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'''Operation Compass''' was the first major [[World War II]] Allied military operation in the Western Desert Campaign. It resulted in British Commonwealth forces pushing 800 kilometres across [[Libya]] and capturing 100,000<ref>"These initial exchanges were a prelude to the German advance into North Africa, after Wavell's armies put the Italians to flight, captured Tobruk and took 100,000 prisoners." The Silent Service: The Inside Story of the Royal Navy's Submarine Heroes, John Parker, Hachette, 2013</ref> or 130,000 (depending on the source) Italian and Libyan soldiers at the cost of 500 killed, 1,373 wounded and 56 missing or captured.

'''Operation Compass''' was the first major [[World War II]] Allied military operation in the Western Desert Campaign. It resulted in British Commonwealth forces pushing 800 kilometres across [[Libya]] and capturing 100,000<ref>"By February 10, 194 1, El Agheila was captured, with a total of 100,000 prisoners, which slowed up the British advance, and the Italian force was pretty well smashed." Africa, the Near East and the War, p. 129, University of California Press, 1943</ref><ref>"In Egypt he showed that he could put his theories into execution on the battlefield, when he suddenly struck at the Italians, and in a brilliant campaign reached Benghazi in 57 days and captured 100,000 prisoners." Great Britain and the East, Volume 60, p. 129, Eastern Question 1943</ref>

<ref>"These initial exchanges were a prelude to the German advance into North Africa, after Wavell's armies put the Italians to flight, captured Tobruk and took 100,000 prisoners." The Silent Service: The Inside Story of the Royal Navy's Submarine Heroes, John Parker, Hachette, 2013</ref><ref>" The British took about 100,000 Italian prisoners and captured large stores of equipment." World History: The Story of Man's Achievements, William Habberton, Lawrence V. Roth, William R. Spears, p. 537, Laidlaw Bros., 1962</ref><ref>"In Operation Compass his desert forces seized Cyrenaica, taking more than 100,000 prisoners." Commanders, p. 314, Dorling Kindersley, 2011</ref><ref>"Churchill was profoundly relieved in the winter of 1940-41 when Wavell defeated the Italians ... capturing over 100,000 prisoners and much materiel." Winston Churchill: A Biography, Piers Brendon, p. 155, Harper & Row, 1984</ref><ref>"The Italians were driven back into Libya, had their lines of communication cut at Beda Fomm and lost over 100,000 prisoners." Encyclopedia of World War II, John Keegan, p. 107, Gallery Books, 1990</ref> or 150,000 (depending on the source) Italian and Libyan soldiers at the cost of 500 killed, 1,373 wounded and 56 missing or captured.

==Prelude==

==Prelude==

After the Italian declaration of [[war]] on France and the [[United Kingdom]] on 10 June 1940, the British and Italian forces in Libya  began a series of incurisons. Among the more notable achievements of these raids were the capture of Fort Capuzzo by the British Army's 11th Hussars on 17 June. On 12 June, 63 Italians were captured in a raid. [[Benito Mussolini]] urged the Libyan Governor-General Marshal Italo Balbo to launch a large scale offensive against the British in [[Egypt]]. Mussolini's immediate aim was to capture the Suez Canal, ultimately wanting to link up his forces in Libya with those in Italian East Africa. But, fearing a Free French invasion and Senussi Arab uprising, Balbo was reluctant. After Balbo's accidental death on 28 June, Mussolini was just as adamant in urging his replacement, Marshal Rodolfo Graziani, to attack. Like Balbo, Graziani too was reluctant.

After the Italian declaration of [[war]] on France and the [[United Kingdom]] on 10 June 1940, the British and Italian forces in Libya  began a series of incurisons. Among the more notable achievements of these raids were the capture of Fort Capuzzo by the British Army's 11th Hussars on 17 June. On 12 June, 63 Italians were captured in a raid. [[Benito Mussolini]] urged the Libyan Governor-General Marshal Italo Balbo to launch a large scale offensive against the British in [[Egypt]]. Mussolini's immediate aim was to capture the Suez Canal, ultimately wanting to link up his forces in Libya with those in Italian East Africa. But, fearing a Free French invasion and Senussi Arab uprising, Balbo was reluctant. After Balbo's accidental death on 28 June, Mussolini was just as adamant in urging his replacement, Marshal Rodolfo Graziani, to attack. Like Balbo, Graziani too was reluctant.

Graziani was the commander of the Italian Tenth Army in Libya, then an Italian colony, with the Fifth Army located towards the west in Tripolitania and the Tenth Army located towards the east in Cyrenaica. Once the French in Tunisia no longer posed a threat to Tripolitania, the assets of the Fifth Army were used more and more to supplement the needs of the Tenth Army.

Graziani was the commander of the Italian Tenth Army in Libya, then an Italian colony, with the Fifth Army located towards the west in Tripolitania and the Tenth Army located towards the east in Cyrenaica. Once the French in Tunisia no longer posed a threat to Tripolitania, the assets of the Fifth Army were used more and more to supplement the needs of the Tenth Army.

Initially the British Middle East Command under General Archibald Wavell only had 30,000 troops stationed in Egypt to defend against the 150,000-250,000 (depending on the source) Italian and Libyan troops stationed in Libya. Airplanes available to both sides in the desert tended to be older biplanes. The Italians had Fiat CR.32s and Fiat CR.42s while the British had Gloster Gladiators. The British also several warships from the Meditteranean Fleet to bombard Tobruk and Bardia.  

Initially the British Middle East Command under General Archibald Wavell only had 30,000 troops stationed in Egypt to defend against the 150,000-250,000 (depending on the source) Italian and Libyan troops stationed in Libya. Airplanes available to both sides in the desert tended to be older biplanes. The Italians had Fiat CR.32s and Fiat CR.42s while the British had Gloster Gladiators. The British also several warships from the [[Mediterranean Fleet]] under Admiral [[Andrew Cunningham]] to bombard Tobruk, Bardia adn Tripoli.  

