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==Copperhead resistance==

==Copperhead resistance==

The Copperheads sometimes talked of violent resistance, and in some cases started to organize. They never actually made an organized attack. As war opponents, Copperheads were suspected of disloyalty, and Lincoln often had their leaders arrested and held for months in military prisons without trial. Probably the largest Copperhead group was the [[Knights of the Golden Circle]]; formed in Ohio in the 1850s it became politicized in 1861. It reorganized as the Order of American Knights in 1863, and again, early in 1864, as the Order of the Sons of Liberty, with [[Clement L. Vallandigham]] as its commander. One leader, Harrison H. Dodd, advocated violent overthrow of the governments of Indiana, Illinois, Kentucky, and Missouri in 1864. Democratic party leaders, and a Federal investigation, thwarted his conspiracy.  Indiana Republicans used the sensational revelation of an antiwar Copperhead conspiracy by elements of the Sons of Liberty to discredit Democrats in the 1864 House elections. The military trial of Lambdin P. Milligan and other Sons of Liberty revealed plans to set free the Confederate prisoners held in the state. The culprits were sentenced to hang but the Supreme Court intervened in ''[[Ex parte Milligan]]'', saying they should have received civilian trials. <ref> Klement (1960)</ref>

The Copperheads sometimes talked of violent resistance, and in some cases started to organize. They never actually made an organized attack. As war opponents, Copperheads were suspected of disloyalty, and Lincoln often had their leaders arrested and held for months in military prisons without trial. Probably the largest Copperhead group was the [[Knights of the Golden Circle]]; formed in Ohio in the 1850s it became politicized in 1861. It reorganized as the Order of American Knights in 1863, and again, early in 1864, as the Order of the Sons of Liberty, with [[Clement L. Vallandigham]] as its commander. One leader, Harrison H. Dodd, advocated violent overthrow of the governments of Indiana, Illinois, Kentucky, and Missouri in 1864. Democratic party leaders, and a Federal investigation, thwarted his conspiracy.  Indiana Republicans used the sensational revelation of an antiwar Copperhead conspiracy by elements of the Sons of Liberty to discredit Democrats in the 1864 House elections. The military trial of Lambdin P. Milligan and other Sons of Liberty revealed plans to set free the Confederate prisoners held in the state. The culprits were sentenced to hang but the Supreme Court intervened in ''[[Ex parte Milligan]]'', saying they should have received civilian trials.<ref>Klement (1960)</ref>

When Lincoln enrolled black soldiers by the tens of thousands, racism helped recharge Copperhead rhetoric.  Peace activists gained strength in the Democratic party, and Peace Democrats [[Thomas Seymour]] in Connecticut, [[George W. Woodward]] in Pennsylvania, and [[Clement L. Vallandigham|Vallandigham]] in Ohio won their party's nominations for governor. Antiwar sentiment, racial and ethnic animosity, and class antagonism reached a deadly climax in the summer of 1863 in the [[New York draft riots|draft riots]] in New York City, Milwaukee and elsewhere. On In May 1863, former Congressman Vallandigham declared that the war was being fought not to save the Union but to free the blacks and enslave Southern whites. The Army then arrested him for declaring sympathy for the enemy. He was court-martialed and sentenced to imprisonment, but Lincoln commuted the sentence to banishment behind Confederate lines. The Democrats nevertheless nominated him for governor of Ohio in 1863; he campaigned from Canada.  But Vallandigham and the others inspired a Republican counterattack that carried the fall elections for war supporters, including War Democrats. The Republicans renamed their party to the National Union party in 1864 to capitalize on their successful coalition with War Democrats, and names the most prominent War Democrat to the ticket, [[Andrew Johnson]].

When Lincoln enrolled black soldiers by the tens of thousands, racism helped recharge Copperhead rhetoric.  Peace activists gained strength in the Democratic party, and Peace Democrats [[Thomas Seymour]] in Connecticut, [[George W. Woodward]] in Pennsylvania, and [[Clement L. Vallandigham|Vallandigham]] in Ohio won their party's nominations for governor. Antiwar sentiment, racial and ethnic animosity, and class antagonism reached a deadly climax in the summer of 1863 in the [[New York draft riots|draft riots]] in New York City, Milwaukee and elsewhere. On In May 1863, former Congressman Vallandigham declared that the war was being fought not to save the Union but to free the blacks and enslave Southern whites. The Army then arrested him for declaring sympathy for the enemy. He was court-martialed and sentenced to imprisonment, but Lincoln commuted the sentence to banishment behind Confederate lines. The Democrats nevertheless nominated him for governor of Ohio in 1863; he campaigned from Canada.  But Vallandigham and the others inspired a Republican counterattack that carried the fall elections for war supporters, including War Democrats. The Republicans renamed their party to the National Union party in 1864 to capitalize on their successful coalition with War Democrats, and names the most prominent War Democrat to the ticket, [[Andrew Johnson]].

