Changes

More than half of white Zimbabweans, primarily of English origin, arrived in Zimbabwe after World War II. Afrikaners from South Africa and other European minorities, including Portuguese from Mozambique, also are present. Until the mid-1970s, there were about 1,000 white immigrants per year, but from 1976 to 1985 a steady emigration resulted in a loss of more than 150,000, leaving about 100,000 in 1992. Renewed white emigration in the late 1990s and early 2000s reduced the white population to less than 50,000. English, the official language, is spoken by the white population and understood, if not always used, by more than half of the black population.  

More than half of white Zimbabweans, primarily of English origin, arrived in Zimbabwe after World War II. Afrikaners from South Africa and other European minorities, including Portuguese from Mozambique, also are present. Until the mid-1970s, there were about 1,000 white immigrants per year, but from 1976 to 1985 a steady emigration resulted in a loss of more than 150,000, leaving about 100,000 in 1992. Renewed white emigration in the late 1990s and early 2000s reduced the white population to less than 50,000. English, the official language, is spoken by the white population and understood, if not always used, by more than half of the black population.  

The literacy rate is estimated at 90.5%. Primary and secondary schools were segregated until 1979 when racial restrictions were removed. Since independence, the educational system has been systematically enlarged by the Zimbabwean Government, which is committed to providing free public education to all citizens on an equal basis. As of the late 1970s, some 50% of the African children (5-19 years old) were listed officially as attending rural schools. Today, most African children attend primary school. Primary through post-secondary enrollment has expanded from 1 million to about 2.9 million since independence. About 40% of the rural primary schools were destroyed during the Rhodesian conflict, which delayed improvement of the rural education system. Higher education, offered at the University of Zimbabwe in Harare, the new National University of Science and Technology in Bulawayo, the new Africa (Methodist) University in Mutare, the new Midlands State Universuity in Gweru, the new Solusi University in Bulawayo (Seventh Day Adventist), the new Bindura University of Science in Bindura, fourteen teacher-training colleges, and twelve polytechnical institutes and industrial training centers, is being expanded with assistance from several donor countries.  

The literacy rate is estimated at 90.5%. Primary and secondary schools were segregated until 1979 when racial restrictions were removed. Since independence, the educational system has been systematically enlarged by the Zimbabwean Government, which is committed to providing free public education to all citizens on an equal basis. As of the late 1970s, some 50% of the African children (5–19 years old) were listed officially as attending rural schools. Today, most African children attend primary school. Primary through post-secondary enrollment has expanded from 1 million to about 2.9 million since independence. About 40% of the rural primary schools were destroyed during the Rhodesian conflict, which delayed improvement of the rural education system. Higher education, offered at the University of Zimbabwe in Harare, the new National University of Science and Technology in Bulawayo, the new Africa (Methodist) University in Mutare, the new Midlands State Universuity in Gweru, the new Solusi University in Bulawayo (Seventh Day Adventist), the new Bindura University of Science in Bindura, fourteen teacher-training colleges, and twelve polytechnical institutes and industrial training centers, is being expanded with assistance from several donor countries.  

*Population (2005 est.): 13,010,000.

*Population (2005 est.): 13,010,000.

*Annual growth rate (2003 est.): 0.83%. (Note: the population growth rate is depressed by an HIV/AIDS adult prevalence rate estimated to be 18% and a high level of net emigration.)  

*Annual growth rate (2003 est.): 0.83%. (Note: the population growth rate is depressed by an HIV/AIDS adult prevalence rate estimated to be 18% and a high level of net emigration.)  

*Religions: Christianity 75%, offshoot Christian sects, animist, and Muslim.

*Religions: Christianity 75%, offshoot Christian sects, animist, and Muslim.

*Languages: English (official), Shona, Sindebele.

*Languages: English (official), Shona, Sindebele.

*Education: Attendance--mandatory for primary level. Adult literacy--90.5% (2004 est.).

*Education: Attendance—mandatory for primary level. Adult literacy—90.5% (2004 est.).

*Health: Infant mortality rate--51.7/1,000 (2006 est.). Life expectancy--men 37 (2006), women 34 (2006).

*Health: Infant mortality rate—51.7/1,000 (2006 est.). Life expectancy—men 37 (2006), women 34 (2006).

*Work force (2006 est.): 900,000 in formal sector.  

