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'''Operation Compass''' was the first major [[World War II]] Allied military operation in the Western Desert Campaign. It resulted in British Commonwealth forces pushing 800 kilometres across [[Libya]] and capturing 100,000<ref>"By February 10, 194 1, El Agheila was captured, with a total of 100,000 prisoners, which slowed up the British advance, and the Italian force was pretty well smashed." Africa, the Near East and the War, p. 129, University of California Press, 1943</ref><ref>"In Egypt he showed that he could put his theories into execution on the battlefield, when he suddenly struck at the Italians, and in a brilliant campaign reached Benghazi in 57 days and captured 100,000 prisoners." Great Britain and the East, Volume 60, p. 129, Eastern Question 1943</ref>  

'''Operation Compass''' was the first major [[World War II]] Allied military operation in the Western Desert Campaign. It resulted in British Commonwealth forces pushing 800 kilometres across [[Libya]] and capturing 100,000<ref>"By February 10, 194 1, El Agheila was captured, with a total of 100,000 prisoners, which slowed up the British advance, and the Italian force was pretty well smashed." Africa, the Near East and the War, p. 129, University of California Press, 1943</ref><ref>"In Egypt he showed that he could put his theories into execution on the battlefield, when he suddenly struck at the Italians, and in a brilliant campaign reached Benghazi in 57 days and captured 100,000 prisoners." Great Britain and the East, Volume 60, p. 129, Eastern Question 1943</ref>  

<ref>"These initial exchanges were a prelude to the German advance into North Africa, after Wavell's armies put the Italians to flight, captured Tobruk and took 100,000 prisoners." The Silent Service: The Inside Story of the Royal Navy's Submarine Heroes, John Parker, Hachette, 2013</ref><ref>" The British took about 100,000 Italian prisoners and captured large stores of equipment." World History: The Story of Man's Achievements, William Habberton, Lawrence V. Roth, William R. Spears, p. 537, Laidlaw Bros., 1962 </ref><ref>"In Operation Compass his desert forces seized Cyrenaica, taking more than 100,000 prisoners." Commanders, p. 314, Dorling Kindersley, 2011</ref><ref>"Churchill was profoundly relieved in the winter of 1940-41 when Wavell defeated the Italians ... capturing over 100,000 prisoners and much materiel." Winston Churchill: A Biography, Piers Brendon, p. 155, Harper & Row, 1984</ref><ref>"The Italians were driven back into Libya, had their lines of communication cut at Beda Fomm and lost over 100,000 prisoners." Encyclopedia of World War II, John Keegan, p. 107, Gallery Books, 1990</ref>or 150,000 (depending on the source) Italian and Libyan soldiers at the cost of 500 killed, 1,373 wounded and 56 missing or captured.

<ref>"These initial exchanges were a prelude to the German advance into North Africa, after Wavell's armies put the Italians to flight, captured Tobruk and took 100,000 prisoners." The Silent Service: The Inside Story of the Royal Navy's Submarine Heroes, John Parker, Hachette, 2013</ref><ref>" The British took about 100,000 Italian prisoners and captured large stores of equipment." World History: The Story of Man's Achievements, William Habberton, Lawrence V. Roth, William R. Spears, p. 537, Laidlaw Bros., 1962</ref><ref>"In Operation Compass his desert forces seized Cyrenaica, taking more than 100,000 prisoners." Commanders, p. 314, Dorling Kindersley, 2011</ref><ref>"Churchill was profoundly relieved in the winter of 1940-41 when Wavell defeated the Italians ... capturing over 100,000 prisoners and much materiel." Winston Churchill: A Biography, Piers Brendon, p. 155, Harper & Row, 1984</ref><ref>"The Italians were driven back into Libya, had their lines of communication cut at Beda Fomm and lost over 100,000 prisoners." Encyclopedia of World War II, John Keegan, p. 107, Gallery Books, 1990</ref> or 150,000 (depending on the source) Italian and Libyan soldiers at the cost of 500 killed, 1,373 wounded and 56 missing or captured.

