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World History – Exploration and Enlightenment

[[World History Lecture One|1]]-[[World History Lecture Two|2]]-[[World History Lecture Three|3]]-[[World History Lecture Four|4]]-[[World History Lecture Five|5]]-[[World History Lecture Six|6]]-[[World History Lecture Seven|7]]-[[World History Lecture Eight|8]]-[[World History Lecture Nine|9]]-[[World History Lecture Ten|10]]-[[World History Lecture Eleven|11]]-[[World History Lecture Twelve|12]]-[[World History Lecture Thirteen|13]]-[[World History Lecture Fourteen|14]]

<br>Eighth Lecture

Eighth Lecture – Exploration and Enlightenment

 

 

==Introduction==

<br> E.    China’s Role in the Age of Exploration

<br>III. Growth of Nation-States and Monarchs

<br>V.  The Enlightenment

'''I. Introduction'''

The “Age of Exploration” consisted of Christians from Europe searching the rest of our globe to spread the faith and seek wealth, particularly between 1450 and 1650.  This began the “Global Age” in world history, which continues to this day.

The “Age of Exploration” consisted of Christians from Europe searching the rest of our globe to spread the faith and seek wealth, particularly between 1450 and 1650.  This began the “Global Age” in world history, which continues to this day.

As Europe was emerging from the Middle Ages and experiencing the Renaissance, people had the curiosity and the courage to look beyond their own continent to others.  Scientific discoveries and technological improvements made it easier to travel across the vast oceans.  Christians sought to spread their faith far and wide, and merchants sought new goods and business opportunities in both the East and West.  North and South America awaited visits by the Europeans.

As Europe was emerging from the Middle Ages and experiencing the Renaissance, people had the curiosity and the courage to look beyond their own continent to others.  Scientific discoveries and technological improvements made it easier to travel across the vast oceans.  Christians sought to spread their faith far and wide, and merchants sought new goods and business opportunities in both the East and West.  North and South America awaited visits by the Europeans.

'''II. The Age of Exploration'''

==The Age of Exploration==

The Portuguese were the first great explorers.  They developed the “caravel”, a small, lightweight ship with three lateen-sailed masts that could hold much more cargo than previous ships.  The more cargo that a ship could hold, the greater its profits would be, as cargo consisted of goods that could be picked up in a faraway land and sold upon the ship’s return to its homeland.  European demand was strong for exotic Indian goods, especially spices, and this drove explorers to discover new routes to India different from the Eastern Mediterranean trade controlled by the Ottomans.  The discovery of new western routes accidentally led to the discovery of lands in the New World (Western Hemisphere).  Portugal and Spain then emerged as the two major players in what was to become an intense European competition for exploration, conversion and colonization.   

The Portuguese were the first great explorers.  They developed the “caravel”, a small, lightweight ship with three lateen-sailed masts that could hold much more cargo than previous ships.  The more cargo that a ship could hold, the greater its profits would be, as cargo consisted of goods that could be picked up in a faraway land and sold upon the ship’s return to its homeland.  European demand was strong for exotic Indian goods, especially spices, and this drove explorers to discover new routes to India different from the Eastern Mediterranean trade controlled by the Ottomans.  The discovery of new western routes accidentally led to the discovery of lands in the New World (Western Hemisphere).  Portugal and Spain then emerged as the two major players in what was to become an intense European competition for exploration, conversion and colonization.   

'''A. Portuguese Exploration'''

===Portuguese Exploration===

The Portuguese initiated the age of exploration in Europe as early as 1394, when Prince Henry the Navigator established his School of Navigation and made it his life’s work to explore the West African coast and reach the Indian Ocean.  His ships reached as far as Sierra Leone, but he failed to reach India.  Another explorer named Bartholomew Diaz failed to reach India also, but he did manage to sail around the tip of Africa (the Cape of Good Hope) in 1487.   

The Portuguese initiated the age of exploration in Europe as early as 1394, when Prince Henry the Navigator established his School of Navigation and made it his life’s work to explore the West African coast and reach the Indian Ocean.  His ships reached as far as Sierra Leone, but he failed to reach India.  Another explorer named Bartholomew Diaz failed to reach India also, but he did manage to sail around the tip of Africa (the Cape of Good Hope) in 1487.   

Vasco da Gama finally reached India by sailing eastward around Africa and up the East African coast between 1497 and 1499, with the help of the powerful monsoon winds.  Shortly thereafter, regular trade was established with India under the Portuguese King Manuel, and conflict began with the Muslims over dominance of Indian Ocean trade.   

