Changes

A "ship of the line" was a main battleship, built from 2,000 oak trees and carrying 74 or so guns, each effective out to 300 yards. Battles had to be fought close in, with marines essential as sharpshooters and boarding parties.  

A "ship of the line" was a main battleship, built from 2,000 oak trees and carrying 74 or so guns, each effective out to 300 yards. Battles had to be fought close in, with marines essential as sharpshooters and boarding parties.  

The techniques of gunnery remained fairly static before the 1870s. Constant drill speeded the maximum rate of fire from one round every five minutes (1660s) to one round a minute (1760s). Rate of fire and weight of the shells in a broadside was more important than accuracy when the enemy was close.  The ship of the line, or broadside ship, with heavy guns mounted on the lower deck just above the waterline and with lighter guns on higher decks, remained the dominant factor in naval warfare despite many small improvements.<ref>Bernard Ireland, ''Naval Warfare in the Age of Sail'' (2000) [http://www.amazon.com/gp/reader/0393049833/ref=sib_books_pg?ie=UTF8&keywords=naval%20gunnery&p=S01I&checkSum=8covysLzTFfgml8KBKgRfqYiFwWXki%252FGijPVPqAfj%252F8%253D pp 47-50]</ref>

The techniques of gunnery remained fairly static before the 1870s. Constant drill speeded the maximum rate of fire from one round every five minutes (1660s) to one round a minute (1760s). Rate of fire and weight of the shells in a broadside was more important than accuracy when the enemy was close.  The ship of the line, or broadside ship, with heavy guns mounted on the lower deck just above the waterline and with lighter guns on higher decks, remained the dominant factor in naval warfare despite many small improvements.<ref>Bernard Ireland, ''Naval Warfare in the Age of Sail'' (2000) [https://www.amazon.com/gp/reader/0393049833/ref=sib_books_pg?ie=UTF8&keywords=naval%20gunnery&p=S01I&checkSum=8covysLzTFfgml8KBKgRfqYiFwWXki%252FGijPVPqAfj%252F8%253D pp 47-50]</ref>

===Frigates===

===Frigates===

The frigate was the most glamorous ship in the British navy during the era of Napoleonic seapower. Frigates made up a quarter of the 412-ship royal fleet in wartime, and were kept in active service during peacetime. The frigate had between 32 and 44 guns and a crew of 217 to 297 men. While not as big as the ship of the line, it could outrun anything with more firepower and catch commercial ships, sloops, and corvettes. It could handle a variety of tasks, including raiding coastlines, running down opposing ships, and scouting.  

The frigate was the most glamorous ship in the British navy during the era of Napoleonic seapower. Frigates made up a quarter of the 412-ship royal fleet in wartime, and were kept in active service during peacetime. The frigate had between 32 and 44 guns and a crew of 217 to 297 men. While not as big as the ship of the line, it could outrun anything with more firepower and catch commercial ships, sloops, and corvettes. It could handle a variety of tasks, including raiding coastlines, running down opposing ships, and scouting.  

Frigates were used for reconnaissance, convoys and raids. Sloops were even smaller and cheaper; their 20 guns were enough to overpower any merchant ship, or control rivers and bays.<ref>Robert Gardiner, ''Frigates of the Napoleonic Wars'' (2006) [http://www.amazon.com/Frigates-Napoleonic-Wars-Robert-Gardiner/dp/1591142830/ref=pd_bbs_sr_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1206348906&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]</ref>  In the [[American Revolution, naval history|American revolution]] [[John Barry]], a 30-year-old Philadelphian and senior captain of the almost-landlocked American navy in 1778 Barry commanded the ''Raleigh'', a 700-ton frigate with 36 guns and 235 crewmen. In late September 1778, the ''Raleigh'' engaged the ''Unicorn'', a 22-gun ship, and the ''Experiment'', a 50-gun ship-of-the-line. Barry lost the ''Raleigh'' and 135 men were captured, but he disabled the ''Unicorn'' and escaped with 86 men.<ref>See [https://books.google.com/books?id=AwNFAAAAIAAJ&pg=RA1-PA319&dq=Barry+%27Raleigh+Unicorn&lr=&num=30&as_brr=1#PRA1-PA317,M1  Gardner Weld Allen, ''A Naval History of the American Revolution'' (1913) p. 317-19]</ref>