Graziani expressed doubts about the capabilities of his larger but largely conscript un-mechanized army to defeat the British Commonwealth forces, who, though smaller in numbers, were largely mechanized and had a proffesional army. Graziani's mobile group was the partially motorized and lightly armored ''Maletti Group''. This group was commanded by General [[Pietro Maletti]]. But even this group was short on transport vehicles. Maletti Group's tanks were mostly machine gun-armed Fiat L3s tankettes. His heaviest tank type was the Fiat M11/39. This tank featured a relatively weak hull-mounted 37&nbsp;mm tank gun, and their numbers were small. In comparison, the British were able to field some faster Cruiser tanks (A9s, A10s, and A13s) which were more than match to the M11/39s. The British also had a limited number of heavy Matilda Infantry tanks that, while slow, were strongly armored and well armed. The armor of the Matilda tanks could not be pierced by any of the available Italian tank guns or anti-tank guns available at that time though Italian anti-aircraft guns could be used against them in the same manner as the German 88&nbsp;mm.

Graziani expressed doubts about the capabilities of his larger but largely conscript un-mechanized army to defeat the British Commonwealth forces, who, though smaller in numbers, were largely mechanized and had a professional army. Graziani's mobile group was the partially motorized and lightly armored ''Maletti Group''. This group was commanded by General [[Pietro Maletti]]. But even this group was short on transport vehicles. Maletti Group's tanks were mostly machine gun-armed Fiat L3s tankettes. His heaviest tank type was the Fiat M11/39. This tank featured a relatively weak hull-mounted 37&nbsp;mm tank gun, and their numbers were small. In comparison, the British were able to field some faster Cruiser tanks (A9s, A10s, and A13s) which were more than match to the M11/39s. The British also had a limited number of heavy Matilda Infantry tanks that, while slow, were strongly armored and well armed. The armor of the Matilda tanks could not be pierced by any of the available Italian tank guns or anti-tank guns available at that time though Italian anti-aircraft guns could be used against them in the same manner as the German 88&nbsp;mm.

==Italian invasion of Egypt==

==Italian invasion of Egypt==

Even so, Graziani followed Mussolini's orders and the Tenth Army attacked on 13 September 1940. The Italian and Libyan supporting troops advanced over the Libyan/Egyptian border into Egypt. In addition to the Maletti Group, the five attacking infantry divisions included the ''Cirene'', ''Marmarica'', and ''23 Marzo'' Divisions. Elite Arditi troops advanced ahead of the spearhead, which comprised the two supporting Libyan Divisions.

 

 

A month later, Graziani followed Mussolini's orders and the 10th Army attacked on 13 September 1940. The Italian and supporting Libyan troops advanced across the Libyan/Egyptian border into Egypt against a force of 10,000 British and 10,000 Egyptian troops.<ref>"Italian soldiers now vastly outnumbered the normal Egyptian garrison of 10,000 British and 10,000 Egyptian troops." Test Case : Italy, Ethiopia, and the League of Nations, George W. Baer, p. 84, Hoover Press, 1976</ref> In addition to the Maletti Group, the five attacking infantry divisions included the ''Cirene'', ''Marmarica'', and ''23 Marzo'' Divisions. Elite Arditi troops advanced ahead of the spearhead, which comprised the two supporting Libyan Divisions.

After recapturing Fort Capuzzo and Halfaya Pass from a determined British rearguard, the Italian and Libyan divisions were bombed and strafed by Royal Air Force (RAF) Wellington and Blenheim bombers from Nos 30, 70, 84 and 211 Squadrons and Gladiators.<ref>"...only a few days after the start of their offensive, the Italian pilots were confronted by the R.A.F. which had sent Nos 30, 211 and 84 Squadrons with Bristol Blenheim bombers, No 80 Sqn with Gloster Gladiator biplane fighters and No 70 Squadron with Vickers Wellington bombers." In the Skies of Europe: Air Forces Allied to the Luftwaffe 1939-1945, Hans Werner Neulen, p. 38, Crowood, 2000</ref> In the meantime, Fairey Fulmars fighters from the aircraft-carrier HMS ''Illustrious'' bombed and torpedoed Italian shipping and warships from the Mediterranean Fleet closed in and shelled Libyan towns, port facilities and motorized columns travelling along the coastal road.

After recapturing Fort Capuzzo and Halfaya Pass from a determined British rearguard, the Italian and Libyan divisions were bombed and strafed by Royal Air Force (RAF) Wellington and Blenheim bombers from Nos 30, 70, 84 and 211 Squadrons and Gladiators.<ref>"...only a few days after the start of their offensive, the Italian pilots were confronted by the R.A.F. which had sent Nos 30, 211 and 84 Squadrons with Bristol Blenheim bombers, No 80 Sqn with Gloster Gladiator biplane fighters and No 70 Squadron with Vickers Wellington bombers." In the Skies of Europe: Air Forces Allied to the Luftwaffe 1939-1945, Hans Werner Neulen, p. 38, Crowood, 2000</ref> In the meantime, Fairey Fulmars fighters from the aircraft-carrier HMS ''Illustrious'' bombed and torpedoed Italian shipping and warships from the Mediterranean Fleet closed in and shelled Libyan towns, port facilities and motorized columns travelling along the coastal road.

On 16 September, the two Libyan divisions recaptured Sidi Barrani under the cover of a sandstorm. That same day, the invaders stopped at the town of Maktila. The invaders had advanced approximately 95 kilometers in three days, suffering heavy casualties, and now proceeded to take up defensive positions and wait for reinforcements. The next day, Italian torpedo-bombers from 278a Squadriglia intervened, putting out of action the cruiser HMS ''Kent''.

On 16 September, the two Libyan divisions recaptured Sidi Barrani under the cover of a sandstorm. That same day, the invaders stopped at the town of Maktila. The invaders had advanced approximately 95 kilometers in three days, suffering heavy casualties, and now proceeded to take up defensive positions and wait for reinforcements. The next day, Italian torpedo-bombers from 278a Squadriglia intervened, putting out of action the cruiser HMS ''Kent''.

==Battle of the Camps==

==Battle of the Camps==

Operation Compass began with the RAF preemptive strikes carried out by No. 202 Group of the Desert Air Force. Their target would be the nearby Italian airfields, successfully destroying twenty-nine aircraft over the course of two days from 7 December - 8 December. Further attacks came from the Meditteranean Fleet in the form of HMS ''Terror'', HMS ''Ladybird'' and HMS ''Aphis'' that bombarded the Italian positions. On 9 December, the British Commonwealth forces (under General Richard O'Connor) commenced their attack. Under the cover of darkness and the bombardments, the 4th Indian Division and British 7th Royal Tank Regiment (7 RTR), is able to penetrate behind Graziani's forces, overrunning and capturing the Nibeiwa camp outside Sidi Barrani. General Pietro Maletti is killed in the fighting, and about 2,000 or 4,000 (depending on the source) Italian and Libyan fall into British hands.