Vasco da Gama finally reached India by sailing eastward around Africa and up the East African coast between 1497 and 1499, with the help of the powerful monsoon winds.  Shortly thereafter, regular trade was established with India under the Portuguese King Manuel, and conflict began with the Muslims over dominance of Indian Ocean trade.   

'''B. Spanish Exploration'''

===Spanish Exploration===

The Spanish entered the scene in the year 1492—during the reign of King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella, who were working hard to defeat Islam and establish Christianity as the only religion in Spain.  Known as the “Reconquista” (or Reconquest) of Spain, this was accomplished first through the reconquest of Granada, the last Muslim city in Spain.  As explained in the prior Lecture, Queen Isabella ordered all Muslims and Jewish residents to convert or leave Spain.  Initially, this caused Spain an economic and academic setback, as Jewish residents had comprised a large number of scholars and merchants.

The Spanish entered the scene in the year 1492—during the reign of King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella, who were working hard to defeat Islam and establish Christianity as the only religion in Spain.  Known as the “Reconquista” (or Reconquest) of Spain, this was accomplished first through the reconquest of Granada, the last Muslim city in Spain.  As explained in the prior Lecture, Queen Isabella ordered all Muslims and Jewish residents to convert or leave Spain.  Initially, this caused Spain an economic and academic setback, as Jewish residents had comprised a large number of scholars and merchants.

Using the Spanish system of “encomiendas”, many of the South American natives became slaves to their Spanish conquerors.  A Dominican monk and missionary, Bartholomew de Las Casas, sent sensational descriptions to the Spanish government of the supposed atrocities committed against the “patient, meek and peaceful” natives by the Spanish conquistadors, whom he described as “cruel tigers, wolves and lions.”  Although some of what Las Casas said was true, historical research has proved most of it to be false and exaggerated.  However dishonest his methods may have been, Las Casas’ reports eventually led to the king of Spain issuing “New Laws,” by which exploitation of the natives was ended by the replacement of the old “encomiendas” with the new “repartimientos”.  Both systems are criticized as unfair today.  The system of “encomiendas” was based on royal grants of land, while the system of “repartimientos” was based on gifts of Indian labor.  Either way, the Indians ended up working for the Spanish.

Using the Spanish system of “encomiendas”, many of the South American natives became slaves to their Spanish conquerors.  A Dominican monk and missionary, Bartholomew de Las Casas, sent sensational descriptions to the Spanish government of the supposed atrocities committed against the “patient, meek and peaceful” natives by the Spanish conquistadors, whom he described as “cruel tigers, wolves and lions.”  Although some of what Las Casas said was true, historical research has proved most of it to be false and exaggerated.  However dishonest his methods may have been, Las Casas’ reports eventually led to the king of Spain issuing “New Laws,” by which exploitation of the natives was ended by the replacement of the old “encomiendas” with the new “repartimientos”.  Both systems are criticized as unfair today.  The system of “encomiendas” was based on royal grants of land, while the system of “repartimientos” was based on gifts of Indian labor.  Either way, the Indians ended up working for the Spanish.

'''C. Exploration by Other Nations'''

===Exploration by Other Nations===

Other European nations participated in exploration as well.  King Henry VII of England sent John Cabot, a resident of London born in Genoa (like Columbus), to explore across the Northern Atlantic Ocean.  Cabot discovered Newfoundland and the New England coast in 1497 and 1498, respectively, and the land became the property of England.  From France, Jacques Cartier discovered Canada and the Mississippi Basin, including Louisiana in 1534 and 1541.  These colonies were initially less significant than those in South America, and there was a lack of initial interest in North America because it did not have the gold and silver of South America.  Whereas intermarriage and cultural blending occurred heavily among the Spanish and the Indians in South America, it barely existed between the English or French and the Indians in North America.   

Other European nations participated in exploration as well.  King Henry VII of England sent John Cabot, a resident of London born in Genoa (like Columbus), to explore across the Northern Atlantic Ocean.  Cabot discovered Newfoundland and the New England coast in 1497 and 1498, respectively, and the land became the property of England.  From France, Jacques Cartier discovered Canada and the Mississippi Basin, including Louisiana in 1534 and 1541.  These colonies were initially less significant than those in South America, and there was a lack of initial interest in North America because it did not have the gold and silver of South America.  Whereas intermarriage and cultural blending occurred heavily among the Spanish and the Indians in South America, it barely existed between the English or French and the Indians in North America.   

