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The Kulturkampf caused a massive political mobilization of Catholics. Before the Kulturkampf, there was little connection between Catholicism and political conservatism. In response to the attacks by the government, the Catholics rallied almost unanimously to the new "Center Party", which remained a major force until 1933.
The Kulturkampf caused a massive political mobilization of Catholics. Before the Kulturkampf, there was little connection between Catholicism and political conservatism. In response to the attacks by the government, the Catholics rallied almost unanimously to the new "Center Party", which remained a major force until 1933.
==Education==
==Education==
Bismarck's "School Supervision Law of 1872" and the administration of Adalbert Falk as minister of education from 1872 to 1879 was a key element of the Kulturkampf in Prussia. Bismark's goal was to weaken the power of the Catholic Church by replacing religious supervisors with secular ones in the schools. Liberal<ref>In the 19th century sense.</ref> Protestant school teachers and administrators supported the reform because they believed educational benefits would come from the change. Because the new secular supervisors were used primarily in Catholic schools, priests saw the reform as a political whip. The resulting radicalization of the priests offset any positive benefits of the reform.<ref> Marjorie Lamberti, "State, Church, and the Politics of School Reform during the Kulturkampf." ''Central European History'' 1986 19(1): 63-81. </ref>
Bismarck's "School Supervision Law of 1872" and the administration of Adalbert Falk as minister of education from 1872 to 1879 was a key element of the Kulturkampf in Prussia. Bismark's goal was to weaken the power of the Catholic Church by replacing religious supervisors with secular ones in the schools. Liberal<ref>In the 19th century sense.</ref> Protestant school teachers and administrators supported the reform because they believed educational benefits would come from the change. Because the new secular supervisors were used primarily in Catholic schools, priests saw the reform as a political whip. The resulting radicalization of the priests offset any positive benefits of the reform.<ref>Marjorie Lamberti, "State, Church, and the Politics of School Reform during the Kulturkampf." ''Central European History'' 1986 19(1): 63-81.</ref>
===May Laws===
===May Laws===
May Laws were a series of laws enacted in 1873 to place the [[Catholic Church]] entirely under state control and remove it from control by the [[Papacy|Pope]]. The goal was for German civil authorities to gain authority over the clergy to discipline them, and to make church appointments depend on state examinations. Any priest or bishop who objected was to forfeit his position and income.
May Laws were a series of laws enacted in 1873 to place the [[Catholic Church]] entirely under state control and remove it from control by the [[Papacy|Pope]]. The goal was for German civil authorities to gain authority over the clergy to discipline them, and to make church appointments depend on state examinations. Any priest or bishop who objected was to forfeit his position and income.
* Evans, Ellen Lovell. ''The German Center Party 1870-1933: A Study in Political Catholicism'' (1981) [http://www.questia.com/read/58362435?title=The%20German%20Center%20Party%2c%201870-1933%3a%20A%20Study%20in%20Political%20Catholicism online edition]
* Evans, Ellen Lovell. ''The German Center Party 1870-1933: A Study in Political Catholicism'' (1981) [http://www.questia.com/read/58362435?title=The%20German%20Center%20Party%2c%201870-1933%3a%20A%20Study%20in%20Political%20Catholicism online edition]
* Hatfield, Douglas W. "Kulturkampf: The Relationship of Church and State and the Failure of German Political Reform." ''Journal of Church and State'' 1981 23(3): 465-484. [http://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&lr=&q=info:CNWtGGOpHusJ:scholar.google.com/&output=viewport&pg=1 online version]
* Hatfield, Douglas W. "Kulturkampf: The Relationship of Church and State and the Failure of German Political Reform." ''Journal of Church and State'' 1981 23(3): 465-484. [http://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&lr=&q=info:CNWtGGOpHusJ:scholar.google.com/&output=viewport&pg=1 online version]
* Heilbronner, Oded. "Review: From Ghetto to Ghetto: The Place of German Catholic Society in Recent Historiography," ''Journal of Modern History,'' Vol. 72, No. 2 (Jun., 2000), pp. 453-495 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/3079341 in JSTOR]
* Heilbronner, Oded. "Review: From Ghetto to Ghetto: The Place of German Catholic Society in Recent Historiography," ''Journal of Modern History,'' Vol. 72, No. 2 (Jun., 2000), pp. 453–495 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/3079341 in JSTOR]
* Lamberti, Marjorie. "State, Church, and the Politics of School Reform during the Kulturkampf," ''Central European History,'' Vol. 19, No. 1 (Mar., 1986), pp. 63-81 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/4546059 in JSTOR]
* Lamberti, Marjorie. "State, Church, and the Politics of School Reform during the Kulturkampf," ''Central European History,'' Vol. 19, No. 1 (Mar., 1986), pp. 63–81 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/4546059 in JSTOR]
* Pflanze, Otto. ''Bismarck and the Development of Germany, vol. II: The Period of Consolidation, 1871—1880'' (1990).
* Pflanze, Otto. ''Bismarck and the Development of Germany, vol. II: The Period of Consolidation, 1871—1880'' (1990).
* Ross, Ronald J. "The Kulturkampf and the Limitations of Power in Bismarck's Germany." ''Journal of Ecclesiastical History'' 1995 46(4): 669-688.
* Ross, Ronald J. "The Kulturkampf and the Limitations of Power in Bismarck's Germany." ''Journal of Ecclesiastical History'' 1995 46(4): 669-688.
* Ross, Ronald J. ''Beleaguered Tower: The Dilemma of Political Catholicism in Wilhelmine Germany (1976)
* Ross, Ronald J. ''Beleaguered Tower: The Dilemma of Political Catholicism in Wilhelmine Germany (1976)
* Ross, Ronald J. ''The Failure of Bismarck's Kulturkampf: Catholicism and State Power in Imperial Germany, 1871-1887'' (1998), standard scholarly history; failure caused by weakness of the government and lack of public support from most Protestants
* Ross, Ronald J. ''The Failure of Bismarck's Kulturkampf: Catholicism and State Power in Imperial Germany, 1871-1887'' (1998), standard scholarly history; failure caused by weakness of the government and lack of public support from most Protestants
* Trzeciakowski, Lech. "The Prussian State and the Catholic Church in Prussian Poland 1871-1914," ''Slavic Review,'' Vol. 26, No. 4 (Dec., 1967), pp. 618-637 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/2492613 in JSTOR]]
* Trzeciakowski, Lech. "The Prussian State and the Catholic Church in Prussian Poland 1871-1914," ''Slavic Review,'' Vol. 26, No. 4 (Dec., 1967), pp. 618-637 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/2492613 in JSTOR]
* Trzeciakowski, Lech. ''The Kulturkampf in Prussian Poland.'' (1990). 223 pp.
* Trzeciakowski, Lech. ''The Kulturkampf in Prussian Poland.'' (1990). 223 pp.
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[[category:German History]]
[[Category:German History]]
[[category:Culture War]]
[[Category:Culture War]]
[[category:Catholic Church]]
[[Category:Catholic Church]]