==Prelude==

==Prelude==

On 9 August 1940, in a special meeting of the Libyan nationalist leaders in Cairo, a Senussi government-in-exile was announced under Sayyid Idris with British political, financial and military support.  

On 9 August 1940, in a special meeting of the Libyan nationalist leaders in Cairo, a Senussi government-in-exile was announced under Sayyid Idris with British political, financial and military support.  

A month later, Graziani followed Mussolini's orders and the Tenth Army attacked on 13 September 1940. The Italian and Libyan supporting troops advanced over the Libyan/Egyptian border into Egypt. In addition to the Maletti Group, the five attacking infantry divisions included the ''Cirene'', ''Marmarica'', and ''23 Marzo'' Divisions. Elite Arditi troops advanced ahead of the spearhead, which comprised the two supporting Libyan Divisions.

A month later, Graziani followed Mussolini's orders and the 10th Army attacked on 13 September 1940. The Italian and supporting Libyan troops advanced across the Libyan/Egyptian border into Egypt against a force of 10,000 British and 10,000 Egyptian troops.<ref>"Italian soldiers now vastly outnumbered the normal Egyptian garrison of 10,000 British and 10,000 Egyptian troops." Test Case : Italy, Ethiopia, and the League of Nations, George W. Baer, p. 84, Hoover Press, 1976</ref> In addition to the Maletti Group, the five attacking infantry divisions included the ''Cirene'', ''Marmarica'', and ''23 Marzo'' Divisions. Elite Arditi troops advanced ahead of the spearhead, which comprised the two supporting Libyan Divisions.

After recapturing Fort Capuzzo and Halfaya Pass from a determined British rearguard, the Italian and Libyan divisions were bombed and strafed by Royal Air Force (RAF) Wellington and Blenheim bombers from Nos 30, 70, 84 and 211 Squadrons and Gladiators.<ref>"...only a few days after the start of their offensive, the Italian pilots were confronted by the R.A.F. which had sent Nos 30, 211 and 84 Squadrons with Bristol Blenheim bombers, No 80 Sqn with Gloster Gladiator biplane fighters and No 70 Squadron with Vickers Wellington bombers." In the Skies of Europe: Air Forces Allied to the Luftwaffe 1939-1945, Hans Werner Neulen, p. 38, Crowood, 2000</ref> In the meantime, Fairey Fulmars fighters from the aircraft-carrier HMS ''Illustrious'' bombed and torpedoed Italian shipping and warships from the Mediterranean Fleet closed in and shelled Libyan towns, port facilities and motorized columns travelling along the coastal road.

After recapturing Fort Capuzzo and Halfaya Pass from a determined British rearguard, the Italian and Libyan divisions were bombed and strafed by Royal Air Force (RAF) Wellington and Blenheim bombers from Nos 30, 70, 84 and 211 Squadrons and Gladiators.<ref>"...only a few days after the start of their offensive, the Italian pilots were confronted by the R.A.F. which had sent Nos 30, 211 and 84 Squadrons with Bristol Blenheim bombers, No 80 Sqn with Gloster Gladiator biplane fighters and No 70 Squadron with Vickers Wellington bombers." In the Skies of Europe: Air Forces Allied to the Luftwaffe 1939-1945, Hans Werner Neulen, p. 38, Crowood, 2000</ref> In the meantime, Fairey Fulmars fighters from the aircraft-carrier HMS ''Illustrious'' bombed and torpedoed Italian shipping and warships from the Mediterranean Fleet closed in and shelled Libyan towns, port facilities and motorized columns travelling along the coastal road.

==Battle of Giarabub==

==Battle of Giarabub==

General Wavell's offensive had cut off approximately 2,000 Italian and Libyan troops (under the command of Major Salvatore Castagna) defending the Giarabub stronghold guarding against the Free French Forces in Chad. Giarabub was an oasis 160 miles (260&nbsp;km) to the south of Bardia and 25 miles (40&nbsp;km) from the border. Although the Libyan troops deserted the defences, the Italian troops held firm and were still fighting off aerial and ground reconnaissance missions in mid-March. Although cut off, the garrison was supplied by air and the 6th Australian Division's divisional mechanized cavalry unit which was besieging the oasis did not have the necessary strength to overcome the opposition.