Of course, eventually the interest and development in North America increased and surpassed that of South America.  Commercial competition between European nations in North America culminated in the Seven Years’ War (1756-1763)—a conflict brought to America in the form of the French and Indian War.  This War marked the end of French (and Spanish) influence in North America, and signaled the rise of Britain as the primary world superpower for the next 150 years.

Of course, eventually the interest and development in North America increased and surpassed that of South America.  Commercial competition between European nations in North America culminated in the Seven Years’ War (1756-1763)—a conflict brought to America in the form of the French and Indian War.  This War marked the end of French (and Spanish) influence in North America, and signaled the rise of Britain as the primary world superpower for the next 150 years.

'''D. The Slave Trade'''

===The Slave Trade===

In what is known as the “Columbian Exchange,” plants and animals were brought from America to Europe and vice-versa.  Columbus brought from Europe to America wheat, melons, onions, grapes, sugar cane and horses.  Horses proved to be influential not only in the European conquest of native peoples but also in the natives’ abilities to avoid white settlers, particularly among the Plains Indians in North America.   

In what is known as the “Columbian Exchange,” plants and animals were brought from America to Europe and vice-versa.  Columbus brought from Europe to America wheat, melons, onions, grapes, sugar cane and horses.  Horses proved to be influential not only in the European conquest of native peoples but also in the natives’ abilities to avoid white settlers, particularly among the Plains Indians in North America.   

The end of slavery in Europe was not to come until the beginning of the 1800s, when Christian reformers such as William Wilberforce and John Wesley began speaking out against the evils of the system. Although the United States banned slave trade in the early 1800s, slavery itself was not abolished until decades later in 1865 when the 13th Amendment was passed, and in South America it was finally ended in Brazil in 1888.   

The end of slavery in Europe was not to come until the beginning of the 1800s, when Christian reformers such as William Wilberforce and John Wesley began speaking out against the evils of the system. Although the United States banned slave trade in the early 1800s, slavery itself was not abolished until decades later in 1865 when the 13th Amendment was passed, and in South America it was finally ended in Brazil in 1888.   

'''E. China’s Role in the Age of Exploration'''

===China’s Role in the Age of Exploration===

In the East, under the Ming dynasty, Emperor Yongle sent a band of explorers led by “Zheng He” throughout parts of southern Asia, Persia, Arabia and Africa.  The crew of over 28,000 men embarked on seven naval expeditions in the Indian Ocean from 1405 to 1423 and as a result, trade with East Africa began.  However, by the 1430s, Mongol raids caused the Chinese to withdraw from exploration for the time being, and instead spend their time and money on defenses such as repairing the Great Wall.  

In the East, under the Ming dynasty, Emperor Yongle sent a band of explorers led by “Zheng He” throughout parts of southern Asia, Persia, Arabia and Africa.  The crew of over 28,000 men embarked on seven naval expeditions in the Indian Ocean from 1405 to 1423 and as a result, trade with East Africa began.  However, by the 1430s, Mongol raids caused the Chinese to withdraw from exploration for the time being, and instead spend their time and money on defenses such as repairing the Great Wall.  

China did not withdraw completely from world trade during the Ming and Qing dynasties.  China continued to trade with the Spanish, Portuguese, Japanese and Dutch, mainly for silver, which had become the Chinese currency.  Under the Ming dynasty, beautiful blue and white porcelain was produced and exported.  The influence of the Ming vase spread throughout the Muslim and Christian worlds, as seen in Holland through the production of Delft pottery and in England, Wedgwood China.  Other Chinese exports included silk and tea, and imports consisted of spices, textiles and animal skins from Europe.  Maize, sweet potatoes and peanuts were brought over from the Americas and became popular crops in China.   

China did not withdraw completely from world trade during the Ming and Qing dynasties.  China continued to trade with the Spanish, Portuguese, Japanese and Dutch, mainly for silver, which had become the Chinese currency.  Under the Ming dynasty, beautiful blue and white porcelain was produced and exported.  The influence of the Ming vase spread throughout the Muslim and Christian worlds, as seen in Holland through the production of Delft pottery and in England, Wedgwood China.  Other Chinese exports included silk and tea, and imports consisted of spices, textiles and animal skins from Europe.  Maize, sweet potatoes and peanuts were brought over from the Americas and became popular crops in China.   