*Work force (2006 est.): 900,000 in formal sector.  

===Principal Government Officials===

===Principal Government Officials===

*President--Robert Mugabe

*President—Robert Mugabe

*Prime Minister-- Morgan Tsvangirai

*Prime Minister—Morgan Tsvangirai

*Vice Presidents--Joseph Msika and Joice Mujuru

*Vice Presidents—Joseph Msika and Joice Mujuru

*Foreign Minister--Simbarashe Mumbengegwi

*Foreign Minister—Simbarashe Mumbengegwi

*Ambassador to the U.S.--Machinvenyika Tobias Mapuranga

*Ambassador to the U.S.--Machinvenyika Tobias Mapuranga

==Defense==

==Defense==

At independence, then-Prime Minister Mugabe declared that integrating Zimbabwe's then three armed forces would be one of his government's top priorities. The existing Rhodesian forces were combined with the two guerilla armies--the 20,000-strong ZANLA forces of ZANU-PF and the 15,000-strong ZIPRA forces of PF-ZAPU. In July 1994 the combined Zimbabwe Defense Forces (ZDF) Headquarters was created. Currently the armed forces of Zimbabwe are completely integrated and are composed of an army (ZNA) and an air force (AFZ). In 1999, the Government of Zimbabwe sent a sizeable military force into the Democratic Republic of Congo to support the government of President Laurent Kabila. Those forces were largely withdrawn in 2002.  

At independence, then-Prime Minister Mugabe declared that integrating Zimbabwe's then three armed forces would be one of his government's top priorities. The existing Rhodesian forces were combined with the two guerilla armies—the 20,000-strong ZANLA forces of ZANU-PF and the 15,000-strong ZIPRA forces of PF-ZAPU. In July 1994 the combined Zimbabwe Defense Forces (ZDF) Headquarters was created. Currently the armed forces of Zimbabwe are completely integrated and are composed of an army (ZNA) and an air force (AFZ). In 1999, the Government of Zimbabwe sent a sizeable military force into the Democratic Republic of Congo to support the government of President Laurent Kabila. Those forces were largely withdrawn in 2002.  

Although as of late 2004, the ZDF had an active duty strength of 33,000 and the air force about 4,000 men these numbers have come down substantially because of resignations due to poor pay and working conditions. Today, the ZDF is largely immobile and beset by shortages of supplies, including food. The U.S. Congress terminated support for military cooperation programs in 2001.  

Although as of late 2004, the ZDF had an active duty strength of 33,000 and the air force about 4,000 men these numbers have come down substantially because of resignations due to poor pay and working conditions. Today, the ZDF is largely immobile and beset by shortages of supplies, including food. The U.S. Congress terminated support for military cooperation programs in 2001.  

Since the mid-1990s, this infrastructure has been deteriorating rapidly, but remains better than that of most African countries. Poor management of the economy and political turmoil have led to considerable economic hardships. The Government of Zimbabwe's chaotic land reform program, recurrent interference with the judiciary, and maintenance of unrealistic price controls and exchange rates have led to a sharp drop in investor confidence. Since 1999, the national economy has contracted by as much as 35%; [[inflation]] vaulted to [[hyperinflation]] of over 7,634.8% (year on year) in July 2007; and there have been persistent shortages of foreign exchange, fuel, and food. Direct foreign investment has all but evaporated. In a desperate attempt to control inflation, the government forced firms and supermarkets to reduce prices by half in July 2007, which resulted in severe shortages of basic and other commodities.  

Since the mid-1990s, this infrastructure has been deteriorating rapidly, but remains better than that of most African countries. Poor management of the economy and political turmoil have led to considerable economic hardships. The Government of Zimbabwe's chaotic land reform program, recurrent interference with the judiciary, and maintenance of unrealistic price controls and exchange rates have led to a sharp drop in investor confidence. Since 1999, the national economy has contracted by as much as 35%; [[inflation]] vaulted to [[hyperinflation]] of over 7,634.8% (year on year) in July 2007; and there have been persistent shortages of foreign exchange, fuel, and food. Direct foreign investment has all but evaporated. In a desperate attempt to control inflation, the government forced firms and supermarkets to reduce prices by half in July 2007, which resulted in severe shortages of basic and other commodities.  

