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==New Deal programs==

===National Recovery Administration===

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Just as Roosevelt expressed to Ambassador Long his admiration of Mussolini, Long in turn reported to Tugwell regarding Fascist economics, “Your mind runs along these lines.... It may have some bearing on the code work under N.R.A.”<ref>Long to Tugwell, May 16, 1934, [http://lccn.loc.gov/mm%2078030502 Breckinridge Long Papers], Box 111, Manuscript Division, Library of Congress</ref> The NRA—“the New Deal’s attempt to bring to America the substance of Mussolini’s corporativism”<ref>Leonard Peikoff, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=2_xpAAAAIAAJ The Ominous Parallels]'' (Stein and Day, 1982) ISBN 081282850X, p. 293</ref>—was established by the National Industrial Recovery Act (NIRA) of 1933, which was “similar to experiments being carried out by the fascist dictator Benito Mussolini in Italy and by the Nazis in Adolf Hitler's Germany,” according to John A. Garraty,<ref>John Arthur Garraty, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=DGRuAAAAMAAJ The American Nation]'', 4th ed., vol. 2 (Harper & Row, 1979) ISBN 0060422696, p. 656. Cf. John A. Garraty, "[http://www.wagner.edu/departments/gap/sites/wagner.edu.departments.gap/files/download/garraty%20new%20deal.pdf The New Deal, National Socialism, and the Great Depression]," ''The American Historical Review'', Vol. 78, No. 4 (Oct., 1973), pp. 907-944</ref> president of the Society of American Historians.<ref>[http://sah.columbia.edu/content/history History], The Society of American Historians</ref> "There was hardly a commentator who failed to see elements of Italian corporatism in Roosevelt's managed economy under the National Recovery Administration, the institution formed in 1933 to maintain mandatory production and price 'codes' for American industry," wrote Schivelbusch.<ref>Wolfgang Schivelbusch, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=Z3GV5_n1h04C Three New Deals: Reflections on Roosevelt's America, Mussolini's Italy, and Hitler's Germany, 1933-1939]'' (Macmillan, 2006) ISBN 080507452X, p. 23</ref> According to Leon Keyserling, chairman of [[Harry Truman|President Truman]]'s Council of Economic Advisers, NIRA had grown out of the 1931 "Swope Plan,"<ref>Jerry N. Hess, [http://www.trumanlibrary.org/oralhist/keyserl1.htm Oral History Interview with Leon H. Keyserling], Washington, D. C., May 3, 1971, p. 7 (Harry S. Truman Library, National Archives and Records Administration)</ref> which, aping Mussolini, had proposed "a national organization of modified cartels in which competition would be limited, overproduction governed, workers and investors vigorously protected," all controlled by "some Federal supervisory body."<ref>[http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,742325,00.html INDUSTRY: Swope Plan], ''Time'', Monday, September 28, 1931</ref> As one NRA study concluded, “The Fascist principles are very similar to those which have been evolving in America and so are of particular interest at this time.”<ref>Janet C. Wright, "Capital and Labor Under Fascism," National Archives, Record Group 9, Records of the National Recovery Administration, [http://www.archives.gov/research/guide-fed-records/groups/009.html#9.2.4 Special Research and Planning Reports and Memoranda, 1933-35], Entry 31, Box 3</ref>