'''III. Growth of Nation-States and Monarchs'''

==Growth of Nation-States and Monarchs==

The development of European nation-states continued throughout the Renaissance and Age of Exploration.  In the 1400s and 1500s, the most powerful nation-states were England, France and Spain.  The Holy Roman Empire, which consisted of parts of Italy and Germany, was a powerful but declining force.  Enemies that weakened the Holy Roman Empire included the Ottomans and French enemies, who resisted its expansion.  The fact that the cultures of Germany and Italy were very different also contributed to the downfall of the Holy Roman Empire, as did the Reformation.

The development of European nation-states continued throughout the Renaissance and Age of Exploration.  In the 1400s and 1500s, the most powerful nation-states were England, France and Spain.  The Holy Roman Empire, which consisted of parts of Italy and Germany, was a powerful but declining force.  Enemies that weakened the Holy Roman Empire included the Ottomans and French enemies, who resisted its expansion.  The fact that the cultures of Germany and Italy were very different also contributed to the downfall of the Holy Roman Empire, as did the Reformation.

Europeans during this era desired a “balance of power” that would prevent any single nation from becoming most powerful.  The expression of this idea was seen in the intense competition and warfare between the various European nations for control in Europe, especially with the Thirty Years’ War.  The war initially began as a religious conflict in Germany between Bohemian Protestants and Hapsburg Catholics in 1618.  However, it soon became a political conflict for power that involved Spain, Holland, Denmark, France, Switzerland and The Holy Roman Empire.  The Treaty of Westphalia finally marked the end of the Thirty Years’ War in 1648.  The war significantly weakened Germany and the Holy Roman Empire, as well as Austria and Spain.  Although France was largely a Catholic country, it had chosen the side of the winning Protestants in order to oppose the Holy Roman Empire, and France emerged strengthened and more unified as a result.   

Europeans during this era desired a “balance of power” that would prevent any single nation from becoming most powerful.  The expression of this idea was seen in the intense competition and warfare between the various European nations for control in Europe, especially with the Thirty Years’ War.  The war initially began as a religious conflict in Germany between Bohemian Protestants and Hapsburg Catholics in 1618.  However, it soon became a political conflict for power that involved Spain, Holland, Denmark, France, Switzerland and The Holy Roman Empire.  The Treaty of Westphalia finally marked the end of the Thirty Years’ War in 1648.  The war significantly weakened Germany and the Holy Roman Empire, as well as Austria and Spain.  Although France was largely a Catholic country, it had chosen the side of the winning Protestants in order to oppose the Holy Roman Empire, and France emerged strengthened and more unified as a result.   

'''IV.  The Scientific Revolution'''

==The Scientific Revolution==

A remarkable Polish scientist named Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543) made a stunning claim that rocked the religious and scientific world:  he asserted that the earth revolved around the sun, not the sun around the earth.  “Finally we shall place the Sun himself at the center of the Universe.  All this is suggested by the systematic procession of events and the harmony of the whole Universe, if only we face the facts, as they say, ‘with both eyes open.’”  With that bold declaration, this respected scientist in the Catholic Church began the “Scientific Revolution,” which rejected geocentric (earth-centered) theory of the universe dating back over a thousand years to Ptolemy.

A remarkable Polish scientist named Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543) made a stunning claim that rocked the religious and scientific world:  he asserted that the earth revolved around the sun, not the sun around the earth.  “Finally we shall place the Sun himself at the center of the Universe.  All this is suggested by the systematic procession of events and the harmony of the whole Universe, if only we face the facts, as they say, ‘with both eyes open.’”  With that bold declaration, this respected scientist in the Catholic Church began the “Scientific Revolution,” which rejected geocentric (earth-centered) theory of the universe dating back over a thousand years to Ptolemy.

A German contemporary of Newton, Gottfried Leibniz, deserves mention.  Like Newton, Leibniz was a devout Christian.  In fact, Leibniz was a Lutheran who dreamed of reuniting that denomination with the Catholic Church.  Leibniz was also a brilliant mathematician who developed calculus independent of Newton.  It was Leibniz, not Newton, who first published the notation for the integral:    f(x) dx.  An ugly dispute developed between Newton and Leibniz over who discovered calculus first.  Most English-speaking historians give the credit to Newton but bias may play a role in that.  The world certainly benefited immensely from Leibniz as well as Newton.

A German contemporary of Newton, Gottfried Leibniz, deserves mention.  Like Newton, Leibniz was a devout Christian.  In fact, Leibniz was a Lutheran who dreamed of reuniting that denomination with the Catholic Church.  Leibniz was also a brilliant mathematician who developed calculus independent of Newton.  It was Leibniz, not Newton, who first published the notation for the integral:    f(x) dx.  An ugly dispute developed between Newton and Leibniz over who discovered calculus first.  Most English-speaking historians give the credit to Newton but bias may play a role in that.  The world certainly benefited immensely from Leibniz as well as Newton.