Agriculture is no longer the backbone of the Zimbabwean economy. Large scale commercial farming has been effectively destroyed over the course of the last five years under the government's controversial land reform efforts starting in 2000. Corn is the largest food crop and tobacco had traditionally been the largest export crop, followed by cotton. Tobacco production in 2006, however, slumped to its lowest level--about 50 million kg--since independence, off from a peak in 2000 of 237 million kg. Gold production, another former key foreign currency source, slid by about 48% in the first half of 2007 to 4.54 metric tons compared to the corresponding period in 2006. Poor government management has exacerbated meager corn harvests in years of drought or floods, resulting in significant food shortfalls every year since 2001.  

Agriculture is no longer the backbone of the Zimbabwean economy. Large scale commercial farming has been effectively destroyed over the course of the last five years under the government's controversial land reform efforts starting in 2000. Corn is the largest food crop and tobacco had traditionally been the largest export crop, followed by cotton. Tobacco production in 2006, however, slumped to its lowest level—about 50 million kg—since independence, off from a peak in 2000 of 237 million kg. Gold production, another former key foreign currency source, slid by about 48% in the first half of 2007 to 4.54 metric tons compared to the corresponding period in 2006. Poor government management has exacerbated meager corn harvests in years of drought or floods, resulting in significant food shortfalls every year since 2001.  

Paved roads link the major urban and industrial centers, but the condition of urban roads and the unpaved rural road network has deteriorated significantly since 1995 for lack of maintenance. Rail lines connect with an extensive central African railroad network, although railway track condition has also worsened in recent years, along with locomotive availability and utilization. The electric power supply has become erratic and blackouts are common due to low generator availability at the Kariba hydroelectric power plant and unreliable or nonexistent coal supplies to the country's large thermal plants. Telephone service is problematic, and new lines are difficult of obtain.  

Paved roads link the major urban and industrial centers, but the condition of urban roads and the unpaved rural road network has deteriorated significantly since 1995 for lack of maintenance. Rail lines connect with an extensive central African railroad network, although railway track condition has also worsened in recent years, along with locomotive availability and utilization. The electric power supply has become erratic and blackouts are common due to low generator availability at the Kariba hydroelectric power plant and unreliable or nonexistent coal supplies to the country's large thermal plants. Telephone service is problematic, and new lines are difficult of obtain.  

With international attractions such as Victoria Falls, the Great Zimbabwe stone ruins, Lake Kariba, and extensive wildlife, tourism historically has been a significant segment of the economy and contributor of foreign exchange. The sector has contracted sharply since 1999, however, due to the country's declining international image.  

With international attractions such as Victoria Falls, the Great Zimbabwe stone ruins, Lake Kariba, and extensive wildlife, tourism historically has been a significant segment of the economy and contributor of foreign exchange. The sector has contracted sharply since 1999, however, due to the country's declining international image.  

As of 2008, the [[economy]] is in complete collapse. A decade ago, President [[Robert Mugabe]] said he was reclaiming ancestral lands from white farmland owners for poor black peasants. At the time Zimbabwe was a net exporter of food. Some land went to Mugabe's Cabinet ministers and generals, who left the fields untended, although a significant number of the 'resettlements' involved the rural poor, albeit initially in a highly disorganised manner <ref>Scoones et al. (2010) Zimbabwe's Land Reform</ref>. Hundreds of thousands of [[farm]] laborers and their families lost their jobs and homes. Now the country is dependent on foreign food aid. Eighty percent of the work force is unemployed and many with jobs don't earn enough to pay for bus fare. [[Inflation]] is the world's highest at 2.2 million percent. Independent [[economist]] say [[inflation]] is at 12.5 million percent. Due to inflation, a good costing $1 at the beginning of a month may cost $20 by month's end. <ref>[http://www.theconservativevoice.com/ap/article.html?mi=D928C5JG0&apc=9002 Zimbabwe drops 10 zeros from inflated currency] The Conservative Voice, July 30, 2008</ref> The situation has been stabilised somewhat thanks to a power-sharing agreement between the MDC and ZANU-PF. Inflation has been brought under control thanks to the scrapping of the previous currency, and political violence has decreased. However, tensions between the governing parties remain and the dire economic situation of the previous decade will make rebuilding a long and arduous process.

