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'''Gunpowder''' is a major invention that has been essential for warfare for five or more centuries. It is a chemical mixture which burns extremely rapidly, and was used as a propellant in early [[small arms]] and [[cannon]]s. Experiments to improve the effectiveness and safety were some of the first true [[chemistry]].  It is a mixture of [[charcoal]], [[sulfur]], and [[saltpeter]] (potassium nitrate), ground together.  The optimal mixture is 75% saltpeter, 11.5% sulfur, and 13.5% charcoal. Gunpowder is still used today in weapons, [[fireworks]], and [[special effects]].

'''Gunpowder''' is a major invention that has been essential for warfare for five or more centuries. It is a chemical mixture which burns extremely rapidly, and was used as a propellant in early [[small arms]] and [[cannon]]s. Experiments to improve the effectiveness and safety were some of the first true [[chemistry]].  Black powder was the earliest form of gunpowder, which is a mixture of [[charcoal]], [[sulfur]], and [[saltpeter]] (potassium nitrate), ground together.  The optimal mixture for these is generally considered to be 75% saltpeter, 13.5% charcoal, and 11.5% sulfur. Gunpowder is still used today in weapons, [[fireworks]], and [[special effects]]. Smokeless powder is a cleaner, more powerful, modern substitute which is made from proprietary recipes.

Gunpowder is a low explosive because it burns rapidly without outside air, and gives off large volumes of gas.  In a confined space (as the barrel of a gun) the gases build up enough pressure to push a bullet or shell out the muzzle at high velocity.  In firecrackers it is completely enclosed and the gases will cause a small explosion, but gunpowder does not detonate like high explosives; the first high explosives were TNT and dynamite, invented in the 1860s.

Gunpowder is a low explosive because it burns rapidly without outside air, and gives off large volumes of gas.  In a confined space (as the barrel of a gun) the gases build up enough pressure to push a bullet or shell out the muzzle at high velocity.  In firecrackers it is completely enclosed and the gases will cause a small explosion, but gunpowder does not detonate like high explosives; the first high explosives were TNT and dynamite, invented in the 1860s.

==History==

==History==

Gunpowder was invented in [[China]] by about 1100 A.D., and possibly earlier. It was brought to Europe sometime after 1200. The oldest European account of a formula is in a letter from [[Francis Bacon]] to [[Pope Clement IV]] in 1267 A.D. By 1275, [[Albertus Magnus]] described a formula of four parts saltpeter to one part charcoal and one part sulfur.  

Gunpowder (now called black powder) was invented in [[China]] by about 1100 A.D., and possibly earlier. It was brought to Europe sometime after 1200. The oldest European account of a formula is in a letter from [[Francis Bacon]] to [[Pope Clement IV]] in 1267 A.D. By 1275, [[Albertus Magnus]] described a formula of four parts saltpeter to one part charcoal and one part sulfur.  

When Europeans ground together charcoal, saltpeter, and sulfur they called it "serpentine powder."  It easily absorbed moisture, and decomposed into its three parts when bounced around in long trips. It would not not burn if packed too tightly. By 1500 serpentine powder was replaced by corned gunpowder, which was pressed into pellets and screened to a uniform size.

When Europeans ground together charcoal, saltpeter, and sulfur they called it "serpentine powder."  It easily absorbed moisture, and decomposed into its three parts when bounced around in long trips. It would not not burn if packed too tightly. By 1500 serpentine powder was replaced by corned gunpowder, which was pressed into pellets and screened to a uniform size.

==Naval warfare==

==Naval warfare==

Few technological developments in the history of warfare have been as portentous as the appearance around the turn of the 16th century of effective heavy gunpowder ordnance on shipboard, which began a new era in sea warfare. Employed on Mediterranean war galleys and Portuguese caravels, the weapons marked the solution of a series of daunting technological problems, beginning with the appearance of gunpowder in Europe about 1300. Unlike developments on land, change was at first gradual, but shortly after 1400 the pace of development sharply accelerated to culminate in what may legitimately be termed a revolution in firepower at sea.<ref>Guilmartin, "The Earliest Shipboard Gunpowder Ordinance" (2007)</ref>

Few technological developments in the history of warfare have been as portentous as the appearance around the turn of the 16th century of effective heavy gunpowder ordnance on shipboard, which began a new era in sea warfare. Employed on Mediterranean war galleys and Portuguese caravels, the weapons marked the solution of a series of daunting technological problems, beginning with the appearance of gunpowder in Europe about 1300. Unlike developments on land, change was at first gradual, but shortly after 1400 the pace of development sharply accelerated to culminate in what may legitimately be termed a revolution in firepower at sea.<ref>Guilmartin, "The Earliest Shipboard Gunpowder Ordinance" (2007)</ref>

==Smokeless powder==

==Smokeless powder==

Black powder has gradually been superseded in common use by other propellants which provide higher energy density, lack of smoke, or other desirable properties. In the mid-19th century chemists realized that black-powder smoke wasted fuel, reducing muzzle velocity, while a smokeless powder converted all its fuel, allowing for increased velocity of projectiles. Increased velocity was necessary for rapid-fire shells and in battle against ironclad vessels. In 1884, Frenchman Paul Vieille invented smokeless gunpowder.

Black powder has gradually been superseded in common use by other propellants which provide higher energy density, lack of smoke, or other desirable properties. In the mid-19th century chemists realized that black-powder smoke wasted fuel, reducing muzzle velocity, while a smokeless powder converted all its fuel, allowing for increased velocity of projectiles. Increased velocity was necessary for rapid-fire shells and in battle against ironclad vessels. In 1884, Frenchman Paul Vieille invented smokeless gunpowder.