'''V.  The Enlightenment'''

==The Enlightenment==

The “Enlightenment” was a philosophical movement in the 1700s that emphasized an intellectual approach rejecting traditional social, political and (sometimes) religious views.  Philosophers in the Enlightenment felt that breakthroughs in science, such as Isaac Newton’s discoveries, could be duplicated in other fields through a systematic and logical approach.  However, Newton’s breakthroughs were inspired by his Christian faith, while some of the Enlightenment thinkers rejected and even criticized Christianity.  There were Enlightenment philosophers in England, France and even the American colonies.  There were stunning new works in classical music, and the arts flourished in what is known as the neo-classical period.   

The “Enlightenment” was a philosophical movement in the 1700s that emphasized an intellectual approach rejecting traditional social, political and (sometimes) religious views.  Philosophers in the Enlightenment felt that breakthroughs in science, such as Isaac Newton’s discoveries, could be duplicated in other fields through a systematic and logical approach.  However, Newton’s breakthroughs were inspired by his Christian faith, while some of the Enlightenment thinkers rejected and even criticized Christianity.  There were Enlightenment philosophers in England, France and even the American colonies.  There were stunning new works in classical music, and the arts flourished in what is known as the neo-classical period.   

Finally, let’s recognize American contributions during the Enlightenment.  The great works were created by a group of people, affectionately known as the Founding Fathers.  These works include the Declaration of Independence (1776) with its statement of inalienable rights and a right to break the social contract with a ruler when he (the king) violates natural rights.  The United States Constitution (1787) gave the world a masterful design for government.  The Federalist Papers (1788), and particularly articles by Alexander Hamilton and James Madison (most notably No. 10) were also significant.

Finally, let’s recognize American contributions during the Enlightenment.  The great works were created by a group of people, affectionately known as the Founding Fathers.  These works include the Declaration of Independence (1776) with its statement of inalienable rights and a right to break the social contract with a ruler when he (the king) violates natural rights.  The United States Constitution (1787) gave the world a masterful design for government.  The Federalist Papers (1788), and particularly articles by Alexander Hamilton and James Madison (most notably No. 10) were also significant.

'''VI.  Capitalism'''

==Capitalism==

Just as Isaac Newton’s discovery and explanation of the unseen force of gravity was a brilliant insight in science, Adam Smith of Scotland discovered a powerful unseen force in economics known as the “invisible hand.”  If government allows free enterprise to flourish on its own, an “invisible hand” will harness the power of self-interest for the overall good of society.  Men and women will be guided by this “invisible hand” to work in a way that is beneficial to others, and the overall wealth and progress of society will increase.  Adam Smith wrote The Wealth of Nations, published in the same year as the Declaration of Independence in America:  1776.  Adam Smith’s book is still considered the world’s greatest economics masterpiece.  He explained how the basis of wealth is found in a free economy with an unregulated exchange of goods, whereby supply of goods and services responds in an efficient way to demand without government intervention.  Smith advocated the concept of laissez faire, which means “allow to do” or, more simply, “hands off” by government.  Ironically, homeschooling in New Jersey (and a few other states) is an activity that most resembles Adam Smith’s ideal of an unregulated market.  Let’s defend this lack of regulation of homeschooling while we can!

Just as Isaac Newton’s discovery and explanation of the unseen force of gravity was a brilliant insight in science, Adam Smith of Scotland discovered a powerful unseen force in economics known as the “invisible hand.”  If government allows free enterprise to flourish on its own, an “invisible hand” will harness the power of self-interest for the overall good of society.  Men and women will be guided by this “invisible hand” to work in a way that is beneficial to others, and the overall wealth and progress of society will increase.  Adam Smith wrote The Wealth of Nations, published in the same year as the Declaration of Independence in America:  1776.  Adam Smith’s book is still considered the world’s greatest economics masterpiece.  He explained how the basis of wealth is found in a free economy with an unregulated exchange of goods, whereby supply of goods and services responds in an efficient way to demand without government intervention.  Smith advocated the concept of laissez faire, which means “allow to do” or, more simply, “hands off” by government.  Ironically, homeschooling in New Jersey (and a few other states) is an activity that most resembles Adam Smith’s ideal of an unregulated market.  Let’s defend this lack of regulation of homeschooling while we can!