The Sui dynasty ruled for only a very brief period of 29 years, until A.D. 618.  But in that brief period of time it accomplished something magnificent:  it built the Grand Canal to connect northern and southern China.  This tremendous engineering achievement established a canal nearly 1240 miles long, with a road running alongside it on each side.  It enabled the transportation of agricultural products such as rice from the fertile Yangtze River valley to northern China.   

Other construction also occurred, such as repairing walls that defend China.  (The current “Great Wall of China” was based on walls built as early as 210 B.C., but its present form was not completed until the Ming dynasty (A.D. 1368-1544)).   

Other construction also occurred, such as repairing walls that defend China.  (The current “Great Wall of China” was based on walls built as early as 210 B.C., but its present form was not completed until the Ming dynasty (A.D. 1368-1544)).   

The Lu dynasty of Vietnam ruled from 1009 to 1225 and established a capital at Hanoi, which remains the capital to this day.   

The Lu dynasty of Vietnam ruled from 1009 to 1225 and established a capital at Hanoi, which remains the capital to this day.   

The Vietnamese have always been fierce fighters.  They defeated three attempts by the mighty Mongols to conquer Hanoi in the late 1200s.

The Vietnamese have always been fierce fighters.  They defeated three attempts by the mighty Mongols to conquer Hanoi in the late 1200s, defeated France in the 1950s, and defeated the United States in the Vietnam War in the 1960s and early 1970s.

Historians describe the treatment of women in Vietnam as having been better than in China.

Historians describe the treatment of women in Vietnam as having been better than in China.