As of 2008, the [[economy]] is in complete collapse. A decade ago, President [[Robert Mugabe]] said he was reclaiming ancestral lands from white farmland owners for poor black peasants. At the time Zimbabwe was a net exporter of food. Some land went to Mugabe's Cabinet ministers and generals, who left the fields untended, although a significant number of the 'resettlements' involved the rural poor, albeit initially in a highly disorganised manner.<ref>Scoones et al. (2010) Zimbabwe's Land Reform</ref> Hundreds of thousands of [[farm]] laborers and their families lost their jobs and homes. Now the country is dependent on foreign food aid. Eighty percent of the work force is unemployed and many with jobs don't earn enough to pay for bus fare. [[Inflation]] is the world's highest at 2.2 million percent. Independent [[economist]] say [[inflation]] is at 12.5 million percent. Due to inflation, a good costing $1 at the beginning of a month may cost $20 by month's end.<ref>[http://www.theconservativevoice.com/ap/article.html?mi=D928C5JG0&apc=9002 Zimbabwe drops 10 zeros from inflated currency] The Conservative Voice, July 30, 2008</ref> The situation has been stabilised somewhat thanks to a power-sharing agreement between the MDC and ZANU-PF. Inflation has been brought under control thanks to the scrapping of the previous currency, and political violence has decreased. However, tensions between the governing parties remain and the dire economic situation of the previous decade will make rebuilding a long and arduous process.

====Energy Resources====

====Energy Resources====

*Avg. inflation rate: 7,634.8% (year-on-year, July 2007, by official accounts; private sector estimates are rougly triple the official figure).

*Avg. inflation rate: 7,634.8% (year-on-year, July 2007, by official accounts; private sector estimates are rougly triple the official figure).

*Natural resources: Deposits of more than 40 minerals including ferrochrome, gold, silver, platinum, copper, asbestos; 19 million hectares of forest (2000).

*Natural resources: Deposits of more than 40 minerals including ferrochrome, gold, silver, platinum, copper, asbestos; 19 million hectares of forest (2000).

*Agriculture (15% of GDP): Types of crops and livestock--corn, cotton, tobacco, wheat, coffee, tea, sugarcane, peanuts, cattle, sheep, goats, pigs.

*Agriculture (15% of GDP): Types of crops and livestock—corn, cotton, tobacco, wheat, coffee, tea, sugarcane, peanuts, cattle, sheep, goats, pigs.

*Industry: manufacturing, public administration, commerce, mining, transport and communication.  

*Industry: manufacturing, public administration, commerce, mining, transport and communication.  

*Trade (2006): U.S. exports--U.S. $47.58 million. U.S. imports--U.S. $103.28 million. Partners (2000 est.)--South Africa 22%, U.K. 10%, Germany 9%, U.S. 8%. Total imports (2004)--U.S. $1,989 million: most of these imports were construction and agricultural machinery, transportation equipment, data processing equipment and software, industrial machinery, pharmaceuticals, fertilizers, and general manufactured products. Major suppliers--South Africa 34%, U.K. 10.8%, Germany 7.3%, U.S. 6%.

*Trade (2006): U.S. exports—U.S. $47.58 million. U.S. imports—U.S. $103.28 million. Partners (2000 est.)--South Africa 22%, U.K. 10%, Germany 9%, U.S. 8%. Total imports (2004)--U.S. $1,989 million: most of these imports were construction and agricultural machinery, transportation equipment, data processing equipment and software, industrial machinery, pharmaceuticals, fertilizers, and general manufactured products. Major suppliers—South Africa 34%, U.K. 10.8%, Germany 7.3%, U.S. 6%.

==History==

==History==

On December 16, 1966, the UN Security Council, for the first time in history, imposed mandatory economic sanctions on a state. Rhodesia's primary exports including ferrochrome and tobacco, were placed on the selective sanctions list, as were shipments of arms, aircraft, motor vehicles, petroleum, and petroleum products to Rhodesia. On May 29, 1968, the Security Council unanimously voted to broaden the sanctions by imposing an almost total embargo on all trade with, investments in, or transfers of funds to Rhodesia and imposed restrictions on air transport to the territory.  