General Wavell's offensive had cut off approximately 2,000 Italian and Libyan troops (under the command of Major [[Salvatore Castagna]]) defending the [[Giarabub]] stronghold guarding against the Free French Forces in Chad. Giarabub was an oasis 160 miles (260&nbsp;km) to the south of Bardia and 25 miles (40&nbsp;km) from the border. Although the Libyan troops eventually deserted the defences, the Italian troops held firm and were still fighting off aerial missions and ground fighting patrols in mid-March. Although cut off, the garrison was supplied by air and the 6th Australian Division's divisional mechanized cavalry unit which was besieging the oasis did not have the necessary strength to overcome the opposition.

In late March Wavell needed capture the oasis to allow him to withdraw the divisional cavalry regiment to join the rest of the division to reinforce northern Greece. The cavalry unit was joined by 2/9th Australian Infantry battalion and an attack launched under the leadership of Brigadier Wootten. On 21 March, the final attack on Giararub took place and the fighting lasted two days with both sides taking heavy casualties, but the Australians prevailed although 2/9th Battalion lost 17 killed and 77 wounded. It was estimated that 250 defenders had been killed or wounded in the siege and final battle.

 

In late March Wavell needed capture the oasis to allow him to withdraw the divisional cavalry regiment to join the rest of the division to reinforce northern Greece. The cavalry unit was joined by 2/9th Australian Infantry battalion and an attack launched under the leadership of Brigadier Wootten. On 21 March, the final attack on Giararub took place and the fighting lasted two days with both sides taking heavy casualties, but the Australians prevailed although 2/9th Battalion lost 17 killed and 77 wounded. It was estimated that 250 defenders had been killed or wounded in the final assault and as a result of the artillery softening up fire and air bombardments.

==Aftermath==

==Aftermath==

After ten weeks of fighting, Graziani's 10th Army had been completely outfought and forced to relinquish most strongholds (Bardia, Tobruk, Derna, etc.). The British Commonwealth and Free French forces had advanced 800&nbsp;km, destroyed or captured about 400 tanks and 850 or 1,290 artillery pieces, and 100,000 or 130,000 (depending on the source) Italian and Libyan soldiers besides a vast quantity of other war material. Among the Italian captured were 22 generals. The Italian general staff and Graziani in his memoirs acknowledge 960 guns of all types lost and 100,000 captured, including 17,000 Libyan soldiers. The British and Commonwealth forces admit 494 dead, 1,225 wounded and 43 captured or missing.

After ten weeks of fighting, Graziani's 10th Army had been completely outfought and forced to relinquish most strongholds (Bardia, Tobruk, Derna, etc.). The British Commonwealth and Free French forces had advanced 800&nbsp;km, destroyed or captured about 400 tanks and 850 or 1,290 artillery pieces, and 100,000 or 150,000 (depending on the source) Italian and Libyan soldiers besides a vast quantity of other war material. Among the Italian captured were 22 generals. The Italian general staff and Graziani in his memoirs acknowledge 960 guns of all types lost and 100,000 captured, including 17,000 Libyan soldiers. The British and Commonwealth forces admit 494 dead, 1,225 wounded and 50 captured or missing, not including Free French losses.

Contrary to expectations the British advance stopped short of capturing Tripoli and completely defeating the Italians in North Africa. As the British Commonwealth vanguards reached El Agheila, Churchill ordered that the offensive be stopped and infantry and armoured units dispatched urgently to defend northern Greece. The Greeks had most of their divisions pinned down in Albania containing Italian counteroffensives and a German invasion was soon expected to materialize through the undermanned Metaxas Line.

Contrary to expectations the British advance stopped short of capturing Tripoli and completely defeating the Italians in North Africa. As the British Commonwealth vanguards reached [[El Agheila]], Churchill ordered that the offensive be stopped and infantry, armoured units and Hurricane fighter squadrons units dispatched urgently to defend northern Greece. The Greeks still had most of their divisions pinned down in Albania containing Italian counteroffensives and a German invasion was soon expected to materialize through the undermanned [[Metaxas Line]].