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Just as Roosevelt expressed to Ambassador Long his admiration of Mussolini, Long in turn reported to Tugwell regarding Fascist economics, “Your mind runs along these lines.... It may have some bearing on the code work under N.R.A.”<ref>Long to Tugwell, May 16, 1934, [http://lccn.loc.gov/mm%2078030502 Breckinridge Long Papers], Box 111, Manuscript Division, Library of Congress</ref> The NRA—“the New Deal’s attempt to bring to America the substance of Mussolini’s corporativism”<ref>Leonard Peikoff, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=2_xpAAAAIAAJ The Ominous Parallels]'' (Stein and Day, 1982) ISBN 081282850X, p. 293</ref>—was established by the National Industrial Recovery Act (NIRA) of 1933--[http://www.pbs.org/wnet/supremecourt/capitalism/landmark_schechter.html centerpiece of the New Deal legislation]--which was “similar to experiments being carried out by the fascist dictator Benito Mussolini in Italy and by the Nazis in Adolf Hitler's Germany,” according to John A. Garraty,<ref>John Arthur Garraty, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=DGRuAAAAMAAJ The American Nation]'', 4th ed., vol. 2 (Harper & Row, 1979) ISBN 0060422696, p. 656. Cf. John A. Garraty, "[http://www.wagner.edu/departments/gap/sites/wagner.edu.departments.gap/files/download/garraty%20new%20deal.pdf The New Deal, National Socialism, and the Great Depression]," ''The American Historical Review'', Vol. 78, No. 4 (Oct., 1973), pp. 907-944</ref> president of the Society of American Historians.<ref>[http://sah.columbia.edu/content/history History], The Society of American Historians</ref> "There was hardly a commentator who failed to see elements of Italian corporatism in Roosevelt's managed economy under the National Recovery Administration, the institution formed in 1933 to maintain mandatory production and price 'codes' for American industry," wrote Schivelbusch.<ref>Wolfgang Schivelbusch, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=Z3GV5_n1h04C Three New Deals: Reflections on Roosevelt's America, Mussolini's Italy, and Hitler's Germany, 1933-1939]'' (Macmillan, 2006) ISBN 080507452X, p. 23</ref> According to Leon Keyserling, chairman of [[Harry Truman|President Truman]]'s Council of Economic Advisers, NIRA had grown out of the 1931 "Swope Plan,"<ref>Jerry N. Hess, [http://www.trumanlibrary.org/oralhist/keyserl1.htm Oral History Interview with Leon H. Keyserling], Washington, D. C., May 3, 1971, p. 7 (Harry S. Truman Library, National Archives and Records Administration)</ref> which, aping Mussolini, had proposed "a national organization of modified cartels in which competition would be limited, overproduction governed, workers and investors vigorously protected," all controlled by "some Federal supervisory body."<ref>[http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,742325,00.html INDUSTRY: Swope Plan], ''Time'', Monday, September 28, 1931</ref> As one NRA study concluded, “The Fascist principles are very similar to those which have been evolving in America and so are of particular interest at this time.”<ref>Janet C. Wright, "Capital and Labor Under Fascism," National Archives, Record Group 9, Records of the National Recovery Administration, [http://www.archives.gov/research/guide-fed-records/groups/009.html#9.2.4 Special Research and Planning Reports and Memoranda, 1933-35], Entry 31, Box 3</ref>

The Italian Fascist Party journal of political theory ''Gerarchia'' (Leadership) characterized the NRA as "bearing a Fascist signature" and as "corporatism without the corporations." Progressive journalist Roger Shaw agreed, "The NRA... was plainly an American adaptation of the Italian corporate state."<ref>Roger Shaw, "[http://ia600504.us.archive.org/19/items/northamreview238miscrich/northamreview238miscrich.pdf Fascism and the New Deal]," ''The North American Review'', Vol. 238, No. 6 (December 1934), pp. 559-564</ref> When Roosevelt referred to the industrial cartels established by the NRA as "modern guilds," writes Schivelbusch, he was making "reference to the corporatist system associated with Fascism."<ref>Wolfgang Schivelbusch, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=Z3GV5_n1h04C Three New Deals: Reflections on Roosevelt's America, Mussolini's Italy, and Hitler's Germany, 1933-1939]'' (Macmillan, 2006) ISBN 080507452X, pp. 24, 27, 30</ref> FDR's own economics instructor at Harvard<ref>[http://www.montaguemillennium.com/familyresearch/h_1961_gilbert.htm Gilbert Holland Montague, 1880-1961], montaguemillennium.com</ref> concurred, identifying the NRA as "essentially fascistic."<ref>Gilbert H. Montague, "[http://www.jstor.org/pss/1019193 Is NRA Fascistic?]" ''The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Sciences,'' July, 1935, pp. 149-161</ref>

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