On December 16, 1966, the UN Security Council, for the first time in history, imposed mandatory economic sanctions on a state. Rhodesia's primary exports including ferrochrome and tobacco, were placed on the selective sanctions list, as were shipments of arms, aircraft, motor vehicles, petroleum, and petroleum products to Rhodesia. On May 29, 1968, the Security Council unanimously voted to broaden the sanctions by imposing an almost total embargo on all trade with, investments in, or transfers of funds to Rhodesia and imposed restrictions on air transport to the territory.  

In the early 1970s, informal attempts at settlement were renewed between the United Kingdom and the Rhodesian administration. Following the April 1974 coup in Portugal and the resulting shifts of power in Mozambique and Angola, pressure on the Smith regime to negotiate a peaceful settlement increased. In addition, sporadic antigovernment guerilla activity, which began in the late 1960s, increased dramatically after 1972, causing destruction, economic dislocation, casualties, and a slump in white morale. In 1974, the major African nationalists groups--the Zimbabwe African Peoples Union (ZAPU) and the Zimbabwe African National Union (ZANU), which split away from ZAPU in 1963--were united into the "Patriotic Front" and combined their military forces, at least nominally.  

In the early 1970s, informal attempts at settlement were renewed between the United Kingdom and the Rhodesian administration. Following the April 1974 coup in Portugal and the resulting shifts of power in Mozambique and Angola, pressure on the Smith regime to negotiate a peaceful settlement increased. In addition, sporadic antigovernment guerilla activity, which began in the late 1960s, increased dramatically after 1972, causing destruction, economic dislocation, casualties, and a slump in white morale. In 1974, the major African nationalists groups—the Zimbabwe African Peoples Union (ZAPU) and the Zimbabwe African National Union (ZANU), which split away from ZAPU in 1963—were united into the "Patriotic Front" and combined their military forces, at least nominally.  

In 1976, because of a combination of embargo-related economic hardships, the pressure of guerilla activity, independence and majority rule in the neighboring former Portuguese territories, and a U.K.-U.S. diplomatic initiative, the Smith government agreed in principle to majority rule and to a meeting in Geneva with black nationalist leaders to negotiate a final settlement of the conflict. Blacks represented at the Geneva meeting included ZAPU leader Joshua Nkomo, ZANU leader Robert Mugabe, UANC chairman bishop [[Abel Muzorewa]], and former ZANU leader Rev. Nadabaningi Sithole. The meeting failed to find a basis for agreement because of Smith's inflexibility and the inability of the black leaders to form a common political front.  

In 1976, because of a combination of embargo-related economic hardships, the pressure of guerilla activity, independence and majority rule in the neighboring former Portuguese territories, and a U.K.-U.S. diplomatic initiative, the Smith government agreed in principle to majority rule and to a meeting in Geneva with black nationalist leaders to negotiate a final settlement of the conflict. Blacks represented at the Geneva meeting included ZAPU leader Joshua Nkomo, ZANU leader Robert Mugabe, UANC chairman bishop [[Abel Muzorewa]], and former ZANU leader Rev. Nadabaningi Sithole. The meeting failed to find a basis for agreement because of Smith's inflexibility and the inability of the black leaders to form a common political front.  

On December 21, after 3 months of hard bargaining, the parties signed an agreement at Lancaster House calling for a cease-fire, new elections, a transition period under British rule, and a new constitution implementing majority rule while protecting minority rights. The agreement specified that upon the granting of independence, the country's name would be Zimbabwe. The same day, the UN Security Council endorsed the settlement agreement and formally voted unanimously to call on member nations to remove sanctions.  

On December 21, after 3 months of hard bargaining, the parties signed an agreement at Lancaster House calling for a cease-fire, new elections, a transition period under British rule, and a new constitution implementing majority rule while protecting minority rights. The agreement specified that upon the granting of independence, the country's name would be Zimbabwe. The same day, the UN Security Council endorsed the settlement agreement and formally voted unanimously to call on member nations to remove sanctions.  

During the transition period, nine political parties campaigned for the February 27-29 pre-independence elections. The elections were supervised by the British Government and monitored by hundreds of observers, most of whom concluded that, under the prevailing circumstances, the elections were free and fair and reflected the will of the people. Robert Mugabe's ZANU (PF) party won an absolute majority and was asked to form Zimbabwe's first government.  

During the transition period, nine political parties campaigned for the February 27–29 pre-independence elections. The elections were supervised by the British Government and monitored by hundreds of observers, most of whom concluded that, under the prevailing circumstances, the elections were free and fair and reflected the will of the people. Robert Mugabe's ZANU (PF) party won an absolute majority and was asked to form Zimbabwe's first government.  