 

Operation Compass began with the RAF preemptive strikes carried out by No. 202 Group of the Desert Air Force. Their target would be the nearby Italian airfields, successfully destroying twenty-nine aircraft over the course of two days from 7 December - 8 December. Further attacks came from the Mediterranean Fleet in the form of HMS ''Terror'', HMS ''Ladybird'' and HMS ''Aphis'' that bombarded the Italian positions. On 9 December, the British Commonwealth forces (under General Richard O'Connor) commenced their attack. Under the cover of darkness and the bombardments, the 4th Indian Division and British 7th Royal Tank Regiment (7 RTR), is able to penetrate behind Graziani's forces, overrunning and capturing the Nibeiwa camp outside Sidi Barrani. General Pietro Maletti is killed in the fighting, and about 2,000 or 4,000 (depending on the source) Italian and Libyan fall into British hands.

On 10 December, the British 7th Armoured Division advances to Sidi Barrani and Buqbuq, overrunning the ''Catanzaro'' Division and capturing the town. Italian artillery gunners and anti-tank crews win the praise of the attackers, damaging forty cruiser tanks from the 6th Royal Tank Regiment (6 RTR) on 10 December, and damaging thirteen other tanks near Buq Buq on 11 December. Nevertheless, in four days' fighting, four Italian divisions are completely overrun and some 20,000 or 40,000 (depending on the source) Italians fall into British hands (including four generals) along with 180 or 400 guns (depending on the source) and some 50 tanks .[5]The Italian ''Cirene'' Division, defending Rabia and Sofafi, manages to withdraw and regroup at Halfaya Pass.

On 10 December, the British 7th Armoured Division advances to Sidi Barrani and Buqbuq, overrunning the ''Catanzaro'' Division and capturing the town. Italian artillery gunners and anti-tank crews win the praise of the attackers, damaging forty cruiser tanks from the 6th Royal Tank Regiment (6 RTR) on 10 December, and damaging thirteen other tanks near Buq Buq on 11 December. Nevertheless, in four days' fighting, four Italian divisions are completely overrun and some 20,000 or 40,000 (depending on the source) Italians fall into British hands (including four generals) along with 180 or 400 guns (depending on the source) and some 50 tanks .[5]The Italian ''Cirene'' Division, defending Rabia and Sofafi, manages to withdraw and regroup at Halfaya Pass.

==Battle of Bardia==

==Battle of Bardia==

On 3 January 1941, following the reorganisation of his forces (now re-named XIII Corps), O'Connor resumed his offensive. As the British Commonwealth forces advanced, several Italian battalions and brigades were surrounded, cut off and forced to surrender. During the previous days, Royal Air Force Wellington, Bombay and Blenheim bombers dropped over 20,000 pounds of bombs on Tobruk. The Australians captured Bardia on 4 January, capturing 25,000<ref>"The report filed by the British journalist Jan Yindrich for the Australian Associated Press on 5 January was headlined SMASH WAY THROUGH MODERN HINDENBURG LINE: FEW CASUALTIES IN CAPTURING 25,000 PRISONERS." The Longest Siege: Tobruk, The Battle That Saved North Africa, Robert Lyman, p. 59, Pan Australia, 2009</ref><ref>[https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1129&dat=19410106&id=Ju4nAAAAIBAJ&sjid=p2kDAAAAIBAJ&pg=4473,5225826&hl=en Bardia Falls to British, 25,000 Fascists Captured, Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, 6 January 1941]</ref> or 45,000<ref>"On 3 January, O'Connor's assault on Bardia was launched with 22 Matildas leading the way as "can-openers." The Italian defence quickly collapsed and by the third day, 45,000 surrendered."  An analytical history of World War II, Volume 1, Edward Norman Peterson, p.276, P. Lang, 1995</ref><ref>"By 1745 hours on 4 January, Italian forces in Bardia had surrendered. The British netted 45,000 prisoners, 462 guns, 117 light, and 13 medium tanks."  Intelligence and Anglo-American Air Support in World War Two: The Western Desert and Tunisia, 1940-43, B. Gladman, p.50, Springer, 2016</ref>(depending on the source) Italians and Libyans, suffering 130 killed and 326 wounded in the process. The Italian armament captured included 126 field guns and 127 tanks.<ref>"The Australians also captured much equipment (including 127 tanks and 216 field guns), but at the cost of 130 Australians killed." Paul Cullen, Citizen and Soldier: The Life and Times of Major-General Paul Cullen AC, CBE, DSO and Bar, ED, FCA, Kevin Baker, p. 56, Rosenberg, 2005</ref>

 

On 3 January 1941, following the reorganisation of his forces (now renamed XIII Corps), O'Connor resumed his offensive. As the British Commonwealth forces advanced, several Italian battalions and brigades were surrounded, cut off and forced to surrender. During the previous days, Royal Air Force Wellington, Bombay and Blenheim bombers dropped over 20,000 pounds of bombs on Tobruk. The Australians captured Bardia on 4 January, capturing 25,000<ref>"The report filed by the British journalist Jan Yindrich for the Australian Associated Press on 5 January was headlined SMASH WAY THROUGH MODERN HINDENBURG LINE: FEW CASUALTIES IN CAPTURING 25,000 PRISONERS." The Longest Siege: Tobruk, The Battle That Saved North Africa, Robert Lyman, p. 59, Pan Australia, 2009</ref><ref>[https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1129&dat=19410106&id=Ju4nAAAAIBAJ&sjid=p2kDAAAAIBAJ&pg=4473,5225826&hl=en Bardia Falls to British, 25,000 Fascists Captured, Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, 6 January 1941]</ref> or 45,000<ref>"On 3 January, O'Connor's assault on Bardia was launched with 22 Matildas leading the way as "can-openers." The Italian defence quickly collapsed and by the third day, 45,000 surrendered."  An analytical history of World War II, Volume 1, Edward Norman Peterson, p.276, P. Lang, 1995</ref><ref>"By 1745 hours on 4 January, Italian forces in Bardia had surrendered. The British netted 45,000 prisoners, 462 guns, 117 light, and 13 medium tanks."  Intelligence and Anglo-American Air Support in World War Two: The Western Desert and Tunisia, 1940-43, B. Gladman, p.50, Springer, 2016</ref>(depending on the source) Italians and Libyans, suffering 130 killed and 326 wounded in the process. The Italian armament captured included 126 field guns and 127 tanks.<ref>"The Australians also captured much equipment (including 127 tanks and 216 field guns), but at the cost of 130 Australians killed." Paul Cullen, Citizen and Soldier: The Life and Times of Major-General Paul Cullen AC, CBE, DSO and Bar, ED, FCA, Kevin Baker, p. 56, Rosenberg, 2005</ref>