Frigates were used for reconnaissance, convoys and raids. Sloops were even smaller and cheaper; their 20 guns were enough to overpower any merchant ship, or control rivers and bays.<ref>Robert Gardiner, ''Frigates of the Napoleonic Wars'' (2006) [https://www.amazon.com/Frigates-Napoleonic-Wars-Robert-Gardiner/dp/1591142830/ref=pd_bbs_sr_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1206348906&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]</ref>  In the [[American Revolution, naval history|American revolution]] [[John Barry]], a 30-year-old Philadelphian and senior captain of the almost-landlocked American navy in 1778 Barry commanded the ''Raleigh'', a 700-ton frigate with 36 guns and 235 crewmen. In late September 1778, the ''Raleigh'' engaged the ''Unicorn'', a 22-gun ship, and the ''Experiment'', a 50-gun ship-of-the-line. Barry lost the ''Raleigh'' and 135 men were captured, but he disabled the ''Unicorn'' and escaped with 86 men.<ref>See [https://books.google.com/books?id=AwNFAAAAIAAJ&pg=RA1-PA319&dq=Barry+%27Raleigh+Unicorn&lr=&num=30&as_brr=1#PRA1-PA317,M1  Gardner Weld Allen, ''A Naval History of the American Revolution'' (1913) p. 317-19]</ref>

The era of dominance by frigates ended when "big" frigates like the "USS Constitution" appeared in the waters.<ref>Mark Lardas and Tony Bryan, ''''American Heavy Frigates 1794-1826'' (2003) [http://www.amazon.com/New-Vanguard-79-American-1794-1826/dp/1841766305/ref=pd_bbs_sr_3?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1206348906&sr=8-3 excerpt and text search]</ref>

The era of dominance by frigates ended when "big" frigates like the "USS Constitution" appeared in the waters.<ref>Mark Lardas and Tony Bryan, ''''American Heavy Frigates 1794-1826'' (2003) [https://www.amazon.com/New-Vanguard-79-American-1794-1826/dp/1841766305/ref=pd_bbs_sr_3?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1206348906&sr=8-3 excerpt and text search]</ref>

==Gunnery science==

==Gunnery science==

* Bastable, Marshall J. "From Breechloaders to Monster Guns: Sir William Armstrong and the Invention of Modern Artillery, 1854-1880." ''Technology and Culture'' 1992 33(2): 213-247. Issn: 0040-165x Fulltext: [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0040-165X(199204)33%3A2%3C213%3AFBTMGS%3E2.0.CO%3B2-I in Jstor]

* Bastable, Marshall J. "From Breechloaders to Monster Guns: Sir William Armstrong and the Invention of Modern Artillery, 1854-1880." ''Technology and Culture'' 1992 33(2): 213-247. Issn: 0040-165x Fulltext: [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0040-165X(199204)33%3A2%3C213%3AFBTMGS%3E2.0.CO%3B2-I in Jstor]

* Bastable, Marshall J. ''Arms and the State: Sir William Armstrong and the Remaking of British Naval Power, 1854-1914'' (2004) Ashgate, London

* Bastable, Marshall J. ''Arms and the State: Sir William Armstrong and the Remaking of British Naval Power, 1854-1914'' (2004) Ashgate, London

* Brooks, John. ''Dreadnought Gunnery and the Battle of Jutland: The Question of Fire Control'' (2006) [http://www.amazon.com/Dreadnought-Gunnery-Battle-Jutland-Naval/dp/0415407885/ref=sr_1_24?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1203294796&sr=1-24 excerpt and text search]  

* Brooks, John. ''Dreadnought Gunnery and the Battle of Jutland: The Question of Fire Control'' (2006) [https://www.amazon.com/Dreadnought-Gunnery-Battle-Jutland-Naval/dp/0415407885/ref=sr_1_24?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1203294796&sr=1-24 excerpt and text search]  

* Brown, David K. ''Eclipse of the Big Gun: The Warship 1906-45'' (1992)

* Brown, David K. ''Eclipse of the Big Gun: The Warship 1906-45'' (1992)

* Curtin,  Roland Irvin, and Thomas Lee Johnson. ''Naval Ordnance: A Text-book'' (1915), esp ch 13-15 on gunpowder and shells [https://books.google.com/books?id=zEhAAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=intitle:NAVAL+intitle:ordnance&lr=&num=30&as_brr=1&ei=6Ye6R8ODOILusgPRrq2MBQ#PPR9,M1 complete text online]  