In a series of public statements during the transition period, Prime Minister Mugabe indicated that he was committed to a process of national reconciliation and reconstruction as well as moderate socioeconomic change. His priorities were to integrate the various armed forces, reestablish social services and education in rural areas, and resettle the estimated one million refugees and displaced persons. Mugabe also announced that his government would begin investigating ways of reversing past discriminatory policies in land distribution, education, employment, and wages.  

In a series of public statements during the transition period, Prime Minister Mugabe indicated that he was committed to a process of national reconciliation and reconstruction as well as moderate socioeconomic change. His priorities were to integrate the various armed forces, reestablish social services and education in rural areas, and resettle the estimated one million refugees and displaced persons. Mugabe also announced that his government would begin investigating ways of reversing past discriminatory policies in land distribution, education, employment, and wages.  

Parliamentary elections held in June 2000 were marred by localized violence, and claims of electoral irregularities and government intimidation of opposition supporters. Nonetheless, the MDC succeeded in capturing 57 of 120 seats in the National Assembly.  

Parliamentary elections held in June 2000 were marred by localized violence, and claims of electoral irregularities and government intimidation of opposition supporters. Nonetheless, the MDC succeeded in capturing 57 of 120 seats in the National Assembly.  

The March 2002 presidential election was preceded by months of intensive violence and intimidation against MDC supporters, and more than 50 people, mostly opposition supporters, were killed. President Mugabe was declared the winner over challenger Morgan Tsvangirai by a 56-to-42 percent margin. Most international observers condemned the election as seriously flawed--the pre-election environment was neither free nor fair, and the election itself was marred by significant fraud and rigging--but regional opinions were mixed. Soon after the election, the MDC filed a petition challenging Mugabe's victory, citing flaws in electoral laws, electoral irregularities and pre-election violence. As of the end of 2004, the case had not yet been decided.  

The March 2002 presidential election was preceded by months of intensive violence and intimidation against MDC supporters, and more than 50 people, mostly opposition supporters, were killed. President Mugabe was declared the winner over challenger Morgan Tsvangirai by a 56-to-42 percent margin. Most international observers condemned the election as seriously flawed—the pre-election environment was neither free nor fair, and the election itself was marred by significant fraud and rigging—but regional opinions were mixed. Soon after the election, the MDC filed a petition challenging Mugabe's victory, citing flaws in electoral laws, electoral irregularities and pre-election violence. As of the end of 2004, the case had not yet been decided.  

As a result of this election, the United States, the EU, and other European countries imposed travel restrictions against senior Zimbabwean officials and embargoed the sale of arms to Zimbabwe. The U.S. and the EU also froze the financial assets of selected ruling party officials. The Commonwealth suspended Zimbabwe from council meetings for one year after its election observer team found the election neither free nor fair. At the mid-term suspension review in March 2003, the three-country committee charged with deciding Zimbabwe's fate decided to continue the suspension until the next Commonwealth meeting in December 2003. At this meeting, despite vigorous campaigning by South Africa, Zimbabwe was not invited to attend the meeting and the Commonwealth decided to continue with the suspension. Immediately after this, Mugabe withdrew Zimbabwe from the Commonwealth.  

As a result of this election, the United States, the EU, and other European countries imposed travel restrictions against senior Zimbabwean officials and embargoed the sale of arms to Zimbabwe. The U.S. and the EU also froze the financial assets of selected ruling party officials. The Commonwealth suspended Zimbabwe from council meetings for one year after its election observer team found the election neither free nor fair. At the mid-term suspension review in March 2003, the three-country committee charged with deciding Zimbabwe's fate decided to continue the suspension until the next Commonwealth meeting in December 2003. At this meeting, despite vigorous campaigning by South Africa, Zimbabwe was not invited to attend the meeting and the Commonwealth decided to continue with the suspension. Immediately after this, Mugabe withdrew Zimbabwe from the Commonwealth.  

==See Also==

==See also==

* [[Big government]] [[Welfare state]] leads to [[Nanny state]], leads to [[Police state]]

* [[Big government]] [[Welfare state]] leads to [[Nanny state]], leads to [[Police state]]

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