The assault on Bardia was launched at dawn from the south-western perimeter of the defences by the 16th (under Brigadier Allen) and 17th (under Brigadier Savige) Brigades from the Australian 6th Infantry Division, supported by the British ''Northumberland Fusiliers'' and the remaining 25 tanks of 7th RTR. The British 7th Armoured Division and supporting Free French Forces were tasked with ensuring that the Bardia garrrison could not escape or receive reinforcements. By nightfall, the Australians had penetrated two miles (3&nbsp;km) on a nine-mile (14&nbsp;km) frontage, capturing 8,000 Italians.

The assault on Bardia was launched at dawn from the south-western perimeter of the defences by the 16th (under Brigadier Allen) and 17th (under Brigadier Savige) Brigades from the Australian 6th Infantry Division, supported by the British ''Northumberland Fusiliers'' and the remaining 25 tanks of 7th RTR. The British 7th Armoured Division and supporting Free French Forces were tasked with ensuring that the Bardia garrrison could not escape or receive reinforcements. By nightfall, the Australians had penetrated two miles (3&nbsp;km) on a nine-mile (14&nbsp;km) frontage, capturing 8,000 Italians.

On crossing the startline at around 05:30 hours, the Australian 2nd/1st Battalion soon suffered casualties, losing four killed and ten wounded. Nevertheless, it continued to advance under the command of Lieutenant-Colonel Eather while still under fire from mortar crews and artillery batteries. The lead platoons advanced accompanied by engineer parties carrying bangalore torpedoes-12 foot (4m) pipes as Italian artillery fire began to land in and around them. Immediately after the torpedoes were fired, the engineers rushed forward to break down the anti-tank ditch and complete their task in half an hour. The Italian platoons defending Posts 49, 47 and 46 were rapidly overrun in the initial infantry attack. Within half an hour Post 48 had also surrendered and another Australian company forced the surrender of the platoons tasked with the defence of Posts 45 and 44. The two other rifle companies now advanced beyond these positions as artillery began to fall along the broken wire. At 06.30 the Australian 2/2nd Battalion found that it was best to keep skirmishing forward throughout this advance, because taking cover for too long meant sitting in the middle of the defensive artillery fire concentrations that inflicted further casualties. The Australian troops made good progress, six tank crossings were cleared and mines between them and the wire had been detected. Five minutes later, 23 Matilda tanks from 7 RTR advanced accompanied by 2nd/2nd Battalion smoking en singing ''"South of the Border"''. Passing through the gaps, they swung right along the double line of abandoned reinforced concrete bunkers. Italian morale was clearly broken, worn down by six weeks of aerial and naval bombardment and lack of food and water. But other units were determined to fight. The companies of the 2nd/1st Battalion succeeded in taking several hundred prisoners, a battalion of the 1st Blackshirt Division. However, the machine-gun carriers of A Squadron, under Major Denzil Macarthur-Onslow, from the 6th Division's Cavalry Regiment encountered problems as they moved forward during the initial attack. One of the Bren gun carriers was hit and destroyed in the advance and another lost near Wadi Ghereidia.  

On crossing the startline at around 05:30 hours, the Australian 2nd/1st Battalion soon suffered casualties, losing four killed and ten wounded. Nevertheless, it continued to advance under the command of Lieutenant-Colonel Eather while still under fire from mortar crews and artillery batteries. The lead platoons advanced accompanied by engineer parties carrying bangalore torpedoes-12 foot (4m) pipes as Italian artillery fire began to land in and around them. Immediately after the torpedoes were fired, the engineers rushed forward to break down the anti-tank ditch and complete their task in half an hour. The Italian platoons defending Posts 49, 47 and 46 were rapidly overrun in the initial infantry attack. Within half an hour Post 48 had also surrendered and another Australian company forced the surrender of the platoons tasked with the defence of Posts 45 and 44. The two other rifle companies now advanced beyond these positions as artillery began to fall along the broken wire. At 06.30 the Australian 2/2nd Battalion found that it was best to keep skirmishing forward throughout this advance, because taking cover for too long meant sitting in the middle of the defensive artillery fire concentrations that inflicted further casualties. The Australian troops made good progress, six tank crossings were cleared and mines between them and the wire had been detected. Five minutes later, 23 Matilda tanks from 7 RTR advanced accompanied by 2nd/2nd Battalion smoking en singing ''"South of the Border"''. Passing through the gaps, they swung right along the double line of abandoned reinforced concrete bunkers. Italian morale was clearly broken, worn down by six weeks of aerial and naval bombardment and lack of food and water. But other units were determined to fight. The companies of the 2nd/1st Battalion succeeded in taking several hundred prisoners, a battalion of the 1st Blackshirt Division. However, the machine-gun carriers of A Squadron, under Major Denzil Macarthur-Onslow, from the 6th Division's Cavalry Regiment encountered problems as they moved forward during the initial attack. One of the Bren gun carriers was hit and destroyed in the advance and another lost near Wadi Ghereidia.  

At 07:50 hours the Australian 2nd/3rd Battalion, supported by the 6th Cavalry Regiment moved off for Bardia. Major Abbot's company advanced to the Italian posts, and attacked a group of sangers with very close fighting; the Italian platoons were cleared with grenades. By 09:20 they had linked with another battalion, strung out in a very thin line, but a squadron of enemy tanks counterattacked, overrunning part of 2nd/3rd Battalion before advancing dangerously close to battalion headquarters<ref>"On the afternoon of 3 January Italian tanks pierced the 2/3rd's thin line and proceeded to threaten its headquarters. This counter-rattack revealed Vivien England's poor control of his battalion and its supporting arms. England had to race the tanks across the desert in his Bren gun carrier to improvise the defence of battalion headquarters, which was saved only by the chance arrival of a paltoon of anti-tank guns." Australian Battalion Commanders in the Second World War, Garth Pratten, Cambridge University Press, 2009</ref> while the supporting British tankers dismissed all reports of them. Finally, they were stopped by British anti-tank guns that were wheeled into place by trucks, and the brave action of two Australian sergeants operating a captured Italian anti-tank gun. The local Italian commanders were now irretrievably losing. However, they were fighting desperately, but were fighting against better-trained infantry that properly deployed supporting machine-gun carriers to take strongpoint after strongpoint. By midday, 6,000 Italians POWs had already reached the provosts at the collection point near Post 45, escorted by increasingly fewer guards that the the attacking company commanders could ill afford to detach. The Australian advance was greatly assisted at one point by the heavy shelling from the British Mediterranean Force in the form of HMS ''Barham'', HMS ''Valiant'' and HMS ''Warspite'', accompanied by four destroyers firing for nearly an hour at key targets in the town.  