* Curtin,  Roland Irvin, and Thomas Lee Johnson. ''Naval Ordnance: A Text-book'' (1915), esp ch 13-15 on gunpowder and shells [https://books.google.com/books?id=zEhAAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=intitle:NAVAL+intitle:ordnance&lr=&num=30&as_brr=1&ei=6Ye6R8ODOILusgPRrq2MBQ#PPR9,M1 complete text online]  

* Jane's. ''AEGIS weapon system MK-7'' (2007) [http://www.janes.com/defence/naval_forces/news/misc/aegis010425.shtml online edition]

* Jane's. ''AEGIS weapon system MK-7'' (2007) [http://www.janes.com/defence/naval_forces/news/misc/aegis010425.shtml online edition]

* Lambert, Nicholas A. "'Our Bloody Ships' or 'Our Bloody System'? Jutland and the Loss of the Battle Cruisers, 1916," ''Journal of Military History'' 62 (January 1998): 29–56. [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0899-3718(199801)62%3A1%3C29%3A%22BSO%22B%3E2.0.CO%3B2-P in JSTOR]

* Lambert, Nicholas A. "'Our Bloody Ships' or 'Our Bloody System'? Jutland and the Loss of the Battle Cruisers, 1916," ''Journal of Military History'' 62 (January 1998): 29–56. [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0899-3718(199801)62%3A1%3C29%3A%22BSO%22B%3E2.0.CO%3B2-P in JSTOR]

* Lambert, Nicholas A. ''Sir John Fisher's Naval Revolution'' (2002) [http://www.amazon.com/Fishers-Revolution-Studies-Maritime-History/dp/1570034923/ref=sr_1_36?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1203294993&sr=1-36 excerpt and text search]

* Lambert, Nicholas A. ''Sir John Fisher's Naval Revolution'' (2002) [https://www.amazon.com/Fishers-Revolution-Studies-Maritime-History/dp/1570034923/ref=sr_1_36?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1203294993&sr=1-36 excerpt and text search]

* Lambert, Nicholas A. "Strategic Command and Control for Maneuver Warfare: Creation of the Royal Navy's "War Room" System, 1905-1915," ''The Journal of Military History'' 69#2 April 2005, pp. 361-410 in [[Project Muse]]

* Lambert, Nicholas A. "Strategic Command and Control for Maneuver Warfare: Creation of the Royal Navy's "War Room" System, 1905-1915," ''The Journal of Military History'' 69#2 April 2005, pp. 361-410 in [[Project Muse]]

* McBride, William M. ''Technological Change and the United States Navy, 1865-1945'' (2000)  [http://www.amazon.com/Technological-1865-1945-Hopkins-Studies-Technology/dp/0801864860/ref=sr_1_4?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1203293238&sr=8-4 excerpt and text search]

* McBride, William M. ''Technological Change and the United States Navy, 1865-1945'' (2000)  [https://www.amazon.com/Technological-1865-1945-Hopkins-Studies-Technology/dp/0801864860/ref=sr_1_4?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1203293238&sr=8-4 excerpt and text search]

* McNeil, William. ''The Pursuit of Power: Technology, Armed Forces and Society since 1000 AD'' (1982)  

* McNeil, William. ''The Pursuit of Power: Technology, Armed Forces and Society since 1000 AD'' (1982)  

* Morison, Elting E. ''Men Machines and Modern Times'' (1968) [http://www.amazon.com/Machines-Modern-Times-Elting-Morison/dp/0262630184/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1203309361&sr=1-1 excerpt and text search]

* Morison, Elting E. ''Men Machines and Modern Times'' (1968) [https://www.amazon.com/Machines-Modern-Times-Elting-Morison/dp/0262630184/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1203309361&sr=1-1 excerpt and text search]

* Mulligan, Timothy. "Ship-of-the-Line or Atlantic Raider? Battleship Bismarck Between Design Limitations and Naval Strategy," ''The Journal of Military History'' 69#4 October 2005, pp.&nbsp;1013–1044 in [[Project Muse]]

* Mulligan, Timothy. "Ship-of-the-Line or Atlantic Raider? Battleship Bismarck Between Design Limitations and Naval Strategy," ''The Journal of Military History'' 69#4 October 2005, pp.&nbsp;1013–1044 in [[Project Muse]]

* Parkes, Oscar ''British Battleships: 'Warrior' 1860 to 'Vanguard' 1950 - A History of Design, Construction and Armament'' (1990) Naval Institute, Annapolis

* Parkes, Oscar ''British Battleships: 'Warrior' 1860 to 'Vanguard' 1950 - A History of Design, Construction and Armament'' (1990) Naval Institute, Annapolis