==[[United States presidential election, 1864|Election of 1864]]==

==[[United States presidential election, 1864|Election of 1864]]==

Vallandigham and other Copperheads operated behind the scenes at the 1864 Democratic convention in Chicago, causing it to adopt a largely Copperhead platform.  However, it chose a pro-war presidential candidate, dismissed General [[George B. McClellan]].  He promptly rejected the platform, and the contradiction severely weakened their chances to defeat Lincoln's reelection.<ref> Klement (1998) </ref>

Vallandigham and other Copperheads operated behind the scenes at the 1864 Democratic convention in Chicago, causing it to adopt a largely Copperhead platform.  However, it chose a pro-war presidential candidate, dismissed General [[George B. McClellan]].  He promptly rejected the platform, and the contradiction severely weakened their chances to defeat Lincoln's reelection.<ref>Klement (1998)</ref>

In addition, Union military victories brought Northern public opinion behind Lincoln.  The Democrats could not effectively defend themselves, and Lincoln and his party won a sweeping landslide with 90% of the electoral vote, 212 to 21.  

In addition, Union military victories brought Northern public opinion behind Lincoln.  The Democrats could not effectively defend themselves, and Lincoln and his party won a sweeping landslide with 90% of the electoral vote, 212 to 21.  

The sentiments of Copperheads attracted Southerners who had settled north of the [[Ohio River]], social conservatives, poor subsistence farmers, and foes of railroads, banks and monopolies.  Copperheads did well in local and state elections in 1862, especially in New York, and won majorities in the legislatures of Illinois and Indiana.  Copperheads were most numerous in border areas, including southern parts of Ohio, Illinois, and Indiana (in Missouri, comparable groups were avowed Confederates). The Copperhead coalition included many Irish Catholics in eastern cities, mill towns and mining camps (especially in the Pennsylvania coal fields). They were also numerous in German American Catholic areas of the Midwest, especially Wisconsin.

The sentiments of Copperheads attracted Southerners who had settled north of the [[Ohio River]], social conservatives, poor subsistence farmers, and foes of railroads, banks and monopolies.  Copperheads did well in local and state elections in 1862, especially in New York, and won majorities in the legislatures of Illinois and Indiana.  Copperheads were most numerous in border areas, including southern parts of Ohio, Illinois, and Indiana (in Missouri, comparable groups were avowed Confederates). The Copperhead coalition included many Irish Catholics in eastern cities, mill towns and mining camps (especially in the Pennsylvania coal fields). They were also numerous in German American Catholic areas of the Midwest, especially Wisconsin.

Historian Kenneth Stampp has captured the Copperhead spirit in his depiction of Congressman Daniel W. Voorhees of Indiana:<ref> Stampp, ''Indiana Politics during the Civil War'' (1949) p. 211 </ref>  

Historian Kenneth Stampp has captured the Copperhead spirit in his depiction of Congressman Daniel W. Voorhees of Indiana:<ref>Stampp, ''Indiana Politics during the Civil War'' (1949) p. 211</ref>  

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<blockquote>

There was an earthy quality in Voorhees, "the tall sycamore of the Wabash." On the stump his hot temper, passionate partisanship, and stirring eloquence made an irresistible appeal to the western Democracy. His bitter cries against protective tariffs and national banks, his intense race prejudice, his suspicion of the eastern Yankee, his devotion to personal liberty, his defense of the Constitution and state rights faithfully reflected the views of his constituents. Like other Jacksonian agrarians he resented the political and economic revolution then in progress. Voorhees idealized a way of life which he thought was being destroyed by the current rulers of his country.  His bold protests against these dangerous trends made him the idol of the Democracy of the Wabash Valley.  

There was an earthy quality in Voorhees, "the tall sycamore of the Wabash." On the stump his hot temper, passionate partisanship, and stirring eloquence made an irresistible appeal to the western Democracy. His bitter cries against protective tariffs and national banks, his intense race prejudice, his suspicion of the eastern Yankee, his devotion to personal liberty, his defense of the Constitution and state rights faithfully reflected the views of his constituents. Like other Jacksonian agrarians he resented the political and economic revolution then in progress. Voorhees idealized a way of life which he thought was being destroyed by the current rulers of his country.  His bold protests against these dangerous trends made him the idol of the Democracy of the Wabash Valley.  

==Historiography==

==Historiography==

Two central questions have run through the historiography of the Copperheads: how serious a threat did they pose to the Union war effort and hence to the nation's survival? And to what extent and with what justification did the Lincoln administration and other Republican officials violate civil liberties to contain the perceived menace?<ref> Charles W. Calhoun, "The Fire in the Rear," ''Reviews in American History'' 35.4 (2007) 530-537 online at [[Project Muse]]</ref>  Neither question can be conclusively answered, as the Copperheads often operated secretly, and there were no public-opinion polls in the 1860's.