At 07:50 hours the Australian 2nd/3rd Battalion, supported by the 6th Cavalry Regiment moved off for Bardia. Major Abbot's company advanced to the Italian posts, and attacked a group of sangers with very close fighting; the Italian platoons were cleared with grenades. By 09:20 they had linked with another battalion, strung out in a very thin line, but a squadron of enemy tanks counterattacked, overrunning part of 2nd/3rd Battalion before advancing dangerously close to battalion headquarters<ref>"On the afternoon of 3 January Italian tanks pierced the 2/3rd's thin line and proceeded to threaten its headquarters. This counter-rattack revealed Vivien England's poor control of his battalion and its supporting arms. England had to race the tanks across the desert in his Bren gun carrier to improvise the defence of battalion headquarters, which was saved only by the chance arrival of a paltoon of anti-tank guns." Australian Battalion Commanders in the Second World War, Garth Pratten, Cambridge University Press, 2009</ref> while the supporting British tankers dismissed all reports of them. Finally, they were stopped by British anti-tank guns that were wheeled into place by trucks, and the brave action of two Australian sergeants operating a captured Italian anti-tank gun. The local Italian commanders were now irretrievably losing. However, they were fighting desperately, but were fighting against better-trained infantry that properly deployed supporting machine-gun carriers to take strongpoint after strongpoint. By midday, 6,000 Italians POWs had already reached the provosts at the collection point near Post 45, escorted by increasingly fewer guards that the attacking company commanders could ill afford to detach. The Australian advance was greatly assisted at one point by the heavy shelling from the British Mediterranean Force in the form of HMS ''Barham'', HMS ''Valiant'' and HMS ''Warspite'', accompanied by four destroyers firing for nearly an hour at key targets in the town.  

The Australian 2nd/5th Battalion (under Lieutenant-Colonel Walker) from the 17th Brigade, now took over the advance and covered 15 miles (24&nbsp;km) in nine hours. The battalion's task was to clear "The Triangle". The sun had now risen, so Captain Smith's company came under sustained fire from machine-guns within 700 yards (640 m), and soon the lead company was pinned down and suffering casualties. Captain Griffiths called for support from 3-inch (76&nbsp;mm) mortars and Vickers machine-guns from the ''Northumberland Fusiliers'' ("The Fighting Fifth"). This proved effective, another company advanced along the Wadi Scemmas, eventually collecting 3,000 prisoners. After Post 24 had been taken, two Matilda tanks arrived and they helped to take Post 22. Here an unfortunate incident occurred. As the prisoners were being rounded up, one shot the company commander dead, then threw down his rifle and climbed out of the pit to surrender. He was immediately thrown back and a Bren gun emptied into him. The company second-in-command then had to intervene and prevent his soldiers from killing the other prisoners. The incident was reportedly witnessed by the Italians at Post 25 some 500 yards (455 m) away, who quickly surrendered. Brigade Major Brock, upon hearing of the losses in the 2nd/5th Battalion (including two officers that had been wounded), sent Captain Savige's rifle Company of the 2nd/7th Battalion to reinforce the attack on "The Triangle". Savige gathered his men and with the help of machine-gun teams attacked the objective, 3,000 yards (2,700 m) away. The company captured several artillery batteries, machine-gun emplacements and a large number of prisoners on the way, but sustained 50 percent casualties in the process.  

The Australian 2nd/5th Battalion (under Lieutenant-Colonel Walker) from the 17th Brigade, now took over the advance and covered 15 miles (24&nbsp;km) in nine hours. The battalion's task was to clear "The Triangle". The sun had now risen, so Captain Smith's company came under sustained fire from machine-guns within 700 yards (640 m), and soon the lead company was pinned down and suffering casualties. Captain Griffiths called for support from 3-inch (76&nbsp;mm) mortars and Vickers machine-guns from the ''Northumberland Fusiliers'' ("The Fighting Fifth"). This proved effective, another company advanced along the Wadi Scemmas, eventually collecting 3,000 prisoners. After Post 24 had been taken, two Matilda tanks arrived and they helped to take Post 22. Here an unfortunate incident occurred. As the prisoners were being rounded up, one shot the company commander dead, then threw down his rifle and climbed out of the pit to surrender. He was immediately thrown back and a Bren gun emptied into him. The company second-in-command then had to intervene and prevent his soldiers from killing the other prisoners. The incident was reportedly witnessed by the Italians at Post 25 some 500 yards (455 m) away, who quickly surrendered. Brigade Major Brock, upon hearing of the losses in the 2nd/5th Battalion (including two officers that had been wounded), sent Captain Savige's rifle Company of the 2nd/7th Battalion to reinforce the attack on "The Triangle". Savige gathered his men and with the help of machine-gun teams attacked the objective, 3,000 yards (2,700 m) away. The company captured several artillery batteries, machine-gun emplacements and a large number of prisoners on the way, but sustained 50 percent casualties in the process.  

It would later emerge that the Italian defenders were in a terrible state, with several dying of hunger and thirst soon after the surrender:{{cquote|The impact of insufficient food and drink on the Italian defenders at Bardia was soon quite clear to the Australians ... many were dying and weak with hunger and thirst ... They went down on their knees and drank up puddles of water ... Warrant Officer R. Donovan, 2/21 Field Regiment was haunted by mass cries for 'aqua, aqua,' ... Some died of exhaustion and thirst.<ref>Bardia: Myth, Reality and the Heirs of Anzac, Craig Stockings, p. 316, UNSW Press, 2009</ref>}}

It would later emerge that the Italian defenders were in a terrible state, with several dying of hunger and thirst soon after the surrender:{{cquote|The impact of insufficient food and drink on the Italian defenders at Bardia was soon quite clear to the Australians ... many were dying and weak with hunger and thirst ... They went down on their knees and drank up puddles of water ... Warrant Officer R. Donovan, 2/21 Field Regiment was haunted by mass cries for 'aqua, aqua,' ... Some died of exhaustion and thirst.<ref>Bardia: Myth, Reality and the Heirs of Anzac, Craig Stockings, p. 316, UNSW Press, 2009</ref>}}

Captain Halliday was later decorated for his oustanding courage and leadership in North Africa with the Military Cross (MC).

