Changes

Congress passed the Civil Rights Act of 1875, legislation introduced by [[Charles Sumner]] and [[Benjamin F. Butler]]. It seemed to guarantee that everyone, regardless of race, color, or previous condition of servitude, was entitled to the same treatment in "public accommodations" (inns, public conveyances on land or water, theaters, and other places of public amusement).

Congress passed the Civil Rights Act of 1875, legislation introduced by [[Charles Sumner]] and [[Benjamin F. Butler]]. It seemed to guarantee that everyone, regardless of race, color, or previous condition of servitude, was entitled to the same treatment in "public accommodations" (inns, public conveyances on land or water, theaters, and other places of public amusement).

In 1883, the Supreme Court restricted the Civil Rights Act of 1875 to actions by state and local government. It ruled Congress could not control private persons or corporations. After Congress passed the Civil Rights Act of 1875, it did not pass another civil rights law until 1957.

In 1883, the Supreme Court restricted the Civil Rights Act of 1875 to actions by state and local government. It ruled Congress could not control private persons or corporations. After Congress passed the Civil Rights Act of 1875, it did not pass another civil rights law until 1957 due to Democrat obstruction.

In 1890, Louisiana passed a law requiring separate accommodations for colored and white passengers on railroads. Louisiana law distinguished between "white," "black" and "colored" (that is, people of mixed white and black ancestry). The law already had provided that blacks could not ride with white people, but colored people could ride with whites prior to 1890. A group of concerned black, colored and white citizens in New Orleans formed an association dedicated to the repeal of the law. They had Homer Plessy purchase a first-class railroad ticket. Plessy was directed to leave that car and sit instead in the "coloreds only" car. He refused and was immediately arrested. The Citizens Committee of New Orleans fought the case all the way to the Supreme Court of the United States.  They lost in 1896, and ''[[Plessy v. Ferguson]]'' validated the segregation laws as constitutional.   

In 1890, Louisiana passed a law requiring separate accommodations for colored and white passengers on railroads. Louisiana law distinguished between "white," "black" and "colored" (that is, people of mixed white and black ancestry). The law already had provided that blacks could not ride with white people, but colored people could ride with whites prior to 1890. A group of concerned black, colored and white citizens in New Orleans formed an association dedicated to the repeal of the law. They had Homer Plessy purchase a first-class railroad ticket. Plessy was directed to leave that car and sit instead in the "coloreds only" car. He refused and was immediately arrested. The Citizens Committee of New Orleans fought the case all the way to the Supreme Court of the United States.  They lost in 1896, and ''[[Plessy v. Ferguson]]'' validated the segregation laws as "constitutional".   

Jim Crow was supported politically by nearly all white politicians.  To do otherwise was political death. The southern states formed a "Solid South"—that is the region voted for (almost) all Democratic candidates at the state level, and was a powerful bloc in presidential elections.<ref>Republicans [[Herbert Hoover]] in 1928 and [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]] in 1952 and 1956 were the only Republicans to win notable support in the white South between 1876 and 1960.</ref>  The Democrats dominated all aspects of local, state, and federal political life in the post-Civil War South, into the 1970s and 1980s. In 1956, nearly all Southern Congressmen and Senators signed the "Southern Manifesto," condemning the Supreme Court's ruling in ''Brown v. Board of Education.''

Jim Crow was supported politically by nearly all white politicians.  To do otherwise was political death. The Southern states formed a "Solid South"—that is the region voted for (almost) all Democrat candidates at the state level, and was a powerful bloc in presidential elections.<ref>Republicans [[Herbert Hoover]] in 1928 and [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]] in 1952 and 1956 were the only Republicans to win notable support in the white South between 1876 and 1960.</ref>  The Democrats dominated all aspects of local, state, and federal political life in the post-Civil War South, into the 1970s and 1980s. In 1956, nearly all Southern Congressmen and Senators signed the "Southern Manifesto," condemning the Supreme Court's ruling in ''Brown v. Board of Education.''

===Black opposition===

===Black opposition===

===Social mobility for blacks===

===Social mobility for blacks===

Jim Crow limited black upward mobility and opportunity. Therefore, millions moved to northern cities in the [[Great Migration]] (1917-1960).

Jim Crow limited black upward mobility and opportunity. Therefore, millions moved to Northern cities in the [[Great Migration]] (1917-1960).

   

   

African-American entertainers, musicians, and literary figures had separate, small niches in the world of art and culture in the North. The most successful writers formed the "[[Harlem Renaissance]]" of the 1920s in New York City, Jazz musicians developed their new music in Jim Crow Memphis and New Orleans, and took it north to Chicago and New York to largely black audiences (whites could hear jazz in the North, but were not allowed in all-black venues in the South).{{citation needed}}

African-American entertainers, musicians, and literary figures had separate, small niches in the world of art and culture in the North. The most successful writers formed the "[[Harlem Renaissance]]" of the 1920s in New York City, Jazz musicians developed their new music in Jim Crow-era Memphis and New Orleans, and took it north to Chicago and New York to largely black audiences (whites could hear jazz in the North, but were not allowed in all-black venues in the South).{{citation needed}}

African-American athletes found Jim Crow stood against them nationally. By 1900, white opposition to African-American boxers, baseball players, track athletes, and basketball players kept them segregated and limited in what they could do. But their prowess and abilities in all-African-American teams and sporting events could not be denied, and the barriers to African-American participation in all the major sports began to crumble in the 1950s and 1960s, especially in the wake of the spectacular breakthrough of [[Jackie Robinson]] into baseball in 1947 in Brooklyn.

African-American athletes found Jim Crow stood against them nationally. By 1900, white opposition to African-American boxers, baseball players, track athletes, and basketball players kept them segregated and limited in what they could do. But their prowess and abilities in all-African-American teams and sporting events could not be denied, and the barriers to African-American participation in all the major sports began to crumble in the 1950s and 1960s, especially in the wake of the spectacular breakthrough of [[Jackie Robinson]] into baseball in 1947 in Brooklyn.