Two central questions have run through the historiography of the Copperheads: how serious a threat did they pose to the Union war effort and hence to the nation's survival? And to what extent and with what justification did the Lincoln administration and other Republican officials violate civil liberties to contain the perceived menace?<ref>Charles W. Calhoun, "The Fire in the Rear," ''Reviews in American History'' 35.4 (2007) 530-537 online at [[Project Muse]]</ref>  Neither question can be conclusively answered, as the Copperheads often operated secretly, and there were no public-opinion polls in the 1860's.

The first book-length scholarly treatment of the Copperheads appeared in 1942, shortly after the bombing of Pearl Harbor. In ''The Hidden Civil War'', Wood Gray decried the "defeatism" of the Copperheads; he argued they deliberately served the Confederacy's war aims. Also in 1942 George Fort Milton published ''Abraham Lincoln and the Fifth Column'', which likewise condemned the traitorous Copperheads and praised Lincoln as a model defender of democracy.  

The first book-length scholarly treatment of the Copperheads appeared in 1942, shortly after the bombing of Pearl Harbor. In ''The Hidden Civil War'', Wood Gray decried the "defeatism" of the Copperheads; he argued they deliberately served the Confederacy's war aims. Also in 1942 George Fort Milton published ''Abraham Lincoln and the Fifth Column'', which likewise condemned the traitorous Copperheads and praised Lincoln as a model defender of democracy.  

==Bibliography==

==Bibliography==

* Cowden, Joanna D. "The Politics of Dissent: Civil War Democrats in Connecticut," ''The New England Quarterly,'' Vol. 56, No. 4 (Dec., 1983), pp. 538-554 [http://www.jstor.org/pss/365104 in JSTOR]

* Cowden, Joanna D. "The Politics of Dissent: Civil War Democrats in Connecticut," ''The New England Quarterly,'' Vol. 56, No. 4 (Dec., 1983), pp.&nbsp;538–554 [http://www.jstor.org/pss/365104 in JSTOR]

* Cowden, Joanna D. ''"Heaven Will Frown on Such a Cause as This": Six Democrats Who Opposed Lincoln's War.'' (2001) 288 pp; covers Copperheads Thomas Hart Seymour (Connecticut), James Asheton Bayard (Delaware), William Bradford Reed (Pennsylvania), Charles O'Conor (New York) Alexander Long (Ohio), and Clement Vallandigham (Ohio)

* Cowden, Joanna D. ''"Heaven Will Frown on Such a Cause as This": Six Democrats Who Opposed Lincoln's War.'' (2001) 288 pp; covers Copperheads Thomas Hart Seymour (Connecticut), James Asheton Bayard (Delaware), William Bradford Reed (Pennsylvania), Charles O'Conor (New York) Alexander Long (Ohio), and Clement Vallandigham (Ohio)

* Curry, Richard O. "Copperheadism and Continuity: the Anatomy of a Stereotype"  ''Journal of Negro History'' (1972) 57(1): 29-36. [http://www.jstor.org/pss/2717071 in JSTOR] .

* Curry, Richard O. "Copperheadism and Continuity: the Anatomy of a Stereotype"  ''Journal of Negro History'' (1972) 57(1): 29-36. [http://www.jstor.org/pss/2717071 in JSTOR] .

* Walsh, Justin E. "To Print the News and Raise Hell: Wilbur F. Storey's Chicago 'Times.'" ''Journalism Quarterly'' 1963 40(4): 497-510. online at JSTOR

* Walsh, Justin E. "To Print the News and Raise Hell: Wilbur F. Storey's Chicago 'Times.'" ''Journalism Quarterly'' 1963 40(4): 497-510. online at JSTOR

* Weber, Jennifer L. ''Copperheads: The Rise and Fall of Lincoln's Opponents in the North'' (2006), the standard history [http://www.amazon.com/Copperheads-Rise-Lincolns-Opponents-North/dp/0195341244/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1209351976&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]

* Weber, Jennifer L. ''Copperheads: The Rise and Fall of Lincoln's Opponents in the North'' (2006), the standard history [http://www.amazon.com/Copperheads-Rise-Lincolns-Opponents-North/dp/0195341244/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1209351976&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]

** reviewed in Charles W. Calhoun, "The Fire in the Rear," ''Reviews in American History'', Volume 35, Number 4, December 2007, pp. 530-537 in [[Project MUSE]]

** reviewed in Charles W. Calhoun, "The Fire in the Rear," ''Reviews in American History'', Volume 35, Number 4, December 2007, pp.&nbsp;530–537 in [[Project MUSE]]

* Wertheim, Lewis J. "The Indianapolis Treason Trials, the Elections of 1864 and the Power of the Partisan Press." '' Indiana Magazine of History'' 1989 85(3): 236-250.

* Wertheim, Lewis J. "The Indianapolis Treason Trials, the Elections of 1864 and the Power of the Partisan Press." '' Indiana Magazine of History'' 1989 85(3): 236-250.

* Wubben, Hubert H. ''Civil War Iowa and the Copperhead Movement'' (1980).

* Wubben, Hubert H. ''Civil War Iowa and the Copperhead Movement'' (1980).