Captain Halliday was later decorated for his outstanding courage and leadership in North Africa with the Military Cross (MC).

==Battle of Tobruk==

==Battle of Tobruk==

An Italian platoon also fought well in defence of Post 62, despite British tank and artillery fire. Lieutenant Clark had to pour a mixture of crude oil and kerosene into the bunker in order to silence the defenders.<ref>"Post 62 fought back under tank and artillery shelling until Lt. F.D. Clark of Adelaide poured a mixture of crude oil and kerosene through the post’s windows to silence it. 11 Italians died and 35 surrendered." [http://www.avalanchepress.com/Graziani4.php Western Desert Force]</ref> Eleven Italians were killed and the remaining 35 surrendered.

An Italian platoon also fought well in defence of Post 62, despite British tank and artillery fire. Lieutenant Clark had to pour a mixture of crude oil and kerosene into the bunker in order to silence the defenders.<ref>"Post 62 fought back under tank and artillery shelling until Lt. F.D. Clark of Adelaide poured a mixture of crude oil and kerosene through the post’s windows to silence it. 11 Italians died and 35 surrendered." [http://www.avalanchepress.com/Graziani4.php Western Desert Force]</ref> Eleven Italians were killed and the remaining 35 surrendered.

By mid-day, the 2nd/28th Battalion from the 19th Brigade was moving on Fort Pilastrino, the ''Sirte'' Division’s headquarters. The battalion came under fire from dug-in Italian tanks, wounding Captain Anderson and Lieutenant Russell. The Australians attacked with bayonets and grenades, destroying one tank and forcing the remaining tank crews to surrender. The 2nd/8th Battalion took 1,300 prisoners but suffered heavy casualties in the attack.<ref>"Even so, the Italians put up a dogged resistance that cost the attackers an unprecedented number of casualties and one company was down to only twenty-one men when the complex was finally cleared around midday on 21 January."  Tobruk: The Great Siege, 1941-42, William F Buckingham, The History Press, 2012</ref> At dusk, the 2nd/4th Battalion reached Fort Pilastrino, having to brave anti-aicraft and tank fire from the airfield.

By mid-day, the 2nd/28th Battalion from the 19th Brigade was moving on Fort Pilastrino, the ''Sirte'' Division’s headquarters. The battalion came under fire from dug-in Italian tanks, wounding Captain Anderson and Lieutenant Russell. The Australians attacked with bayonets and grenades, destroying one tank and forcing the remaining tank crews to surrender. The 2nd/8th Battalion took 1,300 prisoners but suffered heavy casualties in the attack.<ref>"Even so, the Italians put up a dogged resistance that cost the attackers an unprecedented number of casualties and one company was down to only twenty-one men when the complex was finally cleared around midday on 21 January."  Tobruk: The Great Siege, 1941-42, William F Buckingham, The History Press, 2012</ref> At dusk, the 2nd/4th Battalion reached Fort Pilastrino, having to brave anti-aircraft and tank fire from the airfield.

At around 14:00 hours, the Italians mounted a battalion-sized infantry counterattack with the help of a squadron of tanks, forcing Campbell's company to withdraw, losing many killed, wounded or captured, before help arrived in the form of British anti-tank guns and tanks.<ref>"The advance was resumed at 14:00 and once again the 2/8th Battalion bore the brunt of the action, almost immediately running into an Italian counter-attack involving  several hundred infantry supported by a dozen M13/40 tanks, seven of which got in amongst the Batalion's left hand company and overran its leading platoon ... The situation was saved by two Australian sergeants manhandling a captured Italian anti-tank gun into action and the arrival of two 2-ponder Portees from the 3rd RHA." (Tobruk: The Great Siege, 1941-42, William F Buckingham, The History Press, 2012)</ref>

At around 14:00 hours, the Italians mounted a battalion-sized infantry counterattack with the help of a squadron of tanks, forcing Campbell's company to withdraw, losing many killed, wounded or captured, before help arrived in the form of British anti-tank guns and tanks.<ref>"The advance was resumed at 14:00 and once again the 2/8th Battalion bore the brunt of the action, almost immediately running into an Italian counter-attack involving  several hundred infantry supported by a dozen M13/40 tanks, seven of which got in amongst the Batalion's left hand company and overran its leading platoon ... The situation was saved by two Australian sergeants manhandling a captured Italian anti-tank gun into action and the arrival of two 2-ponder Portees from the 3rd RHA." (Tobruk: The Great Siege, 1941-42, William F Buckingham, The History Press, 2012)</ref>

Next day, the capture of the remaining Italian strongpoints, from R1 to S11, was completed and assisted by tanks from the Support Group. The 2nd Rifle Brigade and 1st King's Royal Rifle Corps had also arrived as reinforcements that morning. Meanwhile, the 7th Armoured Division which had also entered the perimeter from the Derna road that morning stood by ready to advance into the Tobruk if needed. That afternoon, General della Mura and the remaining defenders surrendered. The Italians had lost 15,000-30,000 killed, wounded or captured (depending on the source) and 208 field guns, 87 tanks and 200 trucks. The Australian losses were 49 dead and 306 wounded. The Free French Force lost 5 killed and 40 wounded. Although, the 2nd/8th Battalion (according to the official war historian) captured 1,300 Italians, Lieutenant Stan Jacobs estimates the real number of prisoners his battalion marched off to captivity took to be around 3,000.<ref>"On arrival at Fort Capuzzo ... on the gate there was a British sentry. 'How many have you got'? he asked. 'About 3,500,' Jacobs replied. 'Oh hell,' exclaimed the sentry." An Unqualified Success, Peter Golding, Rosenberg Publising, 2013</ref>