With the respite, the Italian Supreme Command is soon able to reinforce Italian strongholds in Libya. Among the Italian reinforcements were the 17th ''Pavia'' Infantry Division, the 25th ''Bologna'' Infantry Division and the 102nd ''Trento'' Motorised Division, making available about 150,000 men for the defence of Italian Libya. Also, on 10 January 1941, the British aircraft-carrier HMS ''Illustrious'' was disabled in a dive-bomber attack by German and Italian Stukas (with the Italians equipped with heavy bombs) and bombs from 96° Gruppo (under captain Ercolano Ercolani) hit the aft-lift, forcing the British carrier to limp back to Malta for repairs, allowing the German Afrika Korps (under General Erwin Rommel) to begin arriving in Tripoli (Operation ''Sonnenblume'') without losses.  

With the respite, the Italian Supreme Command is soon able to reinforce Italian strongholds in Libya. Among the Italian reinforcements were the [[17th ''Pavia'' Infantry Division]], the [[25th ''Bologna'' Infantry Division]] and the [[102nd ''Trento'' Motorised Division]], making available about 150,000 men for the defence of Italian Libya. Also, on 10 January 1941, the British aircraft-carrier HMS ''Illustrious'' was disabled in a dive-bomber attack by German and Italian Stukas (with the Italian dive-bombers equipped with heavy bombs) and bombs from 96° Gruppo (under captain [[Ercolano Ercolani]]) hit the aft-lift, forcing the British carrier to limp back to [[Malta]] for repairs, allowing the German [[Afrika Korps]] (under General [[Erwin Rommel]]) to begin arriving in Tripoli (Operation ''Sonnenblume'') without losses.  

General Rommel is determined to regain the intiative, and with General O'Connor stripped off fighter squadrons in favour of Greece, the surviving Regia Aeronautica fighters along with 20 recently arrived Messerschmitt Bf 110 twin-engine heavy fighters, win back air superiority, permitting Rommel to recover Benghazi, Derna, Mechili, Bardia and forcing the Australian 9th Division back to Tobruk.<ref>"By the end of February 1941, 5th Squadra Aerea had more than 120 serviceable aircraft in Tripolitania, while the Luftwaffe had only 80 (20 Bf 110s and 60 Ju 87s). With this modest air support, Gen Rommel began an offensive on 24 March, and by 13 April had recaptured all of Cyrenaica with the exception of Tobruk. In the Skies of Europe: Air Forces Allied to the Luftwaffe 1939-1945, Hans Werner Neulen, p. 48, Crowood, 2000</ref><ref>"The Royal Air Force had sent the best squadrons in the Middle East to support the operations in Greece, leaving the bombers and fighters of the Regia Aeronautica a free hand to harass the retreating British mercilessly. Field Marshal: The Life and Death of Erwin Rommel, Daniel Allen Butler, p. 210, Casemate, 2015</ref>

General Rommel is determined to regain the intiative, and with General O'Connor stripped off fighter squadrons in favour of Greece, the surviving Regia Aeronautica fighters along with 20 recently arrived Messerschmitt Bf 110 twin-engine heavy fighters, win back air superiority, permitting Rommel to recover Benghazi, Derna, Mechili, Bardia and forcing the Australian 9th Division back to Tobruk.<ref>"By the end of February 1941, 5th Squadra Aerea had more than 120 serviceable aircraft in Tripolitania, while the Luftwaffe had only 80 (20 Bf 110s and 60 Ju 87s). With this modest air support, Gen Rommel began an offensive on 24 March, and by 13 April had recaptured all of Cyrenaica with the exception of Tobruk. In the Skies of Europe: Air Forces Allied to the Luftwaffe 1939-1945, Hans Werner Neulen, p. 48, Crowood, 2000</ref><ref>"The Royal Air Force had sent the best squadrons in the Middle East to support the operations in Greece, leaving the bombers and fighters of the Regia Aeronautica a free hand to harass the retreating British mercilessly. Field Marshal: The Life and Death of Erwin Rommel, Daniel Allen Butler, p. 210, Casemate, 2015</ref>