Next day, the capture of the remaining Italian strongpoints, from R1 to S11, was completed and assisted by tanks from the Support Group. The 2nd Rifle Brigade and 1st King's Royal Rifle Corps had also arrived as reinforcements that morning. Meanwhile, the 7th Armoured Division which had also entered the perimeter from the Derna road that morning stood by ready to advance into the Tobruk if needed. That afternoon, General della Mura and the remaining defenders surrendered. The Italians had lost 15,000-30,000 killed, wounded or captured (depending on the source) and 208 field guns, 87 tanks and 200 trucks. The Australian losses were 49 dead and 306 wounded. The Free French Force lost 5 killed and 40 wounded. Although, the 2nd/8th Battalion (according to the official war historian) captured 1,300 Italians, Lieutenant Stan Jacobs estimates the real number of prisoners his battalion marched off to captivity took to be around 3,000.<ref>"On arrival at Fort Capuzzo ... on the gate there was a British sentry. 'How many have you got'? he asked. 'About 3,500,' Jacobs replied. 'Oh hell,' exclaimed the sentry." An Unqualified Success, Peter Golding, Rosenberg Publising, 2013</ref>

==Battle of Derna==

==Battle of Derna==

{{cquote|Jan. 30.—The third major Italian bastion to fall in Libya—Derna, 175 miles west of the Egyptian frontier—was occupied today by British imperial troops after four days of the bitterest resistance offered by the Fascists in the whole of the African campaign. The town had been defended by less than 10,000 Italians, British sources disclosed, but they fought with a violence encountered nowhere else in General Sir Archibald P. Wavell's long continued thrust to the west.<ref>[https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1129&dat=19410131&id=utZaAAAAIBAJ&sjid=dmkDAAAAIBAJ&pg=2787,6394016&hl=en British Take Derna After Fierce Fight, Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, 31 January 1941]</ref>}}

{{cquote|Jan. 30.—The third major Italian bastion to fall in Libya—Derna, 175 miles west of the Egyptian frontier—was occupied today by British imperial troops after four days of the bitterest resistance offered by the Fascists in the whole of the African campaign. The town had been defended by less than 10,000 Italians, British sources disclosed, but they fought with a violence encountered nowhere else in General Sir Archibald P. Wavell's long continued thrust to the west.<ref>[https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1129&dat=19410131&id=utZaAAAAIBAJ&sjid=dmkDAAAAIBAJ&pg=2787,6394016&hl=en British Take Derna After Fierce Fight, Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, 31 January 1941]</ref>}}

On 4 February, Italian pilots shot down a British Bleinheim (Mk.I L8538) and an Australian Hurricane from 73 Squadron (Pilot Officer Ken M. Millist) on 4 February, but lost a Caproni Ca.133 from 366a Squadriglia and a CR.42 from ''368a Squadriglia'' the same day.<ref>[http://surfcity.kund.dalnet.se/italy_camerini.htm <Sergente Maggiore Antonio Camerini]</ref>

On 4 February, Italian pilots shot down a British Bleinheim (Mk.I L8538) and an Australian Hurricane from 73 Squadron (Pilot Officer Ken M. Millist) on 4 February, but lost a Caproni Ca.133 from 366a Squadriglia and a CR.42 from ''368a Squadriglia'' the same day.<ref>[http://surfcity.kund.dalnet.se/italy_camerini.htm Sergente Maggiore Antonio Camerini]</ref>

==Battle of Beda Fomm==

==Battle of Beda Fomm==

==Battle of Giarabub==

==Battle of Giarabub==

General Wavell's offensive had cut off approximately 2,000 Italian and Libyan troops (under the command of Major Salvatore Castagna) defending the Giarabub stronghold guarding against the Free French Forces in Chad. Giarabub was an oasis 160 miles (260&nbsp;km) to the south of Bardia and 25 miles (40&nbsp;km) from the border. Although the Libyan troops deserted the defences, the Italian troops held firm and were still fighting off aerial and ground reconnaissance missions in mid-March. Although cut off, the garrison was supplied by air and the 6th Australian Division's divisional mechanized cavalry unit which was besieging the oasis did not have the necessary strength to overcome the opposition.

General Wavell's offensive had cut off approximately 2,000 Italian and Libyan troops (under the command of Major [[Salvatore Castagna]]) defending the [[Giarabub]] stronghold guarding against the Free French Forces in Chad. Giarabub was an oasis 160 miles (260&nbsp;km) to the south of Bardia and 25 miles (40&nbsp;km) from the border. Although the Libyan troops eventually deserted the defences, the Italian troops held firm and were still fighting off aerial missions and ground fighting patrols in mid-March. Although cut off, the garrison was supplied by air and the 6th Australian Division's divisional mechanized cavalry unit which was besieging the oasis did not have the necessary strength to overcome the opposition.

 

In late March, Wavell needed to capture the oasis in order to allow him to withdraw the divisional cavalry regiment to join the rest of the division tasked with the defence of northern Greece. The 2nd/9th Australian Infantry battalion reinforced the cavarly unit and an attack was launched under the command of Brigadier Wootten. On 21 March, the final fighting at Giararub took place and the fighting lasted two days with both sides taking heavy casualties, but the Australians prevailed although 2/9th Battalion lost 17 killed and 77 wounded before the Italians surrendered. It was estimated that 250 defenders had been killed or wounded in the patrol battles, softening up bombardments and final Australian platoon and company sized assaults at Giararub.

In late March Wavell needed capture the oasis to allow him to withdraw the divisional cavalry regiment to join the rest of the division to reinforce northern Greece. The cavalry unit was joined by 2/9th Australian Infantry battalion and an attack launched under the leadership of Brigadier Wootten. On 21 March, the final attack on Giararub took place and the fighting lasted two days with both sides taking heavy casualties, but the Australians prevailed although 2/9th Battalion lost 17 killed and 77 wounded. It was estimated that 250 defenders had been killed or wounded in the final assault and as a result of the artillery softening up fire and air bombardments.

In late March Wavell needed capture the oasis to allow him to withdraw the divisional cavalry regiment to join the rest of the division to reinforce northern Greece. The cavalry unit was joined by 2/9th Australian Infantry battalion and an attack launched under the leadership of Brigadier Wootten. On 21 March, the final attack on Giararub took place and the fighting lasted two days with both sides taking heavy casualties, but the Australians prevailed although 2/9th Battalion lost 17 killed and 77 wounded. It was estimated that 250 defenders had been killed or wounded in the siege and final battle.

==Aftermath==

==Aftermath==

After ten weeks of fighting, Graziani's 10th Army had been completely outfought and forced to relinquish most strongholds (Bardia, Tobruk, Derna, etc). The British Commonwealth and Free French forces had advanced 800&nbsp;km, destroyed or captured about 400 tanks and 850 or 1,290 artillery pieces, and 100,000 or 130,000 (depending on the source) Italian and Libyan soldiers besides a vast quantity of other war material. Among the Italian captured were 22 generals. The Italian general staff and Graziani in his memoirs acknowledge 960 guns of all types lost and 100,000 captured, including 17,000 Libyan soldiers. The British and Commonwealth forces admit 494 dead, 1,225 wounded and 43 captured or missing.

After ten weeks of fighting, Graziani's 10th Army had been completely outfought and forced to relinquish most strongholds (Bardia, Tobruk, Derna, etc.). The British Commonwealth and Free French forces had advanced 800&nbsp;km, destroyed or captured about 400 tanks and 850 or 1,290 artillery pieces, and 100,000 or 150,000 (depending on the source) Italian and Libyan soldiers besides a vast quantity of other war material. Among the Italian captured were 22 generals. The Italian general staff and Graziani in his memoirs acknowledge 960 guns of all types lost and 100,000 captured, including 17,000 Libyan soldiers. The British and Commonwealth forces admit 494 dead, 1,225 wounded and 50 captured or missing, not including Free French losses.

Contrary to expectations the British advance stopped short of capturing Tripoli and completely defeating the Italians in North Africa. As the British Commonwealth vanguards reached El Agheila, Churchill ordered that the offensive be stopped and infantry and armoured units dispatched urgently to defend northern Greece. The Greeks had most of their divisions pinned down in Albania containing Italian counteroffensives and a German invasion was soon expected to materialize through the undermanned Metaxas Line.

Contrary to expectations the British advance stopped short of capturing Tripoli and completely defeating the Italians in North Africa. As the British Commonwealth vanguards reached [[El Agheila]], Churchill ordered that the offensive be stopped and infantry, armoured units and Hurricane fighter squadrons units dispatched urgently to defend northern Greece. The Greeks still had most of their divisions pinned down in Albania containing Italian counteroffensives and a German invasion was soon expected to materialize through the undermanned [[Metaxas Line]].

With the respite, the Italian Supreme Command is soon able to reinforce Italian strongholds in Libya. Among the Italian reinforcements were the 17th ''Pavia'' Infantry Division, the 25th ''Bologna'' Infantry Division and the 102nd ''Trento'' Motorised Division, making available about 150,000 men for the defence of Italian Libya. Also, on 10 January 1941, the British aircraft-carrier HMS ''Illustrious'' was disabled in a dive-bomber attack by German and Italian Stukas (with the Italians equipped with heavy bombs) and bombs from 96° Gruppo (under captain Ercolano Ercolani) hit the aft-lift, forcing the British carrier to limp back to Malta for repairs, allowing the German Afrika Korps (under General Erwin Rommel) to begin arriving in Tripoli (Operation ''Sonnenblume'') without losses.  

With the respite, the Italian Supreme Command is soon able to reinforce Italian strongholds in Libya. Among the Italian reinforcements were the [[17th ''Pavia'' Infantry Division]], the [[25th ''Bologna'' Infantry Division]] and the [[102nd ''Trento'' Motorised Division]], making available about 150,000 men for the defence of Italian Libya. Also, on 10 January 1941, the British aircraft-carrier HMS ''Illustrious'' was disabled in a dive-bomber attack by German and Italian Stukas (with the Italian dive-bombers equipped with heavy bombs) and bombs from 96° Gruppo (under captain [[Ercolano Ercolani]]) hit the aft-lift, forcing the British carrier to limp back to [[Malta]] for repairs, allowing the German [[Afrika Korps]] (under General [[Erwin Rommel]]) to begin arriving in Tripoli (Operation ''Sonnenblume'') without losses.  

General Rommel is determined to regain the intiative, and with General O'Connor stripped off fighter squadrons in favour of Greece, the surviving Regia Aeronautica fighters along with 20 recently-arrived Messerschmitt Bf 110 twin-engine heavy fighters, win back air superiority, permitting Rommel to recover Benghazi, Derna, Mechili, Bardia and forcing the Australian 9th Division back to Tobruk.<ref>"By the end of February 1941, 5th Squadra Aerea had more than 120 serviceable aircraft in Tripolitania, while the Luftwaffe had only 80 (20 Bf 110s and 60 Ju 87s). With this modest air support, Gen Rommel began an offensive on 24 March, and by 13 April had recaptured all of Cyrenaica with the exception of Tobruk. In the Skies of Europe: Air Forces Allied to the Luftwaffe 1939-1945, Hans Werner Neulen, p. 48, Crowood, 2000</ref><ref>"The Royal Air Force had sent the best squadrons in the Middle East to support the operations in Greece, leaving the bombers and fighters of the Regia Aeronautica a free hand to harass the retreating British mercilessly. Field Marshal: The Life and Death of Erwin Rommel, Daniel Allen Butler, p. 210, Casemate, 2015</ref>

General Rommel is determined to regain the intiative, and with General O'Connor stripped off fighter squadrons in favour of Greece, the surviving Regia Aeronautica fighters along with 20 recently arrived Messerschmitt Bf 110 twin-engine heavy fighters, win back air superiority, permitting Rommel to recover Benghazi, Derna, Mechili, Bardia and forcing the Australian 9th Division back to Tobruk.<ref>"By the end of February 1941, 5th Squadra Aerea had more than 120 serviceable aircraft in Tripolitania, while the Luftwaffe had only 80 (20 Bf 110s and 60 Ju 87s). With this modest air support, Gen Rommel began an offensive on 24 March, and by 13 April had recaptured all of Cyrenaica with the exception of Tobruk. In the Skies of Europe: Air Forces Allied to the Luftwaffe 1939-1945, Hans Werner Neulen, p. 48, Crowood, 2000</ref><ref>"The Royal Air Force had sent the best squadrons in the Middle East to support the operations in Greece, leaving the bombers and fighters of the Regia Aeronautica a free hand to harass the retreating British mercilessly. Field Marshal: The Life and Death of Erwin Rommel, Daniel Allen Butler, p. 210, Casemate, 2015</ref>

== Notes